Conceptual Framework - International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) The International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) (Board) has a Conceptual Framework for Financial Reporting (Conceptual Framework). This Framework is a comprehensive set of concepts for financial reporting (i.e. the preparation and presentation of financial statement) for external users. The conceptual framework sets out: a) the objective of financial reporting b) qualitative characteristics of useful financial information c) a description of the reporting entity and its boundary d) definitions of an asset, liability, equity, income and expenses e) criteria for including assets and liabilities in financial statements (recognition) and guidance on when to remove them (de-recognition) f) measurement bases and guidance on when to use them g) concepts and guidance presentation and disclosure The purpose of the framework work is to assist: a) the Board to develop IFRS Standards (Standards) based on consistent concepts, resulting in financial information that is useful to investors, lenders and other creditors b) preparers of financial reports to develop consistent accounting policies for transactions or other events when no Standard applies or a Standard allows a choice of accounting policies c) all parties to understand and interpret Standards This framework is not an International Accounting Standard (IAS) and therefore does not determine standards for any particular measurement or disclosure issue it does not override any specific International Accounting Standards. It does provide concepts and guidance that underpin the decisions the Board makes when developing Standards. 1 Accounting Standards - International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) High quality, reliable financial information is the lifeblood of capital markets. Accounting provides companies, investors, regulators and others with a standardised way to describe the financial performance of an entity. With accounting standards the preparers of the financial statements have a set of rules to abide by when preparing an entity’s accounts. This ensures the standardisation across the market. Companies listed on public stock exchanges are legally required to publish financial statements in accordance with the relevant accounting standards. International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) is a single set of accounting standards, developed and maintained by the IASB with the intention of those standards being capable of being applied on a globally consistent basis—by developed, emerging and developing economies—thus providing investors and other users of financial statements with the ability to compare the financial performance of publicly listed companies on a like-for-like basis with their international peers. The goal of IFRS is to provide a global framework for how public companies prepare and disclose their financial statements. IFRS provides general guidance for the preparation of financial statements, rather than setting rules for industry-specific reporting. THE PURPOSE OF FINANCIAL STATEMENTS (IAS 1) The objective of financial reporting is to provide information about the financial position, financial performance, and cash flows of an entity that is useful to users in making decisions related to provide resources to the entity. To meet that objective, financial statements provide information in a particular form that tells about an entity's: assets liabilities equity income and expenses, including gains and losses contributions by and distributions to owners (in their capacity as owners) cash flows. That information, along with other information in the notes, assists users of financial statements in predicting the entity's future cash flows and, in particular, their timing and certainty. 2 Components of financial statements A complete set of financial statements includes: a statement of financial position (balance sheet) at the end of the period a statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income for the period (presented as a single statement, or by presenting the profit or loss section in a separate statement of profit or loss, immediately followed by a statement presenting comprehensive income beginning with profit or loss) a statement of changes in equity for the period a statement of cash flows for the period notes, comprising a summary of significant accounting policies and other explanatory notes comparative information prescribed by the standard Qualitative Characteristics of useful financial information Because so many persons have a vested interest in the financial information, the accounting information needs to be relevant and faithfully represent what it purports to represent. These are fundamental qualitative characteristics of useful financial information. Relevant - Information is relevant if it is capable of making a difference to the decisions made by users. If the financial information us capable of making a difference in decisions where it influences the economic decisions of users by helping them evaluate past, present or future events or confirming, or correcting, their past evaluations then it is relevant. Faithfully representation - to be reliable, information must represent faithfully the transactions and other events (substance) of what occurred during the period. There are some enhancing qualitative characteristics of financial information as well. They enhance the usefulness of information but cannot make non-useful information useful. Timeliness - means that information is available to decision-makers in time to be capable of influencing their decisions; information should be provided when needed. If there is undue delay in the reporting of financial information it may lose its relevance. Management may need to balance the relative merits of timely reporting and the provision of reliable information. To provide information on a timely basis it may often be necessary to report before all aspects of a transaction or other event are known, thus impairing reliability. 3 Comparability - Information about a reporting entity is more useful if it can be compared with similar information about other entities and with similar information about the same entity for another period or another date. Comparability enables users to identify and understand similarities in, and differences among, items in order to identify trends in the financial position and performance of entities. Hence, the measurement and display of the financial effect of like transaction and other events must be carried out in a consistent way throughout the enterprise and in a consistent way for different enterprises. Understandability- the financial statements should be uncomplicated, structured and clearly presented. Classifying, characterising and presenting information clearly and concisely make it understandable. While some occurrences are inherently complex and cannot be made easy to understand, to exclude such information would make financial reports incomplete and potentially misleading. Financial reports are prepared for users who have a reasonable knowledge of business and economic activities and who review and analyse the information with diligence Verifiability - the financial statements should be able to be reproduced by different knowledgeable and independent observers, so that given the same data and assumption, and independent party can produce the same results and reach a consensus, although not necessarily complete agreement. Verifiability helps to assure users that information represents faithfully the economic phenomena it purports to represent. Accounting Principles, Concepts and Assumptions It is important to have a basic understanding of these accounting principles, concepts and assumptions when studying accounting. These principles are pervasive to the study of accounting and show up in all aspects of accounting. Historical Cost Principle – requires that entities record the purchase of goods, services or assets at the amount of cash or cash equivalents paid or the fair value of the consideration given to acquire them at the time of their acquisition. Assets are then to remain on the statement of financial position without being adjusted for fluctuations in market value. Liabilities are recorded at the amount of proceeds received in exchange for the obligation. Revenue Recognition Principle - This principle states that a transaction should record revenue when the event from which the transaction stems has taken place and the receipt of cash from the transaction is reasonably certain (ties to the accruals and matching principle). Accruals Principle - The accrual principle is an accounting concept that requires accounting transactions to be recorded in the time period in which they occur, regardless of the time period when the actual cash flows for the transaction are received. Financial statements prepared on this basis inform users not only of past transactions involving the payment and receipt of cash but also obligations to pay cash in the future and of resources that represent cash to be received in the future. 4 Matching Principle – states that all expenses must be matched and recorded with their respective revenues in the period they were incurred instead of when they are paid and they are recorded in the accounting records and reported in the financial statements of the period to which they relate. Full Disclosure Principle - Disclosure of all the relevant information that would materially affect a financial statement user’s decision is needed on the face of the financial statements or by way of notes, so that users can make rational decisions. Prudence/Conservatism Principle - The preparers of financial statements have to contend with the uncertainties that inevitably surround many events and circumstances, such as the collectability of doubtful receivables and the probable useful life of fixed assets. Prudence is the exercise of caution when making judgments needed in making estimates required under conditions of uncertainty, it does not allow for the overstatement or understatement of assets, liabilities, income or expenses. Consistency Principle - This principle states that the presentation, classification of items, accounting principles and assumptions in the financial statements should be retained from period to the next unless: a) a significant change in the nature of the operations of the business or a review of its financial statement presentation demonstrates that the change will result in a more appropriate presentation of events or transactions b) a change in presentation is required by an IAS/IFRS This ensures that the financial statements are comparable between periods and throughout the entities history. Business entity concept - This concept implies that the affairs of a business are to be treated separately from the private affairs of the owner(s) and should be accounted for separately. Going Concern concept – this concept states that the financial statements are normally prepared on the assumption that an enterprise is a going to continue in operation for the foreseeable future. Hence, it is assumed that the enterprise has neither the intention nor the need be dissolved or declare bankruptcy unless we have evidence to the contrary. If we have evidence that the entity is going to cease to be in existence though, the financial statements may have to be prepared on a different basis and, if so, the basis used is disclosed. If not we always assume that there will be another accounting period. 5 Materiality Concept - The relevance of information is affected its nature and materiality. In some cases, the nature of information alone is sufficient to determine its relevance. Information is material if omitting, misstating or obscuring it could reasonably be expected to influence decisions that the primary users of general purpose financial statements make on the basis of those financial statements which provide financial information about a specific reporting entity. In other words, if a business event occurred but is so insignificant that a user of the financial statement would not care about it, the event need not be recorded. Materiality depends on the size of the item or error judged in the particular circumstances of its omission or misstatement. Thus materiality provides a threshold or cut-off point rather than being a qualitative characteristic which information must have if it is to be useful. Money measurement/Monetary Unit Assumption - Events, transactions or items can only be reported in the financial statements, if they can be expressed in monetary terms. Time period assumption - This concept states that the life of a business can be divided into artificial time periods and that useful report covering those periods can be prepared for the business. The standard time periods usually include a full year or quarter year. True and fair view - Financial statements are frequently described as showing a true and fair view of, or as presenting fairly, the financial position, performance and changes in the financial position of an enterprise. As a whole it should be free from bias and independent. There should be no attempt to persuade users to take certain actions. Substance over Form - If information is to represent faithfully the transactions and other events that it purports to represent, it is necessary that they are accounted for and presented in accordance with their substance and economic reality and not merely their legal form. The substance of transactions or other events is not always consistent with that which is apparent from their legal or contrived form. Aggregation - Each material item should be presented separately in the financial statements. Immaterial amounts should be aggregated with amounts of a similar nature" or function and need not be presented separately. Offsetting - Assets and liabilities should not be offset except when offsetting is required or permitted by another International Accounting Standard Items of income and expenses should be offset when and only when: a) an International Accounting Standard requires or permits it; or b) gains, losses and related expenses arising from the same or similar transactions and events are not material. Such amounts should be aggregated. Duality - There are two aspects to the recording of a transaction, one is represented by the assets of the business and the other the claims against them. The concept states that these two aspects 6 are always equal to each other. FINANCIAL ACCOUNTING TERMINOLOGY as per IASB Asset – is a present economic resource controlled by an entity as a resulting from past events. An economic resource is a right that has the potential to produce economic benefits. Liability – is a present obligation of the entity to transfer an economic resource as a result of past events. An obligation is a duty or responsibility that the entity has no practical ability to avoid. Equity – is the residual interest in the assets of the entity after deducting all its liabilities. Income/Revenue – the increase in assets or decreases in liabilities that result in an increase in equity, other than that relating to contributions from equity investors. Expense – the decrease in assets or increases in liabilities that result in an decrease in equity, other than that relating to distributions to from equity investors. TYPES OF EXPENDITURE CAPITAL AND REVENUE EXPENDITURE Assets are classified under two broad headings; Non-Current and Current assets. An asset should be classified as a current when it: a) is expected to be realized in, consumed or sold in the normal course of the enterprise’s operating cycle; or b) is held primarily for trading purposes c) is cash or a cash equivalent asset which is not restricted in its use Examples include: inventory/stock, trade receivables/debtors/trade receivables, cash in hand and at bank, prepaid expenses. All other assets should be classified as Non-current assets. Non-current assets are bought for continuing use in the business for the long term. Examples, include: Motor vehicles, Equipment, Land, Patents, Copyrights and buildings The life of an entity extends over a long period of time. The problem is that reports on the profitability of the business are needed at fairly regular intervals, usually of twelve months. This requirement gives rise to certain problems. For example, how one treats spending $12,000 on an item of equipment which is expected to be useful to the enterprise for the next eight years as opposed to spending the same $12,000 on inventory items expected to last less than one year? 7 Such spending on the equipment is referred to as capital expenditure because of the long- term nature of the benefits, which are expected to be received. The distinction between capital and revenue expenditure derives from the fact that, by convention, financial accounts are produced on an annual basis. EXAMPLES CATEGORY Capital Expenditure Revenue Expenditure TYPES OF EXPENDITURE Expenditure on the acquisition of noncurrent assets required for use in the business not for resale Expenditure on existing non-current assets aimed at improving their earning capacity Expenditure for the purpose of trade of the business. This includes expenditure for running the business (e.g. expenses) Expenditure on maintaining the earning capacity of non-current assets (e.g. repairs and renewals) In short: Revenue expenditure: are expenses for the regular day to day running of the business such as wages, utilities, stationery. These are accounted for in the statement of profit or loss. They cannot be capitalised as a part of the non-current asset. Capital expenditure : these are transactions for the acquisition or improvement to the book value of fixed asset item, e.g. purchase of asset, delivery, installation, inspection, testing, legal fees, contractors costs, cost involved in the removal of an older asset item. Capital expenditure items are accounted for in the statement of financial position. They can be capitalised as a part of the non-current asset. Capital expenditure is financed via statement of financial position (i.e. capital, loans, reserves, retained profits). However revenue expenditure should only be financed via the statement of profit or loss ( i.e. turnover or other revenue). 8 In some cases an extended expenditure may be divided to include both capital and revenue sections. Example, acquiring and installing a vending machine (capital) which is then suited out with sodas for sale (revenue) Components of Cost The cost of a non-current asset comprises its purchase price, including import duties and nonrefundable purchase taxes, and any directly attributable costs of bringing the asset to working condition for its intended use; any trade discounts and rebates are deducted in arriving at the purchase price. Examples of directly attributable cost are: a) b) c) d) e) f) the cost of site preparation; initial delivery and handling costs; installation and assembly costs; costs of testing whether the asset is functioning properly professional fees such as for architects and engineers; and the estimated cost of dismantling and removing the asset and restoring the site. Subsequent expenditure Subsequent expenditure relating to an item of property, plant and equipment should be added to the carrying amount of the asset when it is probable that future economic benefits, in excess of the originally assessed standard of the performance of the existing asset, will flow to the enterprise. All other subsequent expenditure should be recognized as an expense in the period in which it was incurred. Examples of improvements which result in increased future economic benefits include: a) Modification of non-current asset to extend its useful life, including an increase in its capacity b) Upgrading machine parts to achieve a substantial improvement in the quality of output; c) Adoption of new production processes enabling a substantial reduction in previously assessed operating cost. Most accounting transactions involve the expending of funds in return for some benefits derived. The expenditure may be one of two types: There are some activities that do not involve the expending of cash. These are called non cash transactions. When they have had only a current impact on the firm’s resources they are written off in the statement of profit or loss, e.g. Bad debts and discount allowed. However, where their impact extends into the future they are passed through both the statement of profit or loss and the statement of financial position, e.g. Provision for depreciation 9 Tutorial Questions Please note that it is the personal responsibility of each student to ATTEMPT the questions on the tutorial sheet BEFORE going to tutorial. Your tutors are there to ASSIST you NOT do the problems for you. Thank you for your co-operation. 1. In each of the scenarios below we need to identify and explain the concept that is involved in each of the following. It may be that the concept is being violated or not : a. A hotel has traditionally depreciated its fixed assets using the straight line method. However this year it is contemplating a change to the reducing balance method. Consistency b. There are several minor expenses classified under ‘miscellaneous expenses’. Aggregation c. The production manager thinks that it is a waste of time to be preparing financial statements every year, since most production contracts are on a long term basis. Time Period Assumption d. Several clients have either enquired about our service or have promised to place substantial orders, but we have not yet contracted any business. Realisation principle e. The managing director wished that the excellent working conditions and worker relations that they have worked so hard to maintain should be reflected in the accounting statements. Money measurement f. There is some uncertainty about the future of the company, and some shareholders are contemplating the sale of their shares as quickly as possible Going concern g. Most of the assets were bought a long time ago, and would worth much more than the books show today. Historical Cost h. During the year, an entity was contracted as advertising agent for the local newspaper. The commission revenue earned was 5% of the $3 million transacted. However at year end, only one half of this income was received. Accrual 10 i. Two boxes of paper were in stores at the end of the year of a very large marketing firm. They were omitted from the financial statements. As the accounting manager you are now wondering what you should do with the financial statements. Materiality j. Prior to the preparation of the statement of profit or loss, the firm took into account the significant reduction in the value of the non-current assets that were used during the year. Prudence. 2. The following is a list of accounting concepts and principles: a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h) i) j) Economic/Business entity assumption Matching principle/Accruals Monetary unit assumption/Money measurement Going concern assumption Revenue recognition/Realization principle Time period assumption Historical Cost principle Materiality Full disclosure assumption Prudence/Conservatism Identify by letter the accounting concept or principle that describes each situation below. Do not use a letter more than once Gooding Concern 1. It is reason why assets are not reported at the value to sell them if a business is shutting down. (Do not use the historical cost principle) BUSINESS ENTITY 2. Indicates that personal and business record keeping should be separately maintained. FULL DISCLOSURE 3. Ensure that all relevant financial information is reported. MONETARY MEASUREMENT 4. Assumes that the dollar is the “measuring stick” used to report financial information. MATERIALITY 5. Requires the accounting standards to be followed for all significant items. 11 TIME PERIOD ASSUMPTION 6. Separates financial information into time periods for reporting purposes. MATCHING CONCEPT 7. Required recognition of expenses in the same accounting period as related revenues. HISTORICAL COST 8. Indicates that the market value changes subsequent to purchase are not recorded in the accounts. 3. It is the role of the accountant to follow generally accepted accounting principles, even when these are in conflict with the desires of management. What are your thoughts on the above statement? Ethics 4. Classify the following expenditures into revenue and capital expenditure. Indicate which financial statement the expenditure would be recorded in (Statement of financial position or Statement of profit or loss) a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h) i) j) k) l) The purchase of a new computer Capital Expenditure Redecoration of the office Revenue Expenditure Cost of rebuilding warehouse wall which had fallen down. Revenue Expenditure Legal fees incurred in the acquisition of land Capital Expenditure Cost of clearing site to construct new apartments Capital Expenditure Customs duty incurred on importation of a truck Capital Expenditure Freight and Insurance costs on importation of computer system Capital Expenditure Rental expense of factory Revenue Expenditure Cost of testing new computer system Capital Expenditure Cost of replacing wooden truck body with metal body Capital Expenditure Legal cost incurred in the collection of bad debts Revenue Expenditure Carriage cost on the purchase of inventory for resale. Capital Expenditure 5. A business purchases a building for $30,000. It then adds an extension to the building at accost $10,000. The building needed to have a few broken windows mended, its floors polished and some missing roof tiles replaced. These cleaning and maintenance jobs cost $900. Identify the capital and revenue expenditure if any in the above scenarios. CAPEX Purchase of building Building Extension OPEX Windows repair Floor Polish Tiles Replacement Maintenance Cost 12 6. Monsoon Trucking Company bought a truck in the United States, and imported to Jamaica. The following costs in relation to the truck were incurred. . Cost of truck from manufacturer $810 000 Freight cost $120 000 Freight insurance $ 50 000 Customs duty $380 000 Transportation from local wharf to truck yard $10 000 Cost of overhauling truck engine to get truck ready for use $40 000 The company received a trade discount of 10% on the manufacturer’s price. Determine the cost of the truck to the company, and hence its total capital expenditure. Maroon Trucking Company CAPEX Cost of truck from Manufacturer 810000 (10%) Freight Cost Freight Insurance Customs Duty Transportation from local to wharf Cost of overhauling truck engine 729000 120000 50000 380000 10000 40000 132,9000 13