HISTORY
HISTORY OF
OF
RWANDA
RWANDA
FROM
FROM THE
THE BEGINNING
BEGINNING
TOTO
THE
THE
END
END OF
OF THE
THETWENTIETH
TWENTIETH
CENTURY
CENTURY
National
NationalUnity
Unity and
and Reconciliation
Reconciliation
Commission
Commission
Under
Under the
thesupervision
supervision
of of
Déo
Déo BYANAFASHE
BYANAFASHE
Paul
Paul RUTAYISIRE
RUTAYISIRE
COVER ILLUSTRATION
Cohabitation among Rwandan People
(Paint of NURU Abraham)
© 2016, National Unity and Reconciliation Commission (NURC)
All rights of translation, reproduction and adaptation reserved
for all countries.
ISBN 978-99977-709-6-7
HISTORY OF
RWANDA
FROM THE BEGINNING TO THE END OF THE
TWENTIETH CENTURY
Kigali, 2016
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
___________________________________
A.A.
A.A.
A.G.
A.G.
ABAKI
ABAKI
ABESC
ABESC
::
::
::
::
Archives
Archives Africaines
Africaines
Assemblée
Assemblée Générale
Générale
Alliance
des
Alliance des Bakiga
Bakiga
Association
des
Association des Bahutu
Bahutu Evoluant
Evoluant pour
pour la
la
Suppression
des
Castes
Suppression des Castes
ACR
:: Association
ACR
Association des
des Cultivateurs
Cultivateurs du
du Rwanda
Rwanda
ADP
:
Alliance
Démocratique
des
Peuples
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
ADR
:: Alliance
ADR
Alliance pour
pour la
la Démocratie
Démocratie et
et la
la
Réconciliation
Nationale
Réconciliation Nationale
AEC
:
Agglomeration
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
Extra-Coutumières
AFDL
:: Alliance
AFDL
Alliance des
des Forces
Forces Démocratiques
Démocratiques pour
pour la
la
Libération
du
Congo-Zaïre
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
AGOA
:
African
AGOA
: African Growth
Growth and
and Opportunity
Opportunity Act
Act
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
AIMO
:: Affaires
AIMO
Affaires Indigènes
Indigènes et
et Main-d’oeuvre
Main-d’oeuvre
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
Rwandaise
Rwandaise
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
(Transitional National Assembly)
(Transitional National Assembly)
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
Rwandais
Rwandais
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
APROCOMIN:
Associationpour
des la
Commerçants
Indigènes
APROSOMA : Association
Promotion Sociale
de la
APROSOMA : Association
pour la Promotion Sociale de la
Masse
ARD
: Masse
Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
ARD
: Alliance
pour le Renforcement de la
Démocratie
Démocratie Rwandaise pour la Défense des
ARDHO
: Association
ARDHO
: Droits
Association
Rwandaise pour la Défense des
de l’Homme
de l’Homme
AREDETWA : Droits
Association
pour le Relèvement
AREDETWA : Association
pour
Relèvement
Démocratique
desleBatwa
Démocratique des Batwa
v
v
v
ARENA
:ACRONYMS
Alliance pour
la Renaissance
de la Nation
AND
ABBREVIATIONS
ARSOM
:___________________________________
Académie Royale des Sciences d’Outre-Mer
ARUCO
: Alliance du Ruanda-Urundi et du Congo
A.A.
Archivesdu
Africaines
ARUCO
: Alliance
Ruanda-Urundi et du Congo
A.G.
: Assemblée
Générale
ARV
Anti-rétroviraux
ABAKI
: Alliance
des des
Bakiga
ASSADA
Association
Anciens d’Astrida
ASSERU
EleveursEvoluant
du Rwanda
ABESC
: Association des Bahutu
pour la
AVEGA
: Suppression
Association des
Veuves
du
Génocide
des Castes
Agahozo
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
BACAR
: Banque
au Rwanda
ADP
Alliance Continentale
DémocratiqueAfricaine
des Peuples
%$1&25
%DQTXHjOD&RQÀDQFHG·2U
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
BBC
: British
Broadcasting
Corporation
Réconciliation
Nationale
BC
: Agglomeration
Before Christ Extra-Coutumières
AEC
BCDI
: Banque
dudes
Commerce,
Développementpour
et de la
AFDL
Alliance
Forces du
Démocratiques
Libération
l’Industrie du Congo-Zaïre
BCR
:
Banque
Commerciale
du RwandaAct
AGOA
: African Growth
and Opportunity
BEM
: Brevet d’Etat Major délivré par l’Ecole de
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
Bruxelles,et
devenu
l’Institut royal
guerre de
AIMO
: Affaires
Indigènes
Main-d’oeuvre
supérieur dede
défense)
AJER
: Association
la Jeunesse Estudiantine
BK
: Banque
de
Kigali
Rwandaise
BNR
Nationale
du Rwanda
(Central Bank of
ALIR
:: Banque
Armée de
Libération
du Rwanda
: Rwanda)
AM/AP
Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
%258
%XOOHWLQ2IÀFLHOGX5ZDQGD8UXQGL
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
BRD
Banque Rwandaise
de Développement
AMUR
:: Association
des Musulmans
au Rwanda
CAC
Caisses de Nationale
Chefferies de Transition
ANT
:: Assemblée
d’AchatNational
des Médicaments
Essentiels du CAMERWA : Centrale
(Transitional
Assembly)
Rwanda
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
CC
:: Comité
Central
APR
Armée Patriotique
Rwandaise
CDP
:
Caisse
du
Pays
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
CDR
: Coalition
Rwandaispour la Défense de la République
CDR
: Coalition pour la Défense de la République
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
CEA
: Cahiers d’Etudes Africaines
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
CEA
: Colonies d’Etats d’Africains
Masse
CEEAC
: Communauté Economique des Etats de l’Afrique
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
Centrale
Démocratie
CEPGL
: Communauté Economique des Pays des Grands
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
Lacs
Droits de l’Homme
CERAI
: Centre d’Enseignement Rural et Artisanal
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
Intégré
Démocratique des Batwa
vi
vi
v
CESTRAR :ACRONYMS
Centrale syndicale
des travailleurs rwandais
AND ABBREVIATIONS
CFJ
:___________________________________
Centre de Formation des Jeunes
CHU
: Centre Hospitalier Universitaire
A.A.
ArchivesInternational
Africaines de la Croix Rouge
CICR
: Comité
A.G.
Assemblée
Générale de la Croix Rouge
CICR
: Comité
International
ABAKI
Alliance desdu
Bakiga
CIZA
: Cimenterie
Zaïre
des Ligues
et Associations
des Droits
CLADHO
: Collectif
ABESC
Association
des Bahutu
Evoluant
pourde
la l’Homme
Suppression des Castes
CMS
Church Missionary
Society du Rwanda
ACR
: Association
des Cultivateurs
CND
National
de Développement
(Parlement Rwandais)
ADP
: Conseil
Alliance
Démocratique
des Peuples
CNDH
: Commission
des Droits
ADR
Alliance pourNationale
la Démocratie
et la de l’Homme
CNDP
: Conseil
National
du
Développement
des Programmes
Réconciliation Nationale
National de
Résistance pour la Démocratie
CNRD
: Conseil
AEC
Agglomeration
Extra-Coutumières
CNS
Commission
Nationale
de Synthèse pour la
AFDL
: Alliance
des Forces
Démocratiques
CNTS
: Centre
National
de Transfusion Sanguine
Libération
du Congo-Zaïre
CNUR
:
Commission
Nationale
l’Unité et la Act
Réconciliation
AGOA
: African Growth andpour
Opportunity
COGEAR
:$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
Compagnie Générale d’Assurances et de Réassurances
$,'6
COGEBANQUE
:: Compagnie
Générale
de Banque
AIMO
Affaires Indigènes
et Main-d’oeuvre
COGER
Congrès Général
des Rwandais
AJER
:: Association
de la Jeunesse
Estudiantine
COMESA : Common
Market
of Eastern and Southern
Rwandaise
Africa de Libération du Rwanda
ALIR
: Armée
CORAR
:: Compagnie
Rwandaise d’Assurances
et de Réassurances
AM/AP
Arrêté ministériel/
Arrêté présidentiel
CPM
Commissiondes
Permanente
AMR
:: Association
Moniteursdes
duMandats
Rwanda
CPODR
:
Concertation
Permanente
de
l’Opposition
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
Rwandaise
ANT
: Démocratique
Assemblée Nationale
de Transition
TPIR
: Tribunal
Pénal
International
pour le Rwanda
(Transitional National Assembly)
CPOR
:: Concertation
de l’Opposition
APADEC
AssociationPermanente
du Parti Démocrate
Chrétien
Démocratique
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
CRID
:
Centre de Recherches
d’Information pour
APROBAMI : Association
des Partis et
Monarchistes
le
Développement
Rwandais
CRISP
: Centre de Recherche et l’Information SocioAPROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
Politiques
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
CS
: Centre de Santé
Masse
CSP
: Conseil Supérieur du Pays (Higher National
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
Council)
Démocratie
DMZ
: Zone démilitarisée
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
Ed.
: Edition
Droits de l’Homme
EDPRS
: Economic Development and Poverty Reduction
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
Strategy
Démocratique des Batwa
vii
v
vii
EEC
EIC
:ACRONYMS
European Economic
Community
AND ABBREVIATIONS
:___________________________________
Etat Indépendant du Congo (Congo Free
State)
A.A.
ArchivesNon
Africaines
ENA
: Enfants
Accompagnes
A.G.
Assemblée
Générale au Rwanda
EPR
: Eglise
Presbytérienne
ABAKI
Alliance des
Bakiga
EUNR
: Editions
de l’Université
Nationale du
ABESC
: Rwanda
Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
EUR
: Editions
Universitaires
Suppression
des Castesdu Rwanda
FAR
: Forces
Armées
ACR
Association
desRwandaises
Cultivateurs du Rwanda
FARG
: Fonds
d’Assistance
auxdes
Rescapés
ADP
Alliance
Démocratique
Peuplesdu
Génocidepour la Démocratie et la
ADR
: Alliance
FASR
: Facilite
d’Ajustement
Structurel Renforcé
Réconciliation
Nationale
FAZ
: Forces
Armées Extra-Coutumières
Zaïroises
AEC
Agglomeration
FDC
: Forces
pour le Changement
AFDL
AllianceDémocratiques
des Forces Démocratiques
pour la
FDD
: Forces
de Défense
de la Démocratie
Libération
du Congo-Zaïre
FDLR
:
Forces
Démocratiques
de Libération
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity
Act u
Rwanda
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
FED
:: Fonds
AIMO
AffairesEuropéen
IndigènesdeetDéveloppement
Main-d’oeuvre
FLR
:
Front
de
Libération
Rwandaise
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
FP
: Force
Publique
Rwandaise
FPR
:: Front
Rwandais
ALIR
ArméePatriotique
de Libération
du Rwanda
FRD
:
Forces
de
Résistance
pourprésidentiel
la Démocratie
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté
FRODEBU
Front pour la
Démocratie
AMR
:: Association
des
Moniteursau
duBurundi
Rwanda
FRONASA
:
Front
for
National
Salvation
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
FRPC
:: Facilité
pour Nationale
la Réductionde
deTransition
la Pauvreté et la
ANT
Assemblée
Croissance
(Transitional
National Assembly)
Frw
:
Rwanda
francs
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
GIEP
:
International
d’Eminentes
APR
: Groupe
Armée Patriotique
Rwandaise
APROBAMI : Personnalités
Association des Partis Monarchistes
GN
: Genèse
Rwandais
GOMN
: Groupe d’Observateurs Militaires Neutres
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
GOMN
: Groupe d’observateurs militaires neutres de
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
l’OUA (Rwanda)
Masse
GP
: Garde Présidentielle
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
GTBE
: Gouvernement de Transition à Base Elargie
Démocratie
GUN
: Gouvernement d’Union Nationale
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
(Government of National Unity)
Droits de l’Homme
GUNT.
: Gouvernement d’Union nationale de
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
Transition
Démocratique des Batwa
viii
viii
v
HAV
HIMO
+,9
A.A.
HRW
A.G.
IBUKA
ABAKI
ICAR
ABESC
Africa
ICRC
ACR
ICTR
ADP
IDA
ADR
IDC
IEC
AEC
IMF
AFDL
INRS
AGOA
INSR
$,'6
AIMO
IPN
AJER
IRDP
Paix
ALIR
IRDP
AM/AP
:ACRONYMS
Homme Adulte
ANDValide
ABBREVIATIONS
:___________________________________
Haute Intensité de Main d’Oeuvre
+XPDQ,PPXQRGpÀFLHQF\9LUXV
ArchivesRights
Africaines
: Human
Watch
Assemblée Générale
: Association
des Rescapés du Génocide
: (Association
Alliance des Bakiga
of genocide Survivors)
: International
Conference
on Refugees
Association des
Bahutu Evoluant
pourinla
Suppression des Castes
: International
Committee
of the
Cross
Association des
Cultivateurs
duRed
Rwanda
: International
Criminal Tribunal
for Rwanda
Alliance Démocratique
des Peuples
: International
Alliance pour Development
la DémocratieAssociation
et la
: Internationale
Démocrate
Chrétienne
Réconciliation Nationale
: Information,
Education
et Communication
Agglomeration
Extra-Coutumières
: International
Monetary
Fund
Alliance des Forces
Démocratiques
pour la
: Institut
National
de la Recherche
Libération
du Congo-Zaïre
6FLHQWLÀTXH
: African Growth and Opportunity Act
:$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
Institut National de la Statistique du
: Rwanda
Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
:: Association
Institut Pédagogique
National
de la Jeunesse
Estudiantine
: Institut
de
Recherche
et de Dialogue pour la
Rwandaise
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
Institute
de Recherche
et de
Dialogue pour la
:: Arrêté
ministériel/
Arrêté
présidentiel
AMR
: Paix
Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
IRSAC
:
,QVWLWXWGH5HFKHUFKH6FLHQWLÀTXHHQ$IULTXH
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
ANT
: Centrale
Assemblée Nationale de Transition
ISAE
: Institut
Supérieur
d’Agriculture
(Transitional
National
Assembly)et d’Elevage
ISFP
:: Institut
Supérieur
des
Finances Chrétien
Publiques
APADEC
Association
du Parti
Démocrate
ISPG
:
Institut
Supérieur
de
Pédagogie
de
Gitwe
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
JC
Chrétienne
APROBAMI :: Jeunesse
Association
des Partis Monarchistes
JENAKI
: Jeunesse
RwandaisNationaliste Kigeli V
JEUNAR
: Jeunesse de l’UNAR
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
-25
-RXUQDO2IÀFLHOGX5ZDQGD
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
JPR
: Jeunesse Patriotique Rwandaise
Masse
KHI
: Kigali Health Institute
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
KIE
: Kigali Institute of Education
Démocratie
KIST
: Kigali Institute of Science, Technology and Management
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
KM
: Kikosi Maalum
Droits de l’Homme
LABOPHAR : Laboratoire Pharmaceutique du Rwanda
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
LDGL
: Ligue pour la Défense des Droits de
Démocratique des Batwa
ix
v
ix
l’Homme pour
la ABBREVIATIONS
Région des Grands Lacs
ACRONYMS
AND
LIPRODHOR:Ligue
pour la Promotion et la Défense des
___________________________________
Droits de l’Homme au Rwanda
A.A.
: Archives
MAGRIVI
Mutuelle Africaines
des Agriculteurs des Virunga
A.G.
Assemblée Générale
MCC
: Millennium
Challenge Corporation
ABAKI
Alliance desforBakiga
MDC
: Movement
Democratic Change
MDR
: Mouvement
Démocratique
Républicain
ABESC
Association des
Bahutu Evoluant
pour la
MFBP
: Suppression
Mouvement des
Femmes
et
du
Bas-Peuple
des Castes
MGR
Monseigneurdes Cultivateurs du Rwanda
ACR
: Association
MIB
Mission Immigration
Banyarwanda
ADP
: Alliance
Démocratique
des Peuples
MIB
Mission Immigration
Banyarwanda
ADR
: Alliance
pour la Démocratie
et la
MIGEPROF : Minsitère
des
Genres
et
de
la
Promotion
des
Réconciliation Nationale
AEC
: Femmes
Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
MIJESPOC
de la
Jeunesse,
des Sports etpour
de lala
AFDL
: Ministère
Alliance des
Forces
Démocratiques
Culture
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
MINAGRI
:
Ministère
de l’Agriculture
et de l’Elevage
AGOA
: African
Growth
and Opportunity
Act
MINALOC
:
Ministère
de
l’Administration
Locale
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
(Ministry
of
Adminstration)
AIMO
:Local
Affaires
Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
MINECOFIN
:
0LQLVWqUHGHV)LQDQFHVHWGHOD3ODQLÀFDWLRQ
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
Economique
Rwandaise
MINIJUST
:
Ministère
la Justice
ALIR
: Armée de de
Libération
du(Minsistry
Rwanda of Justice)
MINISANTE
Ministère
de la Santé
(Ministry
of Health)
AM/AP
:: Arrêté
ministériel/
Arrêté
présidentiel
MINUAR
des Nations
Unies pour l’Assistance
au Rwanda
AMR
:: Mission
Association
des Moniteurs
du Rwanda
MOMOR
:
Mouvement
Monarchiste
Rwandais
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
MONUOR
d’observation
des Nations
Unies Ouganda/Rwanda
ANT
:: Mission
Assemblée
Nationale
de Transition
MPL
: Mouvement
Libération
(TransitionalPopulaire
National de
Assembly)
MRAC
:: Musée
Royaldu
deParti
l’Afrique
Centrale
APADEC
Association
Démocrate
Chrétien
MRLZ
:
Mouvement Révolutionnaire pour la Libération du Zaïre
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
MRND
:
Révolutionnaire
National pour le
APROBAMI : Mouvement
Association des
Partis Monarchistes
Développement
Rwandais
MUR
: Mouvement pour l’Union Rwandaise
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
Nº
: Numéro
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
ND
: Non déterminé
Masse
NRA
: National Resistance Army
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
NRM
: National Resistance Movement 746
Démocratie
NUR
: National University of Rwanda
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
NURC
: National Unity and Reconciliation
Droits de l’Homme
Commission
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
OAU
: Organisation of African Unity
Démocratique des Batwa
x
x
v
OBK
:ACRONYMS
Organisation
du Bassin
de la Kagera
AND
ABBREVIATIONS
2&,58
2IÀFHGXFDIpLQGLJqQHGX5XDQGD8UXQGL
___________________________________
OMD
: Objectifs du Millénaire pour le
A.A.
: Développement
Archives Africaines
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
ONATRACOM:2IÀFH1DWLRQDOHGH7UDQVSRUWHWGH
ABAKI
: Communication
Alliance des Bakiga
ONG
: Organisation
non
Gouvernementale
ABESC
Association des
Bahutu
Evoluant pour la
ONU
: Organisation
des
Nation
Suppression des Castes Unies
Op.Cit
: Opere
Citatodes
( dans
l’ouvrage du
cité)
ACR
Association
Cultivateurs
Rwanda
25,1)25
2IÀFH5ZDQGDLVGHO·,QIRUPDWLRQ
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
OUA
Organisation
l’Unité Africaine
ADR
: Alliance
pour de
la Démocratie
et la
P.
: Page
Réconciliation Nationale
PADER
:
Parti
Démocratique
Rwandais
AEC
Agglomeration
Extra-Coutumières
PALIR
Parti de Libération
Rwanda
AFDL
: Alliance
des Forcesdu
Démocratiques
pour la
PAM
: Libération
Programmedu
Alimentaire
Mondial
Congo-Zaïre
PAMOPRO
:
Parti
Monarchiste
Progressiste
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity Act
PARERWA
: Parti Républicain du Rwanda
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
PARMEHUTU
du Indigènes
Mouvement
de l’Emancipation
AIMO
::Parti
Affaires
et Main-d’oeuvre
Hutu
AJER
: Association
de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
PAS
: Programme
Rwandaise d’Ajustement Structurel
PAWA
:: Faction
extrémiste
ALIR
Armée de
Libérationdite
du autrement
Rwanda « Power »
PDC
Parti Démocratique
Chrétien
AM/AP
:: Arrêté
ministériel/ Arrêté
présidentiel
PDI
:
Parti
pour
la
Démocratie
Islamique
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
PECO
:
Ecologiste
AMUR
: Parti
Association
des Musulmans au Rwanda
PED
Pacte Européen
de Développement
ANT
:: Assemblée
Nationale
de Transition
PEV
: Programme
Elargi
de
(Transitional NationalVaccination
Assembly)
PIB
:
Produit
Intérieur
Brut
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
PL
:
APR
: Parti
ArméeLibéral
Patriotique Rwandaise
PNAS
:
Programme
Sociales
APROBAMI : Association National
des Partisd’Actions
Monarchistes
PNB
: Produit
National Brut
Rwandais
PNLP
: Programme National de Lutte contre le
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
Paludisme
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
PNLS
: Programme National de Lutte contre le SIDA
Masse
PNUD
: Programme des Nations Unies pour le
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
Développement
Démocratie
PP.
: Pages
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
PPJR
: Parti Progressiste de la Jeunesse Rwandaise
Droits de l’Homme
PPTE
: Pays Pauvres Très Endettés
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
PRD
: Parti pour le Renouveau Démocratique
Démocratique des Batwa
xi
v
xi
PRI
:ACRONYMS
Penal Reform
International
AND
ABBREVIATIONS
35,0$785(3UHPLHU0LQLVWqUH
2IÀFHRIWKH3ULPH
___________________________________
Minister)
A.A.
:: Archives
Africaines
PROFEMMES
Collectif des
Associations de Promotion de la
A.G.
: Femme
Assemblée Générale
ABAKI
Alliance
des
Bakiga Populaire
PRP
: Parti
de la
Révolution
PRSP
: Poverty
Reduction
Strategy
Program
ABESC
Association
des Bahutu
Evoluant
pour la
PRSP
: Poverty
Reduction
Strategy
Paper
Suppression des Castes
PSCR
: Parti
Social Chrétien
du Rwanda
ACR
Association
des Cultivateurs
du Rwanda
PSD
: Parti
Socialiste
Démocrate
ADP
Alliance
Démocratique
des Peuples
PSR
: Parti
Socialiste
ADR
Alliance
pour laRwandais
Démocratie et la
RADER
: Rassemblement
Démocratique Rwandais
Réconciliation Nationale
RAMA
: Rwandaise
d’Assurance
Maladie (Rwanda
AEC
Agglomeration
Extra-Coutumières
AFDL
: Medical
Alliance Insurance)
des Forces Démocratiques pour la
RANU
: Libération
Rwandan Alliance
for National Unity
du Congo-Zaïre
RDC
:
République
Démocratique
Du Congo
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity
Act
RDR
:
Rassemblement
pour
la
Démocratie
au
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
AIMO
: Rwanda
Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
RIF
:
Rural
Infrastructure
Financing
Facility
AJER
: Association
de la Jeunesse
Estudiantine
RIPA
: Rwandais
Pour
La
Promotion
Des
Rwandaise
Investissements
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
RISD
Rwanda
Institute ofArrêté
Sustainable
AM/AP
:: Arrêté
ministériel/
présidentiel
Development
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
RITA
:
and Technology
AMUR
: Rwandese
AssociationInformation
des Musulmans
au Rwanda
Agency
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
RPA
: Rwanda
Patriotic
ArmyAssembly)
(Transitional
National
RPF
:: Rwanda
Patriotic
Front
APADEC
Association
du Parti
Démocrate Chrétien
RTD
:
Rassemblement
Travailliste
pour la
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
APROBAMI Démocratie
: Association des Partis Monarchistes
RTLM
: Radio
Télévision Libre des Mille Collines
Rwandais
RU
: Rwanda-Urundi
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
SADC
: Southern African Development Community
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
SAP
: Structural Adjustment Program
Masse
SBMP
: Société Belge des Missions Protestantes
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
SDN
: Société des Nations
Démocratie
6,'$
6\QGURPHGHO·,PPXQRGpÀFLHQFH$FTXLVH
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
SIDIM
: Société des Ingangurarugo de Mushiha
Droits de l’Homme
SNJG
: Service National Des Juridictions Gacaca
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
SONARWA : Société Nationale d’Assurances du Rwanda
Démocratique des Batwa
xii
xii
v
SORAS
:ACRONYMS
Société Rwandaise
d’Assurances
AND ABBREVIATIONS
TANU
:___________________________________
Tanganyika National Union
TANU
: Tanganyika National Union
A.A.
: Technologie
Archives Africaines
TIC
de l’Information et de la
A.G.
: Communication
Assemblée Générale
ABAKI
: Alliance
Bakiga
TPDF
Tanzaniades
People’s
Defence Forces
TPIR
: Tribunal
Pénal
pour pour
le Rwanda
ABESC
Association
desInternational
Bahutu Evoluant
la
TRAC
: Treatment
and
Research
AIDS
Centre
Suppression des Castes
TRAFIPRO
Travail-Fidélité-Progrès
ACR
: Association
des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
UAAC
Université
Adventiste de
l’Afrique
Centrale
ADP
: Alliance
Démocratique
des
Peuples
UAARU
: Union
des
Aborozi
Africains du
ADR
Alliance
pour
la Démocratie
et laRwanda
UCK
: Université
Catholique
de
Kabgayi
Réconciliation Nationale
UDPR
:
Union
Démocratique
du Peuple
AEC
Agglomeration
Extra-Coutumières
AFDL
: Rwandais748
Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
UE
: Union
Européenne
Libération
du Congo-Zaïre
UEBR
:
Union
des
Églises
baptistes
au Rwanda
AGOA
: African Growth and
Opportunity
Act
UFDR
:
Union
des
Forces
Démocratiques
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
AIMO
: Rwandaises
Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
UJR
:
Union
des Journalistes
duEstudiantine
Rwanda
AJER
: Association
de la Jeunesse
ULK
: Université
Libre
de
Kigali
Rwandaise
UMAR
:
Union
Masses Rwandaises
ALIR
: Armée des
de Libération
du Rwanda
UMHK
:
Union
Minière
du
Haut
Katanga
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté
présidentiel
UNAFREUROP:
Union
Afro-Européenne
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
UNAR
Union Nationale
Rwandaise au Rwanda
AMUR
:: Association
des Musulmans
UNATEK
Université d’Agriculture,
de Technologie et
ANT
:: Assemblée
Nationale de Transition
d’Education
Kibungo
(Transitionalde
National
Assembly)
UNHCR
:
United
Nations
High
Commission
for
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
Refugees
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
UNICEF
:
Nations
Fund
APROBAMI : United
Association
des Children
Partis Monarchistes
UNILAC
: Université
Rwandais Laïque de Kigali
UNINTERCOKI : Union des Intérêts Communs du Kinyaga
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
UNLA
: Uganda National Liberation Army
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
UNLF
: Uganda National Liberation Front
Masse
UNR
: Université Nationale du Rwanda
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
UPC
: Uganda People’s Congress
Démocratie
UPM
: Uganda Patriotic Movement
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
UPRONA
: Union pour le Progrès National
Droits de l’Homme
URSS
: Union des Républiques Socialistes
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
Soviétiques
Démocratique des Batwa
xiii
v
xiii
USA
:ACRONYMS
Etats-Unis d’Amérique
(United States of
AND ABBREVIATIONS
America)
___________________________________
USAID
: United States Agency for International
A.A.
: Archives
Africaines
Development
A.G.
Assemblée
VAR
: Vaccin
AntiGénérale
Rougeoleux
ABAKI
AllianceAntitétanique
des Bakiga
VAT
: Vaccin
VOA
: Voix
de l’Amérique
ABESC
Association
des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
VPO
: Vaccin
Polio
Suppression Oral
des Castes
YPO
: Young
Presidents’
Organisation
ACR
Association
des Cultivateurs
du Rwanda
ZEP
:: Zone
d’Echanges
Préférentiels
ADP
Alliance
Démocratique
des Peuples
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
Réconciliation Nationale
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
AFDL
: Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity Act
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
Rwandaise
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
(Transitional National Assembly)
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
Rwandais
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
Masse
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
Démocratie
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
Droits de l’Homme
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
Démocratique des Batwa
xiv
xiv
v
ACRONYMS
AND
LIST
OFABBREVIATIONS
TABLES
___________________________________
Table 1:
A.A.
Table 2:
A.G.
Table 3:
ABAKI
Table 4:
ABESC
Prehistoric
ageAfricaines
in Rwanda................................
: Archives
Chronological
list
of Ibimanuka in Rwanda.......
: Assemblée
Générale
The:kings
of
Rwanda
and Busigi.....................
Alliance des Bakiga
German
troops indes
Ruanda-Urundi
during
WWI....
: Association
Bahutu Evoluant
pour
la
......................................................................2
Suppression des Castes
Table 5: List of circles for the “enlightened or évolués” in
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
Rwanda in 1954.............................................341
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
Table 6: Growth of GDP components............................425
ADR
: Alliance
pour la
Démocratie
et la
Table 7: Trend
of production
output
of manufactured
Réconciliation Nationale
products...............................................................425
AEC
: Agglomeration
Extra-Coutumières
Table 8: Agricultural
production
between 1964 and 1967
AFDL in thousands
: Alliance des
Forces
Démocratiques pour la
of metric tons............................426
Libération
dufor
Congo-Zaïre
Table 9: Allocation
of land
food crops (unit: hectare)
LIST
OF
TABLES
AGOA ........................................................................426
: African Growth and
Opportunity Act
Table
10:
Yields
of
major
food
crops
(Unit: metric ton/
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
hectare)................................................................427
AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
Table11:
1: Prehistoric
age enrolment
in Rwanda................................
Table
Trend
of student
admitted
to primary
AJER
: Association
de la Jeunesse
Estudiantine
Table 2: Chronological
list
of
Ibimanuka
in
Rwanda.......
school...........................................................................431
Rwandaise
kings of to
Rwanda
and Busigi.....................
Table 3:
12:The
Admission
government
secondary schools
ALIR
: Armée
de Libération
du Rwanda
Table 4: German
troops
in
Ruanda-Urundi
during WWI....
according to provinces in Sept. 1989............448
AM/AP
:
Arrêté
ministériel/
Arrêté
présidentiel
Table 13:......................................................................2
Trend of balance of trade from 1980 to 1991......
AMR
:of
Association
Moniteurs duorRwanda
Table 5: List
circles for des
the “enlightened
évolués” in
....................................................................451
AMUR Rwanda
: Association
des Musulmans au Rwanda
in 1954.............................................341
Table 6: Growth
of GDP components............................425
ANT
: Assemblée
Nationale de Transition
xv
Table 7: Trend(Transitional
of productionNational
output ofAssembly)
manufactured
APADEC products...............................................................425
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
Table
8:
Agricultural
productionRwandaise
between 1964 and 1967
APR
: Armée Patriotique
in
thousands
of
metric
tons............................426
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
Table 9: Allocation of land for food crops (unit: hectare)
Rwandais
........................................................................426
APROCOMIN:
des
Commerçants
Table 10: YieldsAssociation
of major food
crops
(Unit: metricIndigènes
ton/
APROSOMA
: Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
hectare)................................................................427
Table 11: TrendMasse
of student enrolment admitted to primary
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
school...........................................................................431
Démocratie
Table 12: Admission
to government secondary schools
to provinces
in Sept.
ARDHO according
: Association
Rwandaise
pour1989............448
la Défense des
Table 13: Trend
of balance
of trade from 1980 to 1991......
Droits
de l’Homme
....................................................................451
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
Démocratique des Batwa
xv
v
xv
Table 14: Changes
in income
expenditure for
ACRONYMS
ANDand
ABBREVIATIONS
budgetsbetween
1980-1992..........................453
___________________________________
Table 15: Budgetary estimates as from 1st January to 31st
December
1990............................................454
A.A.
: Archives
Africaines
Table
16:
Creation
and
approval
of political parties in
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
ABAKI Rwanda...............................................................76
: Alliance des Bakiga
Table 17: Areas under demilitarized buffer zone...........496
ABESC
: Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
Table 18: The state of the judicial personnel between 1994 and
Suppression des Castes
2002.................................................................................588
ACR
:
Association
desbetween
Cultivateurs
Rwanda
Table 19: Rwanda’s
refugees
1993du
and
1999........
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
....................................................................631
ADR 20: Key
: Alliance
pour
la Démocratie
la
Table
indicators
of VISION
2020 inetRwanda....638
Réconciliation
Nationale
Table 21: Percentage
of households
below the poverty line
AEC
: Agglomeration
Extra-Coutumières
from
1985 to 1999....................................640
Table
from Rwanda’s
taxes
from 1996 to 2001
AFDL22 : Income
: Alliance
des Forces
Démocratiques
pour la
st
in du
millions
of RwF..........................651
(1 Semester)
Libération
Congo-Zaïre
Tables
23
and
24
:
UN
aid
to
Rwanda
from 1994 to Act
2003....652
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity
Table
of jobs per sector in 2003................653
$,'6 25: Number
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
Table
26:
Employment
status andet
economic
activities in
AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes
Main-d’oeuvre
2003......................................................................653
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
Table 27: Enrolment in tertiary government institutions
fromRwandaise
1994/1995 to 2001/2002....................659
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
Table 28: Enrolment in tertiary private institutions
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
from 1994/1995 to 2001/2002....................659
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
Table
29:
Funding
the healthdes
sector
from the source:
AMUR
: Association
Musulmans
au Rwanda
1997-2003...............................................................668
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
(Transitional National Assembly)
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
Rwandais
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
Masse
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
Démocratie
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
Droits de l’Homme
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
Démocratique des Batwa
xvi
xvi
v
/IST
OF ABBREVIATIONS
FIGURES
ACRONYMS
AND
___________________________________
Figure 1: Fossil
bones found
at Masangano: otter (Natural
A.A.
: Archives
Africaines
History
Museum
in Kigali).................................
A.G.
: Assemblée
Générale
Figure
2:
Stone
tools
conserved
ABAKI
: Alliance des Bakigaat the Institute of
National
Museums
of Rwanda
in Huye..........
ABESC
: Association
des Bahutu
Evoluant
pour la
Figure 3: Kagitumba
sharpened
stone
tools
(Akagera
National
park)
Suppression des Castes
............................................................................................
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
Figure 4: Bricks found at Muyunzwe (seventh century)......
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
......................................................................
ADR
Alliance
pour la
Démocratie of
et Urewe
la
Figure 5: Pot: with
patterns
characteristic
pottery
Réconciliation
Nationale
......................................................................
AEC
: Agglomeration
Extra-Coutumières
Figure 6: Urewe
dimple-based
pottery ...........................
AFDL
:
Alliance
des
Forces
Démocratiques
pour la ..
Figure 7: Cow tooth found at Remera
(Gisagara District)
......................................................................
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
Figure 8: Pots
decorated
with circular
rings on the
surface
AGOA
: African
Growth
and Opportunity
Act
/IST
OF
FIGURES
and
around
the
space
between
the
pot’s
base,
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP neck
and: shoulder.......................................................
AIMO
Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
Figure
9:
Political
and administrative
hierarchy
from King
AJER
: Association
de la Jeunesse
Estudiantine
Figure 1: Fossil
bones
found
at
Masangano:
otter
(Natural
Cyirima Rujugira..........................................1
Rwandaise
History production
Museum intrends
Kigali).................................
Figure 10: Calories
per person per day and
ALIR
: Armée
de
Libération
du
Figure 2: disparity
Stone
tools
conserved
at
theRwanda
Institute
of
indicators of revenues
in
rural areas
AM/AP (1982-1993)...................................................452
:
Arrêté
ministériel/
Arrêté
présidentiel
National Museums of Rwanda in Huye..........
AMR
: Association
desstone
Moniteurs
du Rwanda
Figure 3: Kagitumba
sharpened
tools (Akagera
National park)
AMUR ............................................................................................
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda xvii
Figure 4: Bricks
found atNationale
Muyunzwe
century)......
ANT
: Assemblée
de(seventh
Transition
......................................................................
(Transitional National Assembly)
Figure
5:
Pot
with
patterns
of Urewe
pottery
APADEC
: Association
ducharacteristic
Parti Démocrate
Chrétien
......................................................................
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
Figure
6:
Urewe
dimple-based
pottery
...........................
APROBAMI : Association
des Partis
Monarchistes
Figure 7: Cow tooth found at Remera (Gisagara District) ..
Rwandais
......................................................................
APROCOMIN:
Association
des
Commerçants
Figure 8: Pots decorated
with
circular
rings on Indigènes
the surface
APROSOMA
pour la
Promotion
Sociale
de la
and: Association
around the space
between
the pot’s
base,
neck
Masse
and shoulder.......................................................
ARD
: Alliance
le Renforcement
de la
Figure 9: Political
and pour
administrative
hierarchy
from King
Démocratie
Cyirima
Rujugira..........................................1
Figure 10: Calories
production
trends perpour
person
day and
ARDHO
: Association
Rwandaise
la per
Défense
des
disparity
indicators
of revenues in rural areas
Droits
de l’Homme
(1982-1993)...................................................452
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
Démocratique des Batwa
xvii
v
xvii
ACRONYMS
AND
LIST
OFABBREVIATIONS
MAPS
___________________________________
A.A.
: Archives
Africaines
Map 1: Localization
of Middle
and Late Stone Ages in
A.G. Rwanda.................................................................
: Assemblée Générale
Map
2: Location
of sites
during
the Early Iron Age ........
ABAKI
: Alliance
des
Bakiga
Map
3:
Home
and
migration
routes
of
the Bantu
and thepour
semi-la
ABESC
: Association des Bahutu
Evoluant
Bantu..................................................................
Suppression des Castes
Map
of Bantu languages:
stages and
ACR 4 Expansion
: Association
des Cultivateurs
dudispersion
Rwanda
points...................................................................................
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
Map 5: Location of linguistic groups in the Great Lake
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
Region from 1000 BC to 500 BC........................
Réconciliation
Nationale
Map 6: Original
map of Rwanda
(Gasabo
AEC
:
Agglomeration
Extra-Coutumières
and the neighboring “countries” (14t Century)..
AFDL
: Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
0DS5ZDQGDDIWHUILYHFHQWXULHVRIH[SDQVLRQ
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
0DS7KHILUVW(XURSHDQH[SORUHUV
AGOA
: African
Growth
andbyOpportunity
Map
9: The historic
regions
retained
the colonial Act
$,'6 administration..................................................................
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
Map
10:
Rwanda
Urundi
(1884-1919)..........................
AIMO
: Affaires
Indigènes
et Main-d’oeuvre
LIST
OF MAPS
Map
11:
Establishment
of
Catholic
and Estudiantine
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse
Protestant
missions
in
Rwanda
(1900-1916).2
Rwandaise
Map 12: Ethnic
and de
political
violence
from 1059-1962.392
ALIR
: Armée
Libération
du Rwanda
Map 1: Localization
of Middle
and Late
Stone Ages in
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/
Arrêté présidentiel
Map
13:
Administrative
map of Rwanda
(2001).............606
Rwanda.................................................................
AMR 2: Location
: Association
des Moniteurs
Rwanda
Map
of sites during
the Earlydu
Iron
Age ........
AMUR
: Association
des Musulmans
au the
Rwanda
Map
3: Home and
migration routes
of the Bantu and
semiANT Bantu..................................................................
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
Map 4 Expansion
of Bantu languages:
and dispersion
(Transitional
Nationalstages
Assembly)
points...................................................................................
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
Map
5:
Location
of linguistic
groups
in the Great Lake
APR
: Armée
Patriotique
Rwandaise
Region
from
1000
BC
to
500
BC........................
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
Map 6: Original map of Rwanda (Gasabo
Rwandais
and the neighboring “countries” (14t Century)..
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
0DS5ZDQGDDIWHUILYHFHQWXULHVRIH[SDQVLRQ
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
0DS7KHILUVW(XURSHDQH[SORUHUV
Masse
Map 9: The historic
regions retained by the colonial
ARD administration..................................................................
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
Démocratie
Map 10: Rwanda
Urundi (1884-1919)..........................
Map
11: Establishment
Catholic and
ARDHO
: AssociationofRwandaise
pour la Défense des
Protestant
missions
in Rwanda (1900-1916).2
Droits de
l’Homme
Map
12:
Ethnic
and
political
violence
from 1059-1962.392
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
Démocratique
Batwa (2001).............606
Map 13: Administrative
mapdes
of Rwanda
xviii
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF
CONTENTS
ACRONYMS
AND
ABBREVIATIONS
___________________________________
Acronyms and:abbreviations
................................................................... v
A.A.
Archives Africaines
List of tables
..........................................................................................
͘xvv
Acronyms
and
A.G.
:abbreviations
Assemblée...................................................................
Générale
ABAKI
: Alliance des Bakiga
figures..........................................................................................
........................................................................................
xvii
List of tables
͘xv
ABESC
:
Association
des
Bahutu
Evoluant
pour
la
ǀŝŝŝ
List of maps
figures.........................................................................................x
........................................................................................xvii
Suppression des Castes
TABLE
OF CONTENTS
.......................................................................xŝx
List
of maps
.........................................................................................x
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwandaǀŝŝŝ
PREFACE
͘xxiii
TABLE OF.............................................................................................
CONTENTS
.......................................................................xŝx
ADP
: Alliance
Démocratique des Peuples
FOREWORD
...........................................................................................
xxǀ
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
PREFACE
.............................................................................................
͘xxiii
Réconciliation
Nationale
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
.......................................................................
xxǀii
FOREWORD ...........................................................................................
xxǀ
AEC
:
Agglomeration
Extra-Coutumières
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
........................................................................
1
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
.......................................................................
xxǀii
AFDL
: Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
I. SOURCES
OF RWANDA’S........................................................................
HISTORY .................................................. 15
GENERAL
INTRODUCTION
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
1.1.ϭ͘Material
sources
6
I. SOURCES OF: RWANDA’S
HISTORY and
..................................................
5
AGOA
African.....................................................................
Growth
Opportunity Act
1.1.Ϯ.Oral sources
...................................................................................
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
1.1.ϭ͘Material
sources
..................................................................... 68
AIMO
:sources
Affaires
Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
1.1.ϯ.Written
.............................................................................
13
1.1.Ϯ.Oral sources
...................................................................................
8
AJER
:
Association
de
la
Jeunesse
Estudiantine
1.1.ϰ.Audiovisual
sources
...................................................................... 113ϲ
1.1.ϯ.Written sources
.............................................................................
Rwandaise
1.2.Overview
of Rwanda’s
historiography ....................................... 117ϲ
1.1.ϰ.Audiovisual
sourcesde
......................................................................
ALIR
: Armée
Libération du Rwanda
1.2.1.
Pre-colonial
period
.......................................................................
1.2.Overview :ofArrêté
Rwanda’s
historiography
.......................................
AM/AP
ministériel/
Arrêté
présidentiel 117ϳ
1.2.2. Colonial
.............................................................................
AMR
:period
Association
des Moniteurs du Rwanda 118ϳ
1.2.1.
Pre-colonial
period
.......................................................................
AMUR
:period
Association
des Musulmans au Rwanda 19
1.2.3.
colonial
period
.....................................................................
1.2.2. Post
Colonial
.............................................................................
18
ANT
:
Assemblée
Nationale
de
Transition
1.2.4.
Post-genocide
period.....................................................................
................................................................... 2ϭ
1.2.3. Post
colonial period
19
(Transitional National Assembly)
II.
PREHISTORY
AND period
SETTLEMENTS
IN RWANDA
1.2.4.
Post-genocide
...................................................................
APADEC
: Association
du Parti Démocrate Chrétien2ϭ
(1000
BC – 700/800
...................................................................
23
II. PREHISTORY
ANDBC)
SETTLEMENTS
IN RWANDA
APR
: Armée
Patriotique
Rwandaise
2.1. Prehistory
23
APROBAMI
: ................................................................................
Association
des Partis Monarchistes
(1000
BC – 700/800
BC)...................................................................
23
Rwandais
2.1.1.
Environmental
framework ........................................................... 23
2.1. Prehistory
................................................................................
23
APROCOMIN:
Association
des
Commerçants
Indigènes
2.1.2. Environmental
Current state offramework
archaeological
research .....................................23
24
2.1.1.
...........................................................
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
2.1.3.
of climatic
and landscape
changes
.............................. 26
2.1.2. Evolution
Current state
of archaeological
research
.....................................
24
Masse
2.1.4. Prehistoric
in Rwanda
............................................................
3Ϭ
2.1.3.
Evolution
ofage
climatic
and landscape
changes ..............................
26
ARD
: Alliance
pour
le Renforcement
de la
2.2.
Settlement
in
Rwanda
..............................................................
4ϴ
2.1.4. PrehistoricDémocratie
age in Rwanda............................................................ 3Ϭ
ARDHO
: Association
Rwandaise
pour
la Défense
2.2.1.Settlement
Local traditions
on settlements:
myths and
narratives
...............des
5Ϭ
2.2.
in Rwanda
..............................................................
4ϴ
Droits
de
l’Homme
2.2.2.
Modern
theoriesononsettlements:
the settlements
inand
Rwanda:
content
and 5Ϭ
2.2.1. Local
traditions
narratives
...............
AREDETWA
: Association
pour myths
le Relèvement
2.2.2. Modern theories
on the settlements
in Rwanda: content and
xŝx
Démocratique
des Batwa
xŝxv
xix
application.............................................................................................. ϱϵ
III. THE KINGDOM OF RWANDA FROM THE BEGINNING TO 1900 ......7ϯ
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
3.1. Rwanda of___________________________________
Gasabo and the neighboring “countries” ................. 7ϯ
3.1.1. Original Rwanda in Buganza......................................................... 7ϯ
A.A.
: Archives Africaines
3.2. Expansion of Rwanda ............................................................... 8ϭ
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
3.2.1. Rwanda versus Gisaka: Ruganzu Bwimba and Robwa ................. 8ϭ
ABAKI
: Alliance des Bakiga
3.2.2.
Conquest
and occupationdes
of Bahutu
Nduga: a new
center power
ABESC
: Association
Evoluant
pour inla
Rwanda’s expansion
...............................................................................
8ϯ
Suppression
des Castes
3.2.3. Major political
crisis: Yuhides
Gahima
and Ndahiro Cyamatare
....... ϴϲ
ACR
: Association
Cultivateurs
du Rwanda
ADP
: Alliance
Démocratique
des Peuples
3.2.4. Restoration
and consolidation
of the monarchy
......................... ϴϴ
ADR
:
Alliance
pour
la
Démocratie
et
3.2.5. The great expansion: from King Cyirima Rujugira tolaKing Kigeri
Réconciliation Nationale
Rwabugiri ...............................................................................................
9ϭ
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
3.3. Organization of the kingdom .................................................. ͘͘ϵϴ
AFDL
: Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
3.3.1. Political Organization ................................................................͘͘͘ϵϵ
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
3.3.2. Military :organization
..................................................................
11Ϭ
AGOA
African Growth
and Opportunity Act
$,'6
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3.3.ϯ. dĞƌƌŝƚŽƌŝĂůKƌŐĂŶŝnjĂƚŝŽŶĂŶĚĚŵŝŶŝƐƚƌĂƚŝǀĞŝǀĞƌƐŝƚLJ͘͘͘͘͘͘͘.........
AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
3.3.ϰ. Social and Economic Organization ............................................. 1ϭϳ
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
3.3.ϱ. Cultural and social organization ................................................. 1ϯϳ
Rwandaise
IV.
RWANDA
UNDER
GERMAN
AND BELGIAN
........ 1ϲϱ
ALIR
: Armée
de Libération
du COLONIZATION
Rwanda
4.1. Rwanda during
German
colonizationArrêté
......................................
AM/AP
: Arrêté
ministériel/
présidentiel 1ϲϱ
AMR
: Association
des Moniteurs du Rwanda 1ϲϱ
4.1.1. Period of
explorers .....................................................................
AMUR
: Association
des
Musulmans
au Rwanda1ϳϴ
4.1.2. Territorial
organization and
arrival
of Germans ........................
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
4.1.3. The Protectorate regime (1897) ................................................ 18Ϯ
(Transitional National Assembly)
4.1.4.
Presence
of
missionaries............................................................
20Ϯ
APADEC
: Association
du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
4.1.5. Resistance
movements
and opposition
..................................... 2Ϭϴ
APR
: Armée
Patriotique
Rwandaise
APROBAMI
Association
des Partis Monarchistes
4.1.ϲ. The First: World
War ...................................................................
2Ϯϰ
Rwandais
4.2. Belgian colonization (1916 - 1962) .......................................... 2Ϯϳ
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
4.2.1. Regime of occupation 1916 - 1926 ............................................ 2Ϯϳ
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
4.2.2. Belgian Mandate
Masse (1926 - 1948).................................................. 2ϯϲ
4.2.3. The Trusteeship
(1946-1962)
317
ARD
: Alliance
pour le.....................................................
Renforcement de la
Démocratie
V. RWANDA UNDER
THE FIRST AND SECOND REPUBLICS (1962-1994)
ARDHO
:
Association
Rwandaise pour la Défense 411
des
....................................................................................................
Droits(1962-1973)
de l’Homme
5.1. The First Republic
................................................ 411
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
xx
Démocratique des Batwa
xx
v
5.1.1. The new political and institutional framework .......................... 411
5.1.2. Eliminating the Opposition ........................................................ 415
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
5.1.3. Armed opposition
of the Inyenzi (1961-1968) ........................... 417
___________________________________
5.1.4. Development efforts and economic dependence ..................... 422
A.A.
: Archives Africaines
5.1.5. Social and cultural politics.......................................................... 451
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
5.1.6. End of the First Republic ............................................................ 437
ABAKI
: Alliance des Bakiga
5.2.
The
Second
Republic (1973-1994)
...........................................
442
ABESC
: Association
des Bahutu
Evoluant pour la
Suppression
des Castes
5.2.1. Creation and
institutionalization
of MRND ................................ 443
ACR
:
Association
des
Cultivateurs
du Rwanda447
5.2.2. Worsening of the crises .............................................................
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
5.2.3. Problem of Rwandan Refugees .................................................. 457
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
5.2.4. Armed intervention
of the Rwanda
Patriotic Front (1st October,
Réconciliation
Nationale
1990)……………………………………………………………………………………………..͘͘460
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
5.2.5. Short-circuit
for multipartism
....................................................
AFDL
: Alliance
des Forces
Démocratiques pour475
la
5.2.6. Violence and
insecurity du
as political
strategies ........................... ϰ82
Libération
Congo-Zaïre
AGOA
: African
Act ...... 490
5.2.7. The crisis
of 8th - 9thGrowth
February and
1993 Opportunity
and its consequences
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5.2.8. Maneuvers to block the Arusha Accords ................................... 497
AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
VI.THE GENOCIDE PERPETRATED AGAINST THE TUTSI (APRIL-JULY
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
1994)............................................................................................ 503
Rwandaise
6.1.
Definition
of
terms and
key concepts ......................................
505
ALIR
: Armée
de Libération
du Rwanda
6.2. Beginning: and
execution
of the genocide
against
the Tutsis.... 509
AM/AP
Arrêté
ministériel/
Arrêté
présidentiel
AMR
: Association
des Moniteurs
du Rwanda
6.2.1. Attack against
the presidential
plane and execution
of the
genocide …………………………………………………………………………………………509
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
ANT
: Assemblée
Nationaleofde
Transition
6.2.2. Generalization
and systematization
Tutsi
massacres. ........... 514
(Transitional
National
Assembly)
6.2.3. Organization of the genocide perpetrated the Tutsis ...............519
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
6.3. Mobilization as a tool to exterminate the Tutsi............................ 537
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
6.3.1.
Presentation
of the 1990 des
war as
a threat
to the existence of the
APROBAMI : Association
Partis
Monarchistes
Hutu………………………………………………………………………………………………͘͘537
Rwandais
6.3.2. Mobilization
against the Arusha
Peace Accord..........................
542
APROCOMIN:
Association
des Commerçants
Indigènes
APROSOMA
: Association
Sociale
de la
6.3.3. Mobilization
done in the pour
murderlaofPromotion
President Ndadaye
...........
546
Masse
6.3.4. Manipulating of fear and resentment........................................ 550
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
6.4. Rwanda Patriotic Front (RPF) stops the genocide .................... 554
Démocratie
6.4.1. Military :operations
.....................................................................
ARDHO
Association
Rwandaise pour la Défense 554
des
6.4.2. DiplomaticDroits
Action .......................................................................
556
de l’Homme
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
xxi
Démocratique des Batwa
v
xxi
6.5. Denial and Revisionism .......................................................... 560
6.5.1. Denial mechanism of the genocide perpetrated against the
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
Tutsis………………………………………………………………………………………………͘561
___________________________________
6.5.2. Forms of Genocide denial against the Tutsis ............................. 563
A.A.
Archives
VII. RWANDA :DURING
THE Africaines
TRANSITIONAL PERIOD
A.G.
:
Assemblée
Générale
(July 1994-September 2003)͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘.........
571
ABAKI
: Alliance des Bakiga
7.1 Political evolution ................................................................... 572
ABESC
: Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
7.1.1 Political Program
of the Government
of National Unity............. 572
Suppression
des Castes
7.1.2. Restoration
of state structures
..................................................
ACR
: Association
des Cultivateurs
du Rwanda577
ADP
: Alliance
des and
Peuples
7.1.3. Restoration
of peaceDémocratique
and security for people
property ..... ϱ79
ADR
:
Alliance
pour
la
Démocratie
et
la
7.1.4. Challenges of unity and reconciliation .......................................
ϱ82
Réconciliation Nationale
7.1.5. Justice in the post-genocide context ......................................... 587
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
7.1.6. Differences
of opinion
on political
...........................
AFDL
: Alliance
des
Forcesleadership
Démocratiques
pour596
la
7.1.7. Democratization
and good
..................................... 598
Libération
dugovernance
Congo-Zaïre
AGOA
: African
Growth
and Opportunity
Act
7.1.8. Constitutional
and Judicial
Commission
....................................
600
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7.1.9. Decentralization ......................................................................... 604
AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
7.1.10. Foreign policy ........................................................................... 607
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
7.1.11. RegionalRwandaise
conflicts ..................................................................... 611
ALIR
Armée
Libération
du Rwanda
7.2. Economic:and
socialde
evolution
................................................
626
AM/AP
: Arrêté
Arrêté présidentiel 627
7.2.1. Emergency
period ministériel/
(1994-1999) .................................................
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
7.2.2. Phases of development from 1999 ............................................ 637
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
7.2.3. Economic and social sectors ...................................................... 641
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
7.2.4. Promotion(Transitional
of women and youth
................................................
672
National
Assembly)
APADEC
: Association
du Parti Démocrate Chrétien676
GENERAL CONCLUSION
.................................................................
APR
: Armée
Patriotique Rwandaise
BIBLIOGRAPHY
.............................................................................
680
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
I. WRITTEN SOURCES .................................................................... ϲ80
Rwandais
I.1.
Edited
sources
........................................................................
APROCOMIN: Association
des Commerçants Indigènesϲ80
I.2. Archive sources
.......................................................................
717
APROSOMA
: Association
pour la Promotion Sociale de la
Masse
II. AUDIO-VISUAL
SOURCES ........................................................... 719
ARD
: Alliance
pour le Renforcement de la
III. ORAL SOURCES
........................................................................
721
Démocratie
List of contributors ....................................................................... 724
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
APPENDICES .................................................................................
725
Droits de l’Homme
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
xxii
Démocratique des Batwa
xxii
v
ACRONYMSPREFACE
AND ABBREVIATIONS
___________________________________
A.A.
: Archives Africaines
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
ABAKI
: Alliance des Bakiga
o
people
can existdes
without
a history.
Likewise,
ABESC
: Association
Bahutu
Evoluant
pour lathere
PREFACE
can be no history without
a people. Since the end of the
Suppression des Castes
genocide perpetrated against the Tutsi in 1994, many
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
Rwandans have been asking and waiting eagerly for a written
ADP
: Alliance
dessociety
Peuples
account of their
history.Démocratique
Current Rwandan
has not been
ADR
:
Alliance
pour
la
Démocratie
et
la
spared from this fundamental desire -- namely, the wish to be
Réconciliation
Nationale
correctly informed
about Rwanda’s
past in order to confront the
o of
people
can exist
a history.
Likewise,
there
AEC
:the
Agglomeration
Extra-Coutumières
challenges
present
andwithout
the
future.
The social
demand
for
no history
a Démocratiques
people.
thepour
end oflathe
history iscan
particularly
high
in
a country
likeSince
Rwanda
where
AFDL
:beAlliance
deswithout
Forces
perpetrated
againstthe
theTutsi
Tutsioccured.
in 1994, many
tragedies genocide
of war
and
genocide
against
Libération
du Congo-Zaïre
Rwandans
have
been
asking
and
waiting
eagerly
for a written
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity Act
accountdemand
of their
history.
Current
Rwandan
society
has not
been
People
to
know their
history
for several
reasons.
Among
$,'6
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sparedthings,
from this
fundamental
desirehappened;
-- namely,itthe
wish
to be
other
history
explains
what
gives
proof
of
AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
correctly
informedthat
about
Rwanda’s
past
in orderof
to manipulated
confront the
the
catastrophe
occurred
with
examples
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
challenges
of the present
and the ends
future.
Thepropaganda
social demand
for
facts
-- invented
for ideological
and
-- and
Rwandaise
history iscontext
particularly
high action
in a country
like Rwanda
where
provides
to inspire
and behavior
with the
aimthe
of
ALIR
: Armée
de Libération
Rwanda
tragedies of war
and genocide
againstdu
the
Tutsi
reconstructing
post-genocide
Rwanda.
This
bookoccured.
neither claims
AM/AP
: Arrêté
ministériel/
Arrêté nor
présidentiel
to meet all the
expectations
of its readers
claims to answer
AMR
:asked.
Association
des
Moniteurs
du Rwanda
People
demand
to know
history
several
reasons.
all
questions
Thetheir
authors
arefor
conscious
of theseAmong
limits
otherdeserve
things,to
explains
what
happened;
givestheir
proof
of
AMUR
:history
Association
desfor
Musulmans
auit Rwanda
and
be commended
having
transcended
own
the catastrophe
that occurred
of manipulated
ANT
: Assemblée
Nationale
demade
Transition
partialities
and
emotions.
Theywith
haveexamples
this
contribution
facts
invented
for ideological
endsinAssembly)
and
propaganda way
-- and
to
the--national
memory
of Rwanda
a professional
by
(Transitional
National
provides
context
to
inspire
action
and
behavior
with
the
aim
gathering,
analyzing
and
reconciling
diverse
ideas.
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien of
reconstructing
post-genocide
Rwanda.
This book neither claims
APR
: Armée
Patriotique
Rwandaise
to meetall
allelse,
the expectations
of
its
readersisnor
claimsbyto and
answer
Above
this
history
of
Rwanda
written
for
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
all questions
asked. Theaauthors
are conscious of these limits
Rwandans.
It constitutes
Rwandais vital step in the current reconstruction
and
deserve
to be
transcended
their own
of
this
nation.
Wecommended
know that for
the having
manipulation
of history
was
APROCOMIN:
Association
des
Commerçants
Indigènes
partialities
and emotions.
They
have made
this contribution
one
of the tools
of extremist
propaganda
disseminated
before
APROSOMA
: Association
la Promotion
Sociale deway
la by
to the national
memory ofpour
Rwanda
in a professional
Masseand reconciling diverse ideas.
gathering, analyzing
xxLLL
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
Above all else,Démocratie
this history of Rwanda is written by and for
Rwandans. It :constitutes
a vital
step in thepour
current
reconstruction
ARDHO
Association
Rwandaise
la Défense
des
of this nation. Droits
We know
that the manipulation of history was
de l’Homme
one
of
the
tools
of
extremist
propaganda
disseminated before
AREDETWA : Association pour
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v
xxiii
and during the
genocide of AND
1994.ABBREVIATIONS
Rather than grounding itself
ACRONYMS
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___________________________________
comprehensive work aims at establishing the truth of the past
and
the critical
mind of the future. This framework is
A.A.promoting
: Archives
Africaines
especially
important
in
educating
our youth, who can now claim
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
improved tools for accessing knowledge of their national history.
ABAKI
: Alliance des Bakiga
This work gives a balanced account of events but certainly does
ABESC
: Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
not provide an exhaustive account of everything that took place.
Suppression des Castes
Its objective is to provide basic, objective information about the
ACR
:
Association
des Cultivateurs
du Rwanda
essential aspects
of the evolution
of Rwanda, some
of which are
ADP controversial.
: Alliance
des Peuples
deeply
TheDémocratique
major themes handled
are: the problem
ADR
: Alliance
la Démocratie
et la of Rwanda,
of
information
sources, pour
the prehistory
and people
Nationale
the Kingdom ofRéconciliation
Rwanda from its
beginning through the end of
the
century, European
colonisation, post-colonial
AECnineteenth
: Agglomeration
Extra-Coutumières
regimes,
genocide
against the Tutsi,
and
AFDL and : the
Alliance
des perpetrated
Forces Démocratiques
pour la
the transitionalLibération
period from
up to 2003. Throughout their
du1994
Congo-Zaïre
writings
on
these
periods,
the
authors
have attempted
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity
Actto address
economic,
political,
social and cultural factors in addition to
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addressing Rwanda’s relations with states in the sub-region and
AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
beyond.
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
Rwandaise
The National University
of Rwanda, to which the authors of this
ALIR belong or
: Armée
de Libération
du grateful
Rwandato the National
book
belonged,
is particularly
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/
Arrêté
présidentiel
Unity
and Reconciliation
Commission
(NURC),
which afforded the
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
QHFHVVDU\IXQGVIRUWKHUHDOLVDWLRQRIWKLVZRUN7KHFRQÀGHQFH
the
NURC has
shown in our
lecturers
has only
enhanced the
AMUR
: Association
des
Musulmans
au Rwanda
longstanding
of collaboration
between
our institutions.
ANT
:spirit
Assemblée
Nationale
de Transition
(Transitional National Assembly)
Finally,
we
offer
our sinceredu
thanks
the authors
of this book
APADEC
: Association
PartitoDémocrate
Chrétien
for
well done.
They have
distinguished themselves
APRtheir work: Armée
Patriotique
Rwandaise
from some of our predecessors who supported the bloody drift of
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
the post-colonial regime -- namely those who played a negative
Rwandais
role before, during, and after the genocide committed against
APROCOMIN:
Association
Commerçants
the
Tutsi. By publishing
this des
work,
the authors of Indigènes
this book have
APROSOMA
Association
pourresearch
la Promotion
Sociale
de ought
la
opened
a new:chapter
for future
in Rwanda.
They
Masse
to be thanked for
that endeavour.
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
Démocratie
Prof. Silas LWAKABAMBA
Rector,
University
of Rwanda
ARDHONational
: Association
Rwandaise
pour la Défense des
Droits de l’Homme
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
Démocratique des Batwa
xxiY
xxiv
v
FOREWORD
ACRONYMS
AND ABBREVIATIONS
___________________________________
A.A.
A.G.
ABAKI
ABESC
:
:
:
:
Archives Africaines
Assemblée Générale
Alliance des Bakiga
Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
Suppression des Castes
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
ADP he National
: Alliance
Démocratique
des Peuples
FOREWORD
Unity
and Reconciliation
Commission
ADR (NURC)
: Alliance
pour
la Démocratie
et laof the history
is pleased
to present
an appraisal
Réconciliation
Nationale
of Rwanda,
the objective
of which is to disseminate a
AEC
:
Agglomeration
Extra-Coutumières
better researched and more objective national history than
AFDL available.
: Alliance
des
Forces and
Démocratiques
pour la
formerly
Several
readings
disorted interpretations
Libération
Congo-Zaïre
of the history have
always du
nourished
the political behavior that
AGOA
:
African
Growth
and
Opportunity
Act
has undermined Rwanda’s unity, leading to the destruction
of
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the concept of citizenship in Rwanda.
AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
AJER
: Associationin
de la Jeunesse
Estudiantine
On
several
forums,
the wish
to revisit
he occasions
National and
Unity several
and Reconciliation
Commission
Rwandaise
this history
hasisbeen
expressed
with an
theappraisal
intention of
of the
facilitating
(NURC)
pleased
to present
history
ALIR
:
Armée
de
Libération
du
Rwanda
the process
of
unity
and
reconciliation.
This
commitment
falls
of Rwanda, the objective of which is to disseminate
a
AM/AP
:
Arrêté
ministériel/
Arrêté
présidentiel
within
the
context
of
some
primary
objectives
of
NURC,
namely
better researched and more objective national history than
AMR
: Association
des Moniteurs du Rwanda
research
conducting
and publishing.
formerly available.
Several
readings and disorted interpretations
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
of the history have always nourished the political behavior that
ANT
Assemblée
Nationale
de Transition
The
scope of :this
work covers
the leading
essential
of Rwanda
has undermined
Rwanda’s
unity,
to history
the destruction
of
(Transitional
National
Assembly)
from
its
beginning
up
to
2003,
the
year
that
marked
the
end
of
the concept of citizenship in Rwanda.
APADEC
: Association
du Parti
Démocrate
Chrétien
a
political transition
which started
in July
1994 and
marked the
APR
: Arméeperiod
Patriotique
Rwandaise
beginning
another
the Third
Republic.
On severalofoccasions
and inofseveral
forums,
the wish to revisit
APROBAMI
:
Association
des
Partis
Monarchistes
this history has been expressed with the intention of facilitating
the process of Rwandais
unity and reconciliation. This commitment xxY
falls
APROCOMIN:
Association
des
Commerçants
Indigènes
within the context of some primary objectives of NURC, namely
APROSOMA
: Association
pour la Promotion Sociale de la
research
conducting
and publishing.
Masse
ARDscope of :this
Alliance
Renforcement
de laof Rwanda
The
work pour
coverslethe
essential history
Démocratie
from its beginning
up to 2003, the year that marked the end of
ARDHO
:
Association
Rwandaise
pour
laand
Défense
des
a political transition which started
in July
1994
marked
the
Droits
de
l’Homme
beginning of another period of the Third Republic.
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
Démocratique des Batwa
T
T
xxY
v
xxv
Sponsored byACRONYMS
NURC, this work
coordinated and produced
ANDwas
ABBREVIATIONS
by historians___________________________________
and researchers from the National University
RI 5ZDQGD ZKR ZHUH QRW RQO\ DEOH WR SUHVHQW WKHLU ÀQGLQJV
based
artAfricaines
research methodologies, but who also
A.A. on state-of-the
: Archives
succeeded
in clarifying
controversial
A.G.
: Assemblée
Généralepoints and even illuminating
previously
unknown
facts
of Bakiga
Rwanda’s history. The authors are
ABAKI
: Alliance
des
HQWLUHO\
IRU WKLV
LGHQWLÀFDWLRQ
RI KLVWRULFDO
IDFWV
ABESC UHVSRQVLEOH
: Association
des
Bahutu Evoluant
pour la
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Suppression des Castes
this
ACRwork. : Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
May
be useful pour
to ourlareaders
and may
it contribute to
ADRthis work: Alliance
Démocratie
et la
stimulating future
research
initiatives
and
debate.
Réconciliation Nationale
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
NURC
thank those
contributed
to the realization
AFDL wishes :toAlliance
des who
Forces
Démocratiques
pour la of
this book, especially
the NUR
its research and the European
Libération
du for
Congo-Zaïre
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Dr.
Jean
Baptiste
HABYALIMANA
AIMO
: Affaires
Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
Executive
secretary
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
National UnityRwandaise
and Reconciliation Commission
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
(Transitional National Assembly)
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
Rwandais
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
Masse
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
Démocratie
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
Droits de l’Homme
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
Démocratique des Batwa
xxYL
xxvi
v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
ACRONYMS
AND ABBREVIATIONS
___________________________________
A.A.
A.G.
ABAKI
ABESC
:
:
:
:
Archives Africaines
Assemblée Générale
Alliance des Bakiga
Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
Suppression des Castes
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
Réconciliation Nationale
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
AFDLhis synthesis
: Alliance
Démocratiques
pour la
of des
the Forces
‘History
of Rwanda’ would
not
Libération
duwithout
Congo-Zaïre
have been
produced
a combined effort of the
AGOANational
: African
Growth
and Opportunity
ActNational
University
of Rwanda
(NUR), the
Unity
and
Reconciliation
Commission
(NURC)
as well as
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the
Ministry :ofAffaires
Education
(MINEDUC).
AIMO
Indigènes
et Main-d’oeuvre
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
Special thanks go to the National University of Rwanda
which was theRwandaise
cradle for the authors of this piece of work.
ALIR
:
Armée
Libération
dusupported
Rwanda to write a
These authors were de
requested
and
AM/AP of Rwanda
: Arrêtéthat
ministériel/
history
is devoid Arrêté
of any présidentiel
manipulation.
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
We are grateful to the National Unity and Reconciliation
AMUR
: 185&
Association
des Musulmans au Rwanda
&RPPLVVLRQ
ZKLFKZDVFKDUJHGZLWKÀQDQFLQJWKH
ANT
:
Assemblée
Nationale
de Transition this work
processes of writing, printing and disseminating
(Transitional
National WRRO
Assembly)
ZKLFK LV FRQVLGHUHG
DQ HVVHQWLDO
LQ WKH IXOÀOOPHQW
NURC’s
APADECmission.
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
Finally,
we
are
indebted todes
thePartis
Ministry
of Education which
APROBAMI : Association
Monarchistes
FRQFHLYHG IURP WKH RXWVHW WKH LPSRUWDQFH RI D VFLHQWLÀF
study of the Rwandais
history of Rwanda and its impact on the
APROCOMIN:
Association of
desthe
Commerçants
sustainable
development
country. In Indigènes
addition, the
APROSOMA
: Association
Promotion Sociale
de la of
above
ministry
outlined pour
the la
philosophical
framework
this study. Masse
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
The authors of this study therefore wish to wholeheartedly
express their Démocratie
deep and sincere gratitude to the above
ARDHO
:
Association
Rwandaise support.
pour la Défense
des
institutions for their determined
May these
LQVWLWXWLRQVÀQGVDWLVIDFWLRQLQWKLVZRUN
Droits de l’Homme
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
Deo BYANAFASHE and Paul RUTAYISIRE
Démocratique des Batwa
T
xxYLL
v
xxvii
GENERALAND
INTRODUCTION
ACRONYMS
ABBREVIATIONS
___________________________________
A.A.
A.G.
ABAKI
ABESC
:
:
:
:
Archives Africaines
Assemblée Générale
Alliance des Bakiga
Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
Suppression des Castes
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
Réconciliation Nationale
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
AFDL
: Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity Act
ince the perpetration of the genocide against the Tutsi
$,'6 in 1994,
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many sectors of the Rwandan population –
AIMO public: and
Affaires
Indigènes
Main-d’oeuvre
private
– have et
solicited
a written account
AJER
: Association
de la Jeunesse
Estudiantine
RI
WKHLU KLVWRU\
7KLV GHPDQG
DOVR PRWLYDWHG
E\ VFLHQWLÀF
necessity, is certainly
informed by the tragic experiences of
Rwandaise
recent
The Rwandese
want todu
know
their history so as
ALIR history.
: Armée
de Libération
Rwanda
to
provide
answers
to
numerous
unanswered
questions. Upon
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
realizing
the
manipulation
of
history
was
at
the
very center of
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
the propaganda which preceded and accompanied the genocide
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
in 1994, Rwandans want to be exposed to an objective and true
ANT
: Assemblée
Nationale
de Transition
version of history
that is based
on in-depth
research and that is
1
(Transitional
National
Assembly)
written in an unbiased
manner
.
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
An opinion which
is commonly
expressed
by Rwandans of all
APR
: Armée
Patriotique
Rwandaise
ages
is
that
the
history
taught
and
disseminated
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistesin schools
is distorted2. This
manipulated history emerged as a tool for
Rwandais
political gains during and after colonization and is accused of
APROCOMIN:
Association des Commerçants Indigènes
having attached undue importance to ethnic differences. It is
APROSOMA
: Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
also accused of creating tensions between Hutus and Tutsis by
Masse
falsely portraying
both the monarchy and the Tutsi as oppressers
ARD
Alliance
pour
le Renforcement
de la
of the Hutu :while
before
the
emergence of propaganda,
all
Démocratie
Rwandans regarded
one another as members of broader inclusive
institutions such
as clans. Rwandaise pour la Défense des
ARDHO
: Association
Droits de l’Homme
1
IRDP,
Enquête
dans le Budaha,
5 janvier
2005.
AREDETWA : Association
pour
le Relèvement
2
IRDP, Enquête Démocratique
à Butare, 5 janvierdes
2005.
Batwa
S
1
v
1
Additionally, ACRONYMS
the history taught
in schools was written with
AND ABBREVIATIONS
the aim of pleasing
the
leaders
in
power. It only reproduced
___________________________________
slogans of former leaders instead of seeking historical facts and
objective
truths.
For example,
under colonization it was said by
A.A.
: Archives
Africaines
the colonizers that the Tutsi were the only ones who could rule.
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
Conversely, during the First and Second Republics, the ancient
ABAKI.LQJGRPV
: Alliance
des Bakiga
+XWX
ZHUH JORULÀHG
\ VRPH VFKRODUV DQG WKH SRZHU
ABESC
:
Association
des
la was
in place at the expense of the Bahutu
NyiginyaEvoluant
Kingdom,pour
which
3
discredited . Suppression des Castes
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
History taught
and disseminated
in schools
was interested in
ADP
: Alliance
Démocratique
des Peuples
neither
the
peasant
masses
nor
their
daily
lives.
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la It was even
less concerned Réconciliation
with the relationships
existing between different
Nationale
social groups in the interior of the community and between
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
inhabitants of the same region . The discipline did not attempt to
AFDL
:
Alliance des Forces
Démocratiques
pour
la
illuminate the socio-cultural
and economic
factors which
shaped
du Congo-Zaïre
these people .ofLibération
regions
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity Act
This being said,
it is unlikely that all the problems regarding
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the
manipulation
of history
emanated
exlusively from history
AIMO
: Affaires
Indigènes
et Main-d’oeuvre
textbooks. Recent
researchde
has
that
divisive discourses
AJER
: Association
la shown
Jeunesse
Estudiantine
were also prevalent in day-to-day conversations, behaviors,
Rwandaise
attitudes, and even civic education. These attitudes were often
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
imparted and reinforced by teachers who propagated lessons on
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/
the ‘long exploitation
of the Hutu Arrêté
by the présidentiel
Tutsi Monarch’, the
AMR
: Association
des
Moniteurs
du Rwanda
strange character
of Tutsi and
the
Hutu Revolution
of 1959, etc.’
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
Many teachers
admit to having
publicly
asked their students
ANT
: Assemblée
Nationale
de Transition
about their ethnic
background
andAssembly)
having treated them
(Transitional
National
discriminately
based
on
such
grounds.
Not onlyChrétien
did teachers
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate
enforce ethnic segregation at schools, but they also employed
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
divisive language and stereotypes which imparted on their
APROBAMI
: Association des Partis Monarchistes
students strong ethnic consciences.
Rwandais
APROCOMIN:
Association
des manipulations
Commerçants of
Indigènes
Conscious of the
widespread
the history
APROSOMA
Association
la Promotion
SocialeUnity
de la has
discipline in :Rwanda,
the pour
government
of National
for some time prohibited
the teaching of history in the primary
Masse
school
curriculums
throughout
At the secondary
level,
ARD
: Alliance pour le Rwanda.
Renforcement
de la
however, teachers
may
choose
to
teach
history,
though
they
Démocratie
often face pressure from outside organizations to include history
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
in their curriculums4.
Droits de l’Homme
3
IRDP,
Enquête
à
Butare,
5 janvier 2005.
AREDETWA : Association
pour le Relèvement
4
On this topic, see the recommendations of the International Colloquium organized
Démocratique des Batwa
2
2
v
:HVKRXOGKRSHWKDWDQRIÀFLDODQGREMHFWLYHWHDFKLQJRIKLVWRU\
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
be introduced___________________________________
throughout our schools. The status quo is one in
ZKLFK 5ZDQGDQ \RXWK DUH VXEMHFW WR XQYHULÀHG DQG SROLWLFDOO\
manipulated
of history. Our youth have a right to
A.A.
:renditions
Archives Africaines
know their origins, the creation of the state of Rwanda, and the
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
causes of ethnic tensions that recently plagued our country.
ABAKI
:we
Alliance
Bakiga that our future generations
Alternatively,
risk thedes
possibility
ABESC
Association
des Bahutu Evoluant
pour
la
hold
a partial: and
clouded understanding
of the past,
informed
Suppression
Castes
by emotional partialities
and des
learned
on the streets.
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
We
to haveDémocratique
a national history
is not stained
ADPhope instead
: Alliance
deswhich
Peuples
with
any
partiality;
we
hope
for
a
history
that
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la corrects the
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Réconciliation
Nationale
and enjoy in the tradition of Rwanda’s past civilization, and
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that does not hide facts or take sides. The team of historians to
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whom the task Alliance
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from generation to generation. The discipline of history is largely
Rwandaise
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ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
having sowed the seeds of hatred up to the catastrophic genocide
AM/AP against
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committed
theministériel/
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April and
July 1994. Being
AMR of the past
: Association
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Rwanda
aware
manipulation
Rwanda’sdu
history
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AMUR
: Association
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lead
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Historians can take up this challenge by establishing the
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
necessary critical distance with the past, distorted interpretations
APR
: Armée
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of
our history.
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resort toRwandaise
recent research tools and
APROBAMI : Association
des Partis
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methodologies
to effect the desired
change
of transitioning from
Rwandais
an ideology-based history to a history that awakens a critical
mind.
History can
only be a des
useful
science whenIndigènes
that which it
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There are those who are doubtful of Rwandans’ capacity to write
ARD RZQ KLVWRU\
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des
participants spent a long time on the necessity
of introducing
of Rwanda’s
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de schools
l’Homme
history in primary and
secondary
as soon as possible.
5
African
Rights,
The
heart
of
education
;
assessing
human rights in Rwanda’s schools,
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
University of Michigan, June 2001, p. 27
Démocratique des Batwa
3
v
3
fear the perpetuation
of distortions,
though the new fear is that
ACRONYMS
AND ABBREVIATIONS
history will be___________________________________
biased towards a ‘Tutsi perspective’6. Of course,
it is impossible to be perfectly objective, and as such we must
be aware of the
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dangers of distortion. We must do our
A.A.
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best to foster objectivity by adopting a critical approach to history
A.G.
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and by adopting appropriate research methodologies. We also
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must be humble
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recognize that any initiative in the
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reviewed and updated
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available.
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This
appraisal
seeks topour
respond
to questions
in seven
ADR
: Alliance
la Démocratie
et raised
la
papers and critical
analyses, presented
Réconciliation
Nationaleas follows: the sources
of history, pre-historic Rwanda, pre-colonial Rwanda, colonial
AEC
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Rwanda, Rwanda under the First and Second Republics, the
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and secondary
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: Association
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ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
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: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
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AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
(Transitional National Assembly)
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
Rwandais
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
6
Masse
This was the objective
of a study conducted by Penal Reform International (PRI),
an
NGO
specializing
in
the
monitoring
of Renforcement
Gacaca courts (a form
ARD
: Alliance
pour le
deoflapopular courts
founded on the traditional
model
of
local
administration
of
contentious
issues between
Démocratie
neighbors). The study focused on history lessons and talks on history pronounced
ARDHO
: Association
Rwandaise
la Défense
in the solidarity camps
of freed prisoners.
The tool ofpour
reference
was made ofdes
notes
de l’Homme
written by prisonersDroits
and interviews
conducted with them. The views of those who
taught these lessons
are not reported pour
(PRI, Du
à la colline, la réintegration des
AREDETWA
: Association
lecamp
Relèvement
libérés, Rapport, VI, Kigali, mai 2004).
Démocratique des Batwa
4
4
v
I ABBREVIATIONS
ACRONYMS AND
___________________________________
SOURCES OF RWANDA’S HISTORY
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: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
Réconciliation Nationale
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
AFDL
: Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
sources
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century (in the hinterland of the sub-region). Up to the 1960s,
Rwandaise
WKLVSUREOHPPDGHLWGLIÀFXOWIRU5ZDQGD·VKLVWRULRJUDSK\WREH
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: Armée de
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Rwanda
recognized. Generally,
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argued du
that
before the twentieth
AM/AP
:
Arrêté
ministériel/
Arrêté
présidentiel
century, Rwanda was a society without a history given the
AMR
: Association
Moniteurs
du Rwanda
absence of written
texts. des
However,
sources
of information
cannot
be
limited
to
written
sources,
as
history
a discipline
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au as
Rwanda
is conceived as
simply “a science
of man
within society.”7
ANT
: Assemblée
Nationale
de living
Transition
(Transitional National Assembly)
It was in the spirit of suggesting solutions to this problem of
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
historical sources that, in 1916, the London International African
APR
: Armée
Patriotique
RwandaiseAfrican Seminar”
Institute
organized
“the
Fourth International
APROBAMI
: Association
des PartisinMonarchistes
on
African pre-colonial
ethno-history
general and the history
Rwandais
of pre-colonial Africa in particular. Pre-colonial African history
APROCOMIN:
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des
Indigènes
was
acknowledged
at that time
forCommerçants
relying on sources
other than
written
histories.The
seminar
concluded
by showing
APROSOMA
: Association
pour
la Promotion
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de lanonwritten sourcesMasse
of history needed to be accorded the importance
they
ARDdeserve. : Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
Démocratie
In cultures without a written tradition such as those of subARDHO
:
Association
Rwandaise
la Défense
Saharan pre-colonial Africa,
sources pour
are restricted
todes
oral
Droits dedata,
l’Homme
traditions, archeological
and material evidence from ancient
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
7
Nouschi., Initiations aux sciences historiques, Paris, Nathan, 1993, p. 19.
Démocratique des Batwa
R
5
v
5
times. Since ACRONYMS
the end of theAND
nineteenth
century, Rwanda has
ABBREVIATIONS
enjoyed a diversity
of
historic
sources.
Given
the revolutionary
___________________________________
nature of writing and the audiovisual cultures, four types
of
sources can
be discerned,
namely: material sources, oral
A.A.
: Archives
Africaines
sources, written sources, and audiovisual sources.
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
ABAKIfour types
: Alliance
des constitute
Bakiga “the sources of Rwanda’s
These
of sources
ABESC Processing
: Association
Bahutu
Evoluant
pour
la
history”.
themdes
requires
both
creating
a critical
Suppression
des Castes
inventory because
of their invaluable
importance to historians
ACR examining
: Association
du Rwanda
and
how they des
haveCultivateurs
been formerly
analyzed by
exploring
Rwanda’s
historiography.
This
ADP
: Alliance
Démocratique
desinventory
Peuples deals with
material
records
of
oral
and
written
sources
as
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie well
et laas audiovisual
sources. We aim
to address theNationale
major challenges confronted by
Réconciliation
Rwandan historiographers in the use of these sources. We hope
AEC
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to write a history in the context of post-genocide dynamics –
AFDL
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reconstruction,
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du Congo-Zaïre
national historyLibération
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Although
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carry
equal weight,
the sources of
AJER
: Association
la Jeunesse
Estudiantine
Rwanda’s history are abundant and varied. Each contains
Rwandaise
sub-categories, tones, and characteristics which can make the
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
compiliation of a critical inventory rather complex.
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
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: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
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was introduced
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ANTculture of: writing
Assemblée
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deRwanda
Transition
quarter of the nineteenth
century.
Consequently,
prior history can
(Transitional
National
Assembly)
only
be
discerned
through
oral
tradition,
archeological
vestiges,
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
sites and historical monuments, and traditional industries and
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
technologies.
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
Rwandais
D $UFKHRORJLFDOYHVWLJHV
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Archeological
are material
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performed by Rwandans,
namely objects and other material
Masse
evidence
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on modes de
oflaliving and
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement
thinking, methods
of
social,
political
and
economic
organization,
Démocratie
methods of knowledge acquisition, production, consumption,
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
and exchange.
Droits de l’Homme
AREDETWA
: Association
Relèvement
It
is important
to know howpour
to le
extract
meaning from these
Démocratique des Batwa
6
6
v
objects andACRONYMS
material vestiges
so as to extrapolate the
AND ABBREVIATIONS
information ___________________________________
they contain. For example, different types of
traditional hoes provide clues not only about the methods of
how
manufactured,
but also about the nature of soils
A.A. they were: Archives
Africaines
for which they were manufactured. This same analytic process
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
can be applied to utensils of herdsmen and bee-keepers, objects
ABAKI
: Alliance des Bakiga
XVHGLQWUDQVSRUWWRROVXVHGLQÀVKLQJDQGKXQWLQJDQGREMHFWV
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: Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
used
in dressing.
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ACR objects :provide
Association
desto
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duand
Rwanda
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testimony
modes of living
settlement
of
people -- :their
socialDémocratique
and economicdes
organization,
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Peuples cultural
practice,
and
beliefs.
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expansion
of
Rwanda’s
historiography
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
has much potential;
there is much
matieral yet to be tapped from
Réconciliation
Nationale
archeological sites. The Institute of Rwanda’s National Museums
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
and the National University of Rwanda should focus their efforts
AFDL
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are
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respositories
Rwanda’s depre-colonial
and material
AJER
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Association
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heritage. However, most of the archeological sites in Rwanda
Rwandaise
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: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
need for a systematic and exhaustive census to identify and save
AM/AP historical
: Arrêté
Arrêté
présidentiel
famous
sitesministériel/
from falling into
oblivion,
including royal
AMR
: Association
desescarpments,
Moniteurs duand
Rwanda
palaces,
salt pits,
ruins, caves,
sculptures.
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
To
the Institute
of the
Museums of
ANTthis effect,
: Assemblée
Nationale
deNational
Transition
Rwanda has recently
opened branches
in four rural provinces
(Transitional
National Assembly)
of
Rwanda.
It
is
through
these
branches
that theChrétien
institute has
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate
mobilized its efforts in identifying, rehabilitating and conserving
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
important cultural heritage to supplement interpretations of oral
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
tradition and to provide for cultural tourism and for posterity.
Rwandais
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Association des Commerçants Indigènes
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The methods used
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ARD
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le these
Renforcement
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of the two lastDémocratie
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husbandry and metallic
Démocratique des Batwa
7
v
7
and ceramic ACRONYMS
tools and objects
the seventh century BC.
AND in
ABBREVIATIONS
Material sources
have
the
advantage
of portraying a direct
___________________________________
image of Rwandan society in its long cultural trajectory
beginning
before
colonialism.
During colonialism, society
A.A.
: Archives
Africaines
was rendered stagnant and its technological know how were
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
marginalized.
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: Alliance des Bakiga
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: Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
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Rwanda
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degree of accuracy
from generation
to generation. Oral traditions
Réconciliation
Nationale
vary from region to region and from narrator to narrator. In most
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
cases, the variations mostly concern form rather than content.
AFDL
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Alliance
des Forces
pour
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Researchers have
developed
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of classifying oral
sources
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APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
dynastic esoteric code (ubwiru), dynastic poetry (ibisigo), war
APROBAMI
: Association des Partis Monarchistes
poetry (ibyivugo) and pastoral poetry (amazina y’inka). Many
Rwandais
of these narratives
have been collected by A. Kagame, A. Pagès,
APROCOMIN:
Association
des Commerçants
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J.N. Nkulikiyimfura, A. Coupez,
and Th. Kamanzi,
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Historic narratives constitute an important source of
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v
people or national
heroes. AND
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royal historic narratives
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(ibitekerezo by’abami)
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consist
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Historic narratives
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by every head
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who listened
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within a short
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and then rearranged
according to
the wishes
of the king.
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ADP
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criterion
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propaganda”
.
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recited by theNationale
best narrators and the exact
wording was carefully preserved.
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Lastly, family Alliance
historic des
narratives
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Libération
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de la
Rwandaise
¾'\QDVWLFJHQHDORJ\ ubucurabwenge
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
AM/AP
Arrêté
ministériel/
Arrêté
Developed
in: the
sixteenth
century
by J.présidentiel
Vansina, dynastic
AMR
: Association
Rwanda
genealogy
originated
from des
the Moniteurs
monarch indu
power
who would
AMUR
: Association
Musulmans
au Rwanda
cite
all his ascendants
by des
their
ruling names,
coupled with
the
of a complete
genealogy
queen-mothers up
ANT recitation: Assemblée
Nationale
de of
Transition
to Gihanga and
Ibimanuka National
(i.e . “those
who descended and
(Transitional
Assembly)
fell
from
heaven”)
as
well
as
the
ancestors
of theChrétien
founders of
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate
some clans. This geneology was recited by approved specialists
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
who had sworn an oath; they were called abacurabwenge (i.e.
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
custodians of intelligence).
Rwandais
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
'\QDVWLFJHQHDORJ\GLGQRWRQO\FRQVLVWRIDQRIÀFLDOGRFXPHQW
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
LWZDVDOVRWKHOHJDOMXVWLÀFDWLRQRIWKHG\QDVW\LQSRZHU,W
provided legal proof
Masseof the right of succession to the throne and
DOVRSURYLGHGWKHSURRIRIOLQHDJHIURPWKHÀUVW5ZDQGHVHNLQJ
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
“King Gihanga”.Démocratie
As an instrument of legitimacy, the dynastic
genealogy
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
8
Droits
de l’Homme
Vansina, J. L’évolution
du royaume
Rwanda des origines à 1900, Bruxelles,
ARSOM,
1962,
P.23
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
9
Ibid
Démocratique des Batwa
9
v
9
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ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
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___________________________________
successive monarchs was of the utmost importance.
A.A.
: Archives Africaines
,Q VSLWH RI WKH ULVN RI IDOVLÀFDWLRQ G\QDVWLF JHQHDORJ\ KDV
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
remained an important source of information in establishing the
ABAKI
Alliance des
Bakiga
chronology
of:Rwanda’s
history.
ABESC
: Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
Suppression
des Castes
It should be noted
that A. Kagame
published an entire set of
ACRgenealogy: Association
desnot
Cultivateurs
Rwanda
this
even if he did
include a du
critical
analysis.
It
was later that
J. Vansina
and thereafter
Nkulikiyimfura,
ADP
: Alliance
Démocratique
desJ.N.
Peuples
beginning
in
1960,
developed
a
critical
approach
to complement
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
the research onRéconciliation
Rwanda’s dynastic
genealogy.
Nationale
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
¾'\QDVWLFHVRWHULFFRGH ubwiru
AFDL
: Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
Libération
du most
Congo-Zaïre
The royal dynastic
code, the
ancient genre of Rwanda’s
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity Act
RUDOOLWHUDWXUHLVDQRIÀFLDOGRFXPHQWZKLFKZDVSUHVHUYHGLQ
the form of a$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
poem by specialists called “abiru” (preservers of
$,'6
the
esoteric
code).
These
trustees were
special advisers to the
AIMO
: Affaires
Indigènes
et Main-d’oeuvre
king regarding
the rules de
andlaregulations
of power retention
AJER
: Association
Jeunesse Estudiantine
and the behavior of the king. These trustees kept conserved
Rwandaise
DQG QDUUDWHG LQYDOXDEOH FRQÀGHQWLDO LQIRUPDWLRQ ZKLFK ZDV
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
transferred from father to son within their families.
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
AMR
: Association
des Moniteurs
du Rwanda
We know from
different authors
that the esoteric
code was a
separate
integral
text
of
its
own,
composed
of
18
pieces
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwandacalled
“inzira z’ubwiru,”
or tracks,
and another
text consisting of
ANT
: Assemblée
Nationale
de Transition
the history and
commentary
of
this
code.
Together,
they were
(Transitional National Assembly)
called “intekerezo z’ubwiru”.
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
10
APR
: Armée
Patriotique
Rwandaise
According to A.
Kagame
, the esoteric
code was subdivided into
four
parts: : Association des Partis Monarchistes
APROBAMI
Irage ry’Umwami
- the personal will of every king;
Rwandais
UmurageAssociation
w’Ingoma - the
of successionIndigènes
to the throne;
APROCOMIN:
deswill
Commerçants
APROSOMA
: Association
pour FRQVWLWXWLQJ
la Promotion WKH
Sociale
de la WH[W
Inziraz’ubwiru
SRHPV
RIÀFLDO
memorized
by
heart
by
the
Abiru
who
would
show
Masse
would pour
proceed
to ensure that
ARD how one
: Alliance
le Renforcement
de the
la country
enjoyed happiness;
Démocratie
Intekerezo z’ubwiru - a history of commentaries of the
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
three titles cited above.
Droits de l’Homme
7KHÀUVWWZRSDUWVRIWKHFRGH
Irage ry’umwami and Umurage
AREDETWA
:
Association
pour
le Relèvement
10
1947
Démocratique des Batwa
10
10
v
w’ingoma) willACRONYMS
perhaps never
be known
because they were not
AND
ABBREVIATIONS
recorded in the
poems
(Inzira).
In
addition,
only trustees of these
___________________________________
testaments, such as A. Kagame, knew them and he died without
publishing
any
of them. Africaines
A.A.
: Archives
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
Several commentators including R. Hermans, J. Vansina, M.
ABAKI
: Alliance
des
Bakiga
D’Hertefelt
and
A. Coupez
contend
that the esoteric code (Ubwiru)
ABESC
:
Association
des
Bahutu
Evoluant
pourdid
la not
lacks objectivity because it often distorted
facts which
Suppression
Castes
agree with the expected
rulesdes
of the
trustees of the “Abiru” code.
ACR trustees
: Association
des Cultivateurs
du Rwanda
These
were often accused,
as interpreters
of history,
of
having distorted
history
by projecting
situation of the
ADP
: Alliance
Démocratique
desthe
Peuples
moment
as
having
occurred
in
the
past
by
using
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et laold-fashioned
language or by Réconciliation
interpreting history
according to the ideologies of
Nationale
the royal powers of that time.
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
AFDL
:
Alliance
Forces
Démocratiques
pour la
¾'\QDVWLF
SRHWU\des
Ibisigo
ZDU
SRHWU\ Ibyivugo
DQG
Libération
du Congo-Zaïre
SDVWRUDOSRHWU\
Amazina
y’inka
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity Act
Dynastic poetry
(Ibisigo LVDQRIÀFLDOVRXUFHZKLFKUHODWHVWR
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
historic
kings
of
Rwanda,
beginning
with Ruganzu II Ndori. It
AIMO
: Affaires
Indigènes
et Main-d’oeuvre
traces the events
that marked
successive
reigns from
AJER
: Association
de ladifferent
Jeunesse
Estudiantine
the literary point of view. The dynastic poem adheres to a very
Rwandaise
rigorous standard. It is especially challenging to understand
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
and interpret because it makes reference to events which have
AM/AP
Arrêté
ministériel/
Arrêté
présidentiel
already fallen :into
oblivion.
In addition,
the narrator
of this poem
AMR
Association
duToRwanda
(Umusizi) is a :true
specialist des
and Moniteurs
professional.
this effect, this
AMUR
: Association
des Musulmans
Rwanda
professional has
at his disposal
a tool (poem) au
that
enables him
to glorify the royal
(Nyiginya
lineage) by
that every king
ANT
: Assemblée
Nationale
deshowing
Transition
had continued (Transitional
the work of hisNational
ancestors.
The Umusizi’s role was
Assembly)
to
praise
the
king.
As
such,
we
of
course
are skeptical
of the
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate
Chrétien
objective capabilities of the narrator.
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
APROBAMI
: Association des Partis Monarchistes
War poetry (Ibyivugo) enjoys a pronounced eulogistic nature,
Rwandais
especially because
it is addressed to the very person who composes
APROCOMIN:
Association
desbravery
Commerçants
Indigènes
the poem chant and praises his
during war.
The historic
APROSOMA
: Association
pourislarestricted
Promotion
de la
value of a war
poem (icyivugo)
to Sociale
indicating
some
details of military
organization and of the Rwandan image of the
Masse
ideal
warrior
and
of
the patriotism
Rwandans used
ARD
: Alliance
pour le Renforcement
de to
la cherish.
Démocratie
Pastoral poetry (Amazina y’inka), like war poetry, is of a lyric
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
genre and consequently is work of imagination inspired by the
Droits
de l’Homme
history of the cow
where
cows used to face each other, in the
AREDETWA
:
Association
pour
le Relèvement
same manner as social armies.
Pastoral
poems praise the value
Démocratique des Batwa
11
v
11
of war and the
beauty of aAND
special
original type of Rwandan
ACRONYMS
ABBREVIATIONS
endemic cow (Inyambo).
It
should
be
noted
that herds and their
___________________________________
herdsmen used to come regularly to parade past the royal court,
and
from different
residences of the king also paraded
A.A.other cows
: Archives
Africaines
from time to time. Hence, the attention of the public was turned
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
towards successive events which took place in various parts of
ABAKI
: Alliance
desherds
Bakiga
the
country where
different
were kept.
ABESC
: Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
Suppression
des
Castes
The shortcomings
involved in
the
adequate processing of oral
ACR
Association
des aCultivateurs
duhistoriography
Rwanda
tradition,
in all: its
forms, remains
challenge in the
of
pre-colonial: Alliance
Rwanda. Démocratique
On the whole, des
the three
poetic genres
ADP
Peuples
which
have
been
discussed
present
biased
historic
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la perspectives.
Nonetheless, their
value should
be appreciated and reconciled
Réconciliation
Nationale
against other regional poetry.
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
AFDL
:
Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
D 3RSXODURUDOWUDGLWLRQV
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity Act
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RUDOWUDGLWLRQ
LW HQFRPSDVVHV WZR PDMRU VXEW\SHV À[HG
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
popular
oral-tradition
free popular
oral-tradition. These are
AIMO
: Affairesand
Indigènes
et Main-d’oeuvre
narratives
which
give a lot of
toEstudiantine
the spectacular.
AJER
: Association
deimportance
la Jeunesse
Rwandaise
¾)L[HGSRSXODURUDOWUDGLWLRQ
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
AM/APpopular: Arrêté
ministériel/
Arrêté
Fixed
oral tradition
consists
of présidentiel
family genealogies,
AMR
: Association
des Moniteurs
duImigani
Rwanda
popular
songs,
popular poetry,
and lessons:
miremire
AMUR
: Association
des Musulmans
au(riddles)
Rwandavows,
(folktales)
,PLJDQL
PLJXÀ (proverbs),
Ibisakuzo
oaths,
to express
anger.
ANT and discourses
: Assemblée
Nationale
de Transition
(Transitional National Assembly)
¾)UHHSRSXODURUDOWUDGLWLRQ
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
Free popular oral tradition is a popular form of historical
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
narrative which includes the following types and sub-types:
Rwandais
(Ibitekerezo) ecological
narrative (Imigani ivuga ku muco, ku
APROCOMIN:
Association
des Commerçants
Indigènes
muryango kur kamere y’isi, kamere
y’abantu, uko
batareshya,
APROSOMA :yabo),
Association
la Promotion
Sociale
la
n’amaherezo
mysticpour
narratives
(Imigani),
and de
esthetic
narratives. They
are intended to please and amuse the audience.
Masse
War
songs
(Indirimbo
z’ingabo,
musicaldepieces
played
ARD
: Alliance
pour lez’ibitero),
Renforcement
la
on a traditionalDémocratie
violin (Inanga), and artistic compositions, which
sometimes conveyed historical information, could fall under the
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
category of oral tradition or popular oral tradition.
Droits de l’Homme
AREDETWA
: Association
pour le cannot
Relèvement
The
importance
of oral sources
be overlooked. In
Démocratique des Batwa
12
12
v
situations where
material and
written
sources are unable to give
ACRONYMS
AND
ABBREVIATIONS
necessary information,
oral
sources
can
be analyzed to extract
___________________________________
reliable historic data. However, this analysis must be prudent
as
orally transmitted
narratives
were often changed from the
A.A.
: Archives
Africaines
LQLWLDO WHVWLPRQ\ SURWRWHVWLPRQ\ WR WKH ÀQDO WUDGLWLRQ JLYHQ
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
the multiple aural witnesses along the chain of transmission.
ABAKI
: Alliance
Bakigato the narratives are likely
Accidental
additions
or des
omissions
ABESC
: Association
des Bahutu
Evoluant
pour la
quite
common,
resulting in different
narrative
implications.
Suppression des Castes
ACR
:sometimes
Association
Cultivateurs
du Rwanda
Additionally,
thedes
nature
of relationships
between
people
astrology. For instance,
many personal
ADP were attributed
: AlliancetoDémocratique
des Peuples
or
relationship
characteristics
were
attributed
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la to the King
Ruganzu NdoriRéconciliation
even while these
people lived much later than
Nationale
Ruganzu. A critical look at the broad categories of the oral
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
WUDGLWLRQ UHYHDOV VHYHUDO LQVWDQFHV RI VLPSOLÀFDWLRQ FRQIXVLRQ
AFDL
:
des Forces
Démocratiques
pour la of
and hyberbole,Alliance
which poses
a challenge
in the reconstitution
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
Rwanda’s history
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: African Growth and Opportunity Act
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AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
Written
documents
occupydean
importantEstudiantine
place in Rwanda’s
AJER
: Association
la Jeunesse
historical memory. Written sources enjoy a relatively secure
Rwandaise
status in Rwandan historiography for their preservation of the
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
exactitudes of their authors.
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
AMR
: Association
Moniteurs du
In
Rwanda, written
historicaldes
documentation
onlyRwanda
began with the
AMUR occupation
: Association
des
Musulmans
au Rwanda
colonial
in the last
quarter
of the nineteenth
century.
Documentation
emanated from
explorers,
missionaries, colonial
ANT
: Assemblée
Nationale
de Transition
RIÀFHUVFLYLOVHUYDQWVDQGDVEXVLQHVVPHQ6LQFHWKHQZULWWHQ
(Transitional National Assembly)
inventory
has
only
increaseddu
and
canDémocrate
be divided into
one of two
APADEC
: Association
Parti
Chrétien
categories: edited sources and archive sources.
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
APROBAMI
: Association des Partis Monarchistes
D (GLWHGVRXUFHV
Rwandais
APROCOMIN:
deswritten
Commerçants
Indigènes
Edited
sources Association
are published
documents
which are
APROSOMA
: Association
pour public.
la Promotion
la be
therefore
available
to a wider
These Sociale
sourcesdecan
categorized intoMasse
two different generations: the pioneer generation
and
the
recent
generation
which de
generally
date
ARD
: Alliance
pourpublications,
le Renforcement
la
from 1940.
Démocratie
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
The pioneer generation consists of written accounts that were
Droits in
de Rwanda.
l’HommeThese include narratives of
originally published
AREDETWA
: Association
pourÀUVW
le Relèvement
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SXEOLFDWLRQV
RI WKH
FRORQLDO RIÀFHUV DQG FLYLO
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ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
missionaries. ___________________________________
However, the publications from this generation are
not exhaustive, and at times they are not of the utmost relevance
to
understanding
the history
of Rwanda and they raise the
A.A.
: Archives
Africaines
problem of information quality and the relevance of this to the
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
historical contribution. The texts of the nineteenth century of
ABAKI are extremely
: Alliancetendentious
des Bakigasince they contain unproved
Rwanda
ABESC
: Association
des Bahutu
pour
la
assertions,
fables
and narratives
that are Evoluant
reproduced
on similar
Suppression des Castes
topics.
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
The
belonging
to the des
recent
generation are
ADP publications
: Alliance
Démocratique
Peuples
composed
of
written
documents
that
date
from
1940-1945.
These
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
documents wereRéconciliation
written by the colonial
administration, churches,
Nationale
educated individuals, and the postcolonial administration.
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
These publications are subject to inconsistencies, and should
AFDL
:
Alliance
dessources
Forcesfor
Démocratiques
pour la
be compared against
other
critical analysis.
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
AGOA sources
: African
Growth
and Opportunity
Written
do not
necessarily
convey true Act
information.
Further,
sources are not easily or locally accessed for
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consultation
given
thatIndigènes
in Rwanda,
the National Library only
AIMO
: Affaires
et Main-d’oeuvre
exists
Among written
documents,
ethnographic and
AJER nominally.
: Association
de la Jeunesse
Estudiantine
linguistic sources deserve to be given special mention for their
Rwandaise
historical contribution.
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
AM/AP
: sources
Arrêté ministériel/
Arrêté présidentiel
Ethnographic
can be considered
as written accounts
AMR
Moniteurs
Rwanda
of
Rwandan: Association
traditional des
activities.
Theyduare
sources of
AMUR
: Association
des Musulmans
au Rwanda
explanation
of
material sources
whose historical
importance
is
revealed immediately
their de
conservation.
ANT
: Assemblée upon
Nationale
Transition Linguistic
sources constitute
a preciousNational
tool for understanding
(Transitional
Assembly) history as
Kinyarwanda
is
a
social
phenomenon
that
envelopes
Rwandan
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate
Chrétien
culture.
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
As we know, language is a tool of communication between
members of a Rwandais
given society and deals with several aspects of
APROCOMIN:
Association
Commerçants
society. Lexicology
enables des
us to
reconstitute Indigènes
the history of
APROSOMA
: Association
pourand
la Promotion
Sociale
de laIt is
the
tools, cultures,
migrations,
institutions
of people.
built on the analysis
Masseof words and their meaning and evolution.
Lexicology
also
makes it
possible
to determinedethe
ARD
: Alliance
pour
le Renforcement
la closeness
of relationships
between
languages,
and
consequently
the
Démocratie
relationships between peoples.
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
Droits de l’Homme
$ORQJVLGHOH[LFRORJ\OLQJXLVWLFVRXUFHVEHQHÀWIURPWKHV\VWHP
AREDETWA
: Association
le Relèvement
of
onomastics.
Onomasticspour
deals
with the study of names
Démocratique des Batwa
14
14
v
of places (toponymy);
zoonymy
the study of the names of
ACRONYMS
AND is
ABBREVIATIONS
animals, hydronimy
is
the
study
of
the
names of lakes and rivers
___________________________________
and anthroponymy is the study of the names of persons. These
names
historical Africaines
messages and are key clues provided
A.A. convey: Archives
by languages to detect contacts between peoples, historical
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
FRQYHUJHQFHV DQG LQÁXHQFHV 6WXG\LQJ WKH RQRPDVWLFV RI
ABAKI society
: Alliance
Bakiga the Rwandese themselves
Rwandan
is akindes
to studying
ABESC
: Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
and
their history.
Suppression des Castes
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
7KHÀHOGRIRQRPDVWLFVKDVQRW\HWEHHQWKRURXJKO\H[SORUHGLQ
Rwanda
even :though
theDémocratique
country is extremely
rich in toponymy.
ADP
Alliance
des Peuples
An
organized
inventory
of
the
names
and
places
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la of Rwanda
would facilitateRéconciliation
the examinationNationale
of its spatial organization.
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
In short, language is like a bank where each generation has
AFDL
: Alliance
des Forces
Démocratiques
pour
la of
deposited,
century
after century,
all mental
and material
tools
Libération
Congo-Zaïre
imagination, memory,
anddu
resources
that have been conceived
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity Act
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Contrary to the edited sources which are found in libraries,
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ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
published and remain in archives.
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: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
AMRarchive documents
: Association
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The
on des
the Moniteurs
history of Rwanda
range from
AMUR
Association
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the
the oldest: ones,
dating from
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ANT ones, including
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the
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APADEC
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archives in the
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Association
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in the former colonial metropolitan
powers.
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archives
Suppression
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Castes
from German rule
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Brussels, Potsdam and Dar
ACR
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des Cultivateurs
es
Salaam. Archives
of the Belgian
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areRwanda
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the
in Brussels
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in Namur.
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the
archives
of
Catholic
Missions,
while
Protestant
missions’
ADR
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archives are located
in Belgium,
Sweden, England and the
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United States. Lastly, the archives of the League of Nations and
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the United Nations on Rwanda are located in Geneva and New
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have their
AMUR
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rules
and regulations
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all the most
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APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
interest to our national history are neither preserved in nor valued
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
by these archival depots. These include theses, dissertations, and
Rwandais
other works that
mark the end of university studies in Rwanda
APROCOMIN:
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APROSOMA
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Démocratique des Batwa
16
16
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embodies a relationship
between
and history, “provides
ACRONYMS
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ABBREVIATIONS
space for identity
construction,”
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even
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___________________________________
propaganda”.
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des Bakiga
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(Louvain),
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Association
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(Brussels), and the Musée Royale d’Afrique
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(Tervuren).
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time.
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ALIR
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shape ideologies which have everlasting, pragmatic and useful
AM/AP
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intentions”.
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ANT
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A look at Rwanda’s
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Assembly)
today
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historiographical
knowledge
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colonial, and post colonial periods. These periods are covered
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
by a historiography that is deeply controversial and that
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encompasses many
unanswered questions. The division of three
APROCOMIN:
Association
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periods on the basis of the colonial
factor is in itself
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phenomenon
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ARDHO
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oral history. Oral histories consist of the works of traditional
de l’Homme
witnesses andDroits
specialists
who narrated ancient narratives
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
11
p. 9-10.
Démocratique des Batwa
17
v
17
(Abatekereza),ACRONYMS
custodians of AND
the esoteric
code (Abiru), genealogists
ABBREVIATIONS
(abacurabwenge),
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ABAKI overlooked.
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largely
ABESC
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Suppression
desprotest
Castes the fact that these
Many contemporary
authors
ACR
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du Rwanda
narratives
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manipulated
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strictly
them. Among
others responsible,
ADP conserve
: Alliance
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the
great
ritual
Chief
Kayijuka,
Rwanyange,
Karera
ADR
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la
and, Sekarama.
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of these narratives by their
Réconciliation
Nationale
trustees was done for purposes of interpolation, suppression, or
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reimagination.
AFDL
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Congo-Zaïre
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Rwandan identity during that period -- an identity that was
Rwandaise
thoroughly manipulated by the whims of the colonizers.
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
AM/AP
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&RORQLDOSHULRG
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
AMUR historiography
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Colonial
marked
the advent ofau
a written
history
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of theNationale
memorizedde
oral-tradition.
ANT the transcription
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Transition Missionary
priests including
Loupias (1907),
A. Pages
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National
Assembly)
(1943),
L.
Delmas
(1950),
and
L.
Canon
Lacger
(1930)
listened to
APADEC
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traditional informers and considered these traditions as if they
APR
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were written sources.
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
Rwandais
The missionaries
introduced their colonial perception of the
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conquered Rwandan people.des
All Commerçants
was changed in
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APROSOMA : Association
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la
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myth, which
waslainterpreted
justifyde
colonial
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rule and Christianity. The works of the colonial
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missionaries
and
administrators
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ARD
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oral traditions;Démocratie
indeed, traditional oral narrators are not even
mentioned in their accounts as sources of information.
ARDHO
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Droits dehistory
l’Homme
Concerning Rwandan
between 1910 and 1936, the
AREDETWA
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Association
pour
most important point to note le
is Relèvement
that Rwanda’s traditions
Démocratique des Batwa
18
18
v
were sanctioned
in writing AND
and this
work was pursued by an
ACRONYMS
ABBREVIATIONS
unauthorized ___________________________________
specialist – A. Kagame (1912 – 1981)12. While
recognizing that A. Kagame is “an uncontested authority” and
a
role model : in
Rwanda’s
history13. There exists still fervent
A.A.
Archives
Africaines
criticism leveled against him by J.Vansina toward the end of the
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
colonial period. A. Kagame, and his precursors, i.e. the White
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14
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being very closeSuppression
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circles .
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: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
3RVWFRORQLDOSHULRG
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: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
Just before Rwanda’s
rise to independence,
there was strong
Réconciliation
Nationale
pushback against colonial achievements, including Rwanda’s
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
colonial historiography. This criticism targeted both the faulty
AFDL
:
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historical methods
used,
and
also was
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AIMO
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ideological
manipulations of
AJER
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the royal court.
Rwandaise
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by people who learned them systematically from their fathers
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
and neighbors. The events they recall were censored even before
(Transitional National Assembly)
their transmission. This censorship rendered them chronicles
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
that were adapted to the needs of the monarchical institution
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
or the ruling dynasty. Conversely, popular historical narratives
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
were beyond censorship and beyond the propagandist nature
Rwandais
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APROSOMA
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15
their
tendency: Association
toward grandeur
hyperbole.Sociale
Masse
ARD
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lefree
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Dynastic
genealogy
was also
not
from manipulation.
Démocratie
12
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ARDHO
:
Association
Rwandaise pour la Défense des
Société, 1997 pp. 13.
13
Droits
l’Homme
Vansina, J., 1962,
op. cit.,de
p. 12
14
Rutayisire,
P.,
1997,
art
cit.
pp.
15
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
15
Vansina, J.,1962, op cit p. 23.
Démocratique des Batwa
19
v
19
JHQHRORJLHV ZHUH
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ACRONYMS
AND ABBREVIATIONS
framework for___________________________________
the dynasties in power. As such, it was subject
to adjustments whenever the right of sucession was at stake.
Despite
its vulnerability
to manipulation, dynastic geneology
A.A.
: Archives Africaines
remains
an important
source
in establishing the chronology of
A.G.
: Assemblée
Générale
Rwanda’s
ABAKI history.
: Alliance des Bakiga
ABESC
: Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
A. Kagame published
the entire
of this genealogy. However,
Suppression
des set
Castes
according
to other
authors (J.des
Vansina,
M. D’Hertefelt,
A. Coupez,
ACR
: Association
Cultivateurs
du Rwanda
T.
Kamanzi, C.
Rugamba,
J. N.Nkurikiyimufura),
he did not offer
ADP
: Alliance
Démocratique
des Peuples
any
works.
J. Vansina
and J. N.etNkurikiyimufura
ADRcritique of: these
Alliance
pour
la Démocratie
la
thus produced Réconciliation
other chronologies.
In
Rwanda’s
historiography,
Nationale
chronology
constitutes
a big subject
of controversy.
AEC
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Despite its ultra-secret
nature,
the esoteric code of the dynasty
Libération
du Congo-Zaïre
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threatened
AGOA
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dynastic
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Rwandaise
to
existing rules.
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by virtue du
of the
nature of dynastic
ALIR
: Armée
de Libération
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reigns
in
advance.
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: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
Finally,
to A. Kagame,
the esoteric
code does not reveal
ANT according
: Assemblée
Nationale
de Transition
the sections where the text was distorted by King Rudahigwa’s court
(Transitional National Assembly)
in Nyanza. These missing sections were the “Irage ry’abami” -- the
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
last desire of the kings -- and a section of “Umurage w’ingoma,” the
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
evidence of succession to the throne. A. Kagame, the trustee for
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
these testaments, died before publishing them; they have become
Rwandais
the secrets of ritual trustees who have never been found.
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
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and L. de Lacger, A. Kagame was targeted by critical studies
ARDHO
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for his interpretation of Rwanda’s oral-tradition. A. Kagame
Droits de l’Homme
VXIIHUHGIRUEHLQJLQÁXHQFHGE\WKHDUJXPHQWVRIKLVPLVVLRQDU\
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
predecessors. A. Kagame was an advocate of the Hamite-Bantu
Démocratique des Batwa
20
20
v
myth and of ACRONYMS
the evolutionist-disseminationist
theories of the
AND ABBREVIATIONS
nineteenth century.
However, this myth had been developed
___________________________________
along the lines of “the exogeneity of the Tutsi” and “racial ethnic
16
,: Archives
which were
blatant inventions of explorers in
differences”
A.A.
Africaines
the
and of European missionaries who
A.G.colonial administration
: Assemblée Générale
wanted
their presence
and their actions in Rwanda.
ABAKI to justify
: Alliance
des Bakiga
As
is known,: Association
the Hamite-Bantu
myth has
haunted
Rwanda’s
ABESC
des Bahutu
Evoluant
pour
la
historiography Suppression
up to very recently.
des Castes
ACR
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F 6RPHPDQLSXODWLRQVRIWKHQDWLRQDOLVPLGHRORJ\
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Post-colonial Rwandan
historiography
Réconciliation
Nationale up to the genocide
principally
carries
the accusation
that A. Kagame was deeply
AEC
: Agglomeration
Extra-Coutumières
subjective
while
handling
oral tradition.
It attributes
this
AFDL
: Alliance
des Forces
Démocratiques
pour la
weakness to his
nationalistic
zeal and to his proximity to
Libération
du Congo-Zaïre
Rwanda’s
ruling
circles.
Vansina
wanted toAct
prove that
AGOA
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Kagame
conduct a historian’s task, but rather conducted
$,'6 did not
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Kagame’s extreme
Euro-centricity likely
a
“politician’s:task”
AIMO
Affaires
et Main-d’oeuvre
inspired this vitriol.
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
Rwandaise
It
is
indisputable,
however,
that A. Kagame
had a centralized
ALIR
: Armée
de Libération
du Rwanda
vision of power.
He nurtured
an elitist
in his works
AM/AP
: Arrêté
ministériel/
Arrêtéproject
présidentiel
on the history: Association
of Rwanda, which
sometimesdu
ledRwanda
him to distort
AMR
des Moniteurs
history
even
as
the
Rwandese
accommodated
him.
The new
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
post-genocide: Assemblée
historiography
of Rwanda
should therefore
ANT
Nationale
de Transition
consider oral sources as victims of manipulation by the colonial
(Transitional National Assembly)
or nationalistic administrations.
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
3RVWJHQRFLGHSHULRG
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
Rwandais
With the advent of the genocide committed against the Tutsi in
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
1994, the arguments of the authors and defenders of the HamiteAPROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
Bantu myth fell apart. This is because the myth suffered from
Masse
lack of reason and critique which would distance it from colonial
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
manipulation and the neo-colonial ideology of “divide and rule”.
Démocratie
Recent studies18 have revolutionized the writing of Rwanda’s
ARDHO
:
Association
16
Rutayisire, P. 1997, art. cit, p.19. Rwandaise pour la Défense des
17
Droits de l’Homme
Ibid p. 15
18
Chrétien,
J.P.,
(under
supervision),
Rwanda
: Les médias du génocide, Paris ,
AREDETWA : Association
pour
le Relèvement
Karthala, 1995.; Chrétien J. P., /HGp¿GHO¶HWKQLVPHDX5ZDQGDHWDX%XUXQGL
Démocratique des Batwa
21
v
21
history by showing
that genocide
rationale was the mastermind
ACRONYMS
AND ABBREVIATIONS
of the colonial___________________________________
regime, with its stereotypes and founding myths.
This cleared the history of Rwanda from the interpretations
LQÁXHQFHG
E\
Hamite-Bantu
myth -- a product of colonial
A.A.
: WKH
Archives
Africaines
racism and Euro-centric
mentality.
A.G.
: Assemblée
Générale
ABAKI
: Alliance des Bakiga
From these diverse
considerations,
it isEvoluant
clear that
Rwanda’s
ABESC
: Association
des Bahutu
pour
la
historiography Suppression
remains a fertile
ground
of
controversy,
steeped
des Castes
in the various: Association
ideologies which
shaped Rwanda’s
political
ACR
des have
Cultivateurs
du Rwanda
space since time
immemorial.
ADP
: Alliance
Démocratique des Peuples
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
This situation poses a problem for history -- to resist former
Réconciliation Nationale
ideological manipulations so as to remain objective while
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
analyzing the sources of Rwandan history. A lack of objectivity
AFDL
:
Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
KDVIRUPHUFRPSURPLVHGWKHVFLHQWLÀFFUHGHQWLDOVRIKLVWRULDQV
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
who should exercise critical minds that lead to interpretations
AGOA
: African
Growth
andfor
Opportunity
Act
devoid of sentiment.
Time
has come
Rwanda’s historiography
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
to part from its
false semblance of truth. It should embark on its
AIMO
:
Affaires
Indigènes
et Main-d’oeuvre
true objective -- the search
for and dissemination
of social reality,
AJER
:
Association
de
la
Jeunesse
Estudiantine
with zero-tolerance for the manipulation of historiographic
Rwandaise
sources.
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
(Transitional National Assembly)
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
Rwandais
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
Masse
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
Démocratie
ARDHO
:
Association
Rwandaise pour la Défense
des
1996, Paris, Karthala; Braecman C., 5ZDQGDKLVWRLUHG¶XQJpQRFLGH,
Paris, Fayard,
de l’Homme
1994 ;. Rutembesa Droits
F., « Ruptures
culturels et génocide au Rwanda”, in Cahiers du
&HQWUHGH*HVWLRQGHV&RQÀLWV,
n°
2,
2001, pp. 93-123; Revue d’Histoire
AREDETWA : Association Butare,
pour April
le Relèvement
de la Shoah, n° 190, Janvier- Juin 2009.
Démocratique des Batwa
22
22
v
II ABBREVIATIONS
ACRONYMS AND
___________________________________
PREHISTORY AND SETTLEMENTS IN RWANDA
A.A.
A.G.
ABAKI
ABESC
: Archives
(1000Africaines
BC – 700/800 BC)
: Assemblée Générale
By: Alliance
Célestin KANIMBA
MISAGO (R.I.P)1 =
des Bakiga
: Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
Suppression des Castes
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
Réconciliation Nationale
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
AFDL
: Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
SUHKLVWRU\
DQG RULJLQDO
VHWWOHPHQWV
ÀUVW EHJDQ
AGOA ZDQGD·V
: African
Growth
and Opportunity
Act
in
1000
B.C...
Prehistory
and
settlements
in
Rwanda
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
form the foundation of our national memory, without
AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
ZKLFK KLVWRULFDO HYHQWV WKDW KDYH RFFXUUHG VLQFH FDQQRW EH
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
XQGHUVWRRG 7KLV KLVWRU\ KDV EHHQ LQIRUPHG E\ HQYLURQPHQWDO
Rwandaise
change, archeology,
anthropology, linguistics, and oral tradition.
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
2.1.
Prehistory
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
AMRSHULRG ZKLFK
: Association
Moniteurs
duORQJHU
Rwanda
7KH
SUHFHGHGdes
DQWLTXLW\
FDQ QR
EH GHÀQHG
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
DVH[FOXVLYHO\RQHSHULRGJLYHQWKHDEVHQFHRIZULWWHQVRXUFHV
However,
other
sources of history
shed de
light
on prehistoric events
ANT
: Assemblée
Nationale
Transition
throughout the(Transitional
period’s trajectory.
National Assembly)
APADEC
: Association
du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
2.1.1.
Environmental
framework
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
Covering
a
total
surface area
of 26,338
km², Rwanda is located
APROBAMI : Association
des
Partis Monarchistes
EHWZHHQORQJLWXGHVƒ·DQGƒ·1RUWK6RXWKDQGODWLWXGHV
Rwandais
ƒ· DQG ƒ· (DVW:HVW ,W IRUPV DQ DV\PPHWULFDO EORFN
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
of highlands resulting from transformations which were created
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
E\WKHJUHDWWHFWRQLFGULIWWKDWH[WHQGVIURPWKH5HG6HDXSWR
Masse
the southern part
of Lake Malawi, crossing Lakes Rwicanzige,
ARD Kivu and
: Alliance
pour le Renforcement de la
Rweru,
Tanganyika.
Démocratie
Lake Kivu was formed in the depression and the straight fold
ARDHO
:
Association
Rwandaise
la Défense
that separates the watersheds
of the Nile pour
and Congo
Rivers.des
This
Droits de l’Homme
1
=Professor Celestin
Kanimba Misago
passed
in 2010, and death deprived us
AREDETWA
: Association
pour
leaway
Relèvement
of his invaluable knowledge on this theme.
Démocratique des Batwa
R
23
v
23
fold, the CrestACRONYMS
of Congo-Nile,AND
is a mountainous
range that covers
ABBREVIATIONS
20 to 40 km; it
is
located
at
an
altitude
of
around
2,000 m with
___________________________________
DKLJKHVWSHDNRIP,WLVERUGHUHGWRWKHQRUWKE\YROFDQLF
PRXQWDLQVZKRVHSHDN.DULVLPELLVPKLJK
A.A.
: Archives Africaines
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
Between the Congo-Nile crest and the Akagera-Bugesera
ABAKI
: Alliance
des Bakiga
depressions,
there
is a central
plateau that reaches an altitude
ABESC
:
Association
des
Bahutu Evoluant pour la
RIP7KLVUHJLRQLVFRYHUHGE\KLOOVVHSDUDWHGE\PDUVK\
Suppression des Castes
YDOOH\VZLWKÁDWERWWRPVULFKLQDOOXYLXP7RWKHHDVWDORQJWKH
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
ERUGHUZLWK7DQ]DQLDWKH$NDJHUD5LYHUFURVVHVODUJHVZDPSV
ORFDWHGDWDQDOWLWXGHEHWZHHQDQGP
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
2.1.2. CurrentRéconciliation
state of archaeological
Nationaleresearch
Archaeological and linguistic sources provide important
AFDL
: Alliance
des Forces of
Démocratiques
la
information
in
the reconstruction
the history ofpour
Rwanda.
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
1HYHUWKHOHVVVWXGLHVLQDUFKHRORJ\KDYHEHHQDQGVWLOODUHYHU\
AGOA Although
: African
Growth
andofOpportunity
Act remains,
limited.
Rwanda
is full
archaeological
systematic
archaeological
studies were only initiated in the
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
second
half
of
the
twentieth
century.
to 1968, studies in this
AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes
et Up
Main-d’oeuvre
ÀHOGZHUHQRWV\VWHPDWLF
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
Rwandaise
7KH ÀUVW YHVWLJH IRXQG ZDV DQ D[H PDGH RI TXDUW] VWRQH RI
ALIR
de Libération
du Rwanda
achulean
type:2;Armée
it was discovered
around
1921-1922 in Kavumu
AM/AP
:
Arrêté
ministériel/
Arrêté
présidentiel
-- located in the former Territory of Gitarama.
In 1936, I.
3
AMR
: Association
des
duWKDW
Rwanda
Boutakoff PDGH
H[FDYDWLRQV
LQMoniteurs
VRPH PLQHV
GDWH EDFN WR
the Stone Age.
These excavations
were particularly
focused
AMUR
: Association
des Musulmans
au Rwanda
in Ruhimandyarya
cave inNationale
Rusizi District,
former Cyangugu
ANT
: Assemblée
de Transition
Province, where(Transitional
quartz and quartzite
tools
of
the
Stone Age were
National Assembly)
unearthed. These tools were used in the early Iron Age. During
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
WKHVDPHSHULRGDGRXEOHHGJHGEODGHPDGHRITXDUW]VWRQHRI
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
VRSKLVWLFDWHGDFKXOHDQW\SHZDVIRXQGLQ.DWXPEDLQWKHIRUPHU
APROBAMI
: Association des Partis Monarchistes
WHUULWRU\RI*LVHQ\L%HWZHHQDQG0DXULFH%HTXDHUW
Rwandais
DUHVHDUFKHUDWWKH5R\DO0XVHXPRI&HQWUDO$IULFDSXEOLVKHGD
APROCOMIN:
Association
des Commerçants
series of works on
some outstanding
stone tools4.Indigènes
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
$IWHUHVWDEOLVKLQJWKH,QVWLWXWHIRU6FLHQWLÀF5HVHDUFKLQ&HQWUDO
Masse
$IULFD ,56$& LQ DQG XSRQ HVWDEOLVKLQJ WKH &HQWUH IRU
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
Nenquin, J., Contributions
to the study of the prehistoric cultures of Rwanda and
Démocratie
Urundi, Annales- Série in 8, Sciences humaines, No 59, Tervuren, M.R.A.C., 1069, p.9.
: Association
3ARDHO
Boutakoff, I., Première
exploration Rwandaise
méthodique des pour
gisementladeDéfense
l’âge de lades
pierre
l’Homme
au Ruanda-Urundi. Droits
Abris sousde
roche,
atelier et station de plein air, Bruxelles, 1937.
4
Bequaert, M., La: position
actuelle de
la préhistoire
au Congo belge et au RuandaAREDETWA
Association
pour
le Relèvement
Urundi, Berlin, Hambourg, Bericht, V. Internat. Kongress, 1958, 1961, pp. 84-88.
2
24
24
Démocratique des Batwa
v
5HVHDUFKLQ+XPDQLWLHVLQLQ%XWDUH
H[$VWULGD VWXGLHV
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
RQ WKH ,URQ $JH
ZHUH
LQLWLDWHG
E\
-HDQ
+LHUQDX[
DQG 0DTXHW
___________________________________
(PPD UHVHDUFKHUV DW ,56$& LQ 7KH\ XQFRYHUHG PDQ\
sites
and furnaces
of iron ore. Their research helped
A.A. of ceramics
: Archives
Africaines
WRLGHQWLI\VLWHVWKDWKDYHSURGXFHGWKHVHLWHPVFRQWULEXWLQJWR
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
WKHÀHOGRIDUFKDHRORJ\LQWKH*UHDW/DNHV5HJLRQ
ABAKI
: Alliance des Bakiga
ABESC it was
: Association
des systematic
Bahutu Evoluant
pour
la
However,
in the 1960s that
studies were
initiated
Suppression des Castes
E\DUFKDHRORJLVWV'XULQJWKDWWLPH-DFTXHV1HQTXLQPDGH
WZR
ACR
Association
dessite
Cultivateurs
duCampion”
Rwanda near
excavations
- : one
was on the
called “Pit of
Butare;
was in
Rutonde near Kigali.
In 1967, Nenquin
ADP the second
: Alliance
Démocratique
des Peuples
SXEOLVKHGWKHÀQGLQJVKHFRQGXFWHGLQGLIIHUHQWUHJLRQVRIWKH
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
country6.
Réconciliation Nationale
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
7KHVH VWXGLHV ZHUH IROORZHG E\ SURJUDPV LQLWLDWHG LQ E\
AFDL
:
Alliance
desstudies
Forcesprimarily
Démocratiques
la
7
. His
focusedpour
on royal
Francis Van Noten
Libération
du
Congo-Zaïre
WRPEV VR DV WR
KDUPRQL]H
RUDO
WUDGLWLRQ DQG DUFKHRORJ\ DQG
AGOA
African Growth
ActIron Age.
they
focused :secondly
on sites and
thatOpportunity
dated from the
Further
were later undertaken in various regions of the
$,'6 studies
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
FRXQWU\
LH
LQ
WKH UHJLRQV
RI /DNHV
%XOHUD DQG 5XKRQGR E\
AIMO
: Affaires
Indigènes
et Main-d’oeuvre
8
9
Phillipe
DW5\DPXUDULLQ1GRUZDE\7VKLOHPD7VKLOXND
AJER Simon: Association
de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
DQGLQWKH$NDJHUD3DUNE\%HUQDUG/XJDQ7KHODWWHUH[FDYDWHG
Rwandaise
six sites, among which four had shelters, it was mainly in the
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
southern regions. Particularly in the region of Butare, those
AM/AP
Arrêté
présidentiel
excavations
of: Arrêté
variousministériel/
sites of ancient
metallurgy
were carried
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
RXWE\)UDQFLV9DQ1RWHQ(PLOH5RFKHDQG0DULH&ODXGLQH9DQ
10
AMUR
: .Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
*UXQGHUEHHN
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
A dozen years (Transitional
later, after some
archaeological
materials were
National
Assembly)
IRXQG
E\
FKDQFH
QHDU
%XWDUH
)
9DQ
1RWHQ
GLG
D V\VWHPDWLF
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
excavation during which he found several furnaces used for
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
LURQ H[WUDFWLRQ LQ .DEX\H *LVDJDUD DQG LWV YLFLQLW\ ,Q APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
5
Hiernaux, J., and Maquet,
E., Culture préhistorique de l’âge des métaux au RuandaRwandais
Urundi et au Kivu (Congo Belge). 1ère partie, Bruxelles, 1956.
6APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
Nenquin, J., ‘Contribution to the study of the prehistoric cultures of Rwanda and
APROSOMA
Association
pour
la Promotion
Sociale
de1967.
la
Burundi’, Annales,: Série
in 8 Sciences
humaines
no 59 Tervuren,
M.R.A.C.
7
Masse
Van Noten F., Histoire
archéologique du Rwanda, Tervuren, M.R.A.C., 1983.
8
Simon,
Ph.,
«
La
région
du
lac Bulera
» Annexe
9, In Van Noten, Histoire
ARD
: Alliance
pour
le Renforcement
de laarchéologique
du Rwanda, Tervuren,
Musée
royal
de
l’Afrique
centrale,
1983,
pp.
137-148.
Démocratie
9
Tshilema T., « Ryamurari, capitale de l’ancien royaume de Ndorwa », Annexe 10, In Van
ARDHO
Association
Rwandaise
la Défense
des
Van
Noten, Histoire: archéologique
du Rwanda,
Tervuren,pour
M.R.A.C.,
1983, pp. 149-153.
10
de l’Homme
Van Grunderbek, Droits
MC., Roche
E., et Doutrelepont H., « L’âge du fer ancien au
Rwanda
et
au
Burundi.
Archéologie
environnement
», in Journal des africanistes,
AREDETWA : Association etpour
le Relèvement
532 (1-2), 1982, pp 5-58.
Démocratique des Batwa
v
25
DQG 0&
9DQ *UXQGHUEHHN
FRQWLQXHG WKLV UHVHDUFK
ACRONYMS
AND ABBREVIATIONS
toward east, west
and
north
Butare.
She
also discovered several
___________________________________
iron extraction furnaces, which were largely exposed due to
agricultural
activities
or soil
erosion.
A.A.
: Archives
Africaines
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
)URPRQZDUGV%HUQDUG/XJDQEHJDQWRFDUU\RXWVXUYH\V
ABAKI
AlliancePark
des and
Bakiga
in
the Akagera: National
excavated four sites. The results
ABESC
:
Association
des
Bahutu
Evoluant pour
of his excavations indicate that human occupation
in thelaarea
Suppression
Castes
stretched several
thousands des
of years.
The oldest population at
ACR sites used
: Association
destools,
Cultivateurs
du who
Rwanda
these
Wiltonian type
while those
appeared
11
later
tools andDémocratique
pottery .
ADP used iron
: Alliance
des Peuples
3KLOLSSH6LPRQFRQGXFWHGDVWXG\DURXQG/DNH%XOHUDEHWZHHQ
Réconciliation Nationale
1980 and 1981. There, he collected artifacts representing various
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
types of stone tools. These included the Sangoan type of tools on
AFDL
:
Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
WKHVLWHRI1GDJRDQGWKH:LOWRQLDQW\SHQHDU%XJDUDPD7KLV
Libération
du fragments,
Congo-Zaïre
site also produced
some pot
and the oldest among
AGOA
: African
Opportunity
Actin present
them were similar
to theGrowth
pottery and
found
at Masangano
12
day Ruhango$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
District 9DQ 1RWHQ·V ERRN SXEOLVKHG LQ $,'6
gives
an
outline
of studies
conducted
in different parts of the
AIMO
: Affaires
Indigènes
et Main-d’oeuvre
country up to: 1982.
AJER
Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
Rwandaise
From 1986 on, the Museum of Natural History in Mainz
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
conducted regular geological studies on the Masangano site.
AM/AP
: Arrêté
ministériel/
Arrêté
présidentiel
This site produced
fossils
of Pleistocene
animals,
stone tools and
AMR
: Association
Moniteurs
du Rwanda
ancient pottery.
The Nationaldes
Museum
of Rwanda
also discovered
AMUR
: Association
au Rwanda
similar remains
at the samedes
siteMusulmans
during the survey
carried out
from 1999 to :2004.
In 2006,
the survey
excavation of Iron
ANT
Assemblée
Nationale
de and
Transition
$JHVLWHVZHUHUHYLYHGE\UHVHDUFKHUVIURP8QLYHUVLW\&ROOHJHRI
(Transitional National Assembly)
/RQGRQ
LQ
FROODERUDWLRQ
ZLWK
IURP WKH
,QVWLWXWH RI
APADEC
: Association
duUHVHDUFKHUV
Parti Démocrate
Chrétien
National Museums of Rwanda and students from the National
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
University of Rwanda.
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
Rwandais
2.1.3. Evolution
of climatic and landscape changes
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
APROSOMA
: Association
pour la Promotion Sociale de la
a. Paleo-climatic
changes
Masse
During
the
Quaternary
period,
to other de
parts
ARD
: Alliance pour
le similar
Renforcement
la of Africa,
the African Great
Lakes
region
including
Rwanda
experienced
Démocratie
ARDHO
Association
Rwandaise
Défense
des
11
Lugan, B., « Le :Rwanda
oriental » Annexe
8, In Vanpour
Noten, la
Histoire
archéologique
Droits
de l’Homme
du Rwanda, 1983, pp.
130-136.
12
Simon,
Ph.,
“
La
région
du
lac
Bulera”,
Annexe
9, in Van Noten, Histoire
AREDETWA : Association
pour
le Relèvement
archéologique du Rwanda, 1983, pp. 137-148.
Démocratique des Batwa
26
26
v
FOLPDWLFFKDQJHVWKDWDIIHFWHGWKHÁRUDDQGIDXQD6WXGLHVGRQH
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
through today___________________________________
in geology, geomorphology and palynology do not
provide ample information on ancient climate changes. However,
UHFHQWDQDO\VHVRIIDXQDDQGERWDQLFUHPDLQVKDYHEHHQXVHIXOLQ
A.A.
: Archives Africaines
reconstructing the environment, particularly the paleo-climatic
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
changes that marked the end of the Pleistocene and Holocene
ABAKI
: Alliance des Bakiga
SHULRGVLQ&HQWUDO(DVW$IULFD:HWSHULRGVIDYRUHGIRUHVWJURZWK
ABESC
Association
Bahutu
Evoluant
pour raised
la
and
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However,
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: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
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Rwandaise
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the river to deviate from its normal course. Thus, the waters of
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
1\DEDURQJRFROOHFWHGWRIRUP´a lake or delta dam” that was rather
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clay and silt, which
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hippopotamuses to live there.
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: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
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AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
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27
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ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
reached Masangano.
___________________________________
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areas of the delta, where hot springs deposited travertine. The
ABAKI human
: Alliance
earliest
activitiesdes
tookBakiga
place contemporary to deposits of
ABESC
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: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
Numerous
fossils
were found
from a depth
of two meters. An
ADP
: Alliance
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des Peuples
examination
of
the
fossils
which
were
collected
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et lafrom different
layers reveals the
remains of various
animals that lived on the
Réconciliation
Nationale
site at the time of geological deposit formation. The layers of
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: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
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bones found at Masangano: otter (Natural
AIMO Museum
: Affaires
Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
History
in Kigali)
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
Rwandaise
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
(Transitional National Assembly)
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
+XPDQUHPDLQVZHUHIRXQGRQWKHEDQNVRI5LYHU1\DEDURQJR
Rwandais
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APROSOMA
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de found
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early
man likely
fed on. Human
were also
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Démocratie
Between
and 40,000Rwandaise
B.C., the climate
ARDHO 70,000
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pour lachanged
Défensefrom
des a
very dry state Droits
to a humid
one.
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that
period,
the
forest
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Démocratique des Batwa
28
28
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ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
13
than it is today___________________________________
. Around 30,000 B.C., the arid climate was marked
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Landscape
changes
occurred
1000 BC. Indicators
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characterize
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understanding of the landscape were animals,
plants,
terrain,
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: Affaires
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et Main-d’oeuvre
water.
of pollen and
fossils, inEstudiantine
addition to dating the
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dewood
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coal and the wildlife
that
lived
in
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regions,
helps to reconstitute
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WKHYHJHWDWLRQLQWKHZD\LWDSSHDUHGEHIRUH\HDUV
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clear the forest. Stone tools, which were used for more than a
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million years,: Association
had a much du
more
limited
impact.Chrétien
Fire caused
APR
:
Armée
Patriotique
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damage to the savannah while dense forests were not so prone
APROBAMI
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to such destruction.
Rwandais
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WKH HQYLURQPHQW
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acquisition of food production techniques and metallurgy. Land
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
formations from that time reveal that the west and northwest were
Masse types of vegetation. The mesophilic forest
covered with different
ARD
: Alliance
pour le
Renforcement
demountainous
la
extended towards
the eastern
shore
of Lake Kivu,
Démocratie
13
Servant, M., et Servant-vildary, S., « Nouvelles données pour une interprétation
ARDHO
:
Association
Rwandaise
pour la (Pléistocène
Défense des
paléoclimatque de séries continentale
du Bassin Tchadien
récent,
Holocène) », in VanDroits
Inderen Bakker,
E. M., Palaeocology of Africa, VI, pp. 87-92.
de l’Homme
14
Robertshaw, W. :P.,Association
“Climate changepour
and thelerise
of political complexity in western
AREDETWA
Relèvement
Uganda”, in Journal of History, 41, 2000, pp. 1-28)
Démocratique des Batwa
b. Vegetation changes
29
v
29
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ACRONYMS
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___________________________________
crest and the current Nyungwe forests, i.e. most of the regions in
WKHZHVWRI0XNXQJZDDQG8SSHU1\DEDURQJR
A.A.
: Archives Africaines
A.G.
: Assemblée
Générale
In
the north of
the country,
the valleys of Rugezi, east of Lake
Bulera,
to the existence
of mountainous vegetation. The
ABAKI testify: Alliance
des Bakiga
western
shore
of
Lake
Ruhondo
proves
theEvoluant
existence of
savannah
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pour
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rivers, there was
a mountain rainforest
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area also contained entire gallery forests along the river galley.
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: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
$URXQG%&GURXJKWOHGWRWKHGLVDSSHDUDQFHRIIRUHVWV
AJER
Association
de la Jeunesse
Estudiantine
Around 2000 :B.C.,
the wet climate
would have
favored the return
Rwandaise
of the forest had man not encroached on the vegetation.
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
'XULQJWKH,URQ$JHHDUO\PDQVHWWOHGRQODQGWKDWZDVVXLWDEOH
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These activities
reduced the
size
of the forests
as they were
ANT
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Assemblée
Nationale
de
Transition
UHSODFHGE\VDYDQQDK'XULQJWKH6HFRQG0LOOHQQLXP$'WKH
(Transitional National Assembly)
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pace of population
growth.du
New
technological
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2.1.4. Prehistoric
age in Rwanda
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
According to: Association
recent studies
Rwanda
APROSOMA
pour laconducted
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de la the
LQWHUODFXVWULQH UHJLRQ 5ZDQGD·V SUHKLVWRU\ FDQ EH FDWHJRUL]HG
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LQWRWZRPDMRUVXEGLYLVLRQVWKH6WRQH$JHDQG,URQ$JH16. The
ARD
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15
Van Grunderbeek,Démocratie
M. C., Roche et Doutrelepont, H., « L’âge du fer ancien au
Rwanda et au Burundi. Archéologie et environnement », in Journal des Africanistes ,
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
52
(1-2), 1982, 33-41.
16
Droits ofde
l’Homme
Van Noten, The Archeology
Central
Africa, Akademische Druck-und Verlagsansalt,
Graz,
1982;
Sutton
J.
E.G.,
“The
aquatic
civilization
of middle Africa”, in Journal of
AREDETWA : Association pour
le Relèvement
African history, 15 1974: 527-546.
Démocratique des Batwa
30
30
v
WDEOHEHORZVKRZVGLIIHUHQWDJHVDQGWKHDUFKDHRORJLFDOREMHFWV
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
XVHGDFURVVDJHV
___________________________________
Table 1: Prehistoric age in Rwanda
A.A.
: Archives Africaines
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
Late Iron Age
Urewe traditional cultural potteries
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pottery Evoluant pour la
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Tshitolian
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Middle Stone Age
(MSA)
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Sangoan
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LQGXVWU\WKHOldowan
and Acheulian industries.
Rwandaise
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
Oldowan industries
AM/AP
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7KHROGHVWWRROVZHUHIRXQGLQWKH2PRYDOOH\LQ(WKLRSLDDQG
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on
the edges of
ancient lakes
or marshes
near the Rift Valley in
ANT
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de Transition
northern Tanzania and at Olduvai George on the shores of Lake
(Transitional National Assembly)
Turkana in Kenya. The Oldowan WRROV EHORQJ WR WZR GLIIHUHQW
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old.
Oldowan
industry isRwandaise
composed of grattoires and
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
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Rwandais
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APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
DOVRXVHGDVEXWFKHULQJWRROVWRFXWFDUFDVVHVRIDQLPDOVDQGWR
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kill small animals like frogs, lizards and tortoises.
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The late OldowanLQGXVWU\ZDVFKDUDFWHUL]HGE\VLPSOHGRXEOH
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Droits de l’Homme
people
who
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related to Homo Habilis,
AREDETWA : Association
pour were
le Relèvement
Démocratique des Batwa
31
v
31
and they livedACRONYMS
on hunting and
gathering.
Apart from stone tools,
AND
ABBREVIATIONS
WKH\PD\KDYHDOVRXVHGWRROVPDGHRISHULVKDEOHPDWHULDOVVXFK
___________________________________
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A.A.
: Archives Africaines
Achulian
industry
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
There
that des
the Bakiga
Achulian LQGXVWU\ HYROYHG LQ (DVW
ABAKIis evidence
: Alliance
Africa
at
a
site
called
Olduvai
Bed II. This
ABESC
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BahutuinEvoluant
pourtype
la of
industry was different
from
the
Oldowan
type
given
the
large
Suppression des Castes
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: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
The new technique required more energy and skill. These tools
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la
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Réconciliation Nationale
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Aldowan
industry
for hundredsExtra-Coutumières
of thousands of years.17
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: Agglomeration
AFDL
: Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
The African Achulian LQGXVWU\ ZDV FKDUDFWHUL]HG E\ GRXEOH
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
edges and hand-axes with several pounding heads. These tools
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hunting.
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in Rwanda, the Démocratie
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Droits de l’Homme
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
17
Daniel, J.Y., Science de la terre et de l’univers, Paris, Vuibert, 1999, p. 595.
Démocratique des Batwa
32
32
v
Figure 2. Curved
stone tools
at the Institute of
ACRONYMS
AND conserved
ABBREVIATIONS
National Museums
of
Rwanda
in
Huye.
___________________________________
A.A.
A.G.
ABAKI
ABESC
:
:
:
:
Archives Africaines
Assemblée Générale
Alliance des Bakiga
Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
Suppression des Castes
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
Réconciliation Nationale
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
AFDL
: Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
Libération
dudouble-edged
Congo-Zaïrestone tool, pick axe.
From left to the
right: Bola,
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$,'6
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Stone Age
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term
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Rwandaise
Paleolithic period and a large part of the Paleolithic period. This
ALIR started: Armée
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period
immediately
after the Acheulian
industry. It was
AM/AP
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to
different environments
well
as manufactured
stone tools
AMR
: Associationasdes
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that
were
much
smaller
and
more
precise.
AMUR
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Sapien species.(Transitional
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stone
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Droits de l’Homme
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which: Association
were adaptedpour
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environments. In the
Démocratique des Batwa
33
v
33
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ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
DQG/XSHPEDQLQGXVWULHV,QWKHVDYDQQDKHQYLURQPHQWWKHUH
___________________________________
was micro-lithic industry.
A.A. Sangoan: industry
Archiveslocated
Africaines
The
in Sango Bay on the shores of
A.G.
:
Assemblée
Générale
Lake Victoria in Uganda consisted of lithic industries which
IROORZHGWKHÀQDOAcheulian
ABAKI
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Bakiga in Central Africa. The tools
produced
included
massive
pick-axes,
core-axes,
ABESC
: Association des
Bahutu heavy-duty
Evoluant pour
la
and various grattoir.
Suppression des Castes
ACR
: Association
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du Rwanda
Sangoan
implements
were des
associated
with dense
vegetation
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zones. des Forces Démocratiques pour la
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
In
most of the
equatorial
rainforests,
Sangoan tools
AGOA
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Act seem to
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that
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: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
The age of the Sangoan industry is unknown, though it is estimated
AMR
: Association
des Moniteurs
to
have occurred
around 100000
- 80 000 du
B.C.Rwanda
Sangoan tools
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
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valley. At all these sites, tools with Sangoan characteristics were
APROBAMI
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Monarchistes
found,
including
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grattoirs. At Sablière
Rwandais
Campion site /XSHPEDQ WRROV ZHUH GLVFRYHUHG EXULHG EHORZ
layers
of Sangoan
tools.
APROCOMIN:
Association
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In central Rwanda, a study was conducted in Rutongo at the
Masse
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Droits de l’Homme
tools were found. These tools were manufactured from dark-grey
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
VKDOHRUEURZQTXDUW]LWHPDWHULDO
34
34
Démocratique des Batwa
v
The Sangoan ACRONYMS
industry was AND
widespread
and varied according to
ABBREVIATIONS
the set of tools___________________________________
and their evolution. This proved great adaptation
WR HQYLURQPHQWDO FKDQJH +RZHYHU PRVW REMHFWV NQRZQ IURP
that period were surface collections (found on the surface). They
A.A.
: Archives Africaines
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A.G. Africa: and
Assemblée
Générale
Central
the in Great
Lakes region.
ABAKI
: Alliance des Bakiga
ABESC
: Association
Bahutufound
Evoluant
pour Africa,
la
The
Lupemban
industry was des
an industry
in Central
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: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
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AFDL
: Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
Figure 3: Kagitumba sharpened stone tools (Akagera
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
National park); National Museum in Huye
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity Act
$,'6
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AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
Rwandaise
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
(Transitional National Assembly)
7KHVLWHVRI.DQGDOR1\DEZDUL0XKRURURDQGWKH+LSSRSRWDPXV
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
“Beach”
provide
hachets,
pick-axes
and grattoirs. The tools
APR
: Armée
Patriotique
Rwandaise
IURPWKH/XSHPEDQLQGXVWU\DW1HPEDFRQVLVWRIVLQJOHHGJHG
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
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Rwandais
spearhead made of quartzite material was found on the surface at
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
/LEDRSSRVLWH.DQVLDORQJWKH+X\H².DQ\DUXKLJKZD\6LPLODU
APROSOMA
Association
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REMHFWV
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Masse and Ngulenge in Akagera National Park,
south of Lake Mihindi
5ZDPXUXPED
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WKH .LJDOL²0XKLQJD
PDLQ
ARD
: Alliance
pour leQHDU
Renforcement
de la
road18. At these
sites,
stones
tools
made
of
quartz,
quartzite,
Démocratie
and schist Acheulean
type materials
were
found
the surface.
ARDHO
: Association
Rwandaise
pour
la on
Défense
des
18
Droits de
l’Homme
Nenquin, J., « Contribution
to the
study of the prehistoric cultures of Rwanda and
Burundi
»
in
Annales,
série
8,
sciences
humaines,
No 59, Terevuren, MRAC, 1967;
AREDETWA : Association pour
le Relèvement
Van Noten, F., Histoire archéologique du Rwanda, Tervuren, MRAC, 1983.
Démocratique des Batwa
v
35
Map 1: Localization
of Middle
and
Late Stone Ages in Rwanda
ACRONYMS
AND
ABBREVIATIONS
___________________________________
A.A.
A.G.
ABAKI
ABESC
Archives Africaines
Assemblée Générale
Alliance des Bakiga
Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
Suppression des Castes
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
Réconciliation Nationale
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
AFDL
: Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity Act
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
Rwandaise
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
(Transitional National Assembly)
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
Rwandais
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
Masse
Key:
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
Source: Van Noten,
F., Histoire archéologique du Rwanda,
Démocratie
Tervuren, Musée royal de l’Afrique centrale, 1983
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
Droits de l’Homme
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
Démocratique des Batwa
36
36
:
:
:
:
v
¾Late Stone
Age (LSA)
ACRONYMS
AND ABBREVIATIONS
___________________________________
7KH WHUP ´/DWH 6WRQH $JHµ LV XVHG LQ VXE6DKDUDQ $IULFD WR
GHVFULEHWKHSUHKLVWRULFSHULRGWKDWFRUUHVSRQGVZLWKWKH8SSHU
A.A.
: Archives Africaines
Paleolithic age. It covers a period of around 40,000 years. The
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
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ABAKI
: Alliance
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$JH
FRQWLQXHG
WR WKH /DWH
ABESC
: Association
Bahutu Evoluant
la and
from
adaptation
to different des
environments,
includingpour
forest
Suppression des Castes
savannah regions.
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
7KH
WKLV DJH
ZKLFK VWDUWHG
ADPÀUVW KDOI: RI
Alliance
Démocratique
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SUHVHQFH
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: Alliance pour la Démocratie et RI
la LQWHUPHGLDWH
industries of large
and small-sized
tools. The large tools included
Réconciliation
Nationale
sickles, stone axes, grinders and mills. Small tools, which were
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
VRPHWLPHVÀWWHGLQVHULHVZHUHXVHGDVNQLYHVVDZVDUURZKHDGV
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:
des Forces Démocratiques pour la
for spears, andAlliance
small drills.
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AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity Act
$WWKHEHJLQQLQJRIWKHHDUO\+RORFHQHSHULRGZKLFKRFFXUUHGLQ
%&WKHQXPEHURIVLWHVRIWKH/DWH6WRQH$JHLQFUHDVHG
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Caves
and
rock
shelters
multiplied.
Local
resources
were
used
AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
PRUHLQWHQVLYHO\WKDQHYHUEHIRUH7KHUHPDLQVRIIDXQDIRXQGRQ
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
human settlements showed the increased prevalence of hunting
Rwandaise
VSHFLÀFDQLPDOV+RZHYHUWKHLQGXVWULHVRIWKH/DWH6WRQH$JH
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
are not yet well documented in Rwanda.
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
AMR industries
: Association
des Moniteurs
duFirstly,
Rwanda
Three
are represented
in this period.
there was
AMUR
Association
Musulmans
au Rwanda
the
Magosian :industry
whosedes
tools
are found mainly
at Rutonde,
5ZDQNXEDDORQJVLGHWKH.LJDOL0XVDQ]HURDG5XWRQGHVLWHRIIHUV
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
different phases(Transitional
of Magosian industry.
Magosian sites are
National Other
Assembly)
IRXQGDW%XJDPELUD+LOOORFDWHGEHWZHHQ5LYHU*LWLQJDDQG5LYHU
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
8UXIXQ]R$NDJHUD DQG 5LYHU 5XJDPDPD ZHVW RI 1\DUXEX\H
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
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APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
5XKHQJHUL²1WDUXND PDLQ URDG 7KH 0DJRVLDQ LQGXVWU\ VKRZV
Rwandais
how tools evolved
from large to small. It marked a transition and
APROCOMIN:
Association
des Commerçants Indigènes
SUHFHGHGWKH7VKLWROLDQDQG:LOWRQLDQLQGXVWULHV
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
The Tshitolian Masse
industry, named after the Tshitolo site located in
WKHSODWHDXRI:HVWHUQ.DVDLLVFKDUDFWHUL]HGE\KXJHLPSRVLQJ
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: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
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Démocratie
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ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
VKHOWHUDW:LOWRQ·VIDUPORFDWHGLQ3URYLQFHRI:HVWHUQ&DSHLQ
South Africa. Droits de l’Homme
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
Démocratique des Batwa
37
v
37
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ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
E\ PLFUROLWK LPSOHPHQWV
ZLWK VHJPHQWV LQ WKH IRUP RI FLUFOHV
___________________________________
triangles, trapeziums, drills, and pieces with edges of saw-like
teeth.
A.A.
: Archives Africaines
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
7KH H[DFW GDWHV KDYH EHHQ HVWDEOLVKHG IRU WKHVH LQGXVWULHV
ABAKI
: Alliance
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:
Association
des
Evoluant
pour
la
In Uganda, they were found inBahutu
Munyama
cave and
Buwuma
Suppression
des Castes
Island in 14,480
B.C. ± 130 years.
In Kenya, they were located
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
LQ1DNXUX1DLYDVKDULIWRUWKH3URORQJHG'ULIWLQ%&
±
220 years. :InAlliance
central Tanzania,
the Kiesese
rock shelter was
ADP
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: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
Réconciliation Nationale
Nevertheless, in Rwanda those industries were located at the
AEC
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the top
it contained
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the Late Stone Age
AJER produced
: Association
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and pottery decorated with circular designs.
Rwandaise
Shelters of Mucucu, Muhororo and Kandaro.
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: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
7KH +LSSRSRWDPXV EHDFK VLWH FRQWDLQV /DWH 6WRQH $JH
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AMR
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this organicNationale
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preserved. From
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: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
XVHGWRKDUYHVWHGLEOHSODQWV*ULQGHUVDQGPLOOVZHUHXVHGWR
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
crush grain. In addition, poison was created for arrows, stone
Rwandais
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Association
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harpoons
were
developed. pour la Promotion Sociale de la
Masse
¾Neolithic
Age
ARD
: Alliance
pour le Renforcement de la
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Originally, this term was referred to as the “New Stone Age”. The
ARDHO
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AREDETWA
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38
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ACRONYMS
AND
ABBREVIATIONS
transformation
in
food
acquisition
techniques.
Man stopped
___________________________________
living on only hunting and gathering and shifted to an economy
EDVHGRQSURGXFWLRQ7KLVVOXJJLVKFKDQJHZDVDFFRPSDQLHGE\
A.A.
: Archives Africaines
the introduction of new techniques such as product polishing
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
and the use of ceramics. This new, agricultural lifestyle was
ABAKI
: Alliance des Bakiga
DFFRPSDQLHGE\QHZPRGHVRIOLYLQJVXFKDVEXLOGLQJKRXVHV
ABESC
: Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
and
living in communities.
Suppression des Castes
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: Association
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Rwanda RI
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communities
their perspectives
of the
These visions
ADP
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Alliance
Démocratique
desworld.
Peuples
were
expressed
through
rock
paintings
and
through
customs
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
showing respect
for the dead.Nationale
The “neo-lithisation” processes
Réconciliation
differed from one region to another. In some areas, these
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
innovations were acquired gradually through development that
AFDL
:
Alliance
des Forces
Démocratiques
pour la
was in harmony
with existing
cultural
groups.
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
AGOA
: African
Growthindustry
and Opportunity
Act
In
other regions,
Neolithic
was introduced
in a
comprehensive
and coherent manner. The origin of Neolithic
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et 5ZDQGD
Main-d’oeuvre
controversy.
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it isde
associated
withEstudiantine
foreign origins from
AJER
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la Jeunesse
WKH VRXWKHUQ 6DKDUD WR WKH 1LOH9DOOH\ DFURVV WKH (WKLRSLDQ
Rwandaise
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ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
in the region of great lakes have revealed continuous human
AM/AP
ministériel/
occupation
for: Arrêté
thousands
of years. Arrêté présidentiel
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
AMUR
Association
des
Musulmans
Rwanda
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lakes
in central-eastern
Africa
had made settlements
ANT and rivers
: Assemblée
Nationale
de Transition
in the region for(Transitional
over ten thousand
years.
At the periphery of the
National
Assembly)
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Ishango located on the shores of Lake Rwicanzige and Turkana
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APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
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Rwandais
of human settlement
since the Holocean age. The region also
APROCOMIN:
Association
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GHYHORSHGERQHLQGXVWU\DQGUHOLHGRQWKHXVHRIKDUSRRQV
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
According to one
hypothesis, from the early Third Millennium,
Masse
the
populations
that
enjoyed
of pottery, de
agriculture
and
ARD
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la
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mentioned, during the 8th-6th Millenniums, the climate was very
Droits de l’Homme
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AREDETWA
: Association
grew
longer and
more rapid.pour le Relèvement
Démocratique des Batwa
39
v
39
7KHOLIHVW\OHRIÀVKLQJFRPPXQLWLHVZDVFORVHO\WLHGWRWKHZDWHU
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
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Sahara
southern
fringes of the desert from the Upper
A.A. and in: the
Archives
Africaines
1LJHUWR(DVW$IULFDWKURXJKWKH&KDGEDVLQ
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
ABAKI
Alliancehypothesis,
des Bakigapastoralism and agriculture
According
to :another
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des
Evoluant
la
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des Castes
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Association
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du Rwanda
as
a result of :the
movements
of Cultivateurs
Cushitic-speaking
populations.
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la DUHDV ZKHUH
(OHXVLQH coracana
was grown inNationale
the Third Millennium.
Réconciliation
AEC
: Agglomeration
In
Kenya, there
is a missing link Extra-Coutumières
regarding data on the existence of
AFDL
:
Alliance
des Forces Démocratiques pour la
DJULFXOWXUH(YLGHQFHRISDVWRUDOLVPLVZLGHO\IRXQGWKURXJKRXW
du Congo-Zaïre
the Rift Valley Libération
up to Tanzania
and in the highlands. There is
OLWWOH
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WKDW DJULFXOWXUH
EHIRUH
AGOA
: African
Growth ZDV
and GHYHORSHG
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ActWKH 7KLUG
Millennium,
however
the
the
rearing
of
sheep,
goats,
and cattle
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was
developed: from
the Indigènes
Third Millennium.
Bones of sheep, goats
AIMO
Affaires
et Main-d’oeuvre
and cattle were found in the fauna remains collected. Closer to
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
Rwanda, in the Lake Victoria Basin, remains of sheep, goats and
cows were also Rwandaise
found.
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
AM/APis no : conclusive
Arrêté ministériel/
présidentiel
There
evidence Arrêté
of Neolithic
technology in
AMR
: Association
des Moniteurs
du Rwanda
Rwanda.
There
is some evidence
of the transition
from the Late
Stone
Age
to
the
Old
Iron
Age.
Layers
containing
artifacts
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda from
the
Age mixed with
pot fragments
were found. This
ANTLate Stone
: Assemblée
Nationale
de Transition
ÀQGLQJLVVXEMHFWWRWZRLQWHUSUHWDWLRQV
(Transitional National Assembly)
APADEC
: Association
du Partior
Démocrate
One
hypothesis
is that of coexistence
commercialChrétien
transactions
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
EHWZHHQWZRFRPPXQLWLHVRQHFRPPXQLW\XVHGVWRQHWRROVZKLOH
APROBAMI
Associationand
des
Partis Monarchistes
the
other used: agricultural
metallurgical
techniques. Another
hypothesis is that
of migration theories; local indigenous people
Rwandais
who
lived in theAssociation
Stone Age received
pottery fromIndigènes
communities
APROCOMIN:
des Commerçants
who
lived
in
the
Iron
Age
and
who
had
newly
arrived
inlatheir
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de
DUHD$FFRUGLQJWROLQJXLVWLFGDWDEHIRUHWKH&KULVWLDQHUDFDWWOH
Masse
NHHSHUVIURPWKH1RUWK(DVWEURXJKWFDWWOHRI$VLDQRULJLQ19
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
19
Epstein, H., “The origin
of the most domestic animals of Africa”, Vol. I and II, in
Démocratie
Africana, New York- London- Munich, Publi. Corp., 1971; Ehret, C., “Cattle keeping
ARDHO
: Association
Rwandaise
pour laevidence”,
Défense
des
and
milking in Eastern
and South African
history : the linguistic
In Journal
Droits
of African history, 8(1)
1967,de
ppl’Homme
1-17; Ehret, C., “ Patterns of Bantu and Sudanic
settlements
in
Central
and
Southern
journal of Africa, 3(1),
AREDETWA : AssociationAfrica”,
pour In
le Trans-African
Relèvement
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Démocratique des Batwa
40
40
v
b. Iron Age
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
___________________________________
¾Early Iron Age
A.A. SUHVHQFH: Archives
AfricainesLV SURYHG E\ WKH SUHVHQFH
7KH
RI LURQ PHWDOOXUJ\
A.G.
Générale
of
numerous: Assemblée
furnaces and
characteristic ceramics of the
20
interlacustrine
region, des
including
ABAKI
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Bakiga the remains of iron-ore
H[WUDFWLRQVXFKDVEULFNVQR]]OHVDQGVODJV1LQHVLWHVSURGXFHG
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EULFNV WKDW ZHUH
XVHG WR EXLOG
Suppression
des IXUQDFHV
Castes RI YDU\LQJ VL]HV DQG
forms according to the region. The oldest site among them dates
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
WR WKH VHYHQWK FHQWXU\ +RZHYHU LW ZDV IURP WKH EHJLQQLQJ RI
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
WKLVHUDHUDWKDWLURQSURGXFWLRQDFWLYLW\EHFDPHVLJQLÀFDQW
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
Nationale
It seems that theRéconciliation
extraction of iron
ore was not done on a large scale.
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
$OWKRXJKWKHUDZPDWHULDOVXVHGVXFKDVUHGEURZQKHPDWLWHRU
OLPRQLWHZHUHDEXQGDQWLURQSURGXFWLRQUHPDLQHGDKDQGFUDIW
AFDL
: Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
Studies
were
mainly
Butare, a region
AGOA
: Africanconcentrated
Growth and in
Opportunity
Act where
LURQH[WUDFWLRQDFWLYLW\ZDVLQWHQVLYHEHWZHHQWKHWKLUGDQGWKH
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: Affaires
et Rwanda
Main-d’oeuvre
interlacustrine
region inIndigènes
general, and
in particular, with
AJER
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de la&RQWDFW
Jeunesse
Estudiantine
WKH
(DVW &RDVW
WKURXJK WUDGH
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WKH (DVW &RDVW LV
Rwandaise
PXFKROGHUWKDQLVFXUUHQWO\SRUWUD\HGLQKLVWRU\ERRNV
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
)RXUWHHQ
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KDYH
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GLIIHUHQFHV
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FRQVLVW RI D
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du7KH\
Rwanda
generally
deep
excavation
of
20
to
60
cm
in
the
ground.
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda Their
diameters range from 80 to 90 cm. Some of these depressions
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
attain larger dimensions at Nyaruhengeri and Cyamakuza sites.
(Transitional National Assembly)
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
$OOWKHVHH[FDYDWLRQVZHUHÀOOHGZLWKGHEULVIURPDQRYHUKDQJLQJ
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Rwandaise
instrument,
which
wasPatriotique
used to concentrate
heat on the iron-ore
LQRUGHUWRLQFUHDVHWKHHIÀFLHQF\RIH[WUDFWLRQ7KHLQVWUXPHQW
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
ZKRVH GLDPHWHU
GHFUHDVHG IURP WRS WR ERWWRP ZDV PDGH RI
Rwandais
rollers
of
superposed
clay, forming
a conical shape.
The layers
APROCOMIN: Association
des Commerçants
Indigènes
ZHUHNQHDGHGE\KDQGVRPHWLPHVWKHUHZHUHÀQJHUSULQWVRQWKH
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
external surface, while the interior was decorated with crescent
Masse
designs or s-formations.
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
Démocratie
Ehret, C., and Posnansky, M. (Eds), The archeological and linguistic construction of
ARDHO
:
Association
Rwandaise
pour la
des
African history, 1982, pp. 158-181; Bender,
M.L.; “Livestock
andDéfense
linguistics in
north
Droits deinl’Homme
and east African ethno-history”,
current anthropology, 23 (3), 1982, pp. 316-317.
20
Schmidt, P., Historical
archeology: pour
a structural
approach in an African culture,
AREDETWA
: Association
le Relèvement
Westpot, Greenwood Press, 1978.
Démocratique des Batwa
41
v
41
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ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
5HPHUDKLOOV$W.DEX\HKLOOVLWHVSURGXFHGIXUQDFHUHPDLQV
___________________________________
7KH GHSUHVVLRQV FUHDWHG LQ WKH EULFN VLWHV FRQWDLQHG QR]]OHV
LURQVODJVFKDUFRDODQGVRPHSRWWHU\
A.A.
: Archives Africaines VHH)LJXUHEHORZ A.G.
ABAKI
ABESC
: Assemblée Générale
: Alliance des Bakiga
: Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
Suppression des Castes
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
Réconciliation Nationale
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
AFDL
: Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity Act
$,'6
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AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
Rwandaise
2Q*DKRQGRKLOOÀYHVLWHVSURGXFHGDYDULHW\RIREMHFWV7KHVH
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
LQFOXGHEULFNVQR]]OHIUDJPHQWVFKDUFRDODQGSRWVZLWKGLPSOH
AM/AP EDVHV
: Arrêté
ministériel/
Arrêté présidentiel
GHFRUDWHG
WKHLU
HGJHV DUH HPERVVHG
ZLWK GHFRUDWLRQV
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: Association
des Moniteurs
du Rwanda
DQG
HGJHV 5HPHUD
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EULFN DQG SRW
AMUR
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deswith
Musulmans
fragments
as: well
as nozzles
edges of au
3- Rwanda
4 facets with
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ANT
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de Transition
(Transitional National Assembly)
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
Rwandais
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
Masse
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
Démocratie
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
Droits de l’Homme
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
Démocratique des Batwa
Figure No. 4. Bricks found at Muyunzwe (seventh century)
42
42
v
Figure 5: PotACRONYMS
with patterns
characteristic
of Urewe pottery
AND
ABBREVIATIONS
___________________________________
A.A.
A.G.
ABAKI
ABESC
:
:
:
:
Archives Africaines
Assemblée Générale
Alliance des Bakiga
Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
Suppression des Castes
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
Réconciliation Nationale
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
AFDL
: Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
7KHUHDUHVHYHUDOVLWHVZLWKSRWWHU\WKDWGDWHIURPWKH(DUO\,URQ
AGOA
: African
Growth with
and Opportunity
Act
Age.
This pottery
is associated
metal work activities.
It is
FKDUDFWHUL]HG
E\ PDUNHG HGJHV ZLWK GLPSOHGHFRUDWHG EDVHV
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7KHPRVWFRPPRQGHFRUDWLRQVDUHREOLTXHLQFLVLRQVÀVKERQH
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: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
shaped
lines,
decorations,
horizontal
lines, overlapping
AJER
:v-shaped
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de la Jeunesse
Estudiantine
WULDQJOHV ÀQH LQFLVLRQV DQG FRQFHQWULF FLUFOHV VHH )LJXUH Rwandaise
EHORZ ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
AM/AP6: Urewe
: Arrêté
ministériel/
Arrêté présidentiel
Figure
dimple-based
pottery
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
(Transitional National Assembly)
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
Rwandais
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
Masse
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
Démocratie
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
Droits SRWWHU\
de l’Homme
8UHZH GLPSOHEDVHG
DOVR IHDWXUHV FRQFHQWULF FLUFOHV
AREDETWA
:
Association
pour
Relèvement or triangular.
parallel lines, and petals that arele semi-circular
Démocratique des Batwa
43
v
43
7KHVH SRWV· EDVHV
DUH URXQG
DQGABBREVIATIONS
ÁDW ZLWK GLPSOH GHFRUDWLRQV
ACRONYMS
AND
A closer examination
of the inner surface of the pot reveals
___________________________________
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WHFKQLTXH
ZKLFK
VXSHULPSRVHG
VSLUDO UROOV RI FOD\ :KLOH WKH
A.A.
: Archives
Africaines
inner
surfaces
were
thick,
the
external
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale ones were thin.
ABAKI
: Alliance des Bakiga
The paste used in the pottery industry contained natural greaseABESC
: Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
removing material such as small grains of quartz and limonite.
Suppression des Castes
The containers manufactured were usually small in size and
ACR
:
Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
ZHUHRIWZRW\SHV
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
&ORVHGFRQWDLQHUVZLWKDQHFNVKDSHDQGDQ6VKDSHGSURÀOH
ADR
: Alliance with
pourno
laneck
Démocratie et la
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is varied. Pottery was found in layers. Some pottery features
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In open areas, the climate was mild with regular
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Butare
Droits de l’Homme
21
Simon,
Ph.
Annexe
9 : La région du lac
Bulera,
Van Noten, Histoire archéologique
AREDETWA : Association
pour
le in
Relèvement
du Rwanda, Tervuren, MRAC 1983 p. 146
Démocratique des Batwa
44
44
v
region. The average
altitude
favored
the growth of millet and
ACRONYMS
AND
ABBREVIATIONS
sorghum, which
were staple food crops at the time. Large-scale
___________________________________
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found in Rwanda dating from the third century. Cattle-keeping
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was more commonly practiced than agriculture. In Southern
Suppression des Castes
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:
Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
22
. In this
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des
Peuples
region, cattle teeth were found in a furnace structure at Remera
ADR
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et that
la of cow and
dating from 220
A.D. This
date
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Réconciliation Nationale
VKHHSERQHVIRXQGLQ7RQJRQRUWKRI*RPDLQWKH'HPRFUDWLF
23
(see FigureExtra-Coutumières
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: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
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: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
(Transitional National Assembly)
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
Rwandais
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
Masse
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
Démocratie
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
Droits de l’Homme
22
Van
Grunderbeek
et al., 1982, op. cit.
p. 32.le Relèvement
AREDETWA : Association
pour
23
Kanimba and Shumbusho, 1992: 66-71
Démocratique des Batwa
v
45
Map 2: Location
of sites during
the Early Iron Age
ACRONYMS
AND ABBREVIATIONS
___________________________________
A.A.
A.G.
ABAKI
ABESC
Archives Africaines
Assemblée Générale
Alliance des Bakiga
Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
Suppression des Castes
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
Réconciliation Nationale
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
AFDL
: Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity Act
$,'6
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ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
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: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
ANT
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¾Modern(Transitional
Iron Age
National Assembly)
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The Modern Iron Age started towards the eighth century A.D.
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Indigènes
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Masse
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
Démocratie
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
Droits de l’Homme
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
Démocratique des Batwa
46
46
:
:
:
:
v
Figure 8: PotsACRONYMS
decorated with
circular
rings on the surface and
AND
ABBREVIATIONS
around the space
between
the
pot’s
base,
neck and shoulder
___________________________________
A.A.
A.G.
ABAKI
ABESC
:
:
:
:
Archives Africaines
Assemblée Générale
Alliance des Bakiga
Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
Suppression des Castes
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
Réconciliation Nationale
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
AFDL
: Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
At
Kiguhu site,
pot fragments
with the Act
use of cords
AGOA
: African
Growthdecorated
and Opportunity
24
were
found
in
addition
to
fragments
with
saw-like
teeth
$,'6
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pots are similar to fragments found in Bugarama. The pots from
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period. Some ofRwandaise
the sites that have revealed these pots date from
ALIR
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Armée
de Libération
du
Rwanda
the eighth to the tenth century
A.D. The
Mucucu
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Cyinkomane sites
date to the
ninth
and tenth
AMR
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Rwanda
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At Ruamurari site, which dates to the seventeenth century, a
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primigenius
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long,
u-shaped
horns were des
found.
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remains indicate that
APROBAMI
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Partis
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the cows were of
the Ankole-type, a type which was widespread
Rwandais
in
the
Great
Lakes
Region267KHERQHIUDJPHQWVRIVPDOOVL]HG
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site also afforded grinding stones and mills made of stone that
Masse
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:
Alliance
pour le Renforcement
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were used for grinding sorghum
and millet grains.
Démocratie
ARDHO
:
Association
24
Simon, Ph., 1983, op. cit, p. 145. Rwandaise pour la Défense des
25
Droits
de l’Homme
Van Noten, Histoire
archéologique
du Rwanda, Butare, INRS, 1983, p. 62.
26
Tshilema,
T.,
Annex
10
:
Ryamurari,
capital
ancient kingdom of Ndorwa, in Van
AREDETWA : Association pourofletheRelèvement
Noten, Histoire archéologique du Rwanda, Tervuren, M.R.A.C., 1983, pp. 150-151.
Démocratique des Batwa
47
v
47
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cattle-keeping. During this period, hunting and fruit-gathering
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was rarely consumed, and a large percentage of the Rwandese
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evolution: from
the Ancient
Age to
the Modern
Age
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size and cruder in nature. The decorations added to the outside
ADR
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These
lead us to ask who
introduced this new form of
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deterioration rates resulting from anthropogenic action. Both
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increase
in :population.
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have associated
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Estudiantine
these
with thede
Barenge
(Hiernaux
at al., Kagame,
Rwandaise
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WKH 'HPRFUDWLF
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Arrêté
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to
Akanyaru. :The
region of des
Butare
was partdu
of Rwanda
this kingdom27.
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Association
Moniteurs
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of metal and with water wells dug in rocks28.
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2.2. Settlement
in Rwanda National Assembly)
(Transitional
APADEC
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: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
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APROBAMI
: Association
Partis Monarchistes
migration
waves
from Asia,des
a continent
that was considered
Rwandais
the cradle of mankind and the origin of change in Africa. The
SKHQRPHQRQRIPLJUDWLRQKDVWKHUHIRUHEHHQFRQVLGHUHGDVWKH
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APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
the spread of civilization
in Rwanda.
Masse
ARD
: Alliance
pour le
Renforcement
de la
It
was from this
perspective
that
colonial historiography
was
Démocratie
ODWHU GHYHORSHG
E\ SROLWLFLDQV WR DFKLHYH WKHLU SROLWLFDO HQGV
$FFRUGLQJ
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ARDHO WR:WKLV
Association
Rwandaise pour
Défense
des
27
Droits
l’Homme
Kanyamacumbi, P.,
Société,de
culture
et pouvoir politique en Afrique interlacustre,
Kinshasa,
Ed.
Select,
2001,
p.232.
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
28
Kagame, A., Un abrégé de l’ethnohistoire du Rwanda, Butare, EUNR, 1972, p. 27.
Démocratique des Batwa
48
48
v
RI 5ZDQGD ZHUH
WKH %DWZD
ZKR
EHORQJ WR WKH S\JPLHV 7KH
ACRONYMS
AND
ABBREVIATIONS
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the
forest. Africaines
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: Archives
A.G. are several
: Assemblée
There
theories Générale
on the origins of the Bahutu. These
ABAKI are :confused
Alliance des
theories
withBakiga
theories on the Bantu. Several
ABESC
: Association
des Bahutu
pour
la
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RI RULJLQ
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WKHEvoluant
FHQWUDO DQG
VRXWKHUQ
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Suppression des Castes
WKH
7KHLU H[LVWHQFH
GDWHG WR WKH
ACR1LJHULDQ&DPHURRQLDQ
: Association EHOW
des Cultivateurs
duLVRwanda
First
Millennium
A.D.
It
was
thought
that
the
Bahutu
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples practiced
agriculture, kept small animals, and practiced iron metalwork
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
EHIRUHRUDIWHUVHWWOLQJLQ5ZDQGD
Réconciliation Nationale
7KHÀUVWWKHRU\RIWKH(WKLRSLDQRULJLQRIWKH%DWXWVLJRHVEDFN
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
to
the nineteenth
century.
Tutsi Démocratiques
and Hima sharedpour
a similar
AFDL
: Alliance
desThe
Forces
la
origin with the
Galla,
who
were
half-Semitic,
half-Hamitic.
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
$IWHUEUHDNLQJDZD\IURPWKHLU(WKLRSLDQKHULWDJHWKHVHSHRSOH
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity Act
are said to have founded the Kitara Kingdom, which was later
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WREHKHUGVPHQDQGWKHLUDQLPDOVZHUHLGHQWLFDOWRWKRVHRIWKH
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: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
*DOOD7XWVLZHUHWKXVDVVRFLDWHGZLWKWKH=HEXFRZIURP,QGLD
Rwandaise
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ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
The Hamitic theory goes hand in hand with race-inequality
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LGHRORJ\ 7KH QRWHV DQG ÀHOG UHSRUWV DYDLODEOH LQ DGGLWLRQ WR
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SXEOLFDWLRQVPDGHLQDQGRYHUVLPSOLI\WKH+DPLWLF
AMUR E\ VWUHVVLQJ
: Association
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au Rwanda
WKHRU\
WKH LQYDVLRQ
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ANT
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Transition
and their conquest and domination over masses of the Bahutu
Assembly)
agriculturalists.(Transitional
These false National
theories were
the main cause of
recurrent
in Rwanda,
the Rwandan
APADEC violence
: Association
duwhich
Particulminated
DémocrateinChrétien
genocide
perpetrated
against
the
Tutsi
in
1994.
The divisive
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
theory
of
the
Hutu
as
the
native
settlers
of
Rwanda
and
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes the Tutsi
DV IRUHLJQ VHWWOHUV ZDV VWUHVVHG E\ 3UHVLGHQW .D\LEDQGD DQG
Rwandais
ODWHUE\/pRQ0XJHVHUDLQWKHLUVSHFKHHV
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
The
origin question
seems pour
to have
preoccupied
all societies
APROSOMA
: Association
la Promotion
Sociale
de la of
29
the world. However,
it
is
in
the
myths
and
legends
of
Rwandan
Masse
society
that
truth
might emerge.
societyde
created
myths
ARD
: Alliance
pour le Rwandan
Renforcement
la
DQG FRQVHUYHGDémocratie
WKHP E\ WUDQVPLWWLQJ WKHP IURP JHQHUDWLRQ WR
generation. It is important to refer to these traditional histories
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
29
de l’Homme
Bishikwabo, C.,Droits
« Mythes
d’origine et croyances religieuses. Base d’une
communauté
»,
in
Centre
de
civilisation
La civilisation ancienne des
AREDETWA : Association pourburundaise,
le Relèvement
peuples des Lacs, Colloque de Bujumbura (4-10 septembre 1979) 1981, pp. 64-80).
Démocratique des Batwa
49
v
49
LQ ORRNLQJ IRU
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LQ 5ZDQGD EHIRUH
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___________________________________
of the nineteenth century.
A.A.
: Archives Africaines
)DUIURPEHLQJDFRQWLQHQWRILPPLJUDQWV$IULFDLVFRQVLGHUHGWREH
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
WKHFUDGOHRIPDQNLQG,WLVLQ(DVW$IULFDWKDWPRVWKXPDQIRVVLOV
ABAKI
: Alliance des Bakiga
KDYHEHHQGLVFRYHUHG6LQFHWKHWZHQWLHWKFHQWXU\WKHVHGLVFRYHULHV
have
inspired
theories des
on settlements,
the development
ABESC
: new
Association
Bahutu Evoluant
pour la of
agriculture andSuppression
animal keeping,
and
the advent of metal use.
des
Castes
ACR Local traditions
: Association
des Cultivateurs
duand
Rwanda
2.2.1.
on settlements:
myths
narratives
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
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: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
5ZDQGHVH LW EHFRPHV FOHDU WKDW WUDGLWLRQDO 5ZDQGDQ VRFLHW\
Réconciliation Nationale
KHOG DQ RSSRVLWH YLHZ IURP WKDW RI (XURSHDQV ,Q UHIHUULQJ WR
AEC
: Agglomeration
Rwandan
myths
and legends, Extra-Coutumières
handed over from generation to
AFDL
:
Alliance
des
Forces
Démocratiques
pour
la
generation, the Rwandese
claim
a common
ancestry. The
analysis
Libération
du interest
Congo-Zaïre
of these myths is
of particular
to the study of settlements
in
Rwanda. The
mythsGrowth
and legends
of Rwandan Act
origin are of
AGOA
: African
and Opportunity
YDULRXVQDWXUHVEXWWKH\VKDUHRQHFRPPRQGHQRPLQDWRUWKH\
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URWDWHDURXQGWZRSHUVRQDOLWLHV.LJZDDQG*LKDQJD
AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
AJERstarting :point
Association
la Jeunesse
Estudiantine
The
of the de
myth
of Kigwa,
or the Ibimanuka
Rwandaise
(those who dropped from heaven), is that the ancestors of the
Banyarwanda
also referred
to in some
narratives as Sherezo
ALIR
: -Armée
de Libération
du Rwanda
HQG
DQGDOVRFDOOHG6HEDQWXOLYHGLQKHDYHQZLWKWKHIDWKHU
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
RI
PDQNLQG
KHDYHQO\ des
IDWKHU
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AMR
:7KH
Association
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Rwanda
1\DEXQ\DQD,QRWKHUQDUUDWLYHVWKH\ZHUHDOVRUHIHUUHGWRDV
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
1\DEXKRUR DQG 1\DPSLQJD *DVDQL ZDV WKH IDYRULWH GDXJKWHU
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
RI 6K\HUH]R EXW VKH ZDV EDUUHQ 1\DPSLQJD KDG D VRQ FDOOHG
National
Assembly)
30
Mututsi and a(Transitional
daughter called
Nyampundu
. On the advice
APADEC
:
Association
du
Parti
Démocrate
Chrétien
RI KHU VHUYDQW *DVDQL KLG WKH KHDUW RI D EXOO LQ
D MDU ZKHUH
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: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
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: Association des Partis Monarchistes
6DEL]H]HRU0DQDLQVRPHQDUUDWLYHVIURPWKHQDPHRI5ZDQGD·V
Rwandais
supreme
power
known as Imana.
Thanks to Mutwa’s
curiosity,
APROCOMIN: Association
des Commerçants
Indigènes
6K\HUH]ROHDUQWDERXWWKHFLUFXPVWDQFHVXQGHUZKLFK6DEL]H]H
APROSOMA
: Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
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Masse
the child escaped from heaven through an opening. After this,
ARD
Alliance
pour
le Renforcement
dedropped
la
he was given :the
name of
Kigwa,
or the one who
from
31
Démocratie
heaven .
ARDHO
Association
Rwandaise
pour2000,
la Défense
des
Sebasoni, S., Les: origines
du Rwanda
, Paris, L’Harmattan,
p. 13. ; Kayishema,
Droitsaude
l’Homme
J.M., « Mythes et croyances
cœur
du génocide au Rwanda », in Etudes Rwandaises,
no.
9,
septembre
2005,
p.
45.
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
31
Kayishema, J. M., 2005, art. cit. p. 46.
Démocratique des Batwa
30
50
v
)URPWKLVQDUUDWLYHWKHIROORZLQJVFHQDULRVHQIROG
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
___________________________________
ƒ .LJZD DQG KLV FRPSDQLRQV GHVFHQGHG RQ (DUWK DV WKH
Bimanuka :KHQ WKH\ GHVFHQGHG WR (DUWK 6HEL]H]H
A.A. EHFDPH.LJZD+HDUULYHGLQWKHHDVWHUQSDUWRIPRGHUQ
: Archives Africaines
A.G. 5ZDQGD
: Assemblée
DW D SODFHGénérale
FDOOHG 0XEDUL 0XEDUL ZDV UXOHG
ABAKIE\ .LQJ
: Alliance
des
Bakiga
.DEHMD RI
WKH
%D]LJDED FODQ 8SRQ KLV DUULYDO
ABESC
Association
des Bahutu
pour
la
.LJZD :ZDV
DFFRPSDQLHG
E\ KLVEvoluant
KDOIEURWKHU
0XWXWVL
and his Suppression
half-sister Nyampundu.
They
also
arrived
with
des Castes
called Mutwa,
Mutwa’s sister,
and a series
ACR a pot-maker
: Association
des Cultivateurs
du Rwanda
RI
DQLPDOV
LQ
FRXSOHV
RI
WZRV
D
EXOO
FDOOHG
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples5XJLUD DQG
a cow called Ingizi, a ram called Rugeyo and a sheep
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
called Mudende, a he-dog called Ruzunguzungu and a
Réconciliation Nationale
VKHGRJFDOOHG5XNHQGHDQGDFRFNFDOOHG5XELNDDQGD
AEC KHQFDOOHG0XJDPELUD7KH%LPDQXNDEURXJKWZLWKWKHP
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
AFDL JUDLQVRIFXOWLYDWDEOHSODQWVÀUHDQGIRXUSULQFLSDOMREV
: Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
EODFNVPLWKLQJZRRGZRUNWDQQHU\DQGKXQWLQJ
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity Act
ƒ 7KHUHZHUHLQWHUPDUULDJHVEHWZHHQ.LJZDDQGKLVJURXS
$,'6 leading$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
to the origins of several clans. The reproduction
AIMO of the Bimanuka
: Affaires Indigènes
Main-d’oeuvre
group tooketthree
directions. One mode
AJER ZDV LQFHVW
: Association
de la Jeunesse
Estudiantine
.LJZD PDUULHG
KLV KDOIVLVWHU
1\DPSXQGX
Rwandaise
who produced at least two children, one of whom was
daughter.
ALIR Sukiranya
: Armée
de Libération du Rwanda
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
ƒ Fearing incest, Mututsi settled far way across River
AMR Akagera.
: Association
des Moniteurs du Rwanda
Upon his return, he married his niece Sukiranya,
AMURZKR JDYH
: Association
des Musulmans
au Rwanda
ELUWK WR WKUHH
FKLOGUHQ 6HUZHJD
0XKD DQG
ANT Mukono,
: Assemblée
Nationale
de
Transition
the ancestors of the Bega clan, the Baha, and
(Transitional
National
the Bakono.
Another version
of Assembly)
this myth speaks to an
DOOLDQFHRILQWUXGHUVZLWKQDWLYHV.DEHMD·VJUDQGGDXJKWHU
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
was
married
Kigwa, or his
descendant of the sixth
APR
: ArméetoPatriotique
Rwandaise
JHQHUDWLRQ
FDOOHG
.D]L
7KH
ER\
IURP WKLV XQLRQ ZDV
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
*LKDQJDWKHRIÀFLDOIRXQGHURIWKH%DQ\LJLQ\DG\QDVW\
Rwandais
APROCOMIN:
Association
des Commerçants
Indigènes
ƒ 7KH ELUWK
DQG DGYHQWXURXV
OLIH RI *LKDQJD
WKH IRXQGHU
of the :Kingdom.
During
youth, Gihanga
spent
some
APROSOMA
Association
pourhis
la Promotion
Sociale
de la
RI KLV WLPH
LQ
0XEDUL
LQ
WKH
(DVW
DQG
VRPH
LQ
%XJR\L
Masse
QHDU5ZHUHUH*LKDQJDKDGVHYHUDOWDOHQWV+HWRRNRYHU
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
from his Démocratie
father, or Kigwa’s ancestors, who was a civilizing
KHUR DQG WKH VRQ RI D EODFNVPLWK +H ZDV KLPVHOI D
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
EODFNVPLWK DQG ZDV DOVR VNLOOHG LQ ZRRGZRUN DQG
tannery.Droits
He wasde
anl’Homme
adventurer who was ready to conquer
AREDETWA
:
Association
pour le 5ZDQGD
Relèvement
WKH UR\DO SRZHUV LQ PRGHUQ
DQG LWV SHULSKHU\
Démocratique des Batwa
v
51
%XUXQGL1GXJD%XNXQ]LDQG%XQ\DEXQJR+HIRXQGHG
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
his royal
authority in Buhanga (former Ruhengeri) after
___________________________________
PDUU\LQJ WKH GDXJKWHU RI -HQL RQH RI WKH ODVW NLQJV RI
dynasty
of the Basinga clan. He imposed the
A.A. the Barenge
: Archives
Africaines
Rwoga drum, the forerunner of the Karinga drum. He is
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
FRQVLGHUHGWKHIDWKHURIDOOWKHQHLJKERULQJNLQJGRPVLQ
ABAKIWKHUHJLRQ%XUXQGL%XQ\DEXQJR1GRUZD%XVKXELDQG
: Alliance des Bakiga
ABESC
: Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
Karagwe.
Suppression des Castes
ƒ 7KH GLVFRYHU\
RI FRZV
DQG
WKH XVH RI FRZV
IRU PLON LQ
ACR
: Association
des
Cultivateurs
du Rwanda
his
escape
to
the
forest
after
quarreling
with
Queen
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
1\LUDPSLUDQJZH RU 1\LUDQWLEDQJZD 1\LUDUXXF\DED
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
daughter of Gihanga and Nyamususa, met a hunter
Réconciliation
Nationale
FDOOHG .DJHVHUD
RU .D]LJDED
DQG WKH\ JRW PDUULHG
AEC 2QHGD\VKHEURXJKWDFDOIDQGLWVPRWKHUWKLVLVKRZ
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
AFDL 1\LUDUXF\DED
: Alliance
des KRZ
Forces
Démocratiques
OHDUQW
WR WUHDW
DQG FKXUQpour
PLONla
6KH
administered
milk later
to her father, Gihanga, who was
Libération
du Congo-Zaïre
IURP G\VHQWHU\
EXWOpportunity
WKHQ UHFRYHUHG
AGOA VXIIHULQJ
: African
Growth and
Act :LWK WKH
help
of
a
soothsayer
called
Gakara,
Gihanga
discovered
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
DYDVWQXPEHURIFRZVLQ5XJH]LYDOOH\7KHEXOOOHDGLQJ
AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
WKHÁRFNHVFDSHG
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
ƒ 7KH GLVWULEXWLRQ
RwandaiseRI DQLPDOV DQG SRZHU LQ *LKDQJD·V
ALIR OLQHDJH*LKDQJDUHXQLWHGDOORIKLVRIIVSULQJLQ0XWDUD
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
+XPXUH
DQG GLVWULEXWHG
FRZV
DPRQJ
KLV VRQV WKH
AM/AP
: Arrêté
ministériel/
Arrêté
présidentiel
IRXQGHUVRIWKHG\QDVWLHVLQ5ZDQGDDQGLQQHLJKERULQJ
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
countries32.
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
&RQWUDU\
WR ZKDW
ZDV ODWHU
ZULWWHQ E\
DXWKRUV VXFK DV
ANT
: Assemblée
Nationale
deVRPH
Transition
33
Pagès and Delmas
, the mythNational
of the Ibimanuka
never mentions
(Transitional
Assembly)
GRPLQDWLRQ
RU
LQYDVLRQ
RI
RQH
JURXS
RI
5ZDQGDQ
SHRSOH E\
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
another. It is only mentiones that a couple of Twa accompanied
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
6DEL]H]H DQG D 7ZD UHYHDOHG WKH VHFUHW RI WKH FLUFXPVWDQFHV
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
E\ZKLFK6DEL]H]HZDVERUQ7KHQDPH0XWXWVLLVQRWDVXVHG
Rwandais
DQHWKQLFJURXSLQWKHP\WKEXWUDWKHUUHIHUVWRWKHIDWKHURI
APROCOMIN:
des Commerçants Indigènes
Serwega,
Muha,Association
and Mukono.
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
The narratives on Rwandese origins speak of clans while
Masse
identifying groups that were living in classical Rwanda. These
ARD played a: Alliance
pour
Renforcement
de la
clans
central role.
Forleexample,
narratives
speak of the
Démocratie
32
IRDP, +LVWRLUH HW FRQÀLWV DX 5ZDQGD, Kigali, 2006, p. 7-8. ; Kagame, A., Inganji
ARDHO
Association
Rwandaise
pourS.,la
Défense
Karinga,
Kabgayi ,:1959
(2ème Ed.), pp.
21-23. ; SEBASONI
2000,
op. cit. pp.des
14-17.
33
Droits
de l’Homme
Pages, A., Un royaume
hamite
au centre de l’Afrique, Bruxelles, Marcel Hayez,
1933
, p. 107. ; Delmas,
L., Généalogie
de lale
noblesse
du Rwanda, Kabgayi, Vicariat
AREDETWA
: Association
pour
Relèvement
Apostolique du Ruanda, 1950.
Démocratique des Batwa
52
v
ULWXDOOHDGHURIWKH%D]LJDEDGXULQJWKH1\LJLQ\DVHWWOHPHQWRQ
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
the new land. ___________________________________
These clan identities also determined preferential
matrimonial alliances. Half of these clan entities are represented
in
this mother-legend,
which clearly demonstrates mothers’
A.A.
: Archives Africaines
position in our historical society. Three groups are clearly
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
LGHQWLÀHG G\QDVWLF FODQV HPDQDWLQJ IURP *LKDQJD WKDW LV
ABAKI
: Alliance des Bakiga
1\JLQ\D6KDPER+RQGRJRDQG7VREHFODQVRI4XHHQ0RWKHUV
ABESC
: Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
RULJLQDWLQJIURP0XWWXWVLWKDWLV+D.RQRDQG(JDDQGWKH
Suppression des Castes
%DVDQJDEXWDNDFODQRUQDWLYHVZKRDUHRIWHQFRQVLGHUHG+XWX
ACR
Association
desSURYH
Cultivateurs
Rwanda
DOWKRXJK
QR :VRXUFH
H[LVWV WR
LW WKDW LVdu
=LJDED
*HVHUD
34
Singa
ADP .
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
ADR
: Alliance
Démocratie
et la
The ritual role
of thosepour
last la
groups
welcomed
ceremonies for
Réconciliation
Nationale
settling on new land is similar to what is outlined in the original
AEC
Agglomeration
legends. The :three
great Biru, Extra-Coutumières
or ritual kings, came from each
RI WKH WKUHH JURXSV
7VREH
.RQR DQG
6LQJD +DYLQJpour
VDLG WKLV
AFDL
: Alliance
des Forces
Démocratiques
la
WKHUHLVDOLQNEHWZHHQWKHOHJHQGVRI*LKDQJDDQG.LJZDDQG
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
WKH8EZLUXLQVWLWXWLRQ
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity Act
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
The clan identities
evoked in the original myths only acquired
AIMO
: Affaires
Indigènes
et Main-d’oeuvre
divisive ethnic
meanings
in the twentieth
century, especially
AJER
: Association
la Jeunesse
during the Belgian
colonialdeperiod.
Prior, Estudiantine
the Rwandese were
DOZD\VLGHQWLÀHGDFFRUGLQJWRWKHLUFODQVQRWWKHLUHWKQLFJURXSV
Rwandaise
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
6DEL]H]H·V ODQGLQJ SRLQW IURP KHDYHQ WRRN SODFH LQ 0XEDUL
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
Some researchers, especially those who defend the Hamitic
AMR
: Association
Moniteurs
Rwanda
theory, have interpreted
thisdes
as the
location du
where
the Nyiginya
AMUR
: Association
des
Musulmans
au 1\LJLQ\D
Rwanda WKH\
DUULYHG LQ 5ZDQGD
IURP WKH
(DVW
%\ WKH WHUP
ANT
: Assemblée
Nationale
defact
Transition
meant the Tutsi;
they neglected
that the
there were no clans
LQ5ZDQGDOLPLWHGWRDVLQJOHVRFLDOJURXS²WKDWLVWKHUHZHUH
(Transitional National Assembly)
no ethnic groups.
Moreover,du
theParti
oral tradition
on settlements
APADEC
: Association
Démocrate
Chrétien is
VLOHQW RQ WKH:TXHVWLRQ
RI WKH HWKQLF
RULJLQV RI WKH =XJDED WKH
APR
Armée Patriotique
Rwandaise
*HVHUD RU LQGHHG DQ\ RWKHU ORFDO JURXSV EHIRUH WKH FRQTXHVW
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
RI WKH 1\LJLQ\D 5HVHDUFKHUV LQFOXGLQJ 0 G·+HUWHIHOW DQG -3
Rwandais
Chrétien insist
on the multi-ethnic composition of the eighteen
APROCOMIN:
Rwandan
clans.Association des Commerçants Indigènes
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
6RPHQDUUDWLYHVJREDFNWRDGLVWDQWKLVWRULFDOSDVWWRH[SODLQ
Masse
the
origin
of
the
Rwandese.
is the chronological
list of
ARD
: Alliance
pour Below
le Renforcement
de la
DQFHVWRUVDFFRUGLQJWRGLIIHUHQWVRXUFHV
Démocratie
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
34
Droits
IRDP, 2006, op. cit,
p. 8 andde
seel’Homme
also Nyagahene, A., 1997.
35
D’Hertfelt,
M.,
Les
clans
du
Rwanda
ancien,leTervuren,
MRAC, 1971, Chrétien, J .P.,
AREDETWA : Association pour
Relèvement
L’Afrique des Grands Lacs. Deux milles ans d’histoire, Paris, Aubier, 2000.
Démocratique des Batwa
v
53
Table 2: Chronological
listAND
of Ibimanuka
in Rwanda36
ACRONYMS
ABBREVIATIONS
___________________________________
Report of the
Kagame
P a g è s
Government during
(1943;
(1933)
:
Archives
Africaines
the year 1926, p. 54 1959)
A.A.
A.G.
1
1NXED
ABAKI
ABESC
2
Kigwa
Delmas (1950)
: Assemblée Générale
Randa
1NXED 6K\HUH]R
: Alliance des Bakiga
: Association des Bahutu
pour
la
Muntu Evoluant
6DEL]H]H
.LJZD
Suppression des Castes
Muntu (Son of
Mututsi
3
6DEL]H]HDQG
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du
Rwanda
Nyampundu (sic)
Nyampundu)
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
4
Kimanuka
Kazi
Kimanuka
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
Réconciliation Nationale
Kijuru
1NXED
Kijuru
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
6
.RER
Kigwa
.RER
AFDL
: Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
7
Merano
Kimanuka
Merano
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
AGOA
: African Growth andKijuru
Opportunity
Act
8
Randa
Randa
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
9
Muntu
.RER
Gisa
AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
10 Kazi
Kizira
Kizira
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse
Estudiantine
I
RwandaiseGihanga
11 Gisa
Gihanga
Kazi
Ngomijana
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
Gihanga, father to
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
ZLWK ZLIH
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du1)Rwanda
Nyamususa
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
-HQL·VGDXJKWHU
- 6HEXJDER
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
$EDVKDPER
(Transitional National Assembly)
- Mugondo
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate $EDKRQGRJR
Chrétien
Kanya- Kanyarwanda
0XVLQGL
$EHQHQJZH
APR
: Armée Patriotique
Rwandaise $EDQ\LJLQ\D
12
rwanda I
family)
APROBAMI : Association
des Partis Monarchistes
- 1\LUDUXF\DED
Gihanga
$EDF\DED
Rwandais
2) Nyirampingiye
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants
- Indigènes
5XVWREH·V0RWKHU
$EDWVREH
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale
de la
3) Nyirampirangwe
Masse
- Gafomo (or
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de
la
*DVKXEL
4)
1\DQJREHUR
Démocratie
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
36
de l’Homme
Nkurikiyimfura, J.Droits
N., Un modèle
d’exploitation de la généalogie accompagnée de
UpÀH[LRQVXUOHVFKURQRORJLHVpWDEOLHVjSDUWLUGHODJpQpDORJLHG\QDVWLTXHGX5ZDQGD,
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
Mémoire de D.E.A, Université de Paris I, 1982-1983, p.7.
Démocratique des Batwa
54
v
13
ACRONYMS
AND IABBREVIATIONS
Kasila Nyamigezi
Yuhi
K a n y a ___________________________________
$ED]LJDEDIDPLO\
Musindi
rwanda
Gihanga (+
A.A. Nyamususa)
: Archives Africaines
A.G. - Kanyarwanda
: Assemblée Générale
14
Mugondo
Rumeza
ABAKI
: Alliance des
BakigaMusindi
- Kanyandorwa (+
ABESC
: Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
Nyilampingiye)
Suppression des Castes
- 5XWVREH
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
Kanyarwanda
Nyarume
Rumeza
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique
des Peuples
ADR
: Alliance pour
la Démocratie
et la
16 Musindi
Rukuge
Nyarume
Réconciliation Nationale
AEC
Extra-Coutumières
17 Rumeza : Agglomeration
5XEDQGD
Rukuge
AFDL
: Alliance des
Forces
Démocratiques pour la
Ndahiro I
18 Nyarume Libération du Congo-Zaïre
5XEDQGD
Ruyange
AGOA
:
African
Growth
and1GRED
Opportunity
Act
19 Lukuge
1GRED
VLF
$,'6
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AIMO
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Démocratique des Batwa
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55
to Bukunzi the
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since he did not have a male heir. Gihanga founded Rwanda and
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narratives, it is said that the hero is Gihanga cyahanze inka
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settlements,
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ARDHO
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37
Kayishema, J. M.,Droits
2005, art.de
cit.,l’Homme
p. 49.
38
Delmas,
L.,
«
Généalogie
de
la
noblesse
du Rwanda
», Kabgayi, Vicariat Apostolique
AREDETWA : Association pour
le Relèvement
du Ruanda, 1950, p. 11.
Démocratique des Batwa
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ACRONYMS
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the father of
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kingpour
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son
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his dynastic name was Banyiginya39.
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states
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did not know
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the
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dates
for
planting
seasons.
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result,
people
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to sleep. Gahutu vomited, and when Gatutsi saw this, he stood
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39
Delmas, L., 1950, op. cit, p. 11.
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Démocratique des Batwa
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57
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ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
they come late,
I will not tell them anything or I will lie to them.
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her
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deseavesdropping
Bakiga
the
planting seasons.
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on this conversation,
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he
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lavery happy to
Gahutu
and Gatutsi
returned
home.
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was
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so
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the
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the
superiority
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Tutsi
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Démocratique des Batwa
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their journey towards
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other people
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on the settlements
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42
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and political
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Delmas, L., Généalogie de la noblesse du Rwanda , Kabgayi, Vicariat apostolique
ARDHO
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Association
Rwandaise pour la Défense des
du Ruanda, 1950, p. 8.
42
de19-33.
l’Homme
Kagame, A., 1972,Droits
op. cit. pp
43
Kabwete
Mulinda
C.,
«
La
généalogie
du peuplement du Rwanda :
AREDETWA : Association pour de
le l’idée
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considérations sur l’autochtonie ou allochtonie de Rwandais » , in Cahiers du centre
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who excelled ___________________________________
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original settlements of Rwanda were associated with migration
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waves. The entire history of Rwanda was reduced to the migration
ABAKI
: Alliance des Bakiga
RIFRQTXHULQJUDFHV,WLVEHOLHYHGWKDWWKH+XWXFDPHÀUVWDQG
ABESC
: Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
SXVKHGWKH7ZDEDFNWRZDUGWKHIRUHVWHGDUHDV/DWHUWKH7XWVL
des
Castes
are said to haveSuppression
dominated the
two
groups.
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
:KDWLVXQIRUWXQDWHLVWKDWPDQ\SROLWLFDOOHDGHUVIRXQGLQWKHVH
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
theories arguments that supported their ideology of division,
ADR
: Alliance
pour la Further,
Démocratie
la
exclusion,
and
even genocide.
thisetinterpretation
of
Réconciliation
Nationale
5ZDQGDQ VRFLHW\ KDV EHHQ DQG VWLOO LV HQWHUWDLQHG E\ VRPH
AEC
: media.
Agglomeration
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international
Other theories
attempting to explain
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OLQJXLVWLF
AFDL
: Alliance des
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la
archeology, andLibération
anthropology.
du Congo-Zaïre
AGOA
: African
Growth and Opportunity Act
a. Linguistic
theories
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Affaires
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et Main-d’oeuvre
twentieth
century,
linguists
found
a
community
speaking a
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse
Estudiantine
SURWRW\SH%DQWXODQJXDJH7KLVZDVDQDUWLÀFLDOODQJXDJHIRUPHG
Rwandaise
IURP WHUPV ERUURZHG IURP PRGHUQ ODQJXDJH 7KLV ODQJXDJH
ALIR
: Armée
de Libération
du Rwanda
permeated
through
a well-organized
society
practicing agriculture,
AM/AP
:
Arrêté
ministériel/
Arrêté
DQLPDO KXVEDQGU\ DQG PHWDO ZRUNV 7KLV présidentiel
%DQWX ODQJXDJH ZDV
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: Association
desDQG
Moniteurs
Rwanda
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6XE6DKDUDQ
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: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
WKHRU\
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WR EHde
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RI D VXSHULRU UDFH
ANT +DPLWHV
: Assemblée
Nationale
Transition
ZKRZHUHUHVSRQVLEOHIRUEULQJLQJFLYLOL]DWLRQWRWKLVSDUWRI$IULFD
(Transitional National Assembly)
APADEC
Association
du Parti
Démocrate
Chrétien
In
the second: half
of the twentieth
century,
the Hamite
ideology
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
ZDVUHSODFHGE\RQHRIWKH%DQWX7KH%DQWXEHFDPHWKHFHQWUH
of
all ideological
and historical
conceptions.
In an attempt to
APROBAMI
: Association
des Partis
Monarchistes
SURYLGH VFLHQWLÀF
DUJXPHQWV WR WKHVH YLHZV PDQ\ OLQJXLVWV
Rwandais
EHOLHYHG
LQ
WKH
SURWRW\SH%DQWX
ODQJXDJH WKHUH
ZHUH WHUPV
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants
Indigènes
which designated activities related to agriculture, animal
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
KXVEDQGU\DQGPHWDOZRUNV,QWKHSURFHVVWKH\ZHUHVLOHQWRQ
Masse
the presence and the importance of other linguistic groups that
ARD
Alliance
le Renforcement
la
preceded
the : arrival
of pour
Bantus
speakers, thusde
denying
these
Démocratie
JURXSVDQ\FRQWULEXWLRQWRFLYLOL]DWLRQ
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
,WIROORZVWKDWIRUHLJQFRQWULEXWLRQVRIWKHRU\ZHUHSULYLOHJHGDQG
Droits de l’Homme
that interest was focused on the origins and migrations of groups
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
GHJHVWLRQGHVFRQÀLWV, No. 5, 2002, pp. 49-70.
Démocratique des Batwa
60
60
v
RISHRSOH7KHFRQWLQXRXVKXPDQSUHVHQFHPHQWLRQHGLQWKHÀUVW
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
part of this chapter
was not amply taken into consideration44. It
___________________________________
is necessary to take a multidisciplinary approach to interprete
and
the history
of settlements in Rwanda. It is also
A.A.understand
: Archives
Africaines
important to recognize the presence of cultural factors which
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
prove the existence of these settlements. As such, we call for
ABAKI
Alliance
destheory
Bakigaon settlements in Rwanda
a
review of :the
existing
ABESC
: Association
Bahutu
pour la
particularly
and
in the Greatdes
Lakes
regionEvoluant
more generally.
Suppression des Castes
During
the last
century, several
theories were
advanced on
ACR
: Association
des Cultivateurs
du Rwanda
WKH WKHPHV RI RULJLQ PLJUDWLRQ DQG VHWWOHPHQW 7KH\ FDQ EH
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
VXPPDUL]HGLQWRWKHIRXUPDMRUVWDJHVRIWKHLUHYROXWLRQ
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
7KHÀUVWVWDJHRFFXUHGDURXQGWKHHQGRIWKHQLQHWHHQWKFHQWXU\
Réconciliation Nationale
DQGWKHEHJLQQLQJRIWKHWZHQWLHWKFHQWXU\²EHWZHHQDQG
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
,WLVFKDUDFWHUL]HGE\WKHRULHVWKDWOLQNWKHRULJLQRI$IULFDQ
AFDL
: Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
people to Asia . The Pygmies and Bushmen, or San, were the
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
ÀUVWVHWWOHUVLQ$IULFD7KH\VHWWOHGLQWKHIRUHVWDQGVDYDQQDK
AGOA
:These
African
Growth
Act waves,
respectively.
theories
dealand
withOpportunity
two last migratory
$,'6 RI WKH +DPLWHV
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
WKRVH
DQG WKH %DQWX 7KH GLVWLQFWLRQ EHWZHHQ
AIMO
: Affaires
et Main-d’oeuvre
the
Hamites and
BantuIndigènes
was not clear
during this period. The
+DPLWHVZHUHDWÀUVWLGHQWLÀHGZLWKWKH%DQWXE\-RKQ6SHNH
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
46
DVRSSRVHGWREHLQJUHODWHGWRWKHEODFNVDQG3\JPLHV
. Later,
Rwandaise
KRZHYHUZKHQ6SHNHDUULYHGLQ(WKLRSLDKHGHHPHGWKDW7XWVL
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
and Galla pastoralists were related.
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
AMR FRQVLGHUHG
: Association
desWR
Moniteurs
du Rwanda
6RPH
WKH %DQWX
EH D JURXS
UHVXOWLQJ IURP
LQWHUPDUULDJHVEHWZHHQ1HJURLGVDQG+DPLWHV2WKHUVFRQFHLYHG
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
WKHP
JURXSNationale
GLIIHUHQW IURP
WKH +DPLWHV47. Von
ANT WR EH D: UDFLDO
Assemblée
de Transition
*RW]HQ FRQVLGHUHG
WKH %DWXWVL
WR EH +DPLWHV
ZKR GRPLQDWHG
(Transitional
National
Assembly)
the Bahutu. This idea of domination was linked to the Hamitic
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
P\WKHPDQDWLQJIURPDQHUURQHRXVLQWHUSUHWDWLRQRIWKH%LEOH
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
according to which difference in race resulted from a curse to
APROBAMI
: Association des Partis Monarchistes
1RDK·VVRQ&DLQ7KHEODFNVZHUHWKRXJKWWRRULJLQDWHIURPWKLV
Rwandais
VRQDQGZHUHFRQGHPQHGWREHFRPHVODYHVRIKLVEURWKHUV6HP
APROCOMIN:
Association des Commerçants Indigènes
DQG-DSKHWK7KH*UHDW/DNHV5HJLRQSOD\HGDQLPSRUWDQWUROH
in the spread :ofAssociation
Bantu-speakers
6HH0DSEHORZ
de la
APROSOMA
pour48la
Promotion Sociale
44
Masse ancien du Rwanda : à la lumière de récentes recherches »,
Kanimba, M., « Peuplement
in
&DKLHUVGX&HQWUHGH*HVWLRQGHVFRQÀLWV,
no. 7, 2003, pp. 47-81
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement
de la
45
Lepsius, R., Nubische
Grammatik.
Einleitung
uber
die
Volker
und
spachen Afrika’s,
Démocratie
Berlin, 1880; Van Oordt J. F., Origin of the Bantu, Cape Town, 1907, p. 5; Muller, F.,
ARDHO Ethnographie,
: Association
Rwandaise
pour la Défense des
Allgemeine
Vienne, Alfred
Holder, 1879.
46
Droits
de l’Homme
Cornevin, R., Histoire
de l’Afrique,
Tome II, Paris, OPayot, 1966, p. 152.
47
Johnston,
H.
H.,
The
origin
of
the
Bantu”,
Journal
African Society, 6, 1907, p. 335.
AREDETWA : Association pourinle
Relèvement
48
Johnston, H. H., A comparative Study of the Bantu and Semi Bantu languages,
Démocratique des Batwa
61
v
61
Map 3: HomesACRONYMS
and migrationAND
routes
of the Bantu and semi-Bantu
ABBREVIATIONS
___________________________________
A.A.
A.G.
ABAKI
ABESC
Archives Africaines
Assemblée Générale
Alliance des Bakiga
Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
Suppression des Castes
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
Réconciliation Nationale
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
AFDL
: Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity Act
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
Rwandaise
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
(Transitional National Assembly)
Source: Johnston 1919, pp. 22-28
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
APR expansion
: Armée
Rwandaise
The
of the Patriotique
Bantu-speakers
is said to have started
LQ
WKH
VHFRQG
FHQWXU\
%&
:HOODUPHG
DQG OHG E\ +DPLWLF
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
aristocracy, theRwandais
Bantu are said to have conquered the natives of
WKH*UHDN/DNH5HJLRQ
-RKQVWRQ
Indigènes
APROCOMIN: Association
des Commerçants
APROSOMA
: Association
pour
la WKH
Promotion
la
7KH
VHFRQG VWDJH
VWUHWFKHG
IURP
HQG RI Sociale
WKH ÀUVWde
TXDUWHU
Masse
RI WKH WZHQWLHWK
FHQWXU\ WR WKH HQG RI WKH 6HFRQG :RUOG :DU
DQG
E\ TXHVWLRQLQJ
WKH QDWXUH
ARD ZDV FKDUDFWHUL]HG
: Alliance pour
le Renforcement
de laRI RXWVLGH
migrations. The
Australopithecus
discoveries
in
eastern and
Démocratie
49
southern
Africa
LQ
WKH
V
FRQWULEXWHG
WR
VNHSWLFLVP
WKDW
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
Africans had foreign
Droitsorigins.
de l’Homme
Oxford,
1919-22,
p.
28.
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
49
Cole, S. M., The Prehistory of East Africa, New York, MC Million, 1963.
Démocratique des Batwa
62
62
:
:
:
:
v
However, the ACRONYMS
concept of migration
continues to preoccupy the
AND ABBREVIATIONS
YLHZV RI KLVWRU\
WKH
GHEDWH
RQ
SRSXODWLRQ
PRYHPHQWV DQG
___________________________________
concepts of migration within the continent. From this perspective,
the
in the Great Lakes Region is presented
A.A.history of :settlement
Archives Africaines
LQWKUHHSKDVHVWKH6DQ %XVKPHQDQG+RWWHQWRWV SKDVHWKH
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
Caucasoid phase, those who imposed themselves on the San,
ABAKI
: Alliance
des Bakiga
and
the Bantu
phase, which
arrived during the Old Stone Age.
ABESC
: Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
During this second
period of
theory,
the Hamitic hypothesis
Suppression
des
Castes
was
in Burundian
and Rwandan du
schools,
where it
ACRwidely taught
: Association
des Cultivateurs
Rwanda
fell
on
fertile
ground
for
two
reasons.
Firstly,
the
colonial
power
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
drew capital from the theory it in order to justify its policy of
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
H[FOXVLRQ6HFRQGO\LWZDVXVHGE\WKH7XWVLDQGODWHUE\+XWX
Réconciliation
leaders, who were
advised and Nationale
supported in the propagation of
AECP\WK E\: WKH
Agglomeration
Extra-Coutumières
WKLV
&DWKROLF &KXUFK
DQG WKH FRORQLDO SRZHUV LQ
AFDL
:
Alliance
des
Forces
Démocratiques
pour
la
Rwanda. The latter used these theories
to justify divisive
policies
so as to safeguard
their interests
and ensure the future of their
Libération
du Congo-Zaïre
political
Rwanda.
AGOA stay in
: African
Growth and Opportunity Act
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
7KH+DPLWHWKHRU\UHLQIRUFHGWKHELDVHVDQGFOHDYDJHVEHWZHHQ
AIMO during
: Affaires
Indigènes
et Main-d’oeuvre
groups
the colonial
period.
Coupled with the Bantu
AJER the Hamite
: Association
de la
Jeunesse
Estudiantine
theory,
theory also
served
to institutionalize
ethnicity
DIWHULQGHSHQGHQFH7KHJDSEHWZHHQJURXSVZDVUHLQIRUFHGE\
Rwandaise
LPSRUWHG
ELDVHV
VWHUHRW\SHV
DQG HWKQRJUDSKLF
ALIR
: Armée
de Libération
du RwandaOLWHUDWXUH 7KH
divisive
reports
of
Belgian
administrators
missionaries were
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêtéand
présidentiel
DOVRZLGHO\GLVVHPLQDWHGE\PLVVLRQDU\VFKRROV
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
AMURFXOWXUDO: DXWKRULWLHV
Association
des Musulmans
au WKHRU\
Rwanda
7XWVL
ZHOFRPHG
WKH +DPLWLF
EHFDXVH
LW
VHUYHG WR MXVWLI\
WKH SULYLOHJHV
WKH\ ZHUH
HQGRZHG ZLWK E\ WKH
ANT
: Assemblée
Nationale
de Transition
FRORQLDOJRYHUQPHQW7KHVHSULYLOHJHVZHUHDOVRVWUHQJWKHQHGE\WKH
(Transitional National Assembly)
HVWDEOLVKPHQWRILQWHUQDODQGH[WHUQDOVHFXULW\RUJDQV$QDZDUHQHVV
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
of these reforms provoked sentiments of inferiority and exclusion
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
among the masses vis-à-vis the privileged class of the Tutsi.
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
7KH WKLUG VWDJH
ZDV FKDUDFWHUL]HG E\ WKH TXHVWLRQLQJ RI WKH
Rwandais
Hamitic
theory Association
and controversy
regarding the origin
of Bantu
APROCOMIN:
des Commerçants
Indigènes
languages
.
The
location
of
Bantu
origins
and
the
means
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale delaused
to arrive at a theory of origins were also questioned . The
Masse
50
Chrétien
J.
P.,
2000,
op. cit., pp.
163-164.
ARD
: Alliance
pour
le Renforcement de la
51
Murdock, G. P., Africa:
its
people
and
their
culture History, New York, McGraw Hill, 1959.
Démocratie
52
Greenberg, J., Languages of Africa, La Haye, Mouton, 1963, p. 38; Murdock, G. P.,
ARDHO
: Association
Rwandaise
des
op.
cit., pp. 279-291;
Guthrie, M., “Bantu
Origins”, in pour
Journalla
of Défense
African Languages,
Droits
de“Zur
l’Homme
1 (1), 1962, pp. 9-21;
Heine B.,
genetischen Gliederung der Bantu-Sprachen”, in
Afrika
und
Ubersee,
56,
1973,
pp.
164-185;
B., Hoff H., et Vosen R., “Neuere
AREDETWA : Association pour Heine,
le Relèvement
Erbgbnissezur Territorialgesschichte und Ethnohistoirie”, in Afrika Neue Beitrage
Démocratique des Batwa
63
v
63
Hamite myth ACRONYMS
conceived at the
end
of the nineteenth century to
AND
ABBREVIATIONS
H[SODLQFLYLOL]DWLRQDOWUHQGVLQ$IULFDZDVRSSRVHGE\DQG
___________________________________
GLVPDQWOHGE\,WEHFDPHFOHDUWKDWLWZDVLPSRVVLEOHWR
GLVWLQJXLVK D: +DPLWH
EDVHG
RQ SK\VLFDO FKDUDFWHULVWLFV The
A.A.
Archives
Africaines
theory of Bantu expansion came to dominate views of settlement
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
in central, eastern and southern Africa. Many anthropologists,
ABAKI
:and
Alliance
desstrived
Bakiga
archeologists
linguists
to look for arguments in favor
Bahutu Evoluant pour la
ABESC
:
Association
des
of this Bantu-expansion theory .
Suppression des Castes
7KHIRXUWKVWDJHZDVGRPLQDWHGE\WKH*UHHQEHUJWKHRU\ZKLFK
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
located the home of the Bantu in the northwest of the current
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
%DQWXWHUULWRU\7KLVWKHRU\LVDFFHSWHGE\PDQ\OLQJXLVWV7KH
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
H[SDQVLRQRI%DQWXVSHDNHUVLVLOOXVWUDWHGE\WKHPDSSURSRVHG
Réconciliation Nationale
E\WKUHHOLQJXLVWVIURPWKH8QLYHUVLW\RI&RORJQHLH%+HLQH
AEC
: Agglomeration
Extra-Coutumières
H.
Hoff and R.
Vossen. The map
indicates the routes followed
and the stages
of expansion.
The expansion
of the pour
prototypeAFDL
: Alliance
des Forces
Démocratiques
la
%DQWXODQJXDJHLVVDLGWRKDYHEHJXQDURXQG%&
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
ZKLOHWKHRULHQWDOJURXSEHJDQDURXQG%&
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity. This
Act timeline
ZDVDFFHSWHGE\PDQ\DUFKHRORJLVWVZKRDWWHPSWHGWRDGGQHZ
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
GDWDHVSHFLDOO\WKHGDWHVRIWHFKQLFDOLQQRYDWLRQVDWWULEXWHGWR
AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
WKH%DQWX 6HH0DSDQGEHORZ AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
Rwandaise
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
(Transitional National Assembly)
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
afrivanistischer Forschungen, Berlin, Reimer, 1977.
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
53
Greenberg, J., « Linguistic Evidence regarding Bantu Origins”, in Journal of African
APROBAMI
: Association
History,
13(2), 1972,
pp. 180-216. des Partis Monarchistes
54
“It would be well-nigh
impossible to point to an individual and recognize in him a
Rwandais
+DPLWHDFFRUGLQJWRUDFLDOOLQJXLVWLFDQGFXOWXUDOFKDUDFWHULVWLFVWR¿WWKHLPDJHWKDW
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
has been presented to us for so long. Such an individual does not exist” (Sanders, E. R.,
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
“The Hamitic hypothesis: its origin and functions in time theories”).
55
Masse
Murdock, G. P., 1959,
op. cit, pp. 279-291;Hernaux J., “Bantu expansion; the evidence
from
physical
anthropology
confronted
linguistic and archeological
ARD
: Alliance
pour with
le Renforcement
de la evidence”, in
Journal of African History,
IX,
4,
1968,
pp.
505-515.;
Posnansky
M., “Bantu genesis.
Démocratie
$UFKHRORJLFDOUHÀHFWLRQ´LQJournal of African History, 9 (1), 1968.
ARDHO
: Association
56
Heine et al., 1977,
op. cit., p. 71. Rwandaise pour la Défense des
57
Droits
Ehret, C., “The First
Spreadde
of l’Homme
Food Production to Southern Africa”, in Ehret C.,
Posnansky
M.,
(ed.),
The
Archaeological
Reconstruction of African
AREDETWA : Association pourand
le linguistic
Relèvement
History, 1982, pp. 158-181.
Démocratique des Batwa
64
64
v
Map 4: Expansion
of BantuAND
languages:
stages and dispersion
ACRONYMS
ABBREVIATIONS
points
___________________________________
A.A.
A.G.
ABAKI
ABESC
:
:
:
:
Archives Africaines
Assemblée Générale
Alliance des Bakiga
Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
Suppression des Castes
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
Réconciliation Nationale
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
AFDL
: Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity Act
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
Rwandaise
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
(Transitional National Assembly)
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
Rwandais
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
Masse
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
Démocratie
Source: Heine
et al. 1977
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
7KHVHFRQGPRGHOVXJJHVWVDVHSDUDWHGHYHORSPHQWRI(DVWHUQ
Droits de l’Homme
DQG:HVWHUQ%DQWXODQJXDJHV7KHVSHDNHUVRI(DVWHUQ%DQWX
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
ODQJXDJHV DUH VDLG WR KDYH WKHLU RULJLQDO KRPH LQ WKH ERUGHU
Démocratique des Batwa
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65
DUHDVEHWZHHQ1LJHULDDQG&DPHURRQFLUFXPYHQWLQJWKHWURSLFDO
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
forest in the north.
They are said to have spread from here to
___________________________________
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Archives
Africaines
Vansina, 1984).
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
ABAKI
: Alliance
des Bakiga
Map
5: Location
of linguistic
groups in the Great lake Region
ABESC
: Association
from
1000 BC
to 500 BC des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
Suppression des Castes
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
Réconciliation Nationale
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
AFDL
: Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity Act
$,'6
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AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
Rwandaise
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
(Transitional National Assembly)
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
Rwandais
Source: Schoenbrun,
1998
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
$UFKDHORJLFDOFRQWULEXWLRQVKDYHLQVWLJDWHGDUHYLHZRIKLVWRULFDO
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
LQWHUSUHWDWLRQV HVSHFLDOO\ WKH FKURQRORJLFDO WLPHWDEOH. The
Masse
explanations that dominated the second half of the twentieth
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
FHQWXU\ZHUHLQFUHDVLQJO\TXHVWLRQHGDQGQHHGHGTXDOLÀFDWLRQ
Démocratie
58
Phillipson, D. W., « L’expansion bantoue en Afrique orientale et méridionale :
ARDHO
:
Association
pour
DéfenseL.,des
les témoignages de l’archéologie et Rwandaise
de la linguistique
», inlaBouquiaux
(ed.),
Droits
L’expansion bantoue,
Société de
des l’Homme
études linguistiques et anthropologiques de France,
Paris,
1980, pp. 649-684.
AREDETWA
: Association pour le Relèvement
59
Lugan, B., 1997, op. cit. ; Chrétien J. P.; 2000, op. cit.
Démocratique des Batwa
66
66
v
to say the least.
An examination
the theories on the expansion
ACRONYMS
ANDofABBREVIATIONS
of Bantu linguistic
groups
shows
that if the theory of their
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credence,
there
still exist
some uncertainties on the origins,
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: Archives
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causes, dates, extent, and direction of their migration movements.
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
ABAKI
: Alliance des
Bakiga
b. Anthropological
interpretations
ABESC
: Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
8QWLOWKHODVWIHZGHFDGHVWKHKXPDQIRVVLOVGLVFRYHUHGLQ6XE
Suppression
desLQWR
Castes
6DKDUDQ $IULFD
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IRXU FDWHJRULHV GLVWULEXWHG
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:
Association
des
Cultivateurs
du Rwanda
RYHUWKUHHJHRJUDSKLFORFDWLRQVWKH1HJURLGLQ:HVW$IULFDWKH
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
(XURSRLGDQG.KRLVDQRLGLQ(DVWHUQDQG6RXWKHUQ$IULFDDQG
ADRPygmies in
: Alliance
pour
Démocratie
et laThe history of
the
the dense
andlawet
forest areas.
VHWWOHPHQWVLQ(DVWHUQ$IULFDWKDWHPDQDWHVIURPWKLVSHUFHSWLRQ
Réconciliation Nationale
is
presented
as
follows. The Bushmanoid
and Khoisanoid groups
AEC
: Agglomeration
Extra-Coutumières
formed
an
ancient
stratum,
to
which
the
Caucasoid group
AFDL
: Alliance des Forces Démocratiques
pour from
la
1RUWK$IULFDZDVFRPELQHG7KHOLWKLFRU&DVSHDQLQGXVWU\DQG
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
Neolithic innovations were associated with this group.
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Africa
to the Indigènes
expansion et
of Main-d’oeuvre
Bantu language speakers.
AIMO was linked
: Affaires
This
theory
won
a
lot
of
support
until
skeletons
were analyzed
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse
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LQWKHLQWHUODFXVWULQHUHJLRQDQGLQ(DVWHUQ$IULFD60. The fossils
Rwandaise
from different sites in this part of the continent point to three
ALIR
: Armée
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du Rwanda
major conclusions
on the
history of settlements
in the centre of
AM/AP
:
Arrêté
ministériel/
Arrêté
présidentiel
(DVWHUQ$IULFD
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: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
1)
7KH1HJURLGJURXSPHWLQWKHFHQWUHRI(DVWHUQ$IULFD
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
in the Pleistocene period. In the valley of Kenya, a
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
specimen was found on Lukenya-Hill. It dates to
(Transitional National Assembly)
17600 years B.C.61 It appeared at the same time as
APADEC fossils
: Association
du Parti
Chrétien
found in the
UpperDémocrate
Semiliki valley.
In this
APR
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valley,
manyPatriotique
sites yieldedRwandaise
human skeletons. In Isahgo
APROBAMI
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PRUHRwandais
WKDQ WZHQW\ ERQH IUDJPHQWV ZHUH H[KXPHG LQ
the principal
fossildes
level,
dating to 20,000
years B.C.,
APROCOMIN:
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ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
60
Brauer, G., « TheDémocratie
morphological differentiation of anatomically Modern man in
Africa”, in Zeit. Mporph., Anthrop., 69 (3), 1978, pp. 266-292.
ARDHO
: Association
Rwandaise
la Défense
des in
61
Rightmire; G. P.,
“ Problems in the
study of laterpour
Pleistocene
main Africa”,
Droits
l’Homme
American Anthropologist,
77, de
1975,
pp. 28-51; Gramly, R. M.. et Rightmire G. P., “A
fragmentary
cranium
ad
dated
Late
Stone
Age le
assemblage
from Lukenya Hill, Kenya“,
AREDETWA : Association pour
Relèvement
in Man (N. S.), 8 (4), 1973, pp. 57-79.
Démocratique des Batwa
67
v
67
as Ishango
14 yielded
a specimen at a level located
ACRONYMS
AND ABBREVIATIONS
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WKH
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___________________________________
Its date is estimated at more than 20000 years B.C.
The: site
of Katanda
2 also yielded a specimen dating
Archives
Africaines
to more than 18,000 years B.C.62
A.A.
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
ABAKI2) 0DQ\
: Alliance
Bakiga
RI WKH des
ERQHV
LGHQWLÀHG ZLWK WKH .KRLVDQRLG
ABESC RU (XURSRLG
: Association
des DUH
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pour1HJURLG
la
JURXSV
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LQ WKH
group.
The
specimen
from
Ishango
11
presents
Suppression des Castes
many
morphological
similarities with
the current
ACR
: Association
des Cultivateurs
du Rwanda
populations
that
speak
Nilotic
or
Bantu
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples languages.
7KH PRUH DQFLHQW VNXOOV IURP OHYHOV EHWZHHQ ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
years B.C. and 6890 B.C. are categorized among the
Réconciliation
Nationale
Negroid
fossils discovered
in west and north Africa63.
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
diversity des
of phenotypical
groups in the
AFDL 3) The: Alliance
Forces Démocratiques
pourregion
la
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Libération du Congo-Zaïre
valid to resort to the phenomenon of migration to
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explain the diversity of current groups. However, the
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anthropological heterogeneity of modern groups is
AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
SUREDEO\QRWLGHQWLFDOZLWKWKRVHRISUHKLVWRULFJURXSV
AJER
: Association
de la
Jeunesse
Estudiantine
Communities
were
dynamic
and
regularly received
Rwandaise
new knowledge through assimilation and intermixing.
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
Archeological proof of early settlements consists of structural
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
REMHFWVRUKXPDQYHVWLJHVDVGLVFXVVHGLQWKHÀUVWSDUDJUDSK
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
on the current state of knowledge. There are many knowledge
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
JDSVEHFDXVHDUFKHRORJLFDOUHVHDUFKLVVWLOOLQFRPSOHWH7KHODVW
ANT
: Assemblée
Nationale
de were
Transition
studies were conducted
in the
1980s and
conducted at very
64
(Transitional National Assembly)
few sites .
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
$ V\QWKHVLV RI WKH GDWD H[DPLQHG DERYH DOORZV XV WR PDNH
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
REVHUYDWLRQVZKLFKFRXOGIRUPWKHEDVLVIRUZULWLQJWKHKLVWRU\
APROBAMI
Association
desofPartis
Monarchistes
of the region: in
general and
Rwanda
in particular. A reRwandais
62
Brooks A. S., Smith
C. C., 1987, “Ishango
revised: New Age Indigènes
Determination and
APROCOMIN:
Association
des Commerçants
cultural interpretations”, in African Archaeological Review, 5, pp. 72-75; Boaz N. T.,
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
Pavlakis, PP. and Brooks, A. S., “Late Pleistocene- Holocene human remains”, in Boaz
Masse
N. T., (ed), Evolution
of environments and Hominadae in the African Western Rift
valley,
Martinsville,
Virginia
Museum
History, 1990, pp.
ARD
: Alliance
pouroflenatural
Renforcement
de291-298.
la
63
Brooks A. S., “Late
Pleistocene-Holocene
human
remains”,
in
Boaz
N. T., (ed.),
Démocratie
Evolution of environments and Hominidae in the African Western Rift Valley,
ARDHO Virginia
: Association
Rwandaise
pour
la Défense des
Martinsville,
Museum of National
History, 1990,
pp. 291-298.
64
Droits de
l’Homme
Nenquin J., “Contributions
to the
study of the prehistoric cultures of Rwanda and
Burundi”,
in
Annales,
Series
8,
Sciences
humaines,
no. 59, Tervuren, Musée Royal de
AREDETWA : Association pour
le Relèvement
l’Afrique Centrale, 1967, pp. 17-19.
Démocratique des Batwa
68
68
v
examination ACRONYMS
of history taking
account relatively recent
ANDinto
ABBREVIATIONS
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is
considered :from
the standpoints
A.A.
Archives
Africainesof archeology, anthropology,
linguistics, and oral tradition.
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
ABAKI
: Alliance des Bakiga
7KRXJKVWLOOVLJQLÀFDQWO\OLPLWHGDUFKHRORJLFDOGLVFRYHULHVVKRZ
ABESC
des Bahutu
Evoluant
pour to
la the
that
Rwandan: Association
settlements and
historiography
extended
First Millennium
A.D.
Thanks
to
its
good
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the
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representing the prehistoric period. These tools were made of
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Réconciliation
Nationale
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: Agglomeration
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paintings,
and
rocks. They provide
clues as to the material and
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ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
RIWKHEHJLQQLQJRIKLVWRU\DVWKHIRUPDWLRQRINLQJGRPV
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
Towards the end of the Pleistocene period, riverside residents,
AMUR
Association
des Musulmans
au Rwanda
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RQ KXQWLQJ
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Rwandais
were introduced, while in the Savannah, microlithic industries
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)LVKHUPHQ OLYLQJ
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Masse
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ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
Holocene period,
this industry was mostly found in the Semiliki
Démocratie
valley. It spread towards the Sahara across the Nile valley until it
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
UHDFKHG(DVW$IULFD. This region was therefore at the crossroads
Droits de l’Homme
65
Heinelin,
J.,
Les
fouilles d’Ishango
, Bruxelles,
Institut des Parcs Nationaux du
AREDETWA : Association
pour
le Relèvement
Congo Belge, 1957.
Démocratique des Batwa
69
v
69
of trade and atACRONYMS
the center of enlightenment
for thousands of years.
AND ABBREVIATIONS
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___________________________________
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groups
different areas.
Those who lived near one another
A.A. lived in
: Archives
Africaines
experienced similar ecological changes and had similar modes of
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
life and similar economies.
ABAKI
: Alliance des Bakiga
ABESC
: Association
Bahutu
Evoluant
pour la E\
8S
WR DSSUR[LPDWHO\
des
%&
WKH UHJLRQ
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hunter-agriculturalists
possessing
a
purely
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technology.
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Toward
the end
of the First
B.C.,
keepers
ACR
: Association
desMillennium
Cultivateurs
ducattle
Rwanda
who
spoke
Nilo-Saharan
languages,
i.e.
central
Sudanic,
protoADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
Nilotic, and Cushites, who came from the northern and eastern
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
regions respectively, lived a nomadic life in this region66. The
Réconciliation
Nilo-Saharan groups
settled Nationale
from current Uganda to Lake
AEC
: Agglomeration
Extra-Coutumières
Tanganyika. The
Cushite groups
south and west of Lake Victoria
AFDL
:
Alliance
des
Forces
Démocratiques
la
settled in the eastern part of present-day
Rwanda andpour
Burundi.
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
In addition to keeping cattle, these new groups cultivated cereals,
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity Act
sorghum, and millet. These plants were domesticated in the
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: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
67
EHDQV
.
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
In the First Millennium B.C., pottery and iron metal works were
AMUR
: Association
Musulmans
au Rwanda
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DQG VSUHDGdes
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,W LV GLIÀFXOW
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Armée
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immigration
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Association
Partis
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- :The
advent of des
ceramic
and
metal works
- The
spread of agriculture and cattle-keeping
Rwandais
New linguistic groups
from des
the north
and west Indigènes
migrated into
APROCOMIN:
Association
Commerçants
the
interlacustrine
region.
Between
the
seventh
third
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Socialeand
de la
centuries B.C., techniques of treating iron minerals were spread,
Masse
DVHYLGHQFHGE\YHVWLJHVRIFKLPQH\VPDGHRIEULFNVDQGKDUG
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
66
Lugan, B., +LVWRLUHGX5ZDQGD'HODSUpKLVWRLUHjQRVMRXUV,
Paris, Bartillat, 1997. ;
Démocratie
Chrétien J. P., 2000, op. cit., pp. 48-49.
ARDHO
Association
Rwandaise
la Défense
67
Schoenbrun, D.:L.,
“We are what we
eat: an ancientpour
agriculture
between thedes
Great
de l’Homme
lakes”, in Journal ofDroits
African History,
34; 1993, pp. 1-31; Schoenbrun D. L.,”A green
place,
a good place.
Agrarian Change,pour
Genderleand
Social Identity in the Great Lakes
AREDETWA
: Association
Relèvement
Region to the 15th Century”, in Social History of Africa, Heinemann, 1998, pp. 41-43.
Démocratique des Batwa
70
70
v
lumps of iron.ACRONYMS
Traces of metal
works
are associated with quasiAND
ABBREVIATIONS
identical ceramic
products
in
the
entire
Great Lakes Region.
___________________________________
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there
of groups with different modes of life.
A.A. was a coexistence
: Archives Africaines
Some groups still lived on hunting and gathering and used stone
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
tools, while others devoted themselves to cattle-keeping and
ABAKI
: Alliance
Bakiga
agriculture,
using
metal des
tools.
ABESC
: Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
,WVKRXOGEHQRWHGWKDWWKHSUDFWLFHVRIDJULFXOWXUHDQGFDWWOH
Suppression des Castes
NHHSLQJ EHIRUH WKH WLPH RI -HVXV &KULVW DUH QRW VXSSRUWHG E\
ACR
:
Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
VFLHQWLÀFHYLGHQFH+RZHYHULQQRUWKHUQDQGHDVWHUQ5ZDQGD
ADPin Sudan:and
Alliance
Démocratique
Peuplescereals and
and
Kenya,
the activities ofdes
cultivating
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
FDWWOHNHHSLQJDUHVXSSRUWHGE\DPSOHHYLGHQFHIURPWKH7KLUG
68
Réconciliation
Nationale
Millennium B.C.
Because Rwanda
was located in the corridor
where
population
movements
toward
the south were taking
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
place, we can
thereforedes
conclude
Rwanda received
food
AFDL
: Alliance
Forces that
Démocratiques
pour la
SURGXFWLRQWHFKQLTXHVEHIRUHRWKHUUHJLRQVLQVRXWKHUQ$IULFD
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
6KHHS UHDULQJ ZDV SUDFWLFHG DORQJ WKH &DSH &RDVW LQ WKH ÀUVW
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity Act
century B.C.69
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
AIMO the First
: Affaires
Indigènes
et Main-d’oeuvre
During
Millennium,
groups
of settlers from different
regions
exchanged
agricultural
and
pastoral
techniques, plants
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
DQG DQLPDOV Rwandaise
7KH DELOLW\ WR KDUQHVV GLYHUVH WHFKQRORJLFDO
LQQRYDWLRQVLQLURQZRUNVHQDEOHGJURXSVWRDGDSWWRGLIIHUHQW
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
HQYLURQPHQWV,QWKHWKLUGFHQWXU\$'LURQSURGXFWLRQEHFDPH
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
LQFUHDVLQJO\ LPSRUWDQW DQG ZDV HQKDQFHG E\ WUDGH ZLWK WKH
AMR coast.: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
eastern
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
Towards
the :seventh
and Nationale
eighth centuries
AD, a new type of
ANT
Assemblée
de Transition
FHUDPLFDSSHDUHGZKLFKZDVOHVVGHFRUDWHGDQGSRRUO\ÀQLVKHG
(Transitional National Assembly)
But the size of the pots produced was imposing and there were
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
many varieties of clay containers. These changes made at the
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
OHYHORIPDWHULDOFXOWXUHDQGWHFKQLFDOLQQRYDWLRQVZHUHSUREDEO\
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
VLJQLÀFDQWLQWKHVRFLDOHFRQRPLFDQGSROLWLFDOÀHOGV7KHORQJ
Rwandais
period of coexistence
among different groups resulted in a fusion
APROCOMIN:
Commerçants
Indigènes
of
cultural and Association
intermarriagedes
factors.
Lastly, different
linguistic
JURXSVZHUHDVVLPLODWHGE\WKH%DQWXZKLFKEHJDQZKHQÀUVW
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
FRQWDFWKDGEHHQHVWDEOLVKHG
Masse
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
68
Robertshaw, P., “The
Elmenteita: an early Food-producing Culture in East Africa”,
Démocratie
in World Archaeology, 20 (1): 1988:59-69; Sutton J.E.G., “Prehistoire de l’Afrique
ARDHO in Ki-zerbo
: Association
Rwandaise
la Défense
des et
orientale”,
J., (dir.), Histoire
générale depour
l’Afrique
I. Méthodologie
Droits
de l’Homme
Préhistopire, Paris, Stock,
UNESCO;,
Jeune Afrique, 1980, pp. 489-527.
69
$YHU\
*
³'LVFXVVLRQ
RQ
WKH
DJH
DQG XVH
RI WLGDO ¿VK WUDSV´ LQ 6RXWK$IULFD
AREDETWA : Association pour
le Relèvement
Archaeological Bull., 30, 1975, pp. 105 -113.
Démocratique des Batwa
71
v
71
The overly simplistic
dichotomy
that contrasts Tutsi cattle
ACRONYMS
AND ABBREVIATIONS
keepers to Hutu
agriculturalists
falls
under racist and divisive
___________________________________
ideology. The exclusive practice of one of these activities provides
WKH
WKH FRPSOHPHQWDU\
A.A. QHHG IRU: Archives
Africaines DFWLYLW\ OHDGLQJ WR EHWWHU
DGDSWDWLRQWRDGLYHUVHHQYLURQPHQW+XPDQDFWLYLWLHVPRGLÀHG
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
WKH HQYLURQPHQW DV WLPH ZHQW E\ ,W LV LPSRUWDQW WR QRWH WKDW
ABAKI
: Alliance des Bakiga
WKHSURFHVVRIPRGLÀFDWLRQQHLWKHUIROORZHGVLPLODUUK\WKPVQRU
ABESCof development
: Association
des
Evoluant
scopes
across
allBahutu
Rwandan
regions. pour la
Suppression des Castes
The
of settlements
for the current
groups we
ACR chronology
: Association
des Cultivateurs
du Rwanda
UHDG
DERXW
LQ
KLVWRU\
WH[WERRNV
ODFNV
VFLHQWLÀF
MXVWLÀFDWLRQ
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
Archeological and anthropological documents prove that some
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
JURXSV H[LVWHG ZKRVH ODQJXDJHV KDYH EHHQ LJQRUHG ZKLFK ZH
Réconciliation
Nationale
should now consider
in our reconstruction
of history. If such
AEC ZHUH WR
: Agglomeration
IDFWRUV
EH FRQVLGHUHGExtra-Coutumières
ZH FRXOG LQWHJUDWH DOO WKLV GDWD
AFDL
: Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
LQWRWKHWDEOHRIVHWWOHPHQWV
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
The dating and analysis of the settlements of the people of
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity Act
5ZDQGD DUH WKHUHIRUH VXEMHFW WR XQFHUWDQWLHV 0XFK RI WKH
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
origins of Rwanda still remain mythical.
AIMO
AJER
: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
Rwandaise
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
(Transitional National Assembly)
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
Rwandais
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
Masse
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
Démocratie
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
Droits de l’Homme
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
Démocratique des Batwa
72
72
v
III ABBREVIATIONS
ACRONYMS AND
___________________________________
THE KINGDOM OF RWANDA FROM THE BEGINNING TO
1900
A.A.
A.G.
ABAKI
ABESC
:
:
:
:
Archives Africaines
Assemblée
Générale
By Gamaliel
MBONIMANA
Alliance des Bakiga
Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
Suppression des Castes
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
Réconciliation Nationale
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
AFDL
: Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
rom
the
end of Growth
the nineteenth
century, theAct
kingdom of
AGOA
: African
and Opportunity
progressively formed from its original nucleus
$,'6 Rwanda
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
on Gasabo Hill. Gasabo Hill was administered by a chief
AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
belonging to the Abanyiginya clan. Rwanda expanded over the
AJER of centuries
: Association
de laon
Jeunesse
Estudiantine
course
by embarking
a political,
military, economic,
Rwandaise
social, and cultural organization, attracting the admiration of
ALIR
: Arméeadministrators,
de Libération and
du Rwanda
European
explorers,
missionaries.
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
3.1.
of Gasabo and
neighboring
“countries”
AMR Rwanda
: Association
desthe
Moniteurs
du Rwanda
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
Originally, Rwanda expanded from the nucleus of Gasabo Hill.
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
Other hills were later conquered and annexed from neighboring
(Transitional
Assembly)
localities of Buganza,
namelyNational
Bwanacyambwe,
Buriza, Busigi,
APADEC
:
Association
du
Parti
Démocrate
Chrétien
and Burasi.
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
3.1.1.
Original
Rwanda in Buganza
APROBAMI : Association
des Partis Monarchistes
Rwandais
The original country of Rwanda, referred to as “the Rwanda of
APROCOMIN:
Association
des Commerçants
Indigènes
Gasabo”
(u Rwanda
rwa Gasabo),
was a small territorial
entity
APROSOMA
:
Association
pour
la
Promotion
Sociale
de
la of
located in the present district of Gasabo, along the valley
Masse Nyabugogo. When the period of historical
Lake Muhazi, namely
kings
unfolded
(“abami b’ibitekerezo”),
Rwanda came
ARD
: Alliance
pour le Renforcement
de la under the
UHLJQRI.LQJ5XJDQ]X%ZLPED²WKHÀUVWNLQJDPRQJDVHULHVRI
Démocratie
historical
who ruled from
the fourteenth
the twentieth
ARDHO 1 kings
: Association
Rwandaise
pour latoDéfense
des
centuries . The kingdom of Rwanda was governed by kings (abami)
Droits de l’Homme
1
The
text
on
the
beginning
and expansion
of Rwanda
draws from several contributions
AREDETWA : Association
pour
le Relèvement
such as: Kagame, A., Inganji Kalinga, Kabgayi, 1943; Kagame, A., Un abrégé de l’histoire
Démocratique des Batwa
F
73
v
73
who belongedACRONYMS
to the Abanyiginya
clan. This clan later founded
AND ABBREVIATIONS
the Kingdom ___________________________________
of Rwanda. Other clans, including the Abasinga,
Abega, Abaha, Abakono, Abazigaba and Abatsobe clans, were
intimately
associated
the Abanyiginya clan when the
A.A.
: Archiveswith
Africaines
NLQJGRPZDVIRXQGHG(DFKRIWKHVHFODQVKDGVSHFLÀFUROHVWR
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
play. As a family or lineage chief of the relatively important clan
ABAKI
: Alliance des Bakiga
of Nyiginya, King Ruganzu Bwimba managed to declare himself
ABESC
: Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
a king with the royal symbol of a drum called Rwoga. It was
Castes
from this area Suppression
that farming, des
cattlekeeping and hunting were
ACR
:
Association
des
Cultivateurs
du Rwanda
practiced. Rwanda expanded under King Kigeri
IV Rwabugiri
ADP
:
Alliance
Démocratique
des
Peuples
toward the western part of River Nyabarongo, becoming a vast
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
kingdom.
Réconciliation Nationale
$FFRUGLQJWRRIÀFLDOWUDGLWLRQWKHRULJLQDO.LQJRI5ZDQGDGRP
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
peacefully
coexisted
with
political entities,
with
AFDL
: Alliance
desneighboring
Forces Démocratiques
pour la
which she formed
a
“confederation”
of
sorts.
At
that
time,
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
these
were
small-sized
chieftaincies,
referred to at Act
that time as
AGOA
: African Growth
and Opportunity
“countries” (Ibihugu). These chieftaincies were those of Buganza,
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
Bwanancyambwe, Buriza, Busigi and Busarasi.
AIMO
AJER
: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
Association
de laofJeunesse
Estudiantine
a. :Mythical
origins
the Abanyiginya
Rwandaise
ALIRorigins of
: Armée
de Libération
Rwanda
The
the Nyiginya
dynastydu
were
transmitted in the
2
AM/AP
: Arrêté
ministériel/
Arrêté
présidentiel
. This narrative
form
of an epic
narrative
called “Ibirari”
(traces)
AMR in a mythical
: Association
des Moniteurs
Rwanda
speaks
way about
Sabizeze, du
or Kigwa,
who was
born
from
the
sky
in
a
jar
of
milk.
Unhappy
with
the
mysterious
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
birth
Shyerezo provoked
hisde
son’s
departure. Sabizeze
ANT of his son,
: Assemblée
Nationale
Transition
descended to the
earthly
world
and
landed
in
Mubari, which was
(Transitional National Assembly)
inhabited
Abazigaba with
theirDémocrate
king called Kabeja.
Kigwa
APADEC by the
: Association
du Parti
Chrétien
was with his brother, Mututsi (ancestor of the Abega, Abaha and
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
Abakono), their sister, Nyampundu, and a number of domestic
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
animals. According to the myths of their origins, Kigwa was
Rwandais
intimately related
to Gihanga (the creator), the mythic founder of
APROCOMIN:
Association
des
Commerçants
Indigènes
the
kingdom. A social
tradition
narrates
that Gatutsi,
Gahutu and
APROSOMA
:
Association
pour
la
Promotion
Sociale
de which
la
Gatwa were sons of Kanyarwanda, whereas another myth,
Masse notes that Kanyandorwa, Kanyabuha,
is politically motivated,
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
du Rwanda Butare, EUNR,
1972; Anonyme, Historique et chronologie du Rwanda, s;l;;
Démocratie
J. Vansina, L’évolution du royaume Rwanda : des origines à 1900, Bruxelles, 1992; J.
ARDHO
: Association
Rwandaise
la 2001.
Défense des
Vansina,
Le Rwanda
ancien. Le royaume
Nyinginya, Parispour
Karthala,
2
Droits
l’Homme
Delmas, L., Généalogie
de lade
noblesse
(les Batutsi) du Ruanda, Kabgayi 1950, p.6 ;
Coupez,
A.
and
Kamanzi,
Th.,
Récits
historiques
Rwanda, Tervuren, MRAC, 1962,
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
pp. 18-25 ; P. Smith, Le récit populaire au Rwanda, Paris, Armand Colin, 1975, p. 71.
Démocratique des Batwa
74
74
v
Kanyabungo, ACRONYMS
and Kanyaburundi
sons of Gihanga. Gihanga
AND were
ABBREVIATIONS
had wives from
the clans of the Abasinga, Abatsobe, Abashambo,
___________________________________
etc. He travelled across Rwanda and Burundi up to Rutshuru, in
present
day eastern
DRC.Africaines
A.A.
: Archives
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
b. What do you think about this narrative?
ABAKI
: Alliance des Bakiga
ABESClanguage
: Association
des Bahutu
Evoluant
pour
Mythic
is not a language
of historic
narrative
asla
some
Suppression
des
Castes the origins of only some
people have been
led to believe.
It stresses
ACR
: Association
Cultivateurs
dulinked
Rwanda
Rwandan
clans
– those thatdes
were
more or less
directly
to
the Abanyiginya,
andDémocratique
consequently, to
royal family. The
ADP
: Alliance
desthe
Peuples
following
narratives
prove
thisla
point:
ADR
: Alliance
pour
Démocratie et la
Réconciliation Nationale
Of
the
clans of the descendants
from the heavens above
AEC
: Agglomeration
Extra-Coutumières
(Ibimanuka),
namely
the
Abanyiginya,
Abega,pour
Abakono
AFDL
: Alliance des Forces Démocratiques
la
and the Abaha, the last three constitute the clans of
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
the Ibibanda, or the matri-dynastic clans. These clans
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity Act
are destined to provide Queen Mothers, such as the
$,'6
case$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
of the sole Queen Mother of the Abagesera clan,
AIMO
:
Affaires
Indigènes
et Main-d’oeuvre
Mother of Kigeri
III Ndabarasa,
who is an example of
AJER
: Association
de lawho
Jeunesse
those
exclusive ones
are fullEstudiantine
of luck;
Rwandaise
clans de
of Libération
the Abasangwabutaka
ALIR - The: Armée
du Rwanda (those who
found ministériel/
on Planet Earth),
namely
the Abazigaba,
AM/AP were
: Arrêté
Arrêté
présidentiel
Abagesera and Abasinga, had members who belonged
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
WROLQHDJHVRULJLQDWLQJIURPFODQVWKDWHQMR\HGVSHFLÀF
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
ritualistic privileges as of old. These privileges included
ANT
Assemblée
Transition
the :choice
of the Nationale
location of de
residence
for other clans,
(Transitional
National
Assembly)
especially
for kings,
the right
to conduct mourning
APADEC ceremony
: Association
Parti
Chrétien the
rituals,du
and
theDémocrate
right of conducting
APR
: Armée
Patriotique
Rwandaise
rituals
of enthroning
a new
king.
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
Heavenly and earthly
origins do not correlate to the North or
Rwandais
South,
as someAssociation
ethnographers
and ethnologists
– especially
APROCOMIN:
des Commerçants
Indigènes
missionaries
–
have
imagined.
Instead
these
origins
refer
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de
la to
several locations,
i.e. “on the right, on the left, behind, in front,
Masse
the forest, marsh land, plain, and mountain,” which describe
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
diverse spatial units of the Rwandese universe. Origins cannot
Démocratie
be interpreted to mean a distant origin of the Ibimanuka, as some
ARDHO
:
Association
pour it.
la Interpretations
Défense des
explorers and missionaries Rwandaise
have transcribed
de l’Homme
regarding how Droits
people originally
settled in Rwanda, as expressed
AREDETWA
:
Association
pour
by these authors, is not premisedleonRelèvement
any data originating from
Démocratique des Batwa
75
v
75
tradition. Further,
the places
mentioned
in the myth show that
ACRONYMS
AND
ABBREVIATIONS
they were adjusted,
because they coincide with the expansion of
___________________________________
Rwanda at the end of the nineteenth century. Let us now look at
Rwanda’s
neighboring
countries
and their respective roles.
A.A.
: Archives
Africaines
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
¾Bwanacyambwe3
ABAKI
: Alliance des Bakiga
ABESC
: Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
At its inception, Bwanacyambwe linked Rwanda to Southern
Suppression des Castes
Buriza in the Kabuye mountain region, Jabana, Bweramvura).
ACR
:
des
du Rwanda
This is the areaAssociation
that belonged
to Cultivateurs
the Abongera clan
dynasty. The
ADP
: Alliance was
Démocratique
des
king of Bwanacyambwe
called Nkuba,
sonPeuples
of Nyabakonjo. He
ADR
Allianceofpour
la drum
Démocratie
et la
ruled with the: symbol
a royal
known as
Kamuhagama4.
With part of Réconciliation
BwanacyambweNationale
under their possession, the
descendants of
Bwimba sought Extra-Coutumières
to create an important kingdom.
AEC
: Agglomeration
The increase : in
the number
of healthy
animals inpour
Rwanda
AFDL
Alliance
des Forces
Démocratiques
la
prompted prosperous
herdsmen
to expand in search of pastures.
Libération
du Congo-Zaïre
After
Ruganzu
Bwimba,
the
Abanyiginya
KingdomAct
changed its
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity
capital.
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
¾Buriza
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
Rwandaise
The name of the
country “Uburiza” (“bwa gasabo”) means the
“elder brother: Armée
of Gasabo”.
Buriza enjoyed
a privileged position
ALIR
de Libération
du Rwanda
both politically
and culturally.
It isArrêté
here that
the royal tombs
AM/AP
: Arrêté
ministériel/
présidentiel
of
Butangampundu
were
located.
At
that
time,
was part
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Buriza
Rwanda
of the dynasty
which was represented
by a king
called Migina
AMUR
: Association
des Musulmans
au Rwanda
who
had
a
royal
drum
called
Bushizimbeho.
He
was
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition killed by
King Kigeri I Mukobanya. Buriza was among the political clan
(Transitional National Assembly)
entities of original Rwanda. Rwanda was principally inhabited
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
by the Abasinga clan, consisting of the Barenge, Abacyaba, and
APR
: Armée
Patriotique
Rwandaise
Abongera. The
Abongera
were a dominant
clan in the entire
APROBAMI
:
Association
des
Partis
Monarchistes
region, i.e. a territory that comprised not only the whole of Buriza,
but also part ofRwandais
Bumbogo and Bwanacyambwe5. The Abongera
APROCOMIN:
Association
des
Commerçants
Indigènes
are
considered to
be one of the
oldest
clans in Rwanda.
3APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
Many areas in Rwanda have names that begin with the phrase « bwana » which has a
Masse
relationship with « bene
», that is the ‘descendants of…’
4
Nyiligira,
Th.,
Monographie
du Renforcement
Bwanacyambwe des origines
ARD
: Alliancehistorique
pour le
de la à 1930, B.A.
dissertation in History,
Ruhengeri
,
NUR,
1988
Démocratie
5
We can talk of Northern Ubwongera to oppose it to Southern Ubwongera bringing
ARDHO
:
Association
pourextending
la Défense
des
together the region of Southern UburwiRwandaise
of present-day Rwanda
up to Busanza.
DroitsIIde
l’Homme
During the time of Ruganzu
Ndori,
Southern Ubwongera was governed by Nyaruzi,
son
of
Haramanga.
Its
capital
was
located
at a place
called “Mu mukindo wa Makwaza”
AREDETWA : Association pour
le Relèvement
near the marshland valley of Akanyaru, south of the present district of Gisagara.
Démocratique des Batwa
76
76
v
¾BusigiACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
___________________________________
Busigi6 was the area of the Abavubyi (rain makers). It comprised
a small part of Rukiga. Apart from the mountainous area of
A.A.
: Archives Africaines
Buhembe where the town of Byumba is located (present district
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
of Gicumbi), the rest of Rukiga was part of the “RwandaABAKI
: Alliance des
Bakiga
neighboring
countries”.
Many
works on the history of Rwanda
ABESC
:
Association
des
Bahutu
Evoluant
la the
mention the existence of a dynasty
of ‘rain
makers’pour
called
Abasigi – thoseSuppression
who inhabiteddes
theCastes
area called Ubusigi.
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
Oral
narrates Démocratique
that it was King
ADP tradition: Alliance
desRuganzu
PeuplesII Ndori of
5ZDQGDZKREHVWRZHGWKHÀUVWUDLQPDNHULQ5XNLJDWKHSRZHU
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
WRLQYRNHUDLQ7KHLQKDELWDQWVRI5XNLJDZHUHJUDWLÀHGE\WKLV
Réconciliation Nationale
honor. This contributed to the exceptional hospitality they
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
extended to the king. Often, the Abasigi declare that they belong
AFDL
:
Forces that
Démocratiques
la
to the AbasindiAlliance
clan. It des
is probable
Nyamikenke,pour
the most
du Congo-Zaïre
renowned of allLibération
these clansmen,
was given magical and religious
AGOA
:
African
Growth
and
Act
powers to rule over the inhabitants ofOpportunity
Busigi.
$,'6
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x
The
powers
of the
Abasigi rain
makers
AIMO
: Affaires
Indigènes
et Main-d’oeuvre
AJER
de who
la Jeunesse
Estudiantine
The
Abavubyi: Association
(rain makers)
originated
from the Abasigi
Rwandaise
family comprised a lineage of chiefs. The authority of the chief
ALIR
Armée dea Libération
du Rwanda
of
the Abasigi: included
moral obligation
to defend the people
AM/APhis jurisdiction
: Arrêté ministériel/
Arrêté
under
and to ensure
theirprésidentiel
security. This was
necessary
because,
for example,
the act of grabbing
cows from
AMR
: Association
des Moniteurs
du Rwanda
a
weak
family
was
considered
as
an
act
of
bravery.
Raiders
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda were
respected
because,
hitherto,
personal de
vendetta
was an accepted
ANT
: Assemblée
Nationale
Transition
practice. In this
situation
of
permanent
insecurity,
isolateds
(Transitional National Assembly)
individual was easily stripped of their rights and deprived of
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
their herds and land by more powerful families. To avoid falling
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
victim to such acts, the parties involved would form blood pacts
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
with the strongest chief(s).
Rwandais
The
Abanyaruko
belonged des
to Commerçants
the lineage ofIndigènes
Minyaruko’s
APROCOMIN:
Association
descendants,
of Nyamikenke
Nyamikenke).
APROSOMA :son
Association
pour la(Munyaruko
Promotion ya
Sociale
de la
This constituted
the
most
powerful
lineage
in
Busigi.
Not all
Masse
Abasindi
wielded
magical
andlereligious
powers.deThis
ARD
: Alliance
pour
Renforcement
la role was
played by this particular lineage. The Busigi rain-makers did
Démocratie
not have an administrative body charged with respecting codes
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
and rules of government like those found in almost all other
Droits de l’Homme
6
KAGBALI
J.
P..,
L’évolution socio-politique
du Rukiga de 1985 à 1945, B.A.
AREDETWA : Association
pour le Relèvement
dissertation in history. Ruhengeri NUR, 1988.
Démocratique des Batwa
77
v
77
chieftaincies ACRONYMS
in the Great AND
LakesABBREVIATIONS
Region. This is why Busigi
was not a true
kingdom, even if its chief refused to take
___________________________________
orders from .LQJ Nyinginya of Rwanda. In addition, Busigi
citizens
were :not
obligedAfricaines
to give gifts to the Abavubyi. Owing
A.A.
Archives
to
their
religious
and
magical
powers, the Abavubyi rainA.G.
: Assemblée Générale
makers were feared because they could put curses on crop
ABAKI
: Alliance des Bakiga
harvests. This fear prompted lineage chiefs to voluntarily give
ABESC
: Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
parts of their crop harvests to the rain-makers. In cases of
Suppression des Castes
calamity, citizens from other regions converged to Busigi to
ACR
:
des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
seek blessings Association
from the Abavubyi.
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
x Critical
thinkingpour la Démocratie et la
ADR
: Alliance
Réconciliation Nationale
Busigi was not a political entity of original Rwanda. Strictly
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
speaking, it was not a kingdom like Nduga, Gisaka or Ndorwa. A
AFDL
:
Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
OLQHDJHRIUDLQPDNHUVH[HUFLVHGUHOLJLRXVDQGPDJLFDOLQÁXHQFH
Libération
Congo-Zaïre
on these people
for a longdu
time.
This practice did not disturb
AGOA
:
African
Growth
and
the Nyiginya court. However, there isOpportunity
no evidence Act
to prove the
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
existence of known
rain-makers in original Rwanda.
AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
In effect, the deep genealogical structure of Busigi leaders was
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
considerably shorter in comparison with that of King of Rwandas.
Rwandaise
This has posed a serious problem insofar as some authors only
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
mention two Basigi chiefs from the time of King Ruganzu II Ndori.
AM/AP
: Arrêté
Arrêté
présidentiel
In the following
table,ministériel/
a comparison
of genealogies
of kings of
AMR
:
Association
des
Moniteurs
du
Rwanda
two territorial entities is given, i.e. Rwanda and Busigi.
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
(Transitional National Assembly)
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
Rwandais
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
Masse
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
Démocratie
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
Droits de l’Homme
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
Démocratique des Batwa
78
78
v
Table 3: The ACRONYMS
kings of Rwanda
Busigi
ANDand
ABBREVIATIONS
___________________________________
Abami (kings) Nyiginya
Abavubyi of Busigi
A.A.
: Archives Africaines History
According to
J. P.
A. Pagès
According to A.:Kagame
A.G.
Assemblée
Générale and
Kagubali
A. Kagame
ABAKI
: Alliance1. des
Bakiga1.chronology
Nyagasongo I
1.Nyamikenke
Nyamikenke
Nyamikenke
1. Ruganzu Ndori
Nyamikennke I
2.
Nzarubara
2.
Minyaruko
ABESC
des Bahutu Evoluant pour
la
Minyaruko
(1510-1543) : Association
2. Minyaruko
Mudahimurwa
3.Minyaruko
3. Mudahimurwa
2. Mutara Semugeshi
Suppression des Castes
Gacoco
Nyamikenke II
(1543-1576) : Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
ACR
Nzarubara
Nyagasongo II
3. K i g e r i
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples Mpungirehe
Nyamuheshera
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
(1576-1609)
Réconciliation Nationale
4. Mibambwe Gisanura
AEC
(1609-1642) : Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
5. Yuhi Muzimpaka
AFDL
: Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
(1642-1675)
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
6. Cyirima Rujugira
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity Act
(1675-1708)
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
7. Kigeri Ndabarasa
AIMO
(1708-1741) : Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
8. Mibambwe Sentabyo
(1741-1746)
Rwandaise
9.
Yuhi
Gahindiro
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
(1746-?)
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
10.Mutara Rwogera
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
((?- 1853)
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
11.Kigeri Rwabugiri
ANT
(1853-1895) : Assemblée Nationale de Transition
12.Yuhi Musinga(Transitional National Assembly)
(1897-1931) : Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
APADEC
13.Mutara Rudahigwa
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
(1931-1959)
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
Source: Data compiled
Rwandaisby the authors indicated in the table
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
Different versions of Rwandan tradition relate that King
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
Nyamikenke I was a contemporary of King Ruganzu II Ndori. In
addition, King Masse
Nyagasongo II Mpungirehe lived under the reign
ARD
: Alliance
pour le Therefore,
Renforcement
de la
of
King Mutara
III Rudahigwa.
Nyiginya
kings ruled
Démocratie
for almost twelve
generations whereas the Abasigi rain-makers
RQO\
UXOHG IRU
ÀYH JHQHUDWLRQV
7KLV GLVFUHSDQF\
LV GXH WR
WKH
ARDHO
: Association
Rwandaise
pour la Défense
des
fact that King Droits
Ruganzu
II
Ndori
was
certainly
a
historic
king
de l’Homme
whose
deeds
were
weaved
in pour
legends.
He was one of the reference
AREDETWA : Association
le Relèvement
people responsible for the creation of several institutions. The
Démocratique des Batwa
79
v
79
inevitable conclusion
is that AND
the traditions
of the Abasigi consider
ACRONYMS
ABBREVIATIONS
their ancestors
to
have
been
contemporaries
of the famous King
___________________________________
Ruganzu II Ndori. The mere association of a person with King
Ruganzu
II Ndori
would Africaines
confer upon that person some kind of
A.A.
: Archives
extraordinary character, associated with Imandwa spirits whose
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
chief was called Lyangombe. In this tradition, Lyangombe is
ABAKI
: Alliance
des Bakiga
presented
as a
contemporary
of King Ruganzu II Ndori.
ABESC
: Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
Suppression des Castes
¾Busarasi
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
Busarasi
was: Alliance
governedDémocratique
by Sambwe, son
Cyabugimbu. It
ADP
des of
Peuples
covered
many
hills
which
crossed
the
former
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et lacommunes of
Tare and Shyongi.
Whereas the
region covering the former
Réconciliation
Nationale
communes of Musasa and Rushashi was known under the name
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
of Gitindagasani, Busarasi is the former name for Bumbogo.
AFDL
:
Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
'LIIHUHQWVRXUFHVRI5ZDQGHVHWUDGLWLRQDIÀUPWKDW%XPERJRZDV
Congo-Zaïre
not of the sameLibération
size as the du
province
with the same name during
AGOA
: African
Growth
the
Belgian colonial
rule,
whichand
was Opportunity
conquered byAct
Mukobanya
ZKR EHFDPH$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
.LJHUL , ´+H ÀQDOO\ DWWDFNHG 6DPEZH VRQ RI
$,'6
Cyabugimbu,
whose
territory,
U Busarasi,
probably extended
AIMO
: Affaires
Indigènes
et Main-d’oeuvre
to
the boundaries
of the former
ProvinceEstudiantine
of Bumbogo minus
AJER
: Association
de la Jeunesse
Mountain Nyamweru (which was later added to it by the colonial
Rwandaise
administration) and less the localities of Shyorongi Kanyinya,
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
which surely belonged to Mugina dynasty, since his descendants
AM/AP
: Arrêté
ministériel/
présidentiel
lived
in Shyorongi,
which
was theirArrêté
capital.
They later became
AMR as the: Association
des Moniteurs
du Rwanda
known
ancient dynasty
that commanded
the esoteric
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
FRGH6DPEZHSHULVKHGGXULQJWKLVFRQÁLFWDQGKLVVXFFHVVRU
Prince
was the half
brother ofde
Prince
Mukobanya”
ANT Karimbi,
: Assemblée
Nationale
Transition
(Transitional National Assembly)
It
is
not
currently
possible to know
exactly
when the name
Bumbogo7
APADEC
: Association
du Parti
Démocrate
Chrétien
came into use. The fact remains that, before the conquest of
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
Nyinginya, this region was dominated by the Abega, hailing from
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
the Abaswere lineage. It seems that they did not resist the advance
Rwandais
of the Abanyiginya.
However, they retained their traditional role
APROCOMIN:
Association
des
Commerçants
Indigènesroyal
of organizing the harvest feast
(umuganura),
an important
APROSOMA
Association
pourThere
la Promotion
de plants
la
ceremony
for :the
Nyinga clan.
were fourSociale
principal
(imbuto nkuru) Masse
used during this ceremony at the Rwandan royal
court:
sorghum,
isogi, pumpkin
and millet.de
Alllathese foods
ARD
: Alliance
pour le(inzuzi),
Renforcement
were produced Démocratie
in Bumbogo. Apparently, it was at the beginning
of the nineteenth century that Bumbogo got dominated by the
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
Abatsobe who, together with Abega Baswere, used to help kings
Droitsofde
with the organization
thel’Homme
national harvest ceremony.
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
7
Kagame, A. 1972, op cit pp. 65-66.
Démocratique des Batwa
80
80
v
The capital of ACRONYMS
the Abega–Baswere
was Huro and these exercised
AND ABBREVIATIONS
the function of___________________________________
king “Abami b’I Bumbogo or abami b’ umuganura”.
Huro was a stable capital made of several huts, especially made
for
The Africaines
king collaborated closely with family
A.A.royal courtiers.
: Archives
chiefs, who paid dues to the king from their harvests. The
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
dynastic drum of the Abega from Bumbogo was called
ABAKI
Alliance
Bakiga
Karihejuru.
It: had
three des
dynastic
names: Nyamurasa, Musana,
8 Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
ABESC
:
and Mumbogo . The king of Bumbogo used to announce the
Suppression
des Castes
name of his successor
to secret
custodians of his kingdom
(Abiru); succession
was always
secret. The
king was
ACR
: Association
des kept
Cultivateurs
dunew
Rwanda
enthroned with
his mother
during nighttime
festivities.
ADP
: Alliance
Démocratique
des Peuples
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
3.2. ExpansionRéconciliation
of Rwanda
Nationale
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
According to tradition, Rwanda was an immense country whose
AFDL
:
Alliance
des
Démocratiques
la to
borders were limited
only
byForces
the sky.
This shows thepour
extent
Libération
Congo-Zaïre
which the idea of
expansiondu
was
conceived in Rwandan tradition.
AGOA
: African
Growth
andaggrandizement
Opportunity Act
It was under the
spirit of
territorial
that several
territorial gains
were made. The annexed territory included:
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
Gisaka,
Nduga,
Bukunzi
Busozo, Bunyambiriri,
Bwanamukari,
AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes
et Main-d’oeuvre
Burwi, Bugoyi,
Bufumbira, Mubali,
Bugesera,
Ndurwa, Bwishya,
AJER
: Association
de la Jeunesse
Estudiantine
Busigi, Bufundu, and Buyenzi.
Rwandaise
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
3.2.1. Rwanda versus Gisaka: Ruganzu Bwimba and Robwa
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
AMR
: Association
Moniteurs
du Rwanda
When the reign
of King des
Ruganzu
I Bwimba
began, Rwanda
AMUR
: Association
au Rwanda
had
its capital
at Gasabo des
Hill,Musulmans
located at the
southwestern
point
Muhazi. AtNationale
this time, de
theTransition
king was still young.
ANT of Lake
: Assemblée
He therefore governed
Rwanda
underAssembly)
the system of regency
(Transitional
National
whereby
his
mother,
Nyiraruganzu
Nyakanga,
who
belonged to
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate
Chrétien
the Abasinga clan, made all decisions. In discharging her duties,
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
the Queen Mother was helped by her cousin Nkurukumbi, son of
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
Nyebunga. Among other important personalities in court service
were the greatRwandais
trustees of the esoteric code (Abiru), such as
APROCOMIN:
Association
des Commerçants
Nyaruhungura (from the Abatsobe
clan), CyengeIndigènes
(Abanyiginya
APROSOMA
: Association
pour
la Promotion
Sociale
de laand
clan
of Abakobwa
lineage),
Gitandura
(Abasindi
clan),
9
Mukubu (Abaha
clan) .
Masse
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
King Bwimba had
a younger brother, and he had a sister who
Démocratie
had attained the age of marriage. Her name was Robwa. His
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
8
l’Homme
The last Mwami ofDroits
Bumbogode
Nyamurasa
IV Kabano. He was enthroned in 1925 and
deported
to
Kinyaga
in
1928
by
the
Belgian
administration.
AREDETWA : Association pourcolonial
le Relèvement
9
Kagame, A., 1972, op. cit. , p. 57.
Démocratique des Batwa
81
v
81
young wife was
called Nyakiyaga.
She hailed from the Abega
ACRONYMS
AND ABBREVIATIONS
clan. The Rwandese
tradition
relates
the heroic death of King
___________________________________
Ruganzu I Bwimba and his sister Robwa who were regarded as
liberators
of the
kingdom.Africaines
A.A.
: Archives
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
At that time, two powerful kingdoms were rising next to the
ABAKI of Rwanda.
: Alliance
dessouth
Bakiga
Kingdom
In the
was Bugesera Kingdom, which
ABESC
:
Association
des
Bahutu
pour
la
was ruled by Nsoro Bihembe. In the eastEvoluant
was Gisaka
Kingdom
des Castes
under the reignSuppression
of Kimenyi I Musaya.
The Monarchy of Bugesera
ACR
: Association
desthe
Cultivateurs
du Rwanda
enjoyed
friendly
relations with
Rwandan royal
court. On the
other
Musaya wanteddes
to annex
the territory
ADP hand, : Kimenyi
AllianceI Démocratique
Peuples
of
the
Abanyiginya,
and,
to
this
effect,
he
asked
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la Rubwa for
marriage because
the diviners had
predicted that this marriage
Réconciliation
Nationale
would produce Rwanda’s future conqueror.
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
AFDL
:
Démocratiques
pour
la of
When RuganzuAlliance
Bwimbades
andForces
his advisors
heard the
plans
Libération
du Congo-Zaïre
the king of Gisaka,
they opposed
this marriage. However, the
AGOA Mother
: African
Opportunity
Queen
and theGrowth
her sonand
Nkurukumbi
wereAct
in favor of
this
hoping that it would establish a useful alliance
$,'6marriage,
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
to
the
country.
Their Indigènes
idea prevailed,
and Kimenyi I Musaya
AIMO
: Affaires
et Main-d’oeuvre
married
Nonetheless,
concluding
the marriage
AJER Robwa.
: Association
de labefore
Jeunesse
Estudiantine
pact, King Ruganzu Bwimba informed his sister about the
Rwandaise
situation and Rubwa promised that she would not let Kimenyi
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
produce for her an evil son. Sometime later, she announced to
AM/AP
: Arrêté
ministériel/
présidentiel
her
brother that
she was
pregnantArrêté
and that
she was going to
AMR suicide
: Association
Moniteurs
du Rwanda
commit
before givingdes
birth
to the child.
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
The
court decided
to identify
another person to be
ANTRwandan:royal
Assemblée
Nationale
de Transition
VDFULÀFHGZLWK5REZD7KHRUDFOHVSRLQWHGWR1NXUXNXPELZKR
(Transitional National Assembly)
ZDVWREHVDFULÀFHGLQWKHEDWWOHÀHOG+RZHYHUKHUHIXVHGWREH
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
VDFULÀFHG7KHQWKHRUDFOHLGHQWLÀHGWKHNLQJKLPVHOI%XWEHIRUH
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
WKHNLQJPDGHWKHGHFLVLRQWREHVDFULÀFHGKHPDGHDGHFUHHWKDW
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
from that time onwards, the Abasinga clan should never produce
Queen MothersRwandais
as punishment for Nkurukumbi’s refusal to spill
APROCOMIN:
Association
des Commerçants
Indigènes
blood for the sake
of the kingdom.
In the meantime,
Nyakiyaga,
APROSOMA
pour
Sociale
la
the
wife of the: Association
king, gave birth
tola
a Promotion
son who was
nameddeRugwe.
Gitandura transmitted
Masse this news to the king. Because of this,
Gitandura
and
his descendants
were accorded de
thelaprivilege of
ARD
: Alliance
pour le Renforcement
naming royal children
before
the
monarch
did
so.
Démocratie
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
Since Rugwe was still young, the king could not back out of
Droits
l’Homme
his decision. He
askedde
Cyenge
to be in charge of the court until
AREDETWA
:
Association
pour
le Relèvement
such a time when his son Rugwe
would be in a position to
Démocratique des Batwa
82
82
v
rule. After making
these arrangements,
Ruganzu declared war
ACRONYMS
AND ABBREVIATIONS
with Gisaka and
was
killed
during
the
battle
of Nkungu near
___________________________________
Munyaga. A messenger announced the sad news to princess
Robwa.
Kimenyi
I Musaya
handed the Rukurura Royal Drum to
A.A.
: Archives
Africaines
Robwa, declaring her the future Queen Mother in consolation
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
for losing her brother. But Robwa hastened towards the drum
ABAKI
: Alliance
des Bakiga
and
committed
suicide with
the child she was carrying. Due
ABESC
:
Association
des
Bahutuher
Evoluant
pour
la and
to this act, Rwandan tradition regards
as a great
hero
liberator of theSuppression
kingdom like des
her Castes
brother Ruganzu Bwimba. Up
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
WRQRZWKHUHLVQRLQIRUPDWLRQWRFRQÀUPWKLVQDUUDWLYHZKLFK
praises
demonstrated
in Nyiginya
kingdom.
ADP the bravery
: Alliance
Démocratique
des Peuples
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
3.2.2. Conquest
and occupation
of Nduga: a new center
Réconciliation
Nationale
power in Rwanda’s expansion
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
AFDL
:
Alliance
des Forces
Démocratiques
pour lathe
This section will
be presented
under
four major phases:
Libération
Congo-Zaïre
expansion under
Cyirima du
Rugwe’s
regime, the invasion of the
AGOA
: African
Growth
Opportunity
Abanyoro
during
the reign
of and
Kigeri
Mukobanya,Act
the second
invasion
Abanyoro and their panic under Mibambwe
$,'6 of the
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
Sekarongoro
Mutabazi,
the occupation
of Nduga by Rwanda.
AIMO
: Affaires and
Indigènes
et Main-d’oeuvre
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
a. Expansion under Cyirima Rugwe
Rwandaise
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
The original kingdom of Rwanda was composed of Mageragere
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/
présidentiel
Nyamweru
mountains,
which, up Arrêté
to that
time, formed the
AMR of Bugesera,
: Association
Moniteurs
du Nsoro
Rwanda
enclave
ceded des
“willingly
by King
Bihembe,
10
AMUR
desRugwe,
Musulmans
au Rwanda
of
Bugesera.”: Association
King Cyilima
seconded
by his son
Mukobanya,
put
an end toNationale
Rwanda’sde
“ confederation
ANT
: Assemblée
Transition system,”
composed of the
entities maintioned
above. He replaced the
(Transitional
National Assembly)
kings
of
the
entities
with
dismissible
chiefs. Chrétien
However, an
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate
exception was made when it came to the area of the Busigi
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
rain-makers. Lastly, it is said that with the assistance of
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
Mukobanya, King Cyirima Rugwe crossed River Nyabarongo
and undertookRwandais
to conquer territories located to north of
APROCOMIN:
Association
des Commerçants
Indigènes
Nduga Kingdom, i.e. Bushegeshi
(which later became
Uruyenzi
APROSOMA
: Association
la Promotion
Sociale(known
de la as
in
the current
District of pour
Kamonyi),
Bunyagitunda
Gishubi and Masse
later as Rukoma during the Belgian colonial
rule),
and
Bunyatwa
(which
later Burembo
ARD
: Alliance
pour became
le Renforcement
de laas well as
the surrounding
areas
constituting
the
entire
Ndiza
during the
Démocratie
Belgian colonial rule). At that time, Ngoga son of Mashira led a
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
number of expeditions against Rwanda, to the east of Nyabarngo.
Droits occupied
de l’Homme
The King of Nduga
Nyakabanda for some time,
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
10
Kagame A. 1972 op. cit. p. 257.
Démocratique des Batwa
83
v
83
which is located
in the current
district of Nyarugenge, and
ACRONYMS
AND ABBREVIATIONS
11
he took his cows
to
drink
in
Mihima.
___________________________________
of the Abanyoro and Kigeri
A.A.b. First invasion
: Archives
Africaines
A.G.
Générale WKH ÀUVW LQYDVLRQ RI WKH
$FFRUGLQJ
WR: Assemblée
5ZDQGHVH WUDGLWLRQ
ABAKI
: Alliance
des Bakiga
Abanyoro
took
place under
the rule of Kigeri Mukobanya;
ABESC
: Association
des Bahutu
pour 12la. The
these
invaders
were descendants
of Cwa, Evoluant
king of Bunyoro
invasion of theSuppression
Abanyoro wasdes
terrible,
scaring, and disastrous.
Castes
This
event
was
always
narrated
by
several
such as
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurssources,
du Rwanda
dynastic poetry and historical narratives. There were magical
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
ceremonies intended to ward off disaster. A memorial tree called
ADR
: Alliance
pour la
et la was planted
Umuganzacyaro
(the triumph
on Démocratie
a foreign country)
Réconciliation
on the site of victory
during theNationale
counter-attack mounted along
AECRunda mountains
: Agglomeration
the
in the Extra-Coutumières
present district of Kamonyi. The
invasion
Abanyorodes
is an
uncontestable
reality because
AFDL of the: Alliance
Forces
Démocratiques
pour lathe
Abanyoro lineages
have
of
recent
been
noticed
in
Indara,
not far
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
from Butare, and Buringa, in the current district of Muhanga.
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity Act
$,'6
c. Second$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
invasion of the Abanyoro under Mibambwe
AIMO Sekarongoro
: Affaires
Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
Mutabazi
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
To the west of Nyabarongo,
Rwandaise Mibambwe Sekarongoro Mutabazi is
said to have conquered part of the kingdom of Nduga, ruled at
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
that time by Mashira, son of Nkuba, son of Sabugabo, hailing
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/
from
the Ababanda
dynasty. But Arrêté
Nduga présidentiel
quickly regained her
AMR
: Association
Moniteurs
independence.
During the des
second
invasionduofRwanda
the Abanyoro,
Mibambwe
Mutabazi
was
forced
to
escape.
But,
while
Mibambwe
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
Mutabazi
was: on
the run toNationale
Kinyaga, Kimenyi
Shumbusho, king
ANT
Assemblée
de Transition
of Gisaka, likely(Transitional
annexed Buganza
and
Bwanacyambwe.
National Assembly)
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
d. Actual occupation of Nduga
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
The
actual
occupation
was achieved
when
Mibambwe Mutabazi
APROBAMI : Association
des Partis
Monarchistes
returned from exile. Using his troops and allies (especially the
Rwandais
Abasinga), he assassinated Mashira and exterminated many
APROCOMIN:
Association
des Commerçants
Indigènes
of
his family members.
The event
took place in Nyanza,
in the
APROSOMA
:
Association
pour
la
Promotion
Sociale
de
present district of Nyanza. Several families of the Ababandalawere
forced to leaveMasse
Nduga to seek refuge in Burundi. Those who
remained
organized
a ferocious
which de
lasted
ARD
: Alliance
pour leresistance
Renforcement
la for three
11
Démocratie
,ELGS7KHRI¿FLDOWUDGLWLRQGLVPLVVHGWKLVIDFWWRZKLFK.DJDPH$PDNHVDUHIHUHQFH
as follows : “on her :part,
Ndunga sent without
any doubt expeditions
Rwanda.des
Those
ARDHO
Association
Rwandaise
pour laagainst
Défense
which have been conserved went very far to the extent of reaching the eastern part of
Droits
decommand
l’Homme
Nyabarongo which was
under the
of Prince Ngiga son of Mashira” (ibid.p.76).
12
“Abenecwa “: A:term
designating thepour
Abanyoro
(cf. poèmes dynastiques / Collection
AREDETWA
Association
le Relèvement
de Jan Vansina, not edited).
Démocratique des Batwa
84
84
v
centuries. Meanwhile
King AND
Yuhi ABBREVIATIONS
Mazimpaka incorporated the
ACRONYMS
resisters in what
came
to
be
known
as the ‘war training’ of the
___________________________________
13
Ababanda (“Umutwe w’ Ababanda”), under the responsibility
of his son Prince Nyarwaya Karuretwa.
A.A.
: Archives Africaines
A.G. King Mibambwe
: Assemblée
Générale Mutabazi was nicknamed
Hence,
Sekarongoro
ABAKI
:owing
Alliance
des
Bakiga
“Nkovimbere”
to his
facial
scar that was caused by arrows
ABESC
: Association
des
Bahutu
Evoluant
la
shot
by the Abanyoro
during
the
battle of
Musave.pour
Ultimately,
King Mibambwe
annexed
Nduga,
where
several
Nyiginya
kings
Suppression des Castes
established
their
residences.
From
that
point,
most
war
conquests
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
and expeditions started from Nduga. The loss of Buganza and
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
Bwanacyambwe, as well as the uncontested power of Gisaka
ADR
: Alliance
pour
la Démocratie
la Abanyiginya
to
the east and
Ndorwa
to the
north, forcedetthe
Réconciliation
Nationale
dynasty to establish
its political
capital west of Nyabarongo
(current
Southern
Province), in Extra-Coutumières
the current district of Kamonyi
AEC
: Agglomeration
and
See Map des
6 below:
AFDLRuhango.
: Alliance
Forces Démocratiques pour la
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
Map 6: Original map of Rwanda (Gasabo) and neighboring
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity Act
“countries” (14th Century)
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
Rwandaise
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
(Transitional National Assembly)
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
Rwandais
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
Masse
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
Démocratie
Source : LUGAN B., Histoire du Rwanda : De la préhistoire
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
à nos jours, Paris, Bartillat, 1997, p.84.
Droits de l’Homme
13
A
person
called
Rubuguza
member pour
of the Ababanda
militia. Under Cyirima
AREDETWA : Association
le Relèvement
Rujugira, he was considered as “liberator”of Rwanda from Gisaka.
Démocratique des Batwa
85
v
85
3.2.3. Major ACRONYMS
political crisis:
Yuhi
Gahima and Ndahiro
AND
ABBREVIATIONS
Cyamatare
___________________________________
a Yuhi
GahimaAfricaines
A.A.
: Archives
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
King Mibambwe Sekarongoro Mutabazi was succeeded by King
ABAKI
Bakiga
Yuhi
Gahima.: Alliance
When thedes
latter
died, he was buried in Kayenzi,
ABESC
:
Association
des
poura la
located in the present Northern Bahutu
Province.Evoluant
Kayenzi was
place
des Castes
for royal tombsSuppression
of monarchs bearing
the name of Yuhi. The royal
ACR was known
: Association
desII.Cultivateurs
Rwanda
drum
as Kibanza
Among his du
many
sons was
Juru,
hailing
from the family
title of Abenejuru
ADP an ancestor
: Alliance
Démocratique
des Peuples
and
Bamara,
the
father
of
Byinshi.
This
was
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie etthe
la ancestry title
for the large family
of the Abanyabyinshi,
Réconciliation
Nationale which was the most
illustrious family among the Banyamulenge.
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
AFDL
:
Alliance
des Forces
pour la
a. Death of
Yuhi Gahima
andDémocratiques
war of succession
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity Act
7KHRIÀFLDO5ZDQGDVHWUDGLWLRQDIÀUPVWKDWZKHQ.LQJ<XKL
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
Gahima died, an opposition party against his successor
AIMO Cyamatare
: Affaires
et Main-d’oeuvre
Ndahiro
wasIndigènes
formed14. Among
the principal members
AJER
de laBamara,
Jeunesseboth
Estudiantine
of
this party: Association
were Juru and
of whom were
Rwandaise
sons of Yuhi Gahima. However, their brothers Binama, Gacu,
and
remained
faithful to du
Ndahiro
Cyamatare, who
ALIRKarangana
: Armée
de Libération
Rwanda
was
considered
by
the
opposition
as
the
one
who
had usurped
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
power.
took up des
arms
in a battle
saw Juru
AMR Cyamatare
: Association
Moniteurs
duwhich
Rwanda
killed.15 Bamara made claims to succeed his brother Juru. He
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
ruled East of Nyabarongo16. When he died, he was succeeded by
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
his son Byinshi.
(Transitional National Assembly)
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
b.
Death
Ndahiro
Cyamatare
APR
: of
Armée
Patriotique
Rwandaise
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
During the internecine
wars and struggles, Nsibura Nyebunga,
Rwandais
the Petty King of Idjwi Island, collaborated with Nzira,
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
son of Muramira and king of Bugara, to attack Ndahiro
APROSOMA
Association
pourformer
la Promotion
de la (in
Cyamatare
at: Gitarama
in the
region Sociale
of Cyingogo
Masse Province ). Ndahiro was hurt in the valley.
the present Western
ARD
: Alliance
pourtolebe
Renforcement
de la (place of
Henceforth,
the
valley came
known as Irasaniro
combat). He crossed
Kibilira
stream
and
mixed
his blood with
Démocratie
ARDHO
: Association
14
Kagame, A. , 1972,
op. cit., p.87. Rwandaise pour la Défense des
15
Droits
dename
l’Homme
Juru is the ancestor
of the title
of Abenejuru . They were not many in
number
but
were
well
known.
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
16
Kagame, A.1972, op. cit., p.88.
Démocratique des Batwa
86
86
v
the waters of ACRONYMS
that stream. In
commemoration
of this event, no
AND
ABBREVIATIONS
Rwandan monarch
could
cross
Kibilira;
they
were
supposed to
___________________________________
go upstream to bypass its source. This tradition was especially
observed
by Kigeri
Rwabugiri,
Mibambwe Rutarindwa, and even
A.A.
: Archives
Africaines
by Yuhi Musinga in 1929 during the visit of Prince Léopord
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
of Belgium to Rwanda. The Rugarama mountainous region
ABAKICyamatare
: Alliance
des Bakiga
where
was massacred
by the warriors of Bugara was
ABESC
:
Association
des
Bahutu
Evoluant
henceforth called “Rubi rw’i Nyundo” (Nyundo
sad pour
news).laThis
Suppression
desthe
Castes
tragic event was
associated with
following events:
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
The
killing
of Queen
Mother Nyirandahiro
Nyirangabo and
ADP
: Alliance
Démocratique
des Peuples
of the Cyamatare women. These events took
ADR the death
: Alliance
pour la Démocratie et la
place at the same location. The place was since named
Réconciliation Nationale
Mu Miko y’abakobwa (Erythrins of noble ladies);
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
AFDL
:
Alliance des of
Forces
Démocratiques
pour la at
- The commemoration
this calamity,
which occurred
17
the beginning
of a du
newCongo-Zaïre
moon in June, was marked by
Libération
organizing
a
national
mourning
event (Icyunamo)
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity
Act of two
in the lunar months of April and May (Gicurasi)
$,'6 weeks $FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
before the celebration of the feast of new rains (
AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
Umuganura);
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
- The lossRwandaise
of the Rwoga drum, a symbol of royal power and
The drum
was stolen du
by Nsibura;
ALIR prestige.
: Armée
de Libération
Rwanda18
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
- The recovery of the Cyimumugizi Royal Drum by Gitandura.
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
It was found in a cave located at “mu Rutaka,” in the
AMURcurrent: Association
des Musulmans au Rwanda
district of Muhanga. Gitandura is the ancestral
ANT title of :Abasindi
Assemblée
Nationale
de Transition
Abatandura, which
was given to Bihubi.
(Transitional
National
Assembly)
According to this tradition, Abasindi Abatandura imposed
APADEC
: Association
du Parti
Chrétien
his names
on the children
of Démocrate
Yuhi Musinga;
APR
: Armée Patriotique
Rwandaise
- The unprecedented
calamities
which took place after the
APROBAMI
: Association
Partis
Monarchistes
disaster
of Rubi rw’ I des
Nyundo:
famine,
epidemics, animal
Rwandais
diseases, hatred, and frequent murders. Due to these
tragic events,
there was
for a savior Indigènes
– a king who
APROCOMIN:
Association
desneed
Commerçants
ZRXOG
XVKHU
LQ
D
QHZ
HUD
.LQJ
5XJDQ]X
1GRUL
IXOÀOOHG
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale
de
la
this duty.
Masse
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
Démocratie
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
Droits de l’Homme
17
Kagame,
A.
op.
cit.
p. 91.
AREDETWA : Association
pour le Relèvement
18
Ibid.
Démocratique des Batwa
87
v
87
3.2.4. Restoration
and consolidation
of the monarchy
ACRONYMS
AND ABBREVIATIONS
___________________________________
a. Ruganzu Ndori
A.A.
: Archives Africaines
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
Undeniably, King Ruganzu Ndori was the most famous king in
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
the lineage of the Abanyiginya. His popularity gave him a status
ABAKI
: Alliance
des Bakiga
that
was legendary
in character.
At the same time, he was a true
ABESC
:
Association
des
Bahutu
Evoluant
pouramong
la
creator and organizer of institutions, qualities
which,
Suppression
des Castes
other things, deeply
characterized
the history of Rwanda under
ACRregime. The
: Association
des Cultivateurs
his
literary narratives
dedicated todu
hisRwanda
rule recount
19
his
achievementsdes
. Peuples
ADPnumerous: marvels
Allianceand
Démocratique
¾Who was
Ndori?
Réconciliation
Nationale
According to tradition, Ndori was the son of King Ndahiro
AFDL
: Alliance des
Démocratiques
pour lathe
Cyamatare.
Cyamatare
wasForces
preoccupied
with ensuring
Libération
dufuture
Congo-Zaïre
security of his son
Ndori, his
successor. He therefore took
AGOAto his paternal
: Africanaunt
Growth
and Opportunity
Ndori
Nyabunyana,
the wife Act
of Karemera
Ndagara
Karagwe. After the king’s death, Nsibura Nyebunga
$,'6 king of
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
sent
a
messenger
by the Indigènes
name of Kavuna.
The announcer crossed
AIMO
: Affaires
et Main-d’oeuvre
the
country and
invited major
who were supporting
AJER
: Association
depersonalities,
la Jeunesse Estudiantine
Ndori, to organize for his return. The slogan used for the return
Rwandaise
of the prince was, “Sindushye ndashonje , mumnfungurire njye
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
kubandura Ndori ya Ndahiro” (I am not tired but I am hungry,
AM/AP
: Arrêté
présidentiel
give
me something
to ministériel/
eat and drinkArrêté
so that
I can remove Ndori
AMR
: Association
des place).
Moniteurs
du Rwanda
son
of Ndahiro
from his hiding
The messenger
set out for
AMUR where
: Association
des Musulmans
au Rwanda
Karagwe,
he alerted Ndori
about the disastrous
situation
prevailing
in :Rwanda..
ThisNationale
is how Ndori
returned to Rwanda,
ANT
Assemblée
de Transition
escorted under (Transitional
utmost secrecy.
National Assembly)
Karemera Ndagara, the King of Karagwe, requested Ndori as a
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
souvenir in exchange for his protection. Karemera’s dynastic
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
name was henceforth adopted in Rwanda in the lineage of
Rwandais
Banyiginya. This
name was given to Rwaka, the son and
APROCOMIN:
Association
Commerçants
Indigènes
successor of Yuhi Mazimpaka.des
Owing
to this protection,
Rwandan
APROSOMA
: Association
pourKaragwe
la Promotion
Sociale
de la 20.
monarchs
avoided
war against
as much
as possible
However, the promise
Masse that Rwanda would never attack Karagwe
was
short-lived;
there was
warlebetween
Karagwe
ARD
: Alliance
pour
Renforcement
deand
la Rwanda
21
during the reign
of
Gahindiro
.
Démocratie
ARDHO
: Association
Kagame, A. 1972,
op. cit. p. 93. Rwandaise pour la Défense des
20
de l’Homme
Kagame, A. 1972 Droits
op. cit., p.94-99
21
Katoke,
J.
K.,
The
Karagwe
Kingdom:
a history
of Abanyambo of North western
AREDETWA : Association
pour
le Relèvement
Tanzania. C.1400- 1915, Nairobi, 1975
Démocratique des Batwa
19
88
88
v
¾Ruganzu
Ndori’s achievements
ACRONYMS
AND ABBREVIATIONS
___________________________________
Ndori is remembered in Rwandan tradition for having restored
the monarchy. He is said to have come from the northeastern
A.A.
: Archives Africaines
part of Rwanda. He spent some time at Gatsibo and Busigi
A.G. he is said
: Assemblée
Générale the Karinga dynastic drum
where
to have inaugurated
ABAKI
: Alliance“Mukiga”.
des Bakiga
frequently
nicknamed
In the dynastic poetry (ibisigo),
ABESC
Association
desfrom
Bahutu
Evoluant
pour la on
it
is said that:this
drum came
Rukiga.
Ndori embarked
a broad set of activities:
Suppression des Castes
ACRx After the
: Association
des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
acquisition of the Karinga dynastic drum, King
ADP Ruganzu
: Alliance
Démocratique
Peuples
Ndori defeated
Byinshi des
son of
Bamara;22
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
x He conquered
Nduga,Nationale
including Rukoma, Muyaga,
Réconciliation
Kabagari,
and
Marangara.
King Ruganzu Ndori made
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
several
conquests
in
Nyundo,
Bunyogombe
at lathe
AFDL
: Alliance des Forces Démocratiques
pour
periphery of Ruhango town;
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity Act
x He organized
the army by creating a shock battalion made
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
of
Ibisumuzi
Militia
under et
theMain-d’oeuvre
command of Muvunyi,
AIMO
: Affaires
Indigènes
son
of
Karema;
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
Rwandaise
x He introduced
a new drum emblem called Nangamadumbu
ALIR (I have: rebellions).
Armée de Libération
du Rwanda
It was sounded
in Rwoga but was later
AM/APstolen :by
Arrêté
ministériel/
Arrêté
présidentiel
Nsiburanye
Nyebunga.
Ndori
is remembered for
AMR having: introduced
Associationtwo
desroyal
Moniteurs
Rwanda
drums, du
namely
Karihejuru
and
Bariba.
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
In addition to the above achievements, Ruganzu Ndori also:
(Transitional National Assembly)
APADEC
: Association
du Parti
Démocrate
Chrétien
x Attacked
Bunyabungo
(Bushi)
as an act
of revenge
APR
: Armée
Patriotique
Rwandaise
against
Nsibura.
He occupied
the eastern bank of Lake
APROBAMI
: Association
des conquered
Partis Monarchistes
Kivu
up to Rusizi and
Ijwi Island. Tradition
has Rwandais
it that under King Ruganzu Ndori, Bunyabungo
was Association
attacked anddes
ravaged
on several Indigènes
occasions;
APROCOMIN:
Commerçants
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
x Attacked Bugara under Nzira, son of Muramira, who
had Masse
succeeded Nsibura after the death of Ndahiro
ARD
:
Alliance
Cyamatare; pour le Renforcement de la
Démocratie
x Undertook
military
expeditions
of la
conquest
the
ARDHO
: Association
Rwandaise
pour
Défenseatdes
expense
of
the
neighboring
native
provinces.
Thus,
he
Droits de l’Homme
annexed
Bunyambiriri,
petty-king GisurereAREDETWA
: Association
pour lewhose
Relèvement
22
Vansina, J., 2001, op. cit., p. 67.
Démocratique des Batwa
89
v
89
A.A.
A.G.
ABAKI
ABESC
Suti
(Suti ya Banega)
living in Kaduha, was killed.
ACRONYMS
AND ABBREVIATIONS
He ___________________________________
subdued Bwanamukari by killing his notables
who included: Nyakarashi (residing in Zivu in the
current
districtAfricaines
of Gisagara), Mpandahande who lived
: Archives
in Ruhande (present district of Huye), Nyaruzi, son
: Assemblée Générale
of Haramanga, and petty-king Burwi. Nyaruzi was
des
Bakiga
the: Alliance
last chief
representing
the Abarenge clan; his
:
Association
des
Bahutu
Evoluant pour la
territory was annexed by Rwanda;
Suppression des Castes
x Conquered
the regions
of Bugoyi, Byahi,
Bwishya and
: Association
des Cultivateurs
du Rwanda
then
Bufumbira
–
the
territory
near
volcanoes
and
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
beyond.
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
Ruganzu enjoyed friendly relations with Rwagitare, king of
Réconciliation Nationale
Bugesera. This kingdom extended west, up to the neighborhood
AEC
: Agglomeration
Extra-Coutumières
of
Ngozi. Tradition
also narrates
that the southern border was
AFDL
:
Alliance
des
Forces
pour
la it
partly demarcated by Rubyironza. InDémocratiques
the south-eastern
part,
Libération
duIt Congo-Zaïre
was demarcated
by Ruvubu.
should be noted that the kingdom
of
Burundi progressively
changed
the posts of Act
this border,
AGOA
: African Growth
and Opportunity
extending
it
towards
the
north.
Rwagitare,
once
at war with
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
Ntare
of Burundi,
called et
on Main-d’oeuvre
Ruganzu for support and
AIMO Kibogora
: Affaires
Indigènes
help.
The
Ibisumizi
dashed
to
Burundi
to Estudiantine
make war. Ntare II’s
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse
warriors were beaten and defeated by this coalition. Later, two
Rwandaise
institutions were put in place to act as pillars of his authority
ALIR
: Armée
de Libération
du and
Rwanda
in
King Ruganzu’s
kingdom:
the Itorero
Ubuhake23.
ACR
ADP
ADR
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
AMR
: Association
des IMoniteurs
du(1648)
Rwanda
b. Rwanda under
King Mutara
Semugeshi
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
According to :the
esoteric code,
Mutara
was a single child of
ANT
Assemblée
Nationale
de ITransition
King Ruganzu (Transitional
II Ndori. As prince,
his
name
was Bicuba. It is
National Assembly)
not well known how this king acceded to the throne, but he is
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
remembered for annexing the state of Abenengwe to Rwanda. At
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
that time, the annexed territory comprised Bungwe, Bufundu,
APROBAMI
: Association
and
some parts
of Busanza.des Partis Monarchistes
Rwandais
APROCOMIN:
Association
Commerçants(1672)
Indigènes
c.
Rwanda under
King Kigeri des
II Nyamuheshera
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
King Kigeri II Nyamuheshera
was known to be a great warrior
Masse
who
professional
army called
“Inkingi” or
ARD fought alongside
: Allianceapour
le Renforcement
de la
“the pillars”. He used this army to annex Bukunzi, Busozo and
Démocratie
Kinyanga. When Ndorwa was defeated, Bwanacyambwe was
ARDHO
:
Association
Rwandaise pour la Défense des
ceded back to Rwanda.
Droits de l’Homme
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
23
Vansina, J., 2001 op. cit., p. 66.
Démocratique des Batwa
90
90
v
d. Rwanda ACRONYMS
under KingAND
Mibambwe
II Sekarongoro
ABBREVIATIONS
Gisanura (1696)
___________________________________
II
King
Gisanura
never annexed any territory.
A.A. Mibambwe
: Archives
Africaines
However, he is famous for his generosity; he was nicknamed
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
“Rugabishabirenge” (one who makes donation even with his feet).
ABAKI
Bakiga
He
donated to: Alliance
the poor, des
the under-privileged,
and the deprived.
ABESC
:
Association
des
Bahutu
Evoluant
pourrock
la or
He was an upright man (cf. a history of the Kamegeri
Suppression
Urutare rwa Kamegeri
and des
the Castes
saying that “justice done at
ACR
: Association
des Cultivateurs
dujudgment”).
Rwanda
Mutakara,”
his
residence, which
meant “perfect
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
3.2.5.
expansion:
King Cyirima
ADR The great
: Alliance
pour lafrom
Démocratie
et la Rujugira to
King Kigeri Rwabugiri
Réconciliation Nationale
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
a. King Cyirima Rujugira
AFDL
: Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
Libération
du Congo-Zaïre
King Cyirima Rujugira
dominated
the eighteenth century. This
AGOA
African
Growth
Opportunity
was
a result : of
his ritual
andand
military
reforms, Act
his wars of
conquest,
and$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
his longevity. However, he proved to be “a rather
$,'6
24
dull
administrator.”
$FFRUGLQJ
WUDGLWLRQ 5XMXJLUD
AIMO
: Affaires
IndigènesWR
etRIÀFLDO
Main-d’oeuvre
was
son of Yuhi
Mazimpaka.
is reported
to have escaped
AJER
: Association
de laHe
Jeunesse
Estudiantine
towards Gisaka to evade death; his father wanted to kill him
Rwandaise
following bouts of insanity, and he killed many people. On his
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
return, he succeeded his half brother, Karemera Rwaka, with the
AM/AP title :ofArrêté
Arrêté
présidentiel
ancestry
Abakaministériel/
lineage. Rujugira
imposed
his legitimacy
AMR to the :ideologues
Association
Moniteurs
thanks
whodes
supported
him.du
HeRwanda
defeated Abaka
AMUR
: Association
des Musulmans
au to
Rwanda
and
discredited
them, although
they continued
assert their
LQÁXHQFH²PRVWQRWDEO\GXULQJ5ZDQGD·VZDUVRIFRQTXHVW
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
(Transitional National Assembly)
King
Cyirima
Rujugira
was du
a famous
military king.
His reign,
APADEC
: Association
Parti Démocrate
Chrétien
like that of his son Ndabarasa, was characterized by long
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
PLOLWDU\ FDPSDLJQV 7KH ÀUVW SDUW RI .LQJ 5XMXJLUD·V UXOH VDZ
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
a prolonged war between Burundi and Rwanda. It was during
Rwandaisson, Gihana, died. In Rwanda, Rujugira
this war that Rujugura’s
APROCOMIN:
Association
des Commerçants
Indigènes
came
to be known
as “Umutabazi,”
meaning ‘liberator’.
During
APROSOMA
: Association
pour
la Promotion
Sociale
la
the
fourth campaign
against
Burundi,
King Mutaga
of de
Burundi
25
died at NkandaMasse
in Buyenzi .
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
Rujugira’s army,
which conducted the fourth campaign against
Démocratie
Burundi, was composed of a group of renegade soldiers from
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
Gisaka. King Cyirima Rujugira acceded to the Nyiginya throne
Droits de l’Homme
24
Ibid
p.129.
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
25
Vansina, J., 2001 op. cit. p.150- 151.
Démocratique des Batwa
91
v
91
with fatal poisoned
arrows AND
known
as “Ubusherwe”. He created
ACRONYMS
ABBREVIATIONS
marching camps
(ingerero)
as
an
innovation
in strategic military
___________________________________
planning. This helped to protect and expand the kingdom of
Rwanda.
It was
at this time
that King Rujugira decided to equip
A.A.
: Archives
Africaines
the border territory with military administration and training. He
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
divided the region into several units and put military regiments
ABAKI
Alliance
des Bakiga
in
charge of :these
regions.
He introduced defensive military
ABESC
:
Association
des
Bahutu
Evoluant pour la
camps to prevent new invasions26
.
Suppression des Castes
ACRcamps mentioned
: Association
Cultivateurs
du strategy
Rwandawhile
The
belowdes
operated
a defensive
ÀJKWLQJDJDLQVW%XUXQGL7KH\ZHUHVWUDWHJLFDOO\FUHDWHGDORQJ
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
River
Akanyaru,
which pour
separates
Rwanda from
Burundi. They
ADR
: Alliance
la Démocratie
et la
were:
Réconciliation Nationale
1. Mututu military camp (Muyira): formed by Abarima of
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
Prince Gihana, son of Rujugira. They were stationed
AFDL opposite
: Alliance
desofForces
pour la
the border
presentDémocratiques
Bugesera27.
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
2. Gakoma military camp (Muyaga): formed by Ababanda
AGOA under :the
African
Growth
and Opportunity
Act
command
of Prince
Nyarwaya Karuretwa,
son
$,'6 of Yuhi$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
Mazimpaka (who was called Gakoma k’Akabanda)
AIMO
:
Affaires Indigènes
et Main-d’oeuvre
3. Buhanga-Ndara
military camp:
It was located at
AJER Kararambogo
: Association
de laby
Jeunesse
Estudiantine
and formed
Indara, of
Chief Rwasamanzi,
Rwandaise
son of Mukungu
(son of Yuhi Mpazimpaka)
ALIR
: Armée
decamp:
Libération
duatRwanda
4. Imvejuru
military
located
Nyaruhengeri/ Save:
of Chief
Byavu
AM/APImvejuru
: Arrêté
ministériel/
Arrêté présidentiel
AMR
: Association
des
Moniteurs
du Rwanda
5. Nyakare
military camp
(kigembe):
formed
by Inyakare of
Chief
Nkoko,
who
belonged
to
Abashingo
family
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
6. Bashumba
military camp
(Nyakizu):
formed by Abashumba
ANT
: Assemblée
Nationale
de Transition
of Prince(Transitional
Kimanuka (ancestry
for the Abamanuka),
Nationaltitle
Assembly)
son
of
Kigeri
Ndabarasa
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
7.
Nyaruguru
military
camp:
APR
: Armée
Patriotique
Rwandaise
APROBAMI
: Association
des Partis
x Inyaruguru
military
campMonarchistes
of Prince Rwahame of
Gako;
Rwandais
APROCOMIN:
Association
Commerçants
x Indirira
militarydes
camp
(those whoIndigènes
went to war
APROSOMA :under
Association
pour
la
Promotion
Sociale
deson
la of
the command of Prince Mukwiye,
Yuhi
Mazimpaka of Runyinya near Kinyovu;
Masse
ARD
: Alliance pourmilitary
le Renforcement
de Rubona,
la
x Abadahemuka
camp of Chief
son
ofDémocratie
Rusimbi, who lived near Giseke. Rubona died as
ARDHO
: Association
Rwandaise pour la Défense des
a
liberator in Bunyenzi.
Droits de l’Homme
26
Ibid.
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
27
Kagame, A. 1972 op. Cit. p.137-139.
Démocratique des Batwa
92
92
v
Apart from these
military camps
against Burundi, there were
ACRONYMS
AND ABBREVIATIONS
others that deserve
mention,
such
as:
___________________________________
x
The Munyaga military campWKLVZDVLQWHQGHGWRÀJKW
A.A.
: Archives
against
Gisaka Africaines
A.G. the war
: Assemblée
Générale
When
with Burundi
was over, King Cyirima Rujugira
ABAKI to attack
: Alliance
des
decided
Gisaka.
To Bakiga
achieve this objective, he organized
VHYHUDODUPLHVXQGHUWKHVXSHUYLVLRQRIKLVVRQV+LVÀUVWVRQ
ABESC
: Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
was Sharangabo,
who had andes
ancestry
Suppression
Castestitle of Abasharangabo.
The
second
son
was
Ndabarasa,
who
fought against
Gisaka and
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs
du Rwanda
the enclave of Gasura. During the decisive battle of Gasabo,
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
Sharangabo’s army advanced to the east and south of Lake
ADR
Alliance pour
la Démocratie
et la
Muhazi.
He :commanded
the
Abakemba, nicknamed
“man
Réconciliation
Nationale
destroyers” – those who could mercilessly tear bodies of their
AEC
: Agglomeration
Extra-Coutumières
opponents.
He
attacked Gisaka
south of Lake Muhazi and
emerged
at Bwanacyambwe.
He fought against
and
AFDL victorious
: Alliance
des Forces Démocratiques
pour la
repulsed the Imbogo
army (the
commanded by Mudirigi,
Libération
du buffalos),
Congo-Zaïre
son
of
Karemera.
Sharangabo
died
and
was succeeded
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity
Act by his
son,
command the occupation of Buganza was
$,'6under whose
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
accomplished. It was at Munyaga28 that he established a military
AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
camp. During the reign of King Cyirima Rujugira, Buganza was
AJER
: Association
la Jeunesse
entirely conquered.
Even itsdeeastern
part ofEstudiantine
Buganza, which had
Rwandaise
never before belonged to Rwanda, was annexed.
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
x Gatuka
and ministériel/
Rutare military
camps
AM/AP
: Arrêté
Arrêté
présidentiel
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
King
Cyirima
established
a second au
military
camp at
AMUR
: Rujugira
Association
des Musulmans
Rwanda
Gatuka in Northern Buganza, adjacent to Mubari. A third camp
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
was established on Mountain Rutare. However, this last camp
(Transitional National Assembly)
was abandoned after the death of Ndabarasa29. In short, King
APADEC
: Association
du Parti
Démocrate
Rujugira initiated
big offensives
against
GisakaChrétien
and Ndorwa
APR
Rwandaise
with the aim :ofArmée
makingPatriotique
further territorial
gains for Rwanda. By
APROBAMI
: Association
des Partis
Monarchistes
the time Cyirima
Rujugira died,
Ndorwa
had ceased to exist as
an independentRwandais
state and Gisaka had been reduced to its former
provinces of Gihunya,
Mirenge
Migongo.30 InIndigènes
addition, the
APROCOMIN:
Association
desand
Commerçants
whole
of
Buganza
was
conquered
by
Rwanda.
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
Masse
b. King Kigeri Ndabarasa: The Conquest of Ndorwa and Mubari
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
When King Cyirima
Rujugira died at the age of almost 65 years,
Démocratie
his
succession
was not so contested.
This
wasla
a rare
thing,
and
ARDHO
: Association
Rwandaise
pour
Défense
des
28
Droits
de l’Homme
Vansina, J., 2001 op.
cit. pp.150151.
29
Ibid,
p.
154.
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
30
Kagame, A., L’histoire du Rwanda en raccourci, Leverville, 1958, pp. 5-6.
Démocratique des Batwa
93
v
93
his sons celebrated
by referring
themselves as ‘Abatangana’
ACRONYMS
AND to
ABBREVIATIONS
(those who never
hate
one
another).
The process of power
___________________________________
transition was peaceful due to the following reasons:
A.A.
: Archives Africaines
x Ndabarasa was enthroned as a co-ruler before the death
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
of Rujugira;
ABAKI
: Alliance des Bakiga
x
Rujugira
had a verydes
powerful
army
at his disposal;
ABESC
: Association
Bahutu
Evoluant
pour la
x Rujugira’s
two sons and
army commanders – Gihana
Suppression
deshis
Castes
and Sharangabo
– had
died before
him, which
ACR
: Association
des already
Cultivateurs
du Rwanda
gave
him
uncontested
power;
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
ADR x Ndabarasa
: Alliance
la Démocratie
la
waspour
militarily
sharp andetpolitically
active
from the
beginning
of
his
father’s
reign.
Réconciliation Nationale
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
After the battle of Gasabo against Gisaka, Ndabarasa captured
AFDL
:
Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
the mountainous region of Rutare where the tombs of Kigeri
Libération
duthis
Congo-Zaïre
Mukobanya were
located. In
endeavor, he was supported by
AGOA
:
African
Growth
and
Opportunity
Actsucceeded
Chief Kamari. Ndabarasa killed Rubanda,
who had
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
his
father Gahaya
Muzora, king of Ndorwa. He established his
capital
in
the
Ruhinda
Fromet
there,
he raided the kingdom
AIMO
: Affairesregion.
Indigènes
Main-d’oeuvre
of
Nkore. After
conqueringdeNdorwa,
Ndabarasa
was throned
AJER
: Association
la Jeunesse
Estudiantine
king31. King Ndabarasa
ruled
both
Rwanda
and
Ndorwa,
though
Rwandaise
he ruled Ndorwa for a much longer time.
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/
Arrêté
présidentiel
King Kiger Ndabarasa
attacked Mubari
(amazinga),
whose King
AMR
:
Association
des
Moniteurs
du
Rwanda
Biyoro and his mother were killed. King Biyoro’s mother had
AMUR
Association
des Musulmans
au Thus,
Rwanda
predicted the: arrival
of Europeans
to Rwanda.
Rwanda
extended up : to
Akagera, Nationale
a naturaldeboundary
that existed
ANT
Assemblée
Transition
between Rwanda
and Karagwe.
Later, when
Mubari progressively
(Transitional
National
Assembly)
became
drier
and
drier
due
to
drought,
it
was
abandoned.
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate
Chrétien This
explains
why
Rwanda
lost
interest
in
conquering
the
region. By
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
the beginning of the twentieth century, Mubari was practically
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
an autonomous region. However, after the First World War this
Rwandais
region was re-annexed
to Rwanda
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
APROSOMA
: Association
pourAnnexation
la Promotion
Sociale de la
c. King Mibambwe
Sentabyo:
of Bugesera
Masse
Under
the
rule
of King Mibambwe
Sentabyo, whose
reign ended
ARD
: Alliance
pour le Renforcement
de la
in 1741,32 Rwanda
annexed
the
northern
part
of
Bugesera.
Démocratie
King Ntare Rugamba of Burundi took the remaining part of
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
31
Droits
de“batewe
l’Homme
See the dynastic poem
Igisigo
n’iki uburakare?” (What has made them
annoyed?)
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
32
Kagame, A., L’histoire du Rwanda en raccourci, Leverville, 1958, p.6.
Démocratique des Batwa
94
94
v
this kingdom ACRONYMS
under circumstances
that are still unclear. King
AND ABBREVIATIONS
Mibambwe Sentabyo
died
of
smallpox
at an early age, though
___________________________________
some claim that he was poisoned. He left a baby that he had
with
the widow
of a hero called Gihana. The baby
A.A. Nyiratunga,
: Archives
Africaines
was named Gahindiro and received a dynastic title of Yuhi.
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
ABAKI
Alliance des Bakiga
d.
King Yuhi : Gahindiro
ABESC
: Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
Suppression
des Castes
When King Mibambwe
Sentabyo
died, there was a war of
ACR
: Association
Cultivateurs
du Rwanda
succession
which
ended des
victoriously
for Gahindiro
and his
mother,
Nyirantunga.
Several incidents
King
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique
des characterized
Peuples
Yuhi
Gahindiro’s
long
rule,
including
sound
administrative
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
organization, the
training of new
army militia (imitwe y’ingabo),
Réconciliation
Nationale
and cultural development. He fought against Burundi, which
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
was under Ntare Rugamba. He fought Gisaka, Murari, Buhunde,
AFDL
:
Alliance
deshe
Forces
Démocratiques
la
and even Karagwe.
“When
attained
the age of pour
maturity,
Libération
du Congo-Zaïre
he declared war
to Petty-King
Karinda of Burundi who was
AGOA and :killed.
African
and Opportunity
Act prisoner
defeated
HisGrowth
mother Nyirakarinda
was taken
33
to
Rwanda where
she was executed” . From the cultural point of
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
view,
during
Gahindiro’s
reign, a new
Rwandan literary gender
AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes
et Main-d’oeuvre
was born: Amazina
y’ Inka de
(names
of cows).Estudiantine
AJER
: Association
la Jeunesse
Rwandaise
c. King Mutara Rwogera: annexation of Gisaka
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
'XULQJWKHÀUVWGHFDGHRIWKHQLQHWHHQWKFHQWXU\.LQJ0XWDUD
AMR
: Association
Moniteurs
du Rwanda
Rwogera
managed
to annexdes
Gisaka
to Rwanda.
However, his
AMUR was :later
Association
des
Rwanda
kingdom
torn apart
byMusulmans
internal wars:au
“ (…)
just before
the
three
Gisaka’sde
armies
were assimilated
ANTdeath of :Rwogera,
Assemblée
Nationale
Transition
into the kingdom.
One of these
armies Assembly)
was under the exclusive
(Transitional
National
command
of
Nkoroko.
The
remaining
two
were commanded
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate
Chrétien by
Nyamwasa, son of Rwabika, who was also son of Gahindiro.
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
It should be noted that the former commanders belonged to
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
Gisaka army but they retained their positions as second-incommand. TheyRwandais
continued to take instructions from their former
34Association des Commerçants Indigènes
APROCOMIN:
commanders.” Rwogera died of tuberculosis, probably in 1867.
APROSOMA
: Association
pour laNyiramogi,
Promotionwas
Sociale
de la
The
Queen Mother,
Nyiramavugo
assassinated
by her brother,Masse
Rwakagara, because she had refused to commit
35
suicide
as
culture
and custom
ARD
: Alliance
pour ledemanded.
Renforcement de la
Démocratie
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
33
de89.l’Homme
Kagame, A., 1972Droits
op. cit., p.
34
Vansina,
J.
2001,
op.
cit.
p.192
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
35
Kagame, A. 1972 op. cit. pp.208-210
Démocratique des Batwa
95
v
95
d. Rwanda
under King AND
Kigeri
Rwabugiri
ACRONYMS
ABBREVIATIONS
___________________________________
King Kigeri Rwabugiri is known in the history of Rwanda
for
adventurous
and victorious wars of conquest
A.A.his many
: Archives
Africaines
that
were
intended
to
expand
the kingdom of Rwanda. He
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
had several titles that marked his glory (Ibisingizo), including:
ABAKI
: Alliance des Bakiga
Inkotanyi, Rwangakugwabira, and Rukayababisha. His military
ABESC
: Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
and political career was so great that it attracted the admiration
Suppression des Castes
of the Belgian colonizers. By virtue of his renowned bravery –
ACR
:
des Cultivateurs
du Rwanda
almost equal toAssociation
that of Ruganzu
Ndori – King Rwabugiri
became
ADP near :and
Alliance
Peuples and the
known
far. Démocratique
He defeated thedes
Banyabungo
ADR
: Alliance pour
la Démocratie
la
Bahima.
He conquered
Ijwi Island
and killedet
Kabego,
the king
Réconciliation
Nationale
of that island. He
made war against
Nsoro. He fought and killed
the
and Lutubuka,
the leader of Kwushunga (ku
AECking of Bushi
: Agglomeration
Extra-Coutumières
Ishunga).
King
Kigeri Rwabugiri
was
not always content
with
AFDL
: Alliance
des Forces
Démocratiques
pour la
his military expeditions
There is no region in
Libérationand
du conquests.
Congo-Zaïre
Rwanda
where
he
did
not
construct
a
personal Act
royal boma
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity
(residence).
Everywhere
he went, he generously offered gifts of
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
cattle he raided from his enemies. He gave cows to his subjects
AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
from whom he expected to get sympathy, support, and allegience.
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
Before King Rwabugiri died, he appointed Rutalindwa Mibambwe
Rwandaise
36
.
as his successor”
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/
Arrêtéany
présidentiel
Rutalindwa
Mibambwe
did not make
territorial gains,
AMR
Moniteurs
du Rwanda
especially
due: Association
the colonial des
presence
in Rwanda.
Under King
Rwabugiri,
Rwanda
acquired
a larger
territoryau
than
its present
AMUR
: Association
des
Musulmans
Rwanda
boundries;
“He
even penetrated
(north of the
ANT
: Assemblée
NationaleBufumbira
de Transition
volcanoes) and(Transitional
later attackedNational
Nkore. Lastly,
under his regime,
Assembly)
King
Rwabugiri
enabled
the
Rwandan
monarchy
to entrench
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
LWVHOIGHÀQLWLYHO\WRWKH:HVWDORQJWKHEDQNVRI/DNH.LYX
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
and Rusizi (from Bugoyi in the North up to Kinyaga in the
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
South). The Bahavu of Ijwi Island and the Bashi were more or
Rwandais
less dominated. To the East, Rwabugiri also intervened among
APROCOMIN:
Association
des Commerçants
the
Bushubi. Thus,
Rwanda reached
the apogee ofIndigènes
her territorial
APROSOMA : Association
SocialeThis
de la
aggrandizement
during the pour
reignla
ofPromotion
King Rwabugiri.
made
Masse
Rwanda’s neighbors in the region look at her with suspicion.”37
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
Démocratie
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
36
Droits
de l’Homme
Report of the Belgian
Government,
1926, p.57.
37
Chrétien,
J.P.,
L’Afrique
des
Grands
Lacs.leDeux
mille ans d’histoire, Paris,
AREDETWA : Association pour
Relèvement
Aubier, p.136.
Démocratique des Batwa
96
96
v
Soon after theACRONYMS
death of King
Rwabugiri,
the inhabitants of Ijwi
AND
ABBREVIATIONS
Island regained
their freedom and declared their independence
___________________________________
from Rwanda. When he died in 1895, the territory he wanted to
conquer
and : annex
to Rwanda
(i.e. Ijwi Island and beyond)
A.A.
Archives
Africaines
had
already
been
taken
by
the
Congo
Free State, in French
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
Etat Indépendant du Congo (EIC). This state was the personal
ABAKI
: Alliance des Bakiga
property of Belgian King Leopord II.
ABESC
: Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
Suppression des Castes
In conclusion, the several characteristics of King Kigeri
ACR
:
Association
des Cultivateurs
du Rwanda
Rwabugiri’s reign
can be summed
up as follows:
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
ADR x Organization
: Alliance
pour
la Démocratie
et la
and
administrative
skills;
Réconciliation Nationale
x Unkind repression of opponents such as Nyamwesa,
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
elder son of Rwogera, who pretended to be the rightful
AFDL
: Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
heir of Rugereka and Abagereka;
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
x Consolidation
of newlyand
annexed
territories:
AGOA
: African Growth
Opportunity
Act military
occupation
of
Rugenge
in
Bugesera
and
Sakara in
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
AIMO Gisaka;
: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
AJERx Numerous
: Association
de lamotivated
Jeunesse by
Estudiantine
expeditions
several objectives
Rwandaise
such as conquest and cattle rustling;
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
x Contact with the outside world: Rwabugiri and Rumaliza
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
Bugarama’s meeting.
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
For
of other territorial
gains,
Map No. 7 below:
ANTa summary
: Assemblée
Nationale
de see
Transition
(Transitional National Assembly)
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
Rwandais
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
Masse
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
Démocratie
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
Droits de l’Homme
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
Démocratique des Batwa
97
v
97
Map 7: Rwanda
after six centuries
of expansion
ACRONYMS
AND ABBREVIATIONS
___________________________________
A.A.
A.G.
ABAKI
ABESC
Archives Africaines
Assemblée Générale
Alliance des Bakiga
Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
Suppression des Castes
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
Réconciliation Nationale
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
AFDL
: Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity Act
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
Rwandaise
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
AM/AP Lugan,
: Arrêté
ministériel/
Arrêté présidentiel
Source:
B., 1997,
op. cit., p108.
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
3.3.
Organization
of the kingdom
AMUR
: Association
des Musulmans au Rwanda
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
The political and administrative structure of pre-colonial
(Transitional National Assembly)
Rwanda, or of the nineteenth century under the rule of
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
King Kigeri Rwabugiri, rotated principally along a militaristic
APR
: Armée
Patriotique Rwandaise
ideology
coupled
with administrative
skills and professionalism.
APROBAMI
: Association
des
Partis were
Monarchistes
Rwanda’s
political
system and
ideology
built on four pillars:
Rwandais
a theocratic monarchy, a two-headed monarchy with a King and
Queen
Mother, Association
territorial aggrandizement
and Indigènes
conquest, and
APROCOMIN:
des Commerçants
patriotism.
All
of
these
pillasr
were
inculcated
constantly
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de to
la the
people, especially
through literary institutions.
Masse
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
Since all of these factors were intertwined, several institutions
reinforced one Démocratie
another. That is, political organization and
ARDHO reinforced
: Association
Défense des
authority
the Rwandaise
king and pour
his larepresentatives.
Droits
de l’Homme
Several of these
institutions
can be cited, including: Ubwiru
(court
secrets),
Ubuhake (gifts
of cows),
Ubusizi (dynastic poetry
AREDETWA
: Association
pour
le Relèvement
Démocratique des Batwa
98
98
:
:
:
:
v
legitimizing the
ruling king),
(knowledge of
ACRONYMS
ANDUbucurabwenge
ABBREVIATIONS
the dynastic ___________________________________
genealogy), and Ibitekerezo by’Imiryango (family
historic narratives). The structure of King Rwabugiri’s political
organization
was
complex,
but the entire system of government
A.A.
: Archives
Africaines
rotated around the king and his court.
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
ABAKIPolitical
: Alliance
des Bakiga
3.3.1.
Organization
ABESC
: Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
Suppression
a. The King, Queen
Mother,des
andCastes
the Court
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
At
the top of the
kingdomDémocratique
was a centralized
system
of government
ADP
: Alliance
des
Peuples
organized
on
a
hierarchical
basis.
This
was
a
complex
system
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
characterized by
the king, onNationale
the one hand, and the queen
Réconciliation
mother and the king’s court on the other. The Ubuhake system
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
and the army were the principal instruments used to achieve
AFDL
:
Alliance
des Forces
Démocratiques
la
the monarchy’s
objectives,
but the
court was the pour
workshop
Libération
du Congo-Zaïre
where the Nyiginya
State was
shaped. It is therefore necessary
AGOA
: African
and Opportunity
to
see systematically
theGrowth
development
of this court, Act
the kingdom
itself,
elite associated with this kingdom.
$,'6and the$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
The
king
and
drums
were
the very
essence of unity in
AJER
:dynastic
Association
de la
Jeunesse
Estudiantine
the kingdom. They lived in the epicenter of the capital. The king
Rwandaise
was a personality par excellence. Following his nomination, he
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
LGHQWLÀHG KLPVHOI DV D VHSDUDWH HQWLW\ IURP WKH QRELOLW\ JLYLQJ
AM/AP
Arrêté
ministériel/
Arrêté
présidentiel
him
a special:rank.
The
essence of the
monarchy
was that “the
38
AMRwas God.”
: Association
des Moniteurs
du Rwanda
king
The term Imana
( God ) refers
to the Creator,
AMUR
Association
Musulmans
au Rwanda
but
also to : the
essence ofdeslife
and the fertility
of land and
humans.
This: Assemblée
fertility essence
further
ANT
Nationale
demanifested
Transitionitself in all
sorts of objects(Transitional
used to makeNational
predictions
for favorable results.
Assembly)
These
objects
were
then
conserved
as
material
of Imana
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrateproof
Chrétien
nziza (positive fate).
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
The Rwandese of long ago conceived the notion of Imana as a
special being – Rwandais
a creator and a perfect benevolent being. Hence,
APROCOMIN:
Association
des Commerçants
Indigènes
the king participated
in the realization
of the divine
right to rule
APROSOMA
: Association
pour la aPromotion
Sociale
la did
while
at the same
time remaining
man among
men. de
God
not physically Masse
distance himself from humans. The importance
of
his
status
“as
a separate
increased asde
time
ARD
: Alliance
pourentity”
le Renforcement
la went on,
particularly under
the
reign
of
King
Cyirima
Rujugira.
It should
Démocratie
be noted that the Rwandan monarchy was biocephalous: ruled
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
Droits de l’Homme
38
Kagame,
A.,
Poésie
dynastique du Rwanda
( poem
No 17: Umwami si umuntu/ the
AREDETWA : Association
pour le
Relèvement
king is not human
Démocratique des Batwa
99
v
99
39
by the King and
Queen Mother.
the beginning, the royal
ACRONYMS
AND From
ABBREVIATIONS
court40 was not
only
the
residence
of the king and queen
___________________________________
mother, servants, bodyguards (Intore), specialized artisans,
ritualists, and: Archives
diviners, Africaines
but it was also a place where great
A.A.
notables lived. They used to spend time there with their herds
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
of cattle. Their presence attracted hungry beggars who used to
ABAKI
Alliance
des to
Bakiga
come looking :for
something
eat.
ABESC
: Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
des Castes
As a result ofSuppression
acquiring many
healthy herds of cattle and
ACR
des Cultivateurs
du Rwanda
other sorts of: Association
riches, the royal
court got wealthier.
Hence, it
attracted more
courtesans
and called for
domestic and
ADP
: Alliance
Démocratique
des more
Peuples
political
personnel
to
perform
various
tasks.
At
the
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la beginning of
Gisanura’s rule,
every chief ruled
his territory and lived there.
Réconciliation
Nationale
But later, King Yuhi Mazimpaka demanded that great chiefs
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
EH DOORZHG WR VSHQG D VLJQLÀFDQW DPRXQW RI WKHLU WLPH DW WKH
AFDL
:
des this
Forces
Démocratiques
la
capital. It was Alliance
also during
reign
that the chiefs pour
produced
Libération
Congo-Zaïre
many sons, among
whom du
some
were allowed by the king to
AGOA
: AfricanatGrowth
and court
Opportunity
Act a family
establish themselves
the royal
and to start
lineage.
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
The
court
was
the center de
of la
gravity
for the
kingdom. It was
AJER
: Association
Jeunesse
Estudiantine
constituted by dynastic poets and knowledgeable musicians,
Rwandaise
who were masters of musical instruments such as insengo. These
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
were whistle-like instruments made of clay. In addition, there
AM/AP
: Arrêtéritual
ministériel/
Arrêté
présidentiel
were tambourines,
drums, and
rituals
for Ryangombe
AMR
: Association
desan
Moniteurs
Rwanda
cults.41 The royal
court was
economicdu
center
where the
AMUR
:ofAssociation
au Rwanda
management
big businessdes
andMusulmans
wealth took place.
Many goods
were
to the king in
the formde
of payment
of royal dues.
ANT presented
: Assemblée
Nationale
Transition
These included(Transitional
cows, harvested
food grains,
and other items
National
Assembly)
paid
as
tribute.
Many
of
these
goods
were
partly
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrateredistributed
Chrétien to
the poor in the name of the king.
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
b. Ubwiru (secret of the monarchy or the esoteric code)
Rwandais
APROCOMIN:
Association
Commerçants
Indigènes
As
a political and
religious des
institution,
the Ubwiru
institution
APROSOMA
Association
pourpolitical
la Promotion
deensure
la
played
a dual: role
in Rwanda’s
life. InSociale
order to
prosperity and to
avoid bad omen, the college of Abiru was charged
Masse
with
appointing
Rwanda’s
future
kings and queen
The
ARD
: Alliance pour
le Renforcement
demothers.
la
college also had
another
duty
of
transmitting
the
kingdom’s
Démocratie
ARDHO
:
Association
Rwandaise pour la Défense des
39
Vansina J., 2001 op. cit. , pp. 110-111
40
Droits
de l’Homme
Lugan, B., « Nyanza,
une capitale
royale du Rwanda ancien », in AfricaTervuren,
XXVI,
1980,
4,
p.101.
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
41
Schumacher, P. cité par Vansina, J., 2001, op. cit., p. 107
Démocratique des Batwa
100
100
v
RIÀFLDOKLVWRU\7KHUHFUXLWPHQWRIAbiru
was governed by special
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
rules. The way
this
institution
functioned
had a positive and
___________________________________
profound impact on the management of the state; the Abiru
institution
contributed
the conservation and development of
A.A.
: ArchivestoAfricaines
the “Ubwami “ institution.
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
ABAKI
: Alliance
des Bakiga
¾The notion
of Ubwiru
ABESC
: Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
Suppression
Castesinstitution among all the
Ubwiru was perhaps
the most des
important
ACR subsidiary
: Association
Cultivateurs
Rwanda
other
institutionsdes
of the
kingdom. Itdu
was
an esoteric
institution
which
was essentially
political
nature; its major
ADP
: Alliance
Démocratique
desinPeuples
role
was
to
preserve,
adapt,
present
and
glorify
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie etthe
la monarchy as
a “sacred” institution.
It shouldNationale
be noted that the dynasty was
Réconciliation
supposed to belong to the clan of Abanyiginya. This principal
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
was even poetically chanted in the Ubucurabwenge dynastic
AFDL
:
Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
genealogy.
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
AGOA
: African
Growth
and Opportunity
Actit referred
As
far as the term
Umwiru
was concerned
(plural Abiru),
to
legal ritualists
who were the custodians of the esoteric code of
$,'6
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the
Nyiginya
Monarchy.
In other words,
the Abiru manufactured
AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes
et Main-d’oeuvre
big
drums and
played them.
AJER
: Association
de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
Rwandaise
¾Content of Ubwiru
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
AM/AP
présidentiel
The
content of: Arrêté
Ubwiruministériel/
is presented Arrêté
as follows:
AMR
: Association
des
Moniteurs
duwill
Rwanda
x (a) Irage
ry’ abami (the
last
permanent
of kings);
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
x (b) Umurage w’ ingoma (formal proof of succession to the
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
throne);
(Transitional National Assembly)
x (c) Inzira
z’ubwiru (methods
proceduresChrétien
of the code);
APADEC
: Association
du PartiorDémocrate
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
x (d) Intekerzo z’ubwiru (history and commentaries of the
APROBAMI
: Association
Partis Monarchistes
three previous
titles)42des
.
Rwandais
The
content under
subheadings
a, b and c remain
unknown
APROCOMIN:
Association
des Commerçants
Indigènes
up to the present day. However, only seventeen procedures
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
are available; they were published by Marcel D’Hertefelt and
Masse
André Coupez,43ZKHUHDV$.DJDPHLGHQWLÀHGHLJKWHHQ7KHVH
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
42
Kagame, A., « Le Démocratie
code ésotérique de la dynastie du Rwanda », in Zaire, 4, I,
1947, p.363
ARDHO
: Association
pour
la Défense
43
D’Hertefelt M.
et Coupez A., Rwandaise
La royauté sacre
de l’ancien
Rwanda.des
Texte,
Droits
traduction et commentaire
de de
son l’Homme
rituel, Tervuren,1964. In 1968 A. Kagame accepted
WRVLJQZLWK0G¶+HUWHIHOWDQG$&RXSH]DQRWHZKLFKFRQ¿UPHGWKHDXWKHQWLFLW\
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
of this document. As pointed out above, it was a copy taken from the archives of
Démocratique des Batwa
101
v
101
procedures orACRONYMS
“methods” were
useful
in accomplishing different
AND
ABBREVIATIONS
royal tasks. They
had
the
following
characteristics:
___________________________________
HQWKURQL]DWLRQFRPSHWLWLRQÀUH
A.A.x 7KURQH: Archives
Africaines
x Cow (bull
of the Générale
throne, plague, drinking trough for
A.G.
: Assemblée
ABAKIcows); : Alliance des Bakiga
x $JULFXOWXUH
GURXJKWÁRRGVÀUVWUDLQV
ABESC
: Association
des Bahutu Evoluant
pour la
x Foreigners
(offensives,
trophy,
decoration
of
royal
drums,
Suppression des Castes
hiding
the
king,
invasion);
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
x
Independent
procedures
(bees, hunting,
funeral).
ADP
: Alliance
Démocratique
des Peuples
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
It can be seenRéconciliation
that political and
economic duties were very
Nationale
important activities in the kingdom. As for social-cultural and
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
religious functions, they covered the entire trajectory of the royal
AFDL
:
Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
ritual. It should also be observed that there was much interest
Libération
duasCongo-Zaïre
in economic activities
such
animal husbandry, agriculture,
AGOA
:
African
Growth
and
Opportunity
Actcontained
hunting, and honey collection. The
Ubwiru
institution
$,'6the fundamental
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
both
law of the monarchy, i.e. the rules and
UHJXODWLRQVDQGVSHFLÀFULWHVWKDWZHUHLQWHQGHGWRFRXQWHUDFW
AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
real
or
imaginary
misfortunes.
These included
giving fertility
AJER
: Association
de la Jeunesse
Estudiantine
to soils, people,
and
animals,
and
territorial
annexation
and
Rwandaise
conquests of foreign countries by Rwanda.
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
AM/AP
¾ Actors: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
AMUR
Association
Musulmans
au ILUVW
Rwanda
7KH
SULQFLSDO: DFWRUV
RI WKH des
PRQDUFK\
LQFOXGHG
RI DOO WKH
King,
the Abiru.
Their roles
varied according to
ANT and then
: Assemblée
Nationale
de Transition
clans, families,(Transitional
and lineages.
All were
invited to participate
National
Assembly)
actively
in
different
matters
concerning:
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
x Inzira ya Gicurasi (procedures for mourning or, more
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
VSHFLÀFDOO\WKHSURFHGXUHVRIQDWLRQDOPRXUQLQJ
Rwandais
x
Inzira
y’umuriro
ÀUHSURFHGXUHV
APROCOMIN: Association
des Commerçants Indigènes
x Inzira y’
umuganura pour
(procedures
of handling
thede
feast
APROSOMA
: Association
la Promotion
Sociale
la of
WKHÀUVWUDLQV
Masse
0ZDPL0XWDUD,,,5XGDKLJZDGXULQJDSHULRGZKLFKLVQRWVSHFL¿HGEXWZKLFKLV
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
likely to be between
1959
and
1962.
A.
Kagame
himself
and
probably
some
few
Démocratie
Abiru who were still living at that time contributed to giving clues leading to the
ARDHO
:
Association
Rwandaise
pour
la Défense
des
interpretation of this code which otherwise
would have
remained
incomprehensible
Droits
de l’Homme
for the most part. Alexis
Kagame
who died in a brutal way abroad (Nairobi), was
perhaps
not
given
chance
to
reveal
where he
have hidden some documents
AREDETWA : Association pour
lewould
Relèvement
pertaining to the Ubwiru institution.
Démocratique des Batwa
102
102
v
In principal, the
Abiru was hereditary
and only for men. Only the
ACRONYMS
AND ABBREVIATIONS
sons of Abiru___________________________________
who had been presented by their father to the
king and nominated by the latter had the right of performing
this
It was therefore
not enough to be son Umwiru
A.A. function.
: Archives
Africaines
to succeed one’s father automatically. There was however one
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
exception to this rule. In the history of the Abiru institution, there
ABAKI
des Bakiga a war captive, who was
was
a person: Alliance
named Nyiramuhanda,
ABESC the :rare
Association
desofBahutu
Evoluantaspour
la
accorded
opportunity
being considered
a member
Suppression
des done
Castes
of the College of
Abiru. This was
based on the role he had
ACR during: war.
Association
des Cultivateurs
du Rwanda
played
In recognition
of his contribution,
King Yuhi
Gahindiro
appointed
him
a member of this
and allowed
ADP
: Alliance
Démocratique
des college
Peuples
him
the
right
to
pass
this
favor
to
his
descendants.
Among
these
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
descendants was
Kayijuka, theNationale
famous traditionalist. Kayijuka
Réconciliation
hailed from the Abanyiginya clan in the lineage of Abasigaye.
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
AFDL
:
Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
¾Evolution
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
AGOA
: African
Growth
and Opportunity
Act of the
The institution
of Ubwiru,
as espoused
in the beginning
nineteenth century,
was a culmination of a process of assessment.
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,WZDVPRGLÀHGDVWLPHZHQWRQLQRUGHUWRDGDSWLWWRWKHQHZ
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: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
FLUFXPVWDQFHVRIWKHGD\DQGWRIXOÀOOWKHSROLWLFDOGXWLHVRIWKH
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
WLPH7KHPRGLÀFDWLRQVPDGHLQWKLVLQVWLWXWLRQYDULHGIURPWKH
Rwandaise
reign of King Ruganzu Bwimba to that of King Yuhi Musinga.
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
Before pointing out the different events which characterized
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
WKLVPRGLÀFDWLRQLWLVLPSRUWDQWWRQRWHWKDWWKHLQVWLWXWLRQ
AMR
Association
des Moniteurs
Rwanda
of Ubwiru is : linked
to Gihanga,
one of the du
reference
people in
AMUR
: Association
des Musulmans
Rwanda
the myths/ history
of Rwanda.
What is more au
is that
the three
most important
families Nationale
of Abiru de
(Abatsobe,
Abatege, who
ANT
: Assemblée
Transition
were considered(Transitional
as members National
of Abasindi
clan by some, and the
Assembly)
Abaheka,
who
belonged
to
the
clan
of
Abazigaba)
all trace their
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
origins to Gihanga. According to the myth, Gihanga is said to
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
have handed over the Rwoga5R\DO'UXPWRWKHÀUVW5ZDQGDQ
APROBAMI
: Association des Partis Monarchistes
PRQDUFK 6LPLODUO\ WKH LQYHQWLRQ RI ÀUH umuriro wa Gihanga)
Rwandais
is associated with
Gihanga. Gihanga also created cows and the
APROCOMIN:
Association
Indigènes
kingdom (Gihanga cyahanze des
inkaCommerçants
n’ingoma).
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
Following the Robwa
Masse event and of Kimenyi Musaya, who was
King
of
Gisaka,
it was decreed
the Abasinga
ARD
: Alliance
pour le that
Renforcement
de clan
la was no
ORQJHU DOORZHGDémocratie
WR ÀOH D 4XHHQ 0RWKHU WR WKH G\QDVW\ RI WKH
Abanyiginya. This was a decision aimed at the social-political
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
exclusion of the Abasinga. The decision to exclude them was
Droits de
l’Homme
made by King Ruganzu
Bwimba
against the girls of the Abasinga
AREDETWA
:
Association
pour
le Relèvement
clan. This was because of the danger
posed by Nyakiyaga,
Démocratique des Batwa
103
v
103
who had become
Queen Mother
under the dynastic name of
ACRONYMS
AND ABBREVIATIONS
Nyiraruganzu ___________________________________
(Nyakanga) and who actually originated from the
Abasinga clan, and who had offered her daughter Robwa for
44
marriage
to King
GisakaAfricaines
.
A.A.
: Archives
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
Thus, Cyirima Rugwe made a decree that all Queen Mothers
ABAKI
: Alliance
des Bakiga
were prohibited
from getting
married again. Indeed, since his
ABESC
:
Association
des
Evoluant pour
la
mother, Nyakiyaga, got married Bahutu
to his brother-inlaw,
Mwendo,
Suppression
Castes
the latter tried to
take over thedes
throne
and to poison Rugwe when
45
ACR
: Association
des Cyenge
Cultivateurs
Rwanda for
he was still young.
In addition,
was du
compensated
his faithfulness
as a regent
during Rugwe’s
ADP
: Alliance
Démocratique
des childhood.
Peuples This was
a
special
privilege
accorded
to
the
Chairman
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie etoflathe Abiru and
Custodian of Abega
Drum – the
symbol of the dynasty. Rwoga
Réconciliation
Nationale
was later replaced by Karinga under Ruganzu Ndori. This dignity
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
was supposed be enjoyed by his descendants. The royal court
AFDL
:
des Forces
Démocratiques
pour la
respected this Alliance
decision made
by Cyirima
Rugwe.
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
AGOA
: African RI
Growth
Opportunity
Act 5XJZH
/DVWO\ WKH WUDGLWLRQ
$ELUXand
DIÀUPV
WKDW &\LULPD
established the
dignity of Umwiru, King of Nyamweru from the
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Abakono
clan,
as
a Mwiru
King. This
king was charged with
AIMO
: Affaires
Indigènes
et Main-d’oeuvre
the duty of conserving
the will
succession
– the arrangement
AJER
: Association
de laofJeunesse
Estudiantine
according to which matri-dynastic clans (Ibibanda) were
Rwandaise
supposed to provide Queen Mothers. The Ibibanda clans were the
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
Abaha, Abakono and Abega. Later on under Cyirima Rujugira,
AM/AP
ministériel/
the Abagesera: Arrêté
were also
included. Arrêté présidentiel
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
AMUR
Association
des Musulmans
Rwanda were
Under King : Kigeri
Mukobanya’s
rule, theauAbatsobe
assimilated into
the royal Ubwiru
of Abanyiginya.
Under Ndahiro
ANT
: Assemblée
Nationale
de Transition
Cyamatare, Mibambwe
Sekarongoro
Mutabazi, and Yuhi
(Transitional
National Assembly)
Gahima,
there
was
no
change
regarding
this arrangement.
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate
Chrétien On
the other hand, Ruganzu Ndori established on the throne a new
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
drum symbol called Karinga (proof of hope), intended to replace
APROBAMI
: Association des Partis Monarchistes
Rwoga Drum. The Rwoga Drum had been taken by Nsibura, King
Rwandais
of Bushi, during
the defeat and death of Ndahiro Cyamatare at
APROCOMIN:
Association
desKing
Commerçants
Indigènes
Rubi Rwinyundo. It is said that
Ruganzu Ndori
made four
APROSOMA
Association
pouroflathe
Promotion
Sociale de
la
other drums.: They
were made
similar wooden
material
like that of Karinga
MasseDrum. King Ruganzu considered them his
brothers
and
they
were to
succeed
him, one afterde
the
ARD
: Alliance
pour
le Renforcement
laother.
.LQJ0XWDUD6HPXJHVKLZDVHQWKURQHGÀUVWXQGHUWKHG\QDVWLF
Démocratie
ARDHO
:
Association
Rwandaise pour la Défense des
44
Kagame, A. 1972. op. cit. p.59
45
Droits
de l’Homme
Cyenge was a member
of Abanyiginya
clan. He hailed from the Abakobwa
lineage,
i.e.
a
descendant
of
Mukobwa,
son
(9th member of the dynasty
AREDETWA : Association pourofleNdoba
Relèvement
DFFRUGLQJWRRI¿FLDOJHQHDORJ\ Démocratique des Batwa
104
104
v
title of Bicuba,ACRONYMS
but he later received
the title of Mutara. According
AND ABBREVIATIONS
WR RIÀFLDO WUDGLWLRQ
KH
PDGH
WKH
IROORZLQJ
LPSRUWDQW GHFLVLRQV
___________________________________
regarding the institution of Ubwiru:
A.A.
: Archives Africaines
x The king would reveal the name of his successor and
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
KLV ODVW ZLOO WR WKUHH FRQÀGDQWV 7KH ÀUVW FRQÀGDQW ZDV
ABAKI‘Umutsobe’,
: Alliance
des Bakiga
the second
‘Umutege’ and the last one an
46
ABESC
:
Association
des
Bahutu Evoluant pour la
army chief .
Suppression des Castes
x 7KH G\QDVWLF
QDPHVdes
ZHUH
VXSSRVHG WR
D À[HG
ACR
: Association
Cultivateurs
duIROORZ
Rwanda
program according to the following arrangement:
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
ADR
: Alliance
la Démocratie
et la and Yuhi
1st Term:pour
Mutara,
Kigeri, Mibambwe,
Réconciliation
Nationale
2nd Term: Cyirima, Kigeri, Mibambwe, Yuhi.
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
x It was :the
Abiru of
Mutara
who
were supposed to
indicate
AFDL
Alliance
des
Forces
Démocratiques
pour
la
the matri-dynastic
clans
which
provided
Queen
Mothers
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
IRUVXFFHVVLYHNLQJVGXULQJVSHFLÀHGWHUPV
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: African Growth and Opportunity Act
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x The dynastic
names of Nsoro, Ndahiro, and Ruganzu were
from theIndigènes
list for theetfollowing
reasons: the name
AIMO removed
: Affaires
Main-d’oeuvre
Nsoro
was
removed
because
it
was
also
used in Bugesera,
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
which was
a
powerful
kingdom
ruled
by Abahondogo
Rwandaise
time. The
name Ndahiro
was removed because
ALIR at that: Armée
de Libération
du Rwanda
Cyamatare had last used it and perished in tragic
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
circumstances and lost Rwoga'UXPWKHÀUVWV\PERORI
AMR dynasty.
: Association
des Moniteurs
dudropped
Rwandabecause
Lastly the name
Ruganzu was
AMUR Bwimba
: Association
des Musulmans
au Rwanda
and Ndori, who
had used it last,
were killed by
ANT the enemy.
: Assemblée
Nationale
de
Transition
This name therefore carried a bad omen.
(Transitional National Assembly)
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
Under Yuhi Gahindiro, the institution of Ubwiru was effectively
APR
: Armée
Patriotique
Rwandaise
hereditary.
The
number
of the Abiru
at the King’s court was
APROBAMI :limited.
Association
Partis Monarchistes
considerably
But, des
beginning
with Gahindiro’s reign,
Rwandais
their number generally increased. However, an epidemic thtat
took
place during
this perioddes
almost
decimated Indigènes
those whi had
APROCOMIN:
Association
Commerçants
memorized
the
ritual
of
the
procedure
of
ascendency
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale deto
la the
throne by all kings
Massewith the name of Yuhi. Hence, Gahindiro
decided to reduce the number of the Abiru “in order not to expose
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
them again to similar accidents which were unfortunate for the
Démocratie
country”47.
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
Droits de l’Homme
46
Vansina,
J.1962,
op.
cit., p.68
AREDETWA : Association
pour le Relèvement
47
Kagame, A. 1947, op. cit., p.366
Démocratique des Batwa
105
v
105
At the beginning
of the reignAND
of young
King Yuhi Gahindiro, the
ACRONYMS
ABBREVIATIONS
country was under
the
regency
of
Nyirayuhi
Nyiratunga. There
___________________________________
was a drought which led to famine nicknamed “Rukungugu.” For
this
court introduced
a ‘Department of Rukungugu’
A.A.reason, the
: Archives
Africaines
(Inzira ya Rukugungu); this department was intended for disaster
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
preparedness48.
ABAKI
: Alliance des Bakiga
ABESC
: Association
des Bahutu
Evoluant
la
King
Kigeri Rwabugiri
prevented
Kalinga,
who waspour
of Ubwiru
Suppression
des Castes
origins and head
of Abakobwa
lineage, from attending the
ACR
: Association
des Cultivateurs
duhad
Rwanda
assembly of the
Abiru Committee,
a post that he
held since
Cyirima Rugwe.
He gaveDémocratique
this privilege todes
thePeuples
Abatege. However,
ADP
: Alliance
the
Abatege
merely
accepted
it
as
a
formality,
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la leaving the
Abakobwa as de
facto members.
Réconciliation
Nationale
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
Similarly, after enthroning King Rutarindwa, the son and nephew
AFDL
:
des Forces
Démocratiques
la
of Rwabugiri Alliance
was adopted
as co-ruler,
under thepour
dynastic
Libération
du Congo-Zaïre
name of Mibambwe.
Kanjogera
of the of the Abega clan became
AGOA
AfricanMother
Growth(the
andlate
Opportunity
the adopted :Queen
mother of Act
Rutalindwa
Nyirabunga, from
the Abakono clan). Some Abiru warned King
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Rwabugiri
about
the
imminent
danger
to the country regarding
AIMO
: Affaires
Indigènes
et Main-d’oeuvre
Kanjogera’s son,
Musinga,de
who
wanted toEstudiantine
become king. King
AJER
: Association
la Jeunesse
Rwabugiri ignored their advice. He indirictely contributed to the
Rwandaise
Rucunchu massacres in 1896.
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
AM/AP
: Arrêté
ministériel/
présidentiel
It was probably
under King
RwabugiriArrêté
reign that
the Abiru decided
AMR
: Association
the King who would
succeed des
YuhiMoniteurs
should beardu
theRwanda
dynastic name
AMUR
: Association
Musulmans
Rwanda
of Mutara, and
not Cyirima, des
as was
stipulated au
in the
program of
ascendancy. This
was based
on the fact
that Mutara Rwogera
ANT
: Assemblée
Nationale
de Transition
had not attended
the ceremony
to commemorate
(Transitional
National
Assembly) the burial of
Cyirma
Rujugira’s
body.
In
effect,
the
Ubwiru institution
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate
Chrétien was
opposed “to the view of allowing two kings bearing the name
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
RI &\LULPD WR FHOHEUDWH FRQVHFXWLYHO\ WKH FHUHPRQ\ RI WKH ÀUVW
APROBAMI
: Association des Partis Monarchistes
rains.” That is why King Rudahigwa, who was enthroned by
Rwandaisin 1931, received the dynastic name
the colonial authorities
APROCOMIN:
Association
desClasse,
Commerçants
of Mutara as proposed
by Mgr
who had Indigènes
been informed
49
APROSOMA
: Association
pour la. Promotion Sociale de la
about this secret
by one Umwiru
Masse
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
Démocratie
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
Droits de l’Homme
48
Kagame,
A.,
Inganji
Kalinga, Kabgayi,
1959,
p.29
AREDETWA : Association
pour
le Relèvement
49
Kagame , A., 1947,op.cit, p.378
Démocratique des Batwa
106
106
v
¾King Mibambwe
Rutarindwa
and King Yuhi Musinga (1896)
ACRONYMS
AND ABBREVIATIONS
___________________________________
During the Rucunshu incident, Rutarindwa, his wife, and his
children
(Nyamuheshera,
Rangira and Sekarongoro) perished in
A.A.
: Archives Africaines
DÀUH3HRSOHIHDUHGWKDWWKHÀUHKDGGHVWUR\HGKaringa Dynasic
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
Drum. During this incident, Kabare declared “Haguma umwami,
ABAKI irabazwa”,
: Alliance
des Bakiga
ingoma
meaning
that the king was more important
ABESC
:
Association
des
Bahutu
Evoluant which
pour la
than the drum since the latter was
just something
could
Suppression
des was
Castes
be manufactured.
Karinga Drum
thus deconsecrated50.
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
In 1952, under
the Belgian
mandate, des
the Peuples
Abiru College was
ADP
: Alliance
Démocratique
undermined
by
the
colonial
administration.
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie Mgr.
et la Classe made
secret plans to
achieve this Nationale
objective. Gashamura, son of
Réconciliation
Rukangirashyamba and head of the Abiru, was exiled by the
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
colonial administration to Gitega, Burundi, where he died shortly
AFDL
:
des Forces
Démocratiques
pour
la
after. His son,Alliance
Rwampungu,
was brought
back and
enrolled
Libération
du Congo-Zaïre
for studies in Nyanza.
He was
baptized in 1928 in the Catholic
AGOA
: African
Growth
Opportunity
Actprivileges
Church. Although
the Abiru
had and
lost their
prestige and
under the colonial
regime, they did not disappear. When King
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
Mutara
Rudahigwa
wasIndigènes
enthronedet
inMain-d’oeuvre
1931, the position of the
AIMO
: Affaires
Abiru had been
seriously undermined.
However,
as a member
AJER
: Association
de la Jeunesse
Estudiantine
of the Abiru College in the 1940’s, Alexis Kagame was able to
Rwandaise
penetrate the ranks of the monarchy.
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/
présidentiel
e. Ubucurabwenge
or dynasticArrêté
genealogy
AMR (Amasekuruza
: Association
des Moniteurs du Rwanda
y’Abami)
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
Ubucurabwenge
can be translated
literally
as “the workshop of
ANT
: Assemblée
Nationale
de Transition
wisdom.” The Abacurabwenge
were “those
who manufactured
(Transitional National
Assembly)
knowledge.”
This
social
and
political
institution
dealt with
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
specialized knowledge of royal genealogy and its organization
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
and transmission. Ubucurabwenge consisted of a text outlining
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
the names of kings, queen mothers, and ancestors. The text
Rwandais
outlined a list of
names divided in paragraphs which all ended
APROCOMIN:
Association
des
Commerçants
by stating the objectives of the
monarch.
The text Indigènes
was important
APROSOMA
: Association
pour la Promotion
de la
because
it gave
the chronological
order of Sociale
the Banyiginya
monarchs. Whoever
Massespeaks of the history of Rwanda must make
reference
to
this
text. Effectively,
in a society where
ARD
: Alliance
pour le Renforcement
de la there was
no writing culture,
this
genealogy
serves
as
a
framework
for the
Démocratie
preservation of history, putting in perspective all the different
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
events that took place in the past and their methodological
Droits
l’Hommeto the next.
transmission from
onede
generation
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
50
Smith, P., Le récit populaire au Rwanda, Paris, Armand Colin, 1975
Démocratique des Batwa
107
v
107
Nobody can ACRONYMS
state with precision
when the Ubucurabwenge
AND ABBREVIATIONS
51
institution started.
As
far
as
its
structure is concerned,
___________________________________
Ubucurabwenge was orally transmitted in an apparently static
form. The Ubucurabwenge
narrative was published extensively
A.A.
: Archives Africaines
52
by Kagame . It is presented in the form of a series of stanzas,
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
each of which is dedicated to a particular monarch, beginning
ABAKI
Alliance
des
Bakiga
with
the most: recent
ones
and
going back to the founders53.
ABESC
Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
Every stanza :contains:
Suppression des Castes
ACR
: Association
Cultivateurs
du Rwanda
- The name
of the rule des
of the
king and queen
mother;
ADP
: Alliance
Démocratique
- The personal
names
of the kingdes
andPeuples
his mother before
ADR enthronement;
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
Réconciliation Nationale
- The clan genealogy of the mother, which serves to
AEC determine
: Agglomeration
Extra-Coutumières
her clan;
AFDL
: Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
The genealogy and name of the clan of the queen mother;
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
each stanza ends with the same chorus in this way: “Hence,
AGOA (so and: so....
African
Growth
and
Opportunity
from
the clan
of Queen
Mother Act
so and so....)
$,'6 produces
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
kings in concert with Abanyiginya. Abanyiginya
AIMO being the
: Affaires
Indigènes
et dynasty
Main-d’oeuvre
clan from
which the
originated.
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
Rwandaise
Here is an extract
of a narrative prepared according to
ALIR
:
Armée
de
Ubucurabwenge experts: Libération du Rwanda
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
1.
“Uyu
mwami
twimitsedes
ni Mutara,
izinadu
lyeRwanda
ari umututsi ni
AMR
: Association
Moniteurs
Nyina ni des
Nyiramavugo,
izina
ari umututsi
AMURRudahigwa.
: Association
Musulmans
aulye
Rwanda
ni
Kankanzi
ka
Mbanzabigwi,
ya
rwakagara,
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition rwa Gaga,
lya Mutezintare, wa Sesonga, ya Makara, ya Kiramira,
(Transitional National Assembly)
cya Mucuzi, wa Nyantabana, ya Bugurande, bwa Ngoga,
APADEC
: Association
du Parti
Démocrate
Chrétien rwa
ya Gihinira,
cya Ndiga,
ya Gahutu,
ka Serwega,
APR Mututsi:
: Armée
Patriotiquew’Abega.
Rwandaise
akaba umukobwa
Nyina ni Nyiranteko
APROBAMI
: Association
Partis Monarchistes
ya Nzagura
ya des
Mbonyingabo
akaba umukobwa
w’Abashambo.
Ahoga Nyine Abega bakabyara na Abami
Rwandais
n’Abanyiginya.”
APROCOMIN:
Association des Commerçants Indigènes
2.
“Mutara
ni uwa Yuhi;
izina
ari umututsi
ni de
Musinga
APROSOMA : Association
pour
la lye
Promotion
Sociale
la
Nyina ni Nyirayuhi; izina lye ari umututsi ni Kanjogera,
Masse
ka Rwakagara, rwa Gaga, lya Mutezintare, wa Sesonga,
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
51
Vansina, J., L’évolution
du royaume Rwanda, p..25; Kagame, A., La notion de
Démocratie
génération, pp.24, 26-27
ARDHO
: Association
Rwandaise
pour This
la Défense
52
Kagame, A., Inganji
Kalinga , Kabgayi,
1943, pp. 92-108.
book was redes
edited
in Kabgayi in1959. Droits
An extractde
of l’Homme
Ubucurabwenge translated in French by the author
was
published in 1959
in La notion depour
génération,
pp.15-17
AREDETWA
: Association
le Relèvement
53
Smith, P., « La forge de l’intelligence », in L’homme, Paris, 1971.
Démocratique des Batwa
108
108
v
ya Makara
(…) akaba
umukobwa’Abega, Nyina ni
ACRONYMS
AND ABBREVIATIONS
Nyiramashyongoshyo,
ya
Mukotatanyi,
wa Kimana, cya
___________________________________
Kabajyonjya, ka Rwaka rwa Yuhi Mazimpaka, Umwami
wa Rubanda;
akaba
umukoba w’Abanyiginya. Ahoga
: Archives
Africaines
nyine Abega bakabyarana Abami n’Abanyiginya!”
A.A.
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
ABAKI d. Historic
: Alliance
des Bakiga
narratives
(Ibitekerezo)
ABESC
: Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
Suppression
des
Castes
Ibitekerezo (singular
igitekerezo)
comes
from the verb “gutekereza,”
ACR
Association
des Cultivateurs
dutranslating
Rwanda the
which means :to
narrate. It should
be noted that
noun “ibitekerezo”
to “thoughts”
does notdes
make
sense. There are
ADP
: Alliance
Démocratique
Peuples
two
major
categories
of
ibitekerezo,
namely
ibitekerezo
by’abami
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
(royal historic Réconciliation
narratives) and Nationale
ibitekerezo by’imiryango (family
historic narratives).
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
AFDL
:
Alliancenarratives
des Forces
Démocratiques
pour la
¾Royal historic
(Ibitekerezo
by’abami)
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
AGOA
: African
Growth
and Opportunity
Actcomposed
Royal historical
narratives
comprise
a literary genre
RI QDUUDWLYHV$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
RQ *LKDQJD WKH RIÀFLDO IRXQGHU RI Abanyiginya
$,'6
dynasty.
His
ten
successors
known
‘austerity kings’ (those
AIMO
: Affaires
Indigènes
et as
Main-d’oeuvre
who painfully: set
out to establish
Rwanda Estudiantine
at inception) are not
AJER
Association
de la Jeunesse
dealt with in the narrative. The narratives start their trajectory
Rwandaise
from King Ruganzu Bwimba, the eleventh king after Gihanga,
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
eighteen generations past. Narratives were the work of court
AM/AP
ministériel/
Arrêté
présidentiel
story tellers.54: Arrêté
A narrative
is a literary
genre
like others; it is
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
VXEMHFWWRVSHFLÀFPRGHVRILQWHUSUHWDWLRQ7KHVWRU\WHOOHUZKR
AMUR
: Association
desmajor
Musulmans
au Rwanda
transmits it only
preserves the
ideas of the
narrative.
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
¾Family (Transitional
historic narratives
(Ibitekerezo
by’imiryango)
National
Assembly)
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
The studies conducted by A. Kagame identify another source of
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
history for Rwanda, namely “family history.”55 At present, this
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
source has not been catalogued as such. However, by identifying
Rwandais
names in poems
of different traditions, especially war poetry
APROCOMIN:
Association
des Commerçants
Indigènes
(ibyivugo), it is possible to realize
the composition
of a people’s
APROSOMA
Association
la Promotion
Sociale
de la
genealogy.
In :the
corpus ofpour
scattered
and unedited
notes
by A.
Kagame entitled
“the historic families of Rwanda,” some members
Masse
of
the
genealogy
tree were
preserved
with their de
short
ARD
: Alliance
pour
le Renforcement
la histories
and achievements.
For
example,
we
know
that
so
and
so lived
Démocratie
under such and such a monarch, and that he belonged to such a
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
54
Droits
Kagame, A., 1972,
op. cit., de
15. l’Homme
55
The
scattered
notes
on
historic
families
in Rwanda
were available in the library of
AREDETWA : Association
pour
le Relèvement
A . Kagame in 1995 in Butare Procure (Guest House).
Démocratique des Batwa
109
v
109
group with certain
military training
(or militia). It is also possible
ACRONYMS
AND ABBREVIATIONS
to know whether
he perished during an expedition abroad and
___________________________________
whether he was under the command of a certain army.
A.A.
: Archives Africaines
Family
narratives
give information
A.G.
: Assemblée
Générale on the circumstances
prevailing when such and such a person arrived in Rwanda
ABAKI
: Alliance des Bakiga
under such and such a regime. They also inform us if the
ABESC
: Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
descendants belonging to such and such a genealogical tree
Suppression des Castes
were Rwandese, or if they had origins from Burundi, Ndorwa, or
ACR
:
des
Cultivateurs
Rwanda
elsewhere. The Association
initial list that
deals
with peopledu
cited
in different
ADP
: Alliance
des Peuples
sources,
transmitted
byDémocratique
narrators, is broadened
to include all
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
5ZDQGDQVZKRSOD\HGDVLJQLÀFDQWUROHQRPDWWHUKRZVPDOO
Family historicRéconciliation
narratives are Nationale
therefore precious instruments
whose
must be lauded.
AEC importance
: Agglomeration
Extra-Coutumières
AFDL
: Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
a. Dynastic
poems du Congo-Zaïre
Libération
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity Act
Dynastic
poems
are a literary genre of ancient Rwanda that
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
transmit the country’s ethno-history56. The importance of this
AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
JHQUHLVEDVHGRQLWVDJHUHODWLYHWRRWKHUJHQUHVWKHÀUVWG\QDVWLF
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
poems date back to the rule of King Ruganzu Ndori, from 15101544. DynasticRwandaise
poems rely on their principle of invariability;
ALIR
: Armée deasLibération
Rwanda Knowledge of
they were transmitted
they were du
composed.
AM/AP
: Arrêté
ministériel/
présidentiel
dynastic poems
(Ibisigo)
is therefore Arrêté
indispensable
in preserving
AMR
Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
the history of :Rwanda.
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
3.0.2 Military
organization
ANT
: Assemblée
Nationale de Transition
(Transitional National Assembly)
Rwanda’s
military
organization
consisted
of a setChrétien
of activities:
APADEC
: Association
du Parti
Démocrate
recruitment, :training,
socialization
of recruits, participation
APR
Armée Patriotique
Rwandaise
in military expeditions, sharing of wealth and war booty, and
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
protecting members of each group.
Rwandais
APROCOMIN:
Association
des Commerçants
Indigènes
If we refer to the
events narrated
by the Rwandan
tradition, we
APROSOMA
: Association
la Promotion
de la
can identify some
principalpour
periods
regarding Sociale
the organization
Masse
RI5ZDQGD·VDUPLHV7KHÀUVWSHULRGVWDUWHGZLWK.LQJ5XJDQ]X
ARD
: Alliance
le Renforcement
de laend of the
Bwimba up to
the rulepour
of King
Rujugira at the
Démocratie
sixteenth century.
The second period took place during the rule
ARDHO
:
Association
pour ARSOM,
la Défense
56
Kagame, A., La poésie dynastique Rwandaise
au Rwanda, Bruxelles,
Butare,des
1951.
Droits
depoems,
l’Homme
It presents an inventory
of 176
totaling up to 22,026 verses; KAGAME A.,
Introduction
aux grands
genres lyriques,
1969,
151-244. He makes a contribution
AREDETWA
: Association
pour
lepp.
Relèvement
in this work, giving translations of model thematic areas.
Démocratique des Batwa
110
110
v
of King Cyirima
Rujugira inAND
1900;
his rule was centre stage in
ACRONYMS
ABBREVIATIONS
the history of ___________________________________
the ‘cattle armies’ in Rwanda57.
It should be noted that all these armies were under the king.
A.A.
: Archives Africaines
Membership to each regiment was a hereditary affair. The
A.G.
: Assemblée
members
of each
regiment Générale
came from all over the country, and
ABAKI
:
Alliance
des
Bakiga
recruitment was done on lineage
basis. In principle, every adult
ABESC
: Association
des his
Bahutu
Evoluant
pour
man
was called
upon to defend
country.
However,
as la
far as
the recruitment
of
carrier
warriors
was
concerned,
it
was
the
Suppression des Castes
58
‘head
who appointed
those who
supposed
ACR of Umuryango’
: Association
des Cultivateurs
duwere
Rwanda
59
to
join
the
army
.
In
general,
the
names
of
the
heads
of
regiments
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
were retained. Similarly, those who distinguished themselves
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
RQWKHEDWWOHÀHOGDQGWKRVHZKRVHDFKLHYHPHQWVQHHGHGWREH
Réconciliation Nationale
remembered were also included. Lastly, every military camp was
AEC
: Agglomeration
Extra-Coutumières
named according
to one or several
cattle groups. For example,
AFDL
:
Alliance
des
Forces
Démocratiques
pour la
‘Umuhozi’ cattle formation corresponded
to ‘Abashakamba’
Libération
du Congo-Zaïre
military formation
and Ingeyo
cattle formation corresponded to
‘Uruyange’ military
formation.
AGOA
: African
Growth and Opportunity Act
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
The internal organization of armies depended on their period.60
AIMO from war
: Affaires
Indigènes
Main-d’oeuvre
Apart
combatants,
cattleetraiders
(Ibitsimbanyi) were
AJER with: Association
de la
JeunessetoEstudiantine
charged
stealing cattle
belonging
the enemy during
Rwandaise
wars while the carriers and servants provided spears and
ALIR arrows.: They
Armée
dealso
Libération
du Rwanda
spare
were
responsible
for providing supplies,
accommodation,
and carrying
war booty.
short, they did all
AM/AP
: Arrêté
ministériel/
Arrêté In
présidentiel
complementary
jobs
that
the
army
needed.
In
times of peace,
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
their
role
included
socio-political
duties,
notably
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au sensitizing
Rwanda the
population.
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
The recruits were called ‘Intori’, literary meaning ‘those who
Assembly)
were selected.’ (Transitional
They attendedNational
prolonged
training in sports and
APADEC
:
Association
du
Parti
Démocrate
Chrétien
military drills, including the handling of traditional
arms such
APR
:
Armée
Patriotique
Rwandaise
57
Nkurukiyimra, J-N, Le gros bétail de la société rwandaise, évolution historique : des
APROBAMI
: Association
des Partis
XII-XIVème
siècles
à 1958, Paris, L’harmattan,
1994,Monarchistes
p. 49.
58
From 50 family heads
to 630 sub-chiefs who were in service between 1947- 1948.
Rwandais
Father
Delmas published
‘La généalogie
la noblesse (the Batustsi
of Rwanda). In
APROCOMIN:
Association
desdeCommerçants
Indigènes
1954, A. Kagame published Les organisation socio-familiales de l’ancien Rwanda.
APROSOMA
: Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
59
In principle, each regiment was made of the Batutsi, Bahutu and Batwa. A. Kagame
Masse
LGHQWL¿HGµ&DWWOHDUPLHV¶DQGPLOLWLDV)RUHDFKFDWWOHDUP\KHJDYHLWVKLVWRU\LWV
successive
heads
with
their personal
history,
(their origin, appointment
ARD
: Alliance
pour
le Renforcement
de laand destitution
circumstances) their Démocratie
corresponding militia, attributed pastures, and their services to the
court. In his Histoire des armées bovines dans la creation du Rwanda, A. Kagame gives
ARDHO
Association
pour laheads
Défense
des
for each militia the:factors
surroundingRwandaise
its creation, its successive
and, often,
with
de l’Homme
their personal history,Droits
family, appointment,
destitution, achievements, etc., major events
especially military:campaigns,
politicalpour
intrigues,
given at the royal court.
AREDETWA
Association
le services
Relèvement
60
Vansina, J., 2001, op. cit, p. 100.
Démocratique des Batwa
111
v
111
as spears, bows
and arrows,
shields,
and swords. Towards the
ACRONYMS
AND
ABBREVIATIONS
end of the nineteenth
century,
they
developed
the art of dance,
___________________________________
public speaking, debate, and memorization and recitation
of
war poems.
They were
encouraged to acquire moral values
A.A.
: Archives
Africaines
such as military courage, perseverance, generosity towards the
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
poor, acceptance of responsibilities, self-control, and emotional
ABAKI 61
: Alliance des Bakiga
control.
ABESC
: Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
Suppression
des Castes
To a lesser extent,
military expeditions
were aimed at defending
ACR
: Association
des Cultivateurs
Rwanda
against
foreign invaders.
This was du
theRwanda
case in the
Rwageta
expedition
at Démocratique
the beginning des
of the
rule of Mutara
ADP
: Alliance
Peuples
Rwogera.
During
this
expedition,
Rwandan
warriors were
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
defeated by Burundi
invaders,
who had penetrated up to
Réconciliation
Nationale
Mvejuru with the intention of burning and humiliating the Royal
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
Court.62 However, in most cases, Rwandese military expeditions
AFDL
:
des Forces
Démocratiques
pour la
were initiated Alliance
by Rwandans
and were
directed to neighboring
Congo-Zaïre
countries. The Libération
causes and du
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x Wars of
vengeance, des
punitive
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insurgence
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royal
authority
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expedition
against
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
ANT Bunyabungo);
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
(Transitional
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Assembly)
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expedition
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cy’Imigongo’);
APADEC
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APR
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x Wars against
cattle
raids (known
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la the
getting rid of people who were considered undesirable
regime in power;
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Masse
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soil.
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ARD
: Alliance
pour
Renforcement
la
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it was Prince Nkoroko who was targeted, but
Démocratie
having
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plot, he didpour
not participate
the
ARDHO
: Association
la Défense in
des
expedition. Additionally, making raids to obtain girls and women
Droits de l’Homme
61
Ibid,
p.
101
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
62
Kagame, A., 1972, op, cit, p. 192
Démocratique des Batwa
112
112
v
IRUPDUULDJHZDVDQRWKHUXQRIÀFLDOREMHFWLYHRIVXFKH[SHGLWLRQV
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
an example of___________________________________
such expedition was called ‘Kara-minwe,’ under
Rwogera against Gisaka.
A.A.
: Archives Africaines
The preparations for a given expedition assumed a mystic
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
character. Before its organization, divine consultations were
ABAKIto see if: Alliance
des Bakiga
made
the expedition
would be successful or not. If the
ABESC
:
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des
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5DUHO\EORRGZDVVDFULÀFHGRQYROXQWDU\EDVLVLQWKHWHUULWRU\
to
be invaded.: In
the psyche
of the Rwandese
people, this blood
ADP
Alliance
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des Peuples
portended
bad
omen
for
the
targeted
territory;
it la
was a sure way
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et
of victory for the
Rwandese army.
Later, a commander-in-chief
Réconciliation
Nationale
(Umugaba w’igitero) for the expedition would be named.
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
AFDL
:
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The commander-in-chief
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Association
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AM/AP
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AMR This would
: Association
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battle.
boost morale
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AMUR
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In
general, wars
took place
during day
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ANT
: Assemblée
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of arranged battles.
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Rwandan Assembly)
militias participated in
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each
of
which
was
commanded
by aChrétien
commander.
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate
During King Rwabugiri’s rule, the major arms used were spears,
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
bows and arrows, swords, and shields. From King Cyirima
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
Rujugira’s reign, marching armies were created aimed at
Rwandais
defending the borders.
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
APROSOMA
: Association
pour and
la Promotion
SocialeDiversity
de la
3.3.3.
Territorial
Organization
Administrative
Masse
a.
Triple
hierarchy
of chiefs:
ARD
: Alliance
pour leUmunyamutaka,
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umunyamukenke,
umutware
w’ingabo
Démocratie
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Among the king’s representatives were chiefs who imposed
Droits de
l’Homme
taxes.63 The provincial
chiefs
were, above all, representatives of
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
63
Classe, L., “L’organisation politique du Ruanda”, in Congo , 1992 ,p.685
Démocratique des Batwa
113
v
113
the royal authority
– the king
and
his court attendants. They
ACRONYMS
AND
ABBREVIATIONS
imposed and ___________________________________
collected taxes in the provinces. Thus, the royal
residences scattered throughout the entire kingdom under King
Kigeri
had political
and physical functions. The royal
A.A. Rwabugiri
: Archives
Africaines
tribute (ikoro) was taken to the royal residence and was managed
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
by the king’s wife.
ABAKI
: Alliance des Bakiga
ABESC
: Association
des Bahutu
Evoluant
pour
la
In
the areas where
the Ubuhake
institution
prevailed,
provincial
desbyCastes
administrationSuppression
was enforced
senior chiefs or by army
ACR
:Beyond
Association
des and
Cultivateurs
Rwanda
commanders.
provinces
marching du
camps
(ingerero),
three
beginnning
the rule of King
ADP leaders :exercised
Alliance power
Démocratique
deswith
Peuples
Yuhi
Gahindiro:
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
Réconciliation Nationale
1. Land and agriculture chief (umutware w’umunyabutaka)
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
in charge
pastures
(umutware w’umukenke,
AFDL 2. The :chief
Alliance
des of
Forces
Démocratiques
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umunyamukenke)
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AIMO Chiefs,
: Affaires
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Main-d’oeuvre
these
three
chiefs.
At
a
lower
level
of
the
hierarchy,
there were
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
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Rwandaise
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theRwanda
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ALIR
: Armée
de Libération
Rujugira:
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
(Transitional National Assembly)
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
Rwandais
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
Masse
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
Démocratie
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
Droits de l’Homme
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
Démocratique des Batwa
114
114
v
Figure 9: Political
and administrative
hierarchy from King
ACRONYMS
AND ABBREVIATIONS
Cyirima Rujugira
___________________________________
KING
Archives Africaines
Assemblée
Générale
QUEEN
MOTHER
Alliance des Bakiga
Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
Suppression des Castes
/
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs- LEGALIST
du Rwanda
RITUALIST
ADP
: AllianceSENIOR
Démocratique
CHIEFS des Peuples
FAVOURITE
CHIEFS
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie- et
la
- SENIOR CHIEFS
Réconciliation Nationale
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
AFDL
: Alliance des Forces Démocratiques
pour la
LIVESTOCK
LAND CHIEF
ARMY CHIEF
CHIEF
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: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
VILLAGE
CHIEF Estudiantine
AJER
: Association
de la Jeunesse
Rwandaise
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/
CHIEF OFArrêté présidentiel
NEIGHBOURHOOD
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
(Transitional
National
LINEAGE
CHIEFAssembly)
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
FAMILY CHIEF
Rwandais
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
Masse ADULT MALE
ARD
: Alliance
pour le Renforcement
de la
MEMBERS
OF THE
Démocratie FAMILY
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
Source: Maquet J.J., Le système des relations sociales dans le
Droits
de l’Homme
Rwanda ancien,
Tervuren,
M.R.A.C., 1954, p.163.
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
Démocratique des Batwa
A.A.
A.G.
ABAKI
ABESC
:
:
:
:
115
v
115
There were a ACRONYMS
few exceptionsAND
to the
multiple functions of chiefs.
ABBREVIATIONS
In Buhanga-Ndara,
Chief
Mbanzabugabo,
alias Bikotwa, doubled
___________________________________
as ‘umutware w’ubutaka’ and ‘umutware w’ingabo’. As for the
Impala
Province
(Kinyanga-Cyangugu),
it was Rwabirinda,
A.A.
: Archives
Africaines
son of Mutara Rwogera, who was ‘Umutware w’ubutaka’ and
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
‘Umutware w’umukenke’ in 1900.
ABAKI
: Alliance des Bakiga
ABESC
des Bahutu
pour la
Many
regions: Association
which had been
annexedEvoluant
recently experienced
Suppression
desroyal
Castes
military occupation.
In Gisaka,
residences were scattered
ACR
: Association
Rwanda
in
Sakara and
Bugesera, des
andCultivateurs
in Ndorwa, du
royal
residences
were
Gatsibo.Démocratique
In the northern
of Rwanda, the
ADP located :inAlliance
despart
Peuples
administration
was
enforced
by
lineage
chiefs,
clan
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la chiefs, and
chiefs who wereRéconciliation
replaced by representatives
Nationale (Ruhanga), such as
the representative of Nshozamihigo in Murera in the 1900’s. As
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
far as clan entities in the north were concerned, the dominating
AFDL
:
Alliance
deskings’
Forces
Démocratiques
pour la
clan chiefs were
called the
chiefs
(Abatware b’umwami).
Libération
ducourt
Congo-Zaïre
They reported directly
to the
without passing through an
AGOA
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chiefs
were
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64
the
king of Rwanda
as a sign of allegiance .
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b.
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(free
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AJER
: Association
Rwandaise
In addition to the regions that were administered by chiefs
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
appointed by the royal court (central, south, east and west),
AM/AP
: Arrêté
some
enclaves
were ministériel/
established. Arrêté
These présidentiel
areas demonstrated
AMR and complex
: Association
des
Moniteurs du Rwanda
diverse
systems
of administration:
AMUR¾Royal
: Association
des
Musulmans
Rwanda
enclaves in the
hinterland
of theau
central,
southern
and: Assemblée
eastern regions
of Rwanda.
Here, the king and
ANT
Nationale
de Transition
queen
mother had their
own Assembly)
territorial entities which
(Transitional
National
were
directly
answerable
to
the
royal court
(i bwami).
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate
Chrétien
They were under chiefs who administered them in the
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
name of the king and the queen mother;
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
¾AbiruRwandais
enclaves (custodians of the royal secret);
APROCOMIN:
Association des Commerçants Indigènes
¾Bumbogo region enjoyed a special status as a result
APROSOMA
: Association
pour laofPromotion
Sociale
de la
of its
ancient tradition
cultivating
and supplying
Masse
commodities,
working with the Abiru Batsobe to
ARD
: Alliance
poursorghum
le Renforcement
de la
supply
millet and
cereals used
to celebrate
WKHQDWLRQDOIHDVWRIWKHÀUVWUDLQV
Umuganura);
Démocratie
ARDHO
:
Association
pour
la Défense
des
¾The kingdoms of Rwandaise
Bukunzi and
Busozo
in Kinyaga
Droits
de l’Homme
enjoyed
relative
autonomy given that they were
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
64
Anonyme (Résidence du Rwanda), Historique et chronologie du Rwanda, s.l .,p.124
Démocratique des Batwa
116
116
v
governed
by rainmaker
kings (Abavubi) and kings
ACRONYMS
AND ABBREVIATIONS
(Abami)
with
whom
these
kingdoms participated in
___________________________________
economic exchange. They also exchanged gifts with
the :Rwandan
Archivescourt.
Africaines
A.A.
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
ABAKI
: Alliance
des Bakiga
In short, there
was a political
entity that was politically united
ZLWKDGLYHUVLÀHGDQGKHWHURJHQHRXVV\VWHPRIDGPLQLVWUDWLRQ
ABESC
: Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
The presence ofSuppression
a centralized administration
des Castes was felt, particularly
during
the
reign
of
King
Kigeri
Rwabugiri. By
end of the
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs
duthe
Rwanda
nineteenth century, the political and administrative structure
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
proved to be too complex and precarious. Nonetheless, it beyond
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
WKHVWUXJJOHIRUSRZHUDQGWKHQHHGWRDVVHUWSROLWLFDOLQÁXHQFHD
Réconciliation
Nationale
certain degree of
separation of powers
and specialization existed
AEC
at the time. :AtAgglomeration
the top of theExtra-Coutumières
‘Abatware b’intebe,’ ‘abatware
b’ubwami,’ ‘abatware
role is not
clearly
AFDL
: Alliance b’amacibiri’
des Forces (whose
Démocratiques
pour
la
VSHFLÀHGWRGD\ Libération
DQGWKH¶Abiru,’
there were artisans and workers
du Congo-Zaïre
who
depended
directly
on
the
royal
court. LineageAct
or military
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chiefs
w’ingabo ODUJHO\IXOÀOOHGWKHREOLJDWLRQVRIWKH
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people towards their leaders.
AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
AJER Social :and
Association
de Organization
la Jeunesse Estudiantine
3.3.4.
Economic
Rwandaise
ALIR the eighteenth
: Armée century,
de Libération
du Rwanda
From
socio-economic
practices began
among
institutions.
BeforeArrêté
speaking
of these economic
AM/APRwandan
: Arrêté
ministériel/
présidentiel
factors,
it
is
important
to
consider
the
‘clientilist
system,’ which
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
profoundly
characterized
socio-economic
relations
between the
AMUR
: Association
des Musulmans
au Rwanda
Rwandese and the practices of the ‘Uburetwa’ and ‘Igikingi’
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
institution.
(Transitional National Assembly)
APADEC
: Association
du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
a. The clientilist
system
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
APROBAMI Rwanda
: Association
Partis through
Monarchistes
Traditional
was des
governed
various forms
of economic dependence.
Rwandais Some types of typically Rwandan
dependence,
notably
‘Ubuhake’
and
‘Ubukonde’, are
summarized
APROCOMIN:
Association
des
Commerçants
Indigènes
below:
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
Masse
x Ubuhake
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
Ubuhake was Démocratie
an institution that established socio-economic
ARDHO
:
Association
Rwandaise pour la Défense des
GHSHQGHQFHEHWZHHQGLIIHUHQWVWUDWDRIVRFLHW\6HYHUDOGHÀQLWLRQV
Droits de
l’Homme
for the term ‘Ubuhake’
have
been proferred:
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
Démocratique des Batwa
117
v
117
-
A pastoral
serfdom contract
was a voluntary contract by
ACRONYMS
AND ABBREVIATIONS
which a
servant
(Umugaragu)
worked for a person of a
___________________________________
higher social rank, ‘Shebuja,’ in order to obtain heads of
65
A.A. cattle :. Archives Africaines
- Clientilism between individuals of an inferior status and a
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
superior status where the former would offer his services
ABAKIto the latter
: Alliance
des Bakiga
in exchange
for cows and protection.66
ABESC
: Association
des Bahutu
Evoluant
la and
- A contract
freely agreed
upon between
the pour
master
67
des Castes
servant. Suppression
The former conceded
to the former cattle.
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
‘Ubuhake’
was
a voluntary
contract between
a cattle owner and
ADP
: Alliance
Démocratique
des Peuples
someone
who
wanted
to
own
cows.
In
addition,
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la the servant
sought protection
from his master.
‘Ubuhake’ cannot truly be
Réconciliation
Nationale
compared with European feudalism during the Middle Ages;
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
the Rwandan landed gentry did not resemble feudalistic system
AFDL
:
Alliance
Forces Démocratiques
pour
la
68
of land ownership
anddes
distribution.
The ‘Ubuhake’
system
Libération
du Congo-Zaïre
established between
the ‘Umugaragu’
and ‘Shebuja’ were based
AGOA
: African
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on the dynamics
of friendship,
which
manifested Act
as common
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AIMO
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x
Categories
and attributes
of Abagaragu
AJER
: Association
de la Jeunesse
Estudiantine
Rwandaise
The Abagaragu were divided into three categories: house maids,
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
court attendants, and exempted courtesans. In Buganza, it
AM/AP
Arrêté
ministériel/
Arrêté présidentiel
was not until :the
1930’s
that the Abagaragu
started cultivating
AMR
: Association
des Moniteurs du Rwanda
(gutanga imibyizi)
for their Shebuja.
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
The process of
‘Ubuhake’ started
with
introducing a
ANT
: Assemblée
Nationale
desomeone
Transition
servant to the (Transitional
future master.National
This wasAssembly)
done by a third party
who
was
already
Umugaragu.
However,
some
people
introduced
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate
Chrétien
themselves personally. Parents introduced their children and
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
would help them to perform particular tasks in the home of
APROBAMI
: Association des Partis Monarchistes
Shebuja. The Abagaragu were sent off at puberty and returned
Rwandais
to their homes for
marriage. In this case, they received ‘Ubuhake’
APROCOMIN:
Association
des fathers.
Commerçants
Indigènes
cows on top of those given by their
During the
introduction
APROSOMA
:
Association
pour
la
Promotion
Sociale
de la
65
Kagame, A., Le code des institutions du Rwanda précoloniale, Bruxelles, ARSOM, P.18
66
Massedes relations sociales dans le Rwanda ancien, Tervuren,
Maquet, J.J., Le système
MRAC,
1954,
p.151.
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
67
Bourgeois, R., L’évolution
du contrat de bétail à cheptel, Bruxelles, 1958, pp.1-2
Démocratie
68
Chrétien, J. P., “Echanges et hiérarchies”, pp. 1328-1332 et dans “Vocabulaire
ARDHO
Rwandaise
pour laindirecte
Défense
des
et
concepts tirés :deAssociation
la féodalité occidentale
et administration
en Afrique
Droits
l’Homme
orientale”, in Nordman
D, etde
Raison
J.P. (ED), Sciences humaines en Afrique et
conquête
coloniale.
Constitution
et
usage
humaines en Afrique (XIXe
AREDETWA : Association pourdes
le sciences
Relèvement
–XXe siècles), Paris, 1980, pp. 47-63.
Démocratique des Batwa
118
118
v
ceremony, beer
was served to
the ABBREVIATIONS
master. Occassionally, pottery
ACRONYMS
AND
items like pots___________________________________
and smoking pipes were distributed69.
A.A.- House :maids
Archives Africaines
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
Housemaids constituted the lowest category of Abagaragu; their
ABAKIwere restricted
: Alliance
Bakiga in the home of Shebuja. A
tasks
to des
housework
ABESC of housemaids
: Association
des Bahutu
Evoluant
subgroup
(Abahange)
expected
to getpour
a cowlafrom
Suppression
Castes true Abagaragu. This
Shebuja (umunyafu)
in orderdes
to become
ACRa period of
: Association
des Cultivateurs
Rwanda
was
probation during
which a housedu
maid
performed
different
tasks
with a lot
of care. He also
to demonstrate
ADP
: Alliance
Démocratique
deshad
Peuples
profound
respect
to
Shebuja.
This
phase
took
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la place for an
undetermined period
of time.70 Nationale
The tasks given to the Abahange
Réconciliation
generally entailed the following:
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
AFDL
:
Alliance
desduring
Forceshis
Démocratiques
pour
1. Accompanying
Shebuja
private errands.
Onlylaan
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
UmuhangeZKRKDGZRQFRQÀGHQFHIURPShebuja
was allowed
to carry the latter’s
smoking
pipe
and
tobacco leaves,
AGOA
: African
Growth
and
Opportunity
Act put in a
special container
called Uruhago. The Umuhange who carried
$,'6
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this container: was
known
as Umunyaruhago;
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Affaires
Indigènes
et Main-d’oeuvre
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
Rwandaise
'RPHVWLFWDVNVVXFKDVIHWFKLQJZDWHUDQGÀUHZRRG
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
During this period, the Abahange on probation was under the
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
supervision of Shebuja·VZLIH6KHFRXOGLQÁXHQFHKHUKXVEDQG
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
by imploring him to reduce the period probation for the Umuhange
AMUR
: Association
des
Musulmans
au
Rwanda
and to give him,
without delay,
the
coveted gift of
a cow.
Similarly,
ANT
:
Assemblée
Nationale
de
Transition
the Abahange offered numerous gifts to Shebuja’s wife.
(Transitional National Assembly)
x The Abahange
coulddu
sometimes
rub shoulders
with the
APADEC
: Association
Parti Démocrate
Chrétien
Abanyanzu,
or
the
housemaids
posted
to
do
various
tasks
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
in Shebuja’s
house. des
These
housemaids
were entrusted
APROBAMI
: Association
Partis
Monarchistes
with keeping milk and wine made of bananas, brewing
Rwandais
beer, doing kitchen work, and serving meals to guests.
APROCOMIN:
Association des Commerçants Indigènes
For young girls, these tasks were very cumbersome and
APROSOMA
: Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
challenging.
Masse
- The stewards
ARD
: Alliance
pour le Renforcement
de la some time
This was a category
of Abagaragu
who, after spending
in the service ofDémocratie
Shebuja, proved that they had acquired a sense
of organization
and experience
to attend
to la
their
dutiesdes
with
ARDHO
: Association
Rwandaise
pour
Défense
69
Droits
l’Homme
Nzeyimana, A. 1990.
op.cit.de
p. 107.
70
In
the
central
part
of
Rwanda
and
Buganza,
the duration of ubuhange could go
AREDETWA : Association in
pour
le Relèvement
IURPVRPHPRQWKVWR¿YH\HDUV
Démocratique des Batwa
119
v
119
expertise. Generally,
they lived
the residence of Shebuja,
ACRONYMS
ANDnear
ABBREVIATIONS
which facilitated
their
availability.
The
job description for the
___________________________________
Abagaragu can be summed-up by the following major tasks:
A.A.
A.G.
ABAKI
ABESC
: Archives Africaines
1. Kubaka inkike: constructing and maintaining the
: Assemblée Générale
Shebuja’s enclosure;
: Alliance des Bakiga
2.: Looking
afterdes
theBahutu
cattle and
attending
to la
other
Association
Evoluant
pour
related services71.
Suppression des Castes
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
Exempted
Abagaragu
: Alliance
Démocratique des Peuples
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
These were the Abagaragu who had their own Abagaragu. They
Réconciliation Nationale
would get advice from Shebuja and accompany him during his
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
errands.
AFDL
: Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
Libération du of
Congo-Zaïre
- The responsibilities
the master
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity Act
The master was
charged with protecting his servant in various
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
circumstances:
bailing him
out in case
he was kidnapped, giving
AIMO
: Affaires
Indigènes
et Main-d’oeuvre
him a bull-calf and milk, helping him conduct discussions,
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
helping him establish a new herd of cattle if they were attacked
Rwandaise
by cattle plague, and giving him a hoe if he was not be in a
ALIR
: Armée
72 Libération du Rwanda
position to secure
one.de
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
AMR
: Association
des
Moniteurs du Rwanda
x Historic
evolution of
Ubuhake
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
The
when the Ubuhake
system
started is not known.
ANTexact period
: Assemblée
Nationale
de Transition
It is possible (Transitional
that in the beginning,
Ubuhake
National Assembly)was a purely
economic relationship related to cattle, goats, and sheep.73
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
Mention is also made of the Abagaragu during the events that
APR
: the
Armée
Patriotique
Rwandaise
characterized
reign
of King Ruganzu
Bwimba; they speak
APROBAMI
:
Association
des
Partis
Monarchistes
of Abagaragu of Nkurukumbi. The Ubuhake started during
King Ruganzu Rwandais
Ndoli’s accession to power. It gradually became
a socio-politicalAssociation
and administrative
tool at the Indigènes
height of the
APROCOMIN:
des Commerçants
King of Rwandadom,
especially
the reignSociale
of Kingde
Cyilima
APROSOMA
: Association
pourduring
la Promotion
la
5XMXJLUD ZKRMasse
LQWURGXFHG WKH LQVWLWXWLRQ RI WKH RIÀFLDO WURRSV
71
Before the colonization
of Rwanda,
was hardly made
to cultivate the
ARD
: Alliance
pour Umugaragu
le Renforcement
de la
¿HOGVRIKLV6KHEXMD
Démocratie
72
It is important to note one aspect which is not dealt with here, namely ‘Ubuhake and
ARDHO
:
Association
Rwandaise
la Défense
des
the social composition of the Hutu-Tutsi’.
As far as the pour
period considered
is concerned
Droits
l’Homme
(before 1900), the analysis
of de
this aspect
is not relevant due to lack of data.
73
Nkulikiyimfura,
J.
N.,
Le
gros
bétail
et
la société
rwandaise : L’évolution historique
AREDETWA : Association pour
le Relèvement
dès XII –XIV siècle à 1958, Paris, l’Harmattan, 1994, p. 120
Démocratique des Batwa
ACR
ADP ADR
120
120
v
(cattle armies).
King Ndori transformed
the Ubuhake institution
ACRONYMS
AND ABBREVIATIONS
74
LQWRWKHÀUVWSLOODURIKLVDXWKRULW\
.
___________________________________
It was under :King
Gahindiro
in the eighteenth and nineteenth
A.A.
Archives
Africaines
centuries that other forms of Ubuhake were introduced, especially
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
with the creation of the Igikingi and the appearance of cattle chiefs.
ABAKI
: Alliance
Bakiga
With the emergence
of des
political
and administrative clientism,
ABESC
:
Association
des
Bahutu
pour laThis
Umugaragu received cows and/or orders Evoluant
from his master.
desrelated
Castes
was clientalismSuppression
that was purely
to land and pastoralism,
ACR
Association
desofCultivateurs
Rwanda
underscoring : the
importance
the cow anddu
land
as objects
of economic wealth
in Rwanda.
Duringdes
colonization,
ADP
: Alliance
Démocratique
Peuples Ubuhake
XQGHUZHQW
VRPH
PRGLÀFDWLRQV
DV
D
UHVXOW
RIla
DGPLQLVWUDWLYH
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et
measures adopted
by Belgian colonial
authorities.
Réconciliation
Nationale
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
x Practice of Uburetwa
AFDL
: Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
Congo-Zaïre
The Uburetwa Libération
was forceddu
labor
that the population did for
AGOA
: African Growth
and
traditional
authorities.
Originally,
it Opportunity
was a form ofAct
dependence
related
Poor people without cows bought land by
$,'6 to land.
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
ZRUNLQJIRUWZRGD\VDZHHNLQWKHÀHOGVRIWKHYLOODJHFKLHIRU
AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
the
landowner
on whose land
lived. Estudiantine
AJER
: Association
de they
la Jeunesse
Rwandaise
x Origin and evolution of Uburetwa
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
AM/AP
Arrêté
ministériel/
Arrêté
présidentiel
The
beginning: of
this forced
labor is not
exactly
known. Rwandan
AMR
: Association
des Moniteurs
duUburetwa
Rwanda on the
tradition
shows
that King Rwabugiri
imposed
AMUR in order
: Association
Musulmans
au Rwandain his
Abahutu
to punish des
them
for their responsibility
75
defeat
. According
to another
tradition, Uburetwa
ANT in Nkore
: Assemblée
Nationale
de Transition
dates back to Seruteganya,
Provincial
Chief of Bigogwe, who
(Transitionalthe
National
Assembly)
demanded
dues
in
kind
from
his
subjects.
His Chrétien
example was
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate
emulated elsewhere in the county.
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
Contrary to the erroneous claims by advocates of popular
etymology whoRwandais
insist that the term Uburetwa was introduced
APROCOMIN:
Association
by colonialism, it is believed des
that Commerçants
this institution Indigènes
was used even
76
APROSOMA
: Association
la Promotion
Sociale the
de la
before
the colonial
period. pour
Under
King Rwabugiri,
royal
court increasedMasse
its representatives in the country and in semiautonomous
regions.
This
multiplied
the services
ARD
: Alliance
pour
le Renforcement
deoflachiefs who
introduced Ubutretwa
in
previously
unfamiliar
regions.
However,
Démocratie
ARDHO
: Association
Rwandaise pour la Défense des
74
Vansina, J., 2001,
op. cit., p. 66
75
Droits
de l’Homme
Rwabukumba, J. and
Mudandagizi,
V., quoted by IRDP, 2005, pp. 53- 54
76
Muzungu,
B.,
«
Poètes
du
clan
Abanyiginya
in Cahiers Lumière et Société, n° 27,
AREDETWA : Association pour le», Relèvement
septembre 2004, p.23.
Démocratique des Batwa
121
v
121
the origin of ACRONYMS
Uburetwa wasAND
not ABBREVIATIONS
during this period,77 and the
practice was not
homogeneous throughout the entire country.
___________________________________
Very poor individuals
without
land or protection were involved
A.A.
: Archives
Africaines
in Ubuteretwa, while Ubuhake affected all those who wanted
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
to have cattle and protection. This meant that a chief could
ABAKI
: Alliance
des more
Bakiga
become a client
of another,
powerful person. The practice
ABESC
:
Association
des
Bahutu
Evoluantburdens.
pour la The
of Uburetwa was associated with some colonial
Suppression
des Castes
chief of the land
asked all families
that depended on agriculture
ACR
Association
duofRwanda
in his area of :jurisdiction
to des
give Cultivateurs
him a good part
their harvest
and to offer :him
laborDémocratique
services. The colonial
administration
ADP
Alliance
des Peuples
resisted
abolishing
Uburetwa
as
it
was
considered
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la a customary
institution.
Réconciliation Nationale
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
b. Ubukonde78
AFDL
: Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
Libération
du Congo-Zaïre
%HIRUH WKH FRXQWU\
ZDV RSHQHG
WR :HVWHUQ LQÁXHQFH 5ZDQGD
AGOA
African
and policy
Opportunity
Act
was
governed:by
a dualGrowth
land tenure
called Ubukonde
and
Isambu.
policy operated in forest and non-forest regions.
$,'6 This $FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
Local
and
foreign
researchers
dealt with the issue of
AIMO
: Affaires
Indigèneshave
et Main-d’oeuvre
79
Ubukonde
in: Rwanda.
Everywhere,
settlersEstudiantine
made demarcations
AJER
Association
de la Jeunesse
of areas of occupation for themselves and their descendants.
Rwandaise
Even non-agriculturalist populations such as hunters shared
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
the unexploited forests among themselves. The Ubukonde system
AM/AP
ministériel/
présidentiel
was
therefore:aArrêté
method
of collectiveArrêté
land ownership
followed by
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
WKHÀUVWVHWWOHUVRQ5ZDQGDQVRLO7KLVIRUPRIVHWWOHPHQWZDV
AMURin the north
: Association
des Musulmans
au Rwanda
found
and northwest
of Rwanda along
the crater of
the
Basin and Nationale
in the former
prefecture of Byumba.
ANTCongo-Nile
: Assemblée
de Transition
7KHÀUVWVHWWOHUVSDLGDWULEXWHFDOOHGUrwugururo
(Transitional National Assembly)to the Mutwa,
who
was
considered
the master
of the
forest. He Chrétien
thus became
APADEC
: Association
du Parti
Démocrate
Umukonde, or the person who operated the Ubukonde land
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
tenure scheme.
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
Rwandais
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
APROSOMA
: Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
77
Vansina, J., 2001, op cit., pp 171-172
78
Masseis a land system which was found in the Western Province,
The practice of Ubukonde
especially
in
the
North.
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
79
Kagame, A., Les Démocratie
organisations familiales de l’ancien Rwanda, IRCB, Bruxelles,
1954; Murego, D., La révolution rwandaise, 1959-1962. Essai d’interprétation,
ARDHO
: Association
Rwandaise
la Butare,
Défense
Louvain,
1975; Ruhashyankiko,
N., Le
droit foncier dupour
Rwanda,
UNR,des
1977;
Droits
deaul’Homme
Reisdorff, I.,Enquêtes
foncières
Rwanda, s.l., 1952.; Pagès A., « Note sur le régime
de biens dans la province
du Bugoyipour
», in Congo,
1931; Adraenssens, J., Le droit
AREDETWA
: Association
le Relèvement
foncier au Rwanda, Butare, 1962 ( inédité)
Démocratique des Batwa
122
122
v
x Who
was Umugererwa?
ACRONYMS
AND ABBREVIATIONS
___________________________________
The members of one lineage did not divide their land into smaller
pieces.
had
a right to exploit it. If the person who
A.A. Every :member
Archives
Africaines
acquired land was a stranger to the lineage in the forest region,
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
the ceded land took the name of Ubugererwa, from the verb
ABAKI i.e. to: measure.
Alliance des
kugera,
The Bakiga
lineage of Umugererwa enjoyed full
ABESC
:
Association
des
Evoluant
pour
la
rights on the acquired land, but Bahutu
the title of
ownership
remained
des Castes
in the hands ofSuppression
the lineage head.
The Umugererwa was neither
ACR
Association
des Cultivateurs
du Rwanda
supposed
to :offer
dues in kind
nor was he supposed
to offer
DQ\VHUYLFHV,QVWHDGKHZDVH[SHFWHGWRJLYHKLVÀUVWKDUYHVW
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
of
sorghum,
beans,
millet,
andlapeas,
to whichethelaadded a crate
ADR
: Alliance
pour
Démocratie
80
of beer. This offer
was called Nationale
Ifuro. The Abakonde expected
Réconciliation
both alliegance and collaboration from their Abagererwa.
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
They strengthened their solidarity to facilitate the defeat their
AFDL
:
Alliance
Forces this
Démocratiques
pour
neighbors. A blood
pactdes
enhanced
collaboration.
Butlathe
Libération
duupon
Congo-Zaïre
free Abagererwa
looked down
such alliances and looked for
AGOA
: African
Growth
andofOpportunity
Act Bukonya
allies elsewhere.
This was
the case
Ababanda from
81
vis-à-vis their$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
Abasindi hosts.
$,'6
AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
x
Different
forms de
of la
Ubukonde
AJER
: Association
Jeunesse Estudiantine
Rwandaise
The Ubukonde institution underwent several transformations,
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
both internal and external. Before the conquest of the Nyiginya
AM/AP
: Arrêté
ministériel/
Arrêté présidentiel
Kingdom,
the
Ubukonde
was organized
under two types
AMR
Association
Moniteurs
du Rwanda
depending
on:their
aims anddes
objectives.
On the
one hand, there
AMUR
: Association
des Musulmans
au Rwanda
was
the ‘Ubukonde
bw’Inzogera’,
or those who practiced
hunting,
gathering,
and
harvesting Nationale
wild cropsde
in Transition
the forest region. On
ANT
: Assemblée
the other hand,
there was National
the ‘Ubukonde
bw’abahinzi’, or
(Transitional
Assembly)
the
‘Ubukonde
of
the
hoe’
for
farmers.
The
Nyiginya
conquest
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
introduced a third form of Ubukonde called ‘Ubukode bw’inka,’
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
reserved to cattle pastures.
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
Rwandais
x Ubukode
bw’inka (of cattle)
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
7KLVZDVDVSHFLÀFIRUPRIUbukondeIRXQGLQVSHFLÀFUHJLRQV
especially in Bigogwe
Masse and Rwankeli. Elsewhere, this form of
Ubukonde
was
often confused
with
Igikingi. The Ubukonde
of the
ARD
: Alliance
pour le
Renforcement
de la
herdsmen in Rwankeli
was
reserved
to
animal
husbandry,
but
Démocratie
it also had an agricultural objective because the herdsmen had
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
land clients who they allowed to settle on their land and who were
Droits de l’Homme
80
Pauwels
M.,
Le
Bushiru
et son Muhinza
ou le
roitelet
hutu, p.311
AREDETWA : Association
pour
Relèvement
81
Nahimana, F., Rwanda : Emergence d’un Etat, Paris, L’Harmattan, 1993, pp.122-123
Démocratique des Batwa
123
v
123
supposed to supply
agricultural
This form of Ubukonde
ACRONYMS
ANDproduce.
ABBREVIATIONS
was restricted___________________________________
to areas that were sparsely populated, or where
WKH LQÁXHQFH RI WKH 1\LJLQ\D UR\DO FRXUW ZDV QRW SURQRXQFHG
Cattle
occupied this
land from the sixteenth century.82
A.A. keepers: Archives
Africaines
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
x Ubukonde bw’isuka (of the hoe)
ABAKI
: Alliance des Bakiga
ABESC
Association
des Bahutu
Evoluant
pour la for
Also
referred : to
as ‘Ubukonde
bw’abahinzi’
or ‘Ubukonde
Suppression
des Castesland tenure system was
agriculturalists,’
this type of Ubukonde
ACRmost widespread
: Association
des Cultivateurs
the
in the country.
It consisteddu
of Rwanda
forest regions
valued
who used hand
The forest area
ADP by agriculturalists
: Alliance Démocratique
deshoes.
Peuples
for
cattle
was
also
used
for
agricultural
activities
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la of secondary
importance; the
hand-hoe user
partook in pastoral activities
Réconciliation
Nationale
also.
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
AFDL
:
Alliance
des Forces
Démocratiques
pour la
x Ubukonde
bw’inzogera
(of the
cow-bell)
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
AGOA
Growth
and Opportunity
Act hunting
This
referred :toAfrican
forest areas
reserved
for ‘bells’ because
dogs,
the Batwa, had collars with bells. The
$,'6which accompanied
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
Batwa
demanded
tribute
from
whoever
crossed their woodlands.
AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes
et Main-d’oeuvre
The
bw’Inzogera’
imposed
on hunters and
AJER‘Ubukonde
: Association
de lawas
Jeunesse
Estudiantine
those who harvested forest crops. This type of Ubukonde
Rwandaise
GLVDSSHDUHGÀUVWEHFDXVHRIGHPRJUDSKLFIDFWRUVLHSUHVVXUH
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
by agriculturalist and herdsmen on the forest areas. The Batwa,
AM/AP
: Arrêté
ministériel/protection,
Arrêté présidentiel
who
were deprived
of government
partook in artisan
AMR
Association
des were
Moniteurs
du Rwanda
activities
such: as
pottery. There
a few groups
that remained
AMUR
: Association
desforest
Musulmans
au Rwanda
in
Gishwati and
in the natural
of Nyungwe.
The evolution
of
the land system
progressively
introduced
other modalities of
ANT
: Assemblée
Nationale
de Transition
land acquisition
which customary
law eventually
(Transitional
National
Assembly)accepted.
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
x Ubukonde bw’umuheto (of the arrow)
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
This was a form of land ownership that came into existence as
a result of theRwandais
victory of Ababanda. After the collapse of the
APROCOMIN:
Association
des Commerçants
Bugarura federation, King Ruganzu
Ndori used Indigènes
the ‘Ubukonde
83
APROSOMA to
: Association
pour foreign
la Promotion
la
bw’umuheto’
welcome several
lineageSociale
groups.de
Masse
x
Ubukonde
bw’inzigo
punishment) de la
ARD
: Alliance
pour(of
le Renforcement
Démocratie
This was a rare land tenure system which appeared whenever
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
an individual killed a person who was from outside his family
Droits de l’Homme
82
Adrianssens,
J.,
1962,
op. cit. p. 10.pour le Relèvement
AREDETWA : Association
83
Adrienssens, J., 1962, op. cit. p. 10.
Démocratique des Batwa
124
124
v
lineage. In Rwandese
tradition,
the offended lineage killed
ACRONYMS
AND ABBREVIATIONS
another person
from
the
lineage
of the murderer. This was
___________________________________
vendetta law. If they managed to reach an agreement, one could
give
land as a form
of appeasement. This was the case
A.A.part of his: Archives
Africaines
with Abagwabiro from Bugoyi, who gave part of the Rugerero
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
village to Abungura for having killed one of its members.84
ABAKI
: Alliance des Bakiga
ABESC
: Association
des
Bahutu Evoluant pour la
x Ubukonde
bw’ubuntu
(gratuity)
Suppression des Castes
ACRAbagererwa,
: Association
Rwandacould
The
who were des
landCultivateurs
clients of the du
Abakonde,
ZLQWKHFRQÀGHQFHRIWKHOLQHDJHFKLHIE\YLUWXHRIWKHLUVRFLDELOLW\
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
or
their
matrimonial
alliances
other groups.
ADR
: Alliance
pour with
la Démocratie
et After
la consulting
his group, the Réconciliation
chief could give Nationale
part of his land to their clients.
These clients were free to exploit it with all associated Ubukonde
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
rights. This form of Ubukonde sometimes engendered family
AFDL
:
Alliance
desFOLHQW
Forces
pour
la WR
FRQÁLFWV ZKLFK
IRUFHG WKH
WRDémocratiques
DEDQGRQ WKH ODQG
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Libération du Congo-Zaïre
him free of charge.
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity Act
x Ubukonde
bw’uwaguze (of the buyer)
$,'6
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AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
The
land
of
Ubukonde
could
rented and
sold as the owner
AJER
: Association
de be
la Jeunesse
Estudiantine
wished. To this effect, the quality of land was always taken into
Rwandaise
consideration during the process of bargaining. The price was
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
generally paid in terms of small livestock (e.g. goat, sheep, etc.)
AM/AP
: Arrêté
ministériel/
présidentiel
for
a small piece
of land
and in termsArrêté
of cattle
for bigger portions
AMR
: Association
des Moniteurs
Rwanda with
of
land. The chief
of the lineage
made priordu
consultations
AMUR of his
: Association
des Musulmans
au Rwanda
members
family. In Gisebeya
for example,
the Ubukonde
land
to a person
called Bandali
was sold for three
ANT belonging
: Assemblée
Nationale
de Transition
85
hand hoes or one
sheep or heifer
for a hectare.
(Transitional
National
Assembly)
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
x Historic evolution of Ubukonde
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
The types of Ubukonde mentioned above were the result of an
Rwandais
HYROXWLRQDU\ SURFHVV
,Q WKH EHJLQQLQJ WKH ÀUVW RFFXSDWLRQ
APROCOMIN:
Association
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/DWHUFXVWRPVZHUHVXEMHFWWRGLYHUVHLQÁXHQFHVDQGHYHQWXDOO\
accepted other Masse
forms of Ubukonde.
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
The German and
Belgian colonizations did not manage to
Démocratie
totally modify the customary land tenure system. The German
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
administration got involved late in making land reforms.
Droits de l’Homme
84
Reisdorff,
1952,
op.
cit., P.85
AREDETWA : Association
pour le Relèvement
85
Bourgeois, R.,1958,op.cit.,
p.194
Démocratique des Batwa
125
v
125
Effectively, German
law only
governed
areas which were not
ACRONYMS
AND
ABBREVIATIONS
LQKDELWHG E\ ___________________________________
QDWLYHV 7KLV W\SH RI ODQG ODZ GHDOW VSHFLÀFDOO\
with land bought or rented by religious missions for commercial
purposes.
It also
dealt with
land bought by urban authorities.
A.A.
: Archives
Africaines
Hence, ‘Ubukonde’ in the north and northwest of Rwanda was
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
less entrenched during the Nyiginya LQÁXHQFH 7KH LQGLYLGXDO
ABAKI
Alliance
des
Bakigaand land covered under the
property, i.e. :Isambu
and
Ibikingi,
86
ABESC
: Association
des Bahutu
Evoluant
la
European written
law coexisted
with one
another.pour
Belgium
desland
Castes
encouraged theSuppression
evolution of this
ownership system without
ACR
: Association
du Rwanda
seeking to overhaul
radicallydes
theCultivateurs
traditional system.
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
c.
Igikingi
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
Réconciliation Nationale
Toward the end of the eighteen century, the system of Ubuhake
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
was closely linked to the Igikingi system. According to J. Vansina,
AFDL
:
Alliance
des Forces Démocratiques
pourlinked
la
the organization
of the administrative
system was closely
Libération
duconsisted
Congo-Zaïre
to the land question.
Igikingi
of division (a hill or a subAGOA
: African
Growth
andprovincial
Opportunity
Act The king
hill)
rich in pastures
and
part of the
division.
gave
keepers, who became his direct clients and
$,'6land to cattle
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
who
were
only
indebted
to him.87$.DJDPHGHÀQHVIgikingi
as
AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes
et Main-d’oeuvre
a basic administrative
ladder.
The
Ibikingi Estudiantine
were similar to subAJER
: Association
de la
Jeunesse
chieftaincy divisions of the colonial era.88 There were two types
Rwandaise
of Ibikingi: the‘administrative Igikingi’ and ‘pastoral Igikingi.’ It
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
should be noted that some administrative Ibikingi coincideed
AM/AP
Arrêté 89ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
with
pastoral :Ibikingi.
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
AMUR
: Association
des Musulmans
aunot
Rwanda
The
land policy
under the Ibikingi
system was
generalized
throughout
Rwandan
territory.
It was
in areas like
ANT
: Assemblée
Nationale
de imposed
Transition
Buganza, Buriza,
Bwanacyambwe,
Rukoma,
Nduga, Mayaga,
(Transitional
National
Assembly)
Busanza,
Buhanga-Ndara,
Muvejuru,
Bashumba-Nyakare,
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
Buyenzi, and Bufundu. However, the Inkingi almost never
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
existed in other regions dominated by pastoral activities such as
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
Ndorwa-Mutara, Bugesera, Gisaka, and Mubari.
Rwandais
APROCOMIN:
Association
des Commerçants
,Q
WKH SROLWLFDOÀHOG
WKH LQWURGXFWLRQ
RI UHVHUYHIndigènes
SDVWRUDO DUHDV
APROSOMA
: Association
pour
la Promotion
Sociale
de la
led
to increased
pressure on
political
authorities
to help
weak
Masse
86
Hitabatuma
I.,
L’évolution
historique
de l’Ubukonde
ARD
: Alliance
pour
le Renforcement
de laau Rwanda:
l’exemple du Nyantango,
Ruhengeri,
1982,
pp.73-74.
Démocratie
87
Vansina J., Le Rwanda ancien. Le royaume Nyiginya, Paris, Karthala, 2001, p.168.
ARDHO
:
Association
Rwandaise pour la Défense des
88
Kagame A.,1975, op.cit.,p.185
89
de politique
l’Homme
Mbonimana G., «Droits
L’intégration
face aux institutions Igikingi et Uburetwa
sous
le
règne
de
Rwabugiri
(1867-1895)
»,
in
F. Rutembesa,
A. Shyaka, J. Semujanga
AREDETWA : Association pour le
Relèvement
(dir.), Rwanda : identité et citoyenneté, EUNR, 2003, P.36.
Démocratique des Batwa
126
126
v
social classes.ACRONYMS
The big proprietors
Ibikingi got a bigger clientele.
AND of
ABBREVIATIONS
Whoever possessed
Igikingi
had
a
right
of custodianship on the
___________________________________
pastures and the people who lived there. Among other things,
custodians
had
the rightAfricaines
of receiving services and dues of all
A.A.
: Archives
VRUWV7KHFUHDWLRQRIGHSDUWPHQWVOHGWRDVRFLDOVWUDWLÀFDWLRQ
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
and accentuated poverty among farmers and herdsmen. The
ABAKI
: Alliance
Provincial
Chiefs
also des
lost Bakiga
their advantages regarding their
90
ABESC
:
Association
des
Bahutu Evoluant pour la
animals.
Suppression des Castes
ACR
: Association
des Cultivateurs
du Rwanda
Consequently,
dues and forced
labor increased.
This was
followed
by the
introduction
of Ibikingi that
to separation of
ADP
: Alliance
Démocratique
des led
Peuples
the
post
of
District
Chief
into
two:
the
Land
Chief
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la and Animal
Husbandry Chief.
It should be
noted that the Abahutu and
Réconciliation
Nationale
Abatusi were property owners of the Ibikingi. This was the case
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
with some women in some parts of the country such as Northern
AFDL
:
Alliance
Démocratiques
pour la
Buganza.91. The
problemdes
of Forces
the Ibikingi
is therefore associated
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
with lack of pastures.
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity Act
As for the evolution
of igikingi, it was during the regime of Yuhi
$,'6
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Gahindiro
that
Igikingi
V\VWHP VWDUWHG
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AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes
et Main-d’oeuvre
and
Nduga. A
few reasonsdehelp
to explain
this development:
AJER
: Association
la Jeunesse
Estudiantine
demographic pressure, increase in the number of livestock
Rwandaise
following the annexation of areas rich in cattle (e.g. Ndorwa
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
and Mutara), competition among army chiefs, and the political
AM/AP
Arrêté
ministériel/
Arrêté
présidentiel
willingness
of: King
Gahindiro
to favor
his supporters.
Note that
AMR
: Association
du Mutara
Rwanda
the
Ibikingi increased
duringdes
theMoniteurs
reign of King
Rwogera
AMUR of high
: Association
Musulmans
au Rwanda
because
livestockdes
population
density.
There were
patriarchal
grazing
lands given
to people
in power, especially
ANT
: Assemblée
Nationale
de Transition
army chiefs. Under
King Kigeri
Rwabugiri,
the power of political
(Transitional
National
Assembly)
authorities
increased
at
the
expense
of
the
lineage
chiefs. The
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate
Chrétien
former distributed big portions of land to themselves and received
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
rent from those who grazed on their land.
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
Rwandais
The Ibikingi system
faded by 1929; this marked the date when
APROCOMIN:
Association
desBelgian
Commerçants
Indigènes
the system was removed by the
colonial administration.
APROSOMA
: Association
pourcontinued
la Promotion
Sociale
la the
However,
the Ibikingi
institution
to exist
even de
after
abolition of Ubuhake.
Masse The chiefs and sub-chiefs later extended
the
Ibikingi
system
to areas
where
it never existedde
before
ARD
: Alliance
pour
le Renforcement
la in order
to get grazing land
in
areas
where
the
chiefs
were
appointed.
The
Démocratie
ARDHO
Rwandaise
pour la Evolution
Défense
des
90
Nkulikiyimfura,:J.Association
N.., Le gros bétail
de la société rwandaise,:
historique
Droits
l’Homme
des XII et XIV siècles
à 1958,de
Paris,
L’Harmattan, 1994, pp. 96-97.
91
Kabagema,
I.,
L’évolution
socio-politique
des origines à 1931,
AREDETWA : Association pourduleBuganza-Nord
Relèvement
UNR, 1985, p. 109.
Démocratique des Batwa
127
v
127
problem of ibikingi
was fought
the ‘Conseiller Supérieur’ in
ACRONYMS
ANDby
ABBREVIATIONS
the country in___________________________________
1950’s, but this was without any tangible result.
It was the ‘Special Resident,’ Colonel Guy Logiest, who, on May
2,
1960, signed
a decreeAfricaines
removing the Ibikingi system. During
A.A.
: Archives
the implementation of this decree, the PARMEHUTU authorities
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
DQGRWKHULQÁXHQWLDOSHRSOHWRRNDGYDQWDJHRIWKHLUSRVLWLRQWR
ABAKI land
: Alliance
des Bakiga
distribute
to themselves.
ABESC
: Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
Suppression
d. Economic
exchange des Castes
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
The
on whether
economic
ADP controversy
: Alliance
Démocratique
desactivities
Peuples existed in
ancient
Rwanda
is
irrelevant.
Not
long
ago,
some
authors denied
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
the existence ofRéconciliation
economic history
in societies they described as
Nationale
“archaic.”92 According to them, economic exchange in Rwanda at
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
that time fell under the framework of family relationships, where
AFDL
:
Alliance
Démocratiques
pourstates
la
gifts were made
withoutdes
anyForces
economic
goal. Haremans
Libération
du Congo-Zaïre
that Rwanda was
a subsistence
economy incapable of producing
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity Act
commercial
surplus:
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
“(...)
Rwanda
had
a closed et
economy
in the sense that
AIMO
: Affaires
Indigènes
Main-d’oeuvre
was a unit
which
was supposed
to produce
AJER the ‘Urugo’
: Association
de la
Jeunesse
Estudiantine
practically all that was necessary for the subsistence
Rwandaise
of its members (…). Commerce was less developed. The
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
exchange of Agriculture production, crafts and pastoral
AM/APproduction
: Arrêté
ministériel/
Arrêté présidentiel
were
done by administrative
and military
AMR structures.
: Association
Moniteurs
du Rwanda
Economicdes
surplus
was drained
by the ruling
93
AMURclass. (…)”
: Association
des Musulmans au Rwanda
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
The above view(Transitional
is premised on
prejudice
and not on research
National
Assembly)
ÀQGLQJV
5HVHDUFK
ÀQGLQJV
KDYH
SURYHG
WKH H[LVWHQFH
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate
ChrétienRI D
market economy in traditional Rwanda.94 In this economy, there
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
was a standard of exchange with recognized values and teams of
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
SURIHVVLRQDOEXVLQHVVPHQZKRVHDLPZDVWRJHWSURÀW,QRUGHUWR
Rwandais
H[SODLQDQGTXDOLI\WKHVHDIÀUPDWLRQVLWLVLPSRUWDQWWRGHDOZLWK
APROCOMIN:
des
Commerçants
the
terminology Association
involved in this
trade,
the general Indigènes
organization of
APROSOMA
:
Association
pour
la
Promotion
Sociale
de la
92
Malinowski, B., $UJRQDXWV RI WKH :HVWHUQ 3DFL¿F, New York, 1921; Mauss, M.,
Masse
Essai sur le don, forme
archaïque de l’échange, New York, 1924.
93
Heremans
R.,
Introduction
l’histoire
Rwanda, Kigali, Editions
ARD
: Allianceà pour
le du
Renforcement
de la rwandaises,
Bruxelles, Editions de
Boeck,
1972,
pp.55-56.
Démocratie
94 Ruzindana, E., L’évolution du commerce au Rwanda du dernier quart du XIXe
ARDHO
:
Association
Rwandaise
la Défense
desau
siècle à 1950, mémoire inédit Louvain,
1974.; Luganpour
B., L’économie
d’échange
Droits
de l’Homme
Rwanda de 1850 à 1914,
Université
de Province, 1976.; Nyagahene, A., Les activités
économiques
et
commerciales
du
Kinyaga
la seconde partie du 19e siècle ,
AREDETWA : Association pour dans
le Relèvement
Butare, UNR, 1979.
Démocratique des Batwa
128
128
v
exchanges, the
nature of theAND
market,
the businessmen involved,
ACRONYMS
ABBREVIATIONS
and types of products
traded.
___________________________________
The commercial vocabulary used shows the existence of a
juxtaposition
of both Africaines
traditional and modern commercial
A.A.
: Archives
structures. To begin with, the word “isoko” is a Swahili word. It
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
has an Arab origin “es-souk,” which means market. In Kinyaga,
ABAKI
: Alliance
desname
Bakiga
for
example, the
traditional
designating ‘market’ is igerero
ABESC
:
Association
des
Bahutu
pour la ‘to
(plural amagerero), which comes from Evoluant
the verb ‘kugera’,
des Castes
measure.’ This Suppression
shows that quantities
of exchange were implied.
ACR
Association
des
Cultivateurs
Another
word: ‘iguriro’
(plural
amaguriro)
from du
the Rwanda
verb ‘kugura’
(to buy) was :used
in daily
use language.
the products
ADP
Alliance
Démocratique
desAmong
Peuples
found
in
these
‘amaguriro·ZHUHEUDFHOHWVPDGHRIZHDYHGÀEUHV
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
called “ubutega.”
This word of Nationale
Tembo origin arrived in Rwanda
Réconciliation
thanks to the Bushi95.
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
AFDL
:
Alliance
des Forces
Démocratiques
pourwhich
la
The verb ‘gutunda’
(performing
a commercial
job), from
Libération
du Congo-Zaïre
the noun ‘umutunzi’
(professional
business person) emerges
AGOA
:WKH
African
Opportunity
SUHVXSSRVHV
LGHD Growth
RI SURÀWand
7KLV
LV FRQWUDU\Act
WR ¶guhaha,’
which
action of going somewhere to barter goods. In
$,'6 is a simple
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
Kinyarwanda,
there
are Indigènes
other termsetsuch
as:
AIMO
: Affaires
Main-d’oeuvre
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
- Gucira (declaring the price of one’s goods), from which the
Rwandaise
word ‘igiciro’ (price) originates;
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
Guhoza
(imposing
taxes on goods);
AM/AP
: Arrêté
ministériel/
Arrêté présidentiel
AMR
: Association
Moniteurs
Rwandafor food
- Kubandika
(barteringdes
some
butter indu
exchange
crops);
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
ANT
: Assemblée
Nationale
de Transition
- Kuzegura
(playing an
intermediary
role) is a word which
(Transitional
Nationalparlance;
Assembly)
has disappeared
from common
APADEC
: Association
Parti
Démocratemiddle
Chrétien
Amasoko
y’amazege du
(hoes
to compensate
men).96
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
Among the foreign words which were found in the Rwandan
Rwandais
barter-trade market,
there were words like ‘amageta’ – meaning
APROCOMIN:
Association
desbyCommerçants
red-beads
imported
to Rwanda
the Bashi, butIndigènes
introduced by
APROSOMA
:
Association
pour
la
Promotion
Sociale
la or
Arabs in Central Africa. It is not known if this word is ofde
Arab
Massebracelets made of copper were found in this
Shi origin. Similarly,
market.
These
were known
and ibitare
respectively
ARD
: Alliance
pourasleImiringa
Renforcement
de la
(mringa and birhale
among the Bashi).
Démocratie
ARDHO
: Association
la Défense
95
Newbury, D., “Lake
Kivu regional Rwandaise
trade during thepour
nineteenth
century”, in des
Centre
l’Homme
for African Studies, Droits
Dalhousiede
university,
Halifax, Nova Scotia, p.2.
96
Nyagahene, A., :Les
activités économiques
du Kinyaga dont la
AREDETWA
Association
pour etlecommerciales
Relèvement
seconde partie du 19e siècle, Mémoire de Licence, Butare, UNR, 1979, pp.30-32
Démocratique des Batwa
129
v
129
x
Markets
and personal
business
ACRONYMS
AND ABBREVIATIONS
___________________________________
&XUUHQWO\WKHUHLVQRVXIÀFLHQWRUDOWHVWLPRQ\RQWKHZD\SUH
colonial
markets
startedAfricaines
in Rwanda. There is likelihood that
A.A.
: Archives
WKHLU RULJLQ VWDUWHG ZLWK SULYDWH LQLWLDWLYHV XQGHU WKH LQÁXHQFH
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
of Rwanda’s neighboring kingdoms, especially the Bashi. The
ABAKI
: Alliance des Bakiga
LQÁXHQFHRIDVWURQJOLQHDJHRUDQLQÁXHQWLDOWUDGHULQDJLYHQDUHD
ABESC monopolists
: Association
des
Evoluant
pourcenters
la
created
capable
of Bahutu
establishing
attractive
Suppression
Castes
for businessmen
and goods indes
a given
place. In the second half of
ACRnineteenth
: Association
des
Cultivateurs
du Rwanda
the
century, such
market
centers acquired
a certain
degree
the top was a chief
was recognized
ADP of organization.
: AllianceAtDémocratique
des who
Peuples
as
the
principal
organizer
of
the
trading
centre.
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
Réconciliation Nationale
There was a market chief who was responsible for the
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
administration of the market. He played a dual role as a security
AFDL
:
Alliance des+H
Forces
Démocratiques
pour
la
RIÀFHU DQG DGPLQLVWUDWRU
ZDV DOVR
FKDUJHG ZLWK
HQVXULQJ
Libération
du Congo-Zaïre
that justice was
done regarding
small crimes committed within
AGOA
: African
Growth
Opportunity
Act He was
the
market. In
addition,
it was and
he who
received taxes.
assisted
sons or people from his lineage. However, his
$,'6 by his
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
presence
did
not
prevent
theft or acts
of brutality from taking
AIMO
: Affaires
Indigènes
et Main-d’oeuvre
place
At the
of the Estudiantine
pre-colonial period,
AJER in this: market.
Association
de laend
Jeunesse
thieves in such barter-trade markets were tied up, beaten, and
Rwandaise
IRUFHGWRUHWXUQVWROHQREMHFWVRUWRSD\DÀQHIRUWKHLUUHOHDVH
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
Sometimes, they got killed from the pushing of sharp objects
AM/AP
: Arrêté
ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
97
into
their bodies.
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
AMUR
: Association
des 98
Musulmans
au of
Rwanda
and gave part
these to the
The market chief
received taxes
local
hierarchy was
often avoided
by going directly to
ANT chief. This
: Assemblée
Nationale
de Transition
the .LQJ, to whom
luxuriousNational
objects Assembly)
were periodically given.
(Transitional
7KLV
OHG
WR
DQ
LQFUHDVH
RI
KLV
LQIOXHQFH
LQ WKH DUHD
7KH WD[HV
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate
Chrétien
consisted of hoes, goats, salt, tobacco, and foods grains. A cow
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
was exchanged with one or two hoes or an equivalent quantity
APROBAMI
: Association des Partis Monarchistes
of bracelets levied as taxes. 50 Ubutenga-bracelets were paid as
Rwandais
tax for one goat.
Whoever refused to obey was excluded from the
APROCOMIN:
Association
des Commerçants Indigènes
PDUNHWEHDWHQXSRUKDGKLVJRRGVFRQÀVFDWHG
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
In the marketMasse
where goods were bartered, two areas were
distinguished.
In
one part,
was an area de
where
ARD
: Alliance
pourthere
le Renforcement
la animals
were sold. In another,
food
stuffs
such
as
grains
and cooked
Démocratie
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
97
Mutombo, R., /HVpFKDQJHVFRPPHUFLDX[GDQVODUpJLRQGH0DVDQJDQRjOD¿QGH
Droits
deUNR,
l’Homme
la période précoloniale,
Butare,
1978, p.175
98
The
tax
had
many
names
such
as
ihoro,
indamu,
or uruhino. The latter tax consisted
AREDETWA : Association pour
le Relèvement
of a hoe.
Démocratique des Batwa
130
130
v
food were sold.
The role of women
in this trade was restricted.
ACRONYMS
AND ABBREVIATIONS
Around the major
markets,
there
were
secondary markets where
___________________________________
commercial transactions were done. The permanent markets
ZHUH
VSHFLÀFAfricaines
GD\ RI WKH ZHHN99 while others were
A.A. KHOG RQ: D
Archives
organized periodically.
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
ABAKI
: Alliance
Bakiga
Most items sold
in thedes
market
were from rural areas. They
ABESC
:
Association
des
Bahutu
pour la
were brought by peasants themselves Evoluant
or by businessmen
des Castes
and hawkers. Suppression
Whenever exchange
took place between homes,
ACR
: Association
des
Cultivateurs
Rwanda
farmers bartered
items from
house
to house.du
They
looked for
items which they
neededDémocratique
for immediate use.
example, beans
ADP
: Alliance
des For
Peuples
were
bartered
with
peas.
Hawkers
travelled
from
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et laone village to
another, buying
items with lesser
value in order to get some
Réconciliation
Nationale
SURÀW6HYHUDOFDWHJRULHVRIEXVLQHVVPHQZHUHLGHQWLÀHGDWWKDW
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
time:
AFDL
:
Alliance
Forces
Démocratiques
pour labig
x Intermediaries
or des
transit
traders:
these were generally
Libération
du Congo-Zaïre
businessmen
who were
rich; they had caravans of goods
AGOA and employed
: African
Growth
and Opportunity
Act
people
who carried
their goods. Alternatively,
big herds of cattle. They frequented markets
$,'6 some had
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
which
were
far from
their places
of birth.
AIMO
: Affaires
Indigènes
et Main-d’oeuvre
AJER
: Association
de lafrom
Jeunesse
Estudiantine
x Hawkers:
these moved
village
to village, buying
Rwandaise
food items
houses along the way , and buying especially
and foodstuff.
Theyducarried
these items to
ALIR livestock
: Armée
de Libération
Rwanda
markets
where
they
would
be
bartered.
They obtained
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
VRPHSURÀWZKLFKZDVQRWDVKLJKDVWKDWIURPEXVLQHVV
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
done in distant areas.
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
these were
peopledewho
played the role of
ANTx Middlemen:
: Assemblée
Nationale
Transition
intermediaries.
Some
also
served
as
interpreters
between
(Transitional National Assembly)
traders speaking different languages. They performed
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
this service at a fee, such as receiving some items for the
APR services
: Armée
Patriotique Rwandaise
rendered.
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
x Famine traders: these appeared occasionally because
Rwandais
famine was not permanent. It was generally periodic.
APROCOMIN:
Association des Commerçants Indigènes
Effectively, people hit by famine were forced to barter
APROSOMA
: Association
Promotiontrade
Sociale
la one
their property.
They pour
thus la
transacted
for de
only
day.100 Masse
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
99
The traditional Rwandese
week was made of 5 days of which 4 of these were devoted
Démocratie
WRZRUNDQGWKH¿IWKGD\ZDVFDOOHGµakadogo’. It was set aside for rest. In the royal court,
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise
pour
la Défense
des to
WKH¿IWKGD\ZDVJLYHQWKHQDPHRICyumweru.
This was
a person
who was related
Droits
de l’Homme
Kibogo, (half brother)
of Ruhganzu
Ndori. The name of Cyumweru is said to have been
ERUURZHGE\WKH¿UVW&DWKROLF&KULVWLDQPLVVLRQDULHVDWWKHEHJLQQLQJRI
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
100
Mutombo, R., 1978, op. cit., p. 158 and Nagahene, A., 1979, op. cit., pp. 159-164.
Démocratique des Batwa
131
v
131
These markets
existed in several
regions of the country and
ACRONYMS
AND ABBREVIATIONS
brought together
different
people
from different corners of
___________________________________
the country. Apart from the 40 national markets, there were
international
such
as Bitare, Mururu, and Nyagahinga
A.A.
:markets
Archives
Africaines
in Kinyaga, which brought together Abanyarwanda, Abahavvu,
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
Abarega,
Abarubdi,
Abafulero,
Abanyetambi,
Ibishugi,
ABAKI
: Allianceindes
Bakiga
Mushwiza,
Ryabizige
Bugoyi,
and Gasakuza, Gacaca, and
ABESC in Mulera
: Association
destogether
BahutuAbahunde,
Evoluant pour
la
Mpenge
brought
Abanande,
Suppression
Castes
Abayira, Abanyankore,
and des
Abanyarwanda.
Rwanza market
ACR
: Association
des Cultivateurs
Rwanda and
in
Bwanamukali,
was frequented
by Abashi,duAbarundi,
101
Abanyarwanda.
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
It should be noted
that insecurity
existed along commercial
Réconciliation
Nationale
routes. The long distances involved compelled traders to sign
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
pacts and make alliances with people from distant regions.
AFDL
:
Alliance ,des
Forces
pourbylaan
Among these alliances
there
were Démocratiques
blood pacts followed
Libération
du Congo-Zaïre
exchange of cattle
and friendship
reinforced by gifts. Such pacts
AGOApracticed
: African
Growth
and Opportunity
were
especially
by Abanyakinyaga
andAct
the people
102
from
Hence, at the height of these commercial
$,'6West of Rusizi.
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
expeditions
in
Bushi
or
Kinyaga, et
each
group of traders was
AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes
Main-d’oeuvre
protected by allies.
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
Rwandaise
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
6HOIVXIÀFLHQF\LQDOOLWHPVKDVQHYHUFKDUDFWHUL]HGDQ\VRFLHW\
AMR Rwanda
: Association
desbarter
Moniteurs
Rwanda
Ancient
thus practiced
trade todu
satisfy
their needs.
AMUR goods :were
Association
Musulmans
Rwanda
Traded
generally des
based
on food andau
artisan
products.
In
agriculture,: the
predominance
of certain
products in one region
ANT
Assemblée
Nationale
de Transition
would prompt people
from other
regions Assembly)
to look for it.
(Transitional
National
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
In addition, the craft industry existed in many forms and
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
entailed items from the blacksmith industry, pottery, basketry,
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
FORWKHV PDGH RI VNLQV RU EDUNFORWK H[WUDFWHG IURP WKH ÀFXV
Rwandais
tree (impuzu), and
carpentry. Blacksmiths looked for iron-ore in
APROCOMIN:
Association
des Commerçants
order to manufacture their items.
In some parts Indigènes
of the country
APROSOMA
: Association
pour la
Sociale
de where
la
such
as Kinyaga,
where minerals
didPromotion
not exist, or
in areas
iron was of poor
quality, iron-ore was imported in the form of
Masse
objects,
which
were
transformed
by blacksmiths.de la
ARD
: Alliance
pour le Renforcement
Démocratie
101
Ntezimana, E., « Informations et communications au Rwanda avant 1900 », in
ARDHO
:
Association
pour
la Défense
des
Dialogue, n° 122 , mai-juin, 1987, pp.Rwandaise
81-82 ; Ndekezi
S., Nyetera
P. C., Nyagahene
Droits de l’Homme
A., Ubuhashyibw’Abanyarwanda
bo hambere, Kigali, 1987, pp. 51-90; Mutombo R.,
1978,
op.
cit
.,
pp.85-130.
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
102
Chubaka, B. quoted by Nyagahene, A., 1987, op. cit., p. 164.
Démocratique des Batwa
¾Commerce and economic complementarity
132
132
v
Blacksmiths were
paid in the
form
of food items if the buyer
ACRONYMS
AND
ABBREVIATIONS
pressed an order
of
locally-made
items
(kugemura). However, in
___________________________________
the barter-market, the blacksmiths sometimes asked for other
items
like Ubutega-bracelets
or small-sized livestock
A.A. of exchange
: Archives
Africaines
such as goats and sheep. The organization of the blacksmith
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
industry was based on family lineage, although some volunteers
ABAKI – notably
: Alliance
des repaired
Bakiga damaged utensils.
existed
those who
ABESC
: Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
Suppression
des Castes
The pottery industry
was equally
important because it provided
ACR
: Association
des Cultivateurs
Rwanda
utensils
made
of clay intended
for cooking du
food,
conserving
grains
and keeping
liquids such
as water and beer.
ADP of all types,
: Alliance
Démocratique
des Peuples
This
industry
was
an
activity
exclusively
done
by the Batwa.
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
However, someRéconciliation
families from the
Abayovu clan who assimilated
Nationale
to the Hutu acquired some specialized knowledge in clay works.
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
The items produced were also commercialized; buyers could
AFDL
:
Alliance
Forces
access such items
eitherdes
in the
homeDémocratiques
of the craftsmenpour
or inlathe
Libération
du Congo-Zaïre
market where they
were bartered.
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity Act
Among
things, woodwork provided milk jugs, plates, wine
$,'6 other $FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
brewers,
and
itemsetwere
delivered after orders
AIMO
:mortars.
Affaires These
Indigènes
Main-d’oeuvre
were
they were de
bought
in the Estudiantine
barter market. The
AJERmade, or
: Association
la Jeunesse
manufacture of garments made of skin and impuzu bark-tree
Rwandaise
bark required the services of specialists who sometimes inherited
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
this skill from the lineage.
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
AMR items played
: Association
Moniteurs
du Rwanda
Some
the roledes
of currency
because
they became
AMUR of exchange
: Association
Musulmans
au Rwanda
means
as theydes
were
easily converted
into smaller
units
This was
the casede
forTransition
food grains, livestock,
ANT and sub-units.
: Assemblée
Nationale
and non-perishable
items such
as hoesAssembly)
and bracelets. As far as
(Transitional
National
bracelets
were
concerned,
two
units
were
used: Chrétien
Igihumbi (one
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate
thousand bracelets) and Inzovu (elephant), or two thousand. In
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
purchasing big livestock such as cattle, the Inzovu measurement
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
was especially used. When purchasing small-sized livestock like
Rwandais
goats and sheep,
the Igihumbi standard of measurement was
APROCOMIN:
Association
des Commerçants
Indigènes
used. For precious stones, there
were two measurement
units:
APROSOMA
: Association
pour
la Promotion
Sociale
de pearls
la
i.e.
ipfundo (knot),
which was
tantamount
to ten
bundled
(ubuhivu), and Masse
akagoziÀEUHZKLFKDPRXQWHGWRSHDUOV
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
Big-size livestock
were of capital importance in Ancient Rwanda.
Démocratie
The cow provided milk, butter, and meat. Its skin was used to
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
manufacture clothes; its hair on the tail (ubusenzi) was combined
Droits
de l’Homme
with jewels to make
artistic
products. The end parts of its horns
AREDETWA
:
Association
pour le
Relèvement
were used as brushes in tannery
works.
The tails were used in
Démocratique des Batwa
133
v
133
divine science.
Cow-dung was
used
to strengthen baskets. In its
ACRONYMS
AND
ABBREVIATIONS
dry form, cow-dung
also
served
as
fuel.
___________________________________
The
forAfricaines
products of high value such as hoes,
A.A.cow was :bartered
Archives
food crops, or pearls. Bulls and sterile cows were mostly sold. In
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
general, a cow was exchanged with 8 or 9 hoes.103 It should be
ABAKIthat these
: Alliance
Bakiga
noted
prices des
varied
from one region to another. For
104
ABESC
:
Association
des
example, in Kinyaga, a cow costBahutu
betweenEvoluant
20 and 60pour
hoes.la
In
Suppression
Castes
the same region,
a bull was des
valued
at 15,000 bracelets and in
ACRcases 20,000
: Association
rare
bracelets;des
thisCultivateurs
was based on du
theRwanda
‘Inzovu’ scale
of
measurement.
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
x Barter trade
and smallNationale
livestock
Réconciliation
The small-sized livestock, such as sheep and goats, were used
AFDL
: Alliance for
deshoes,
Forces
Démocratiques
pourhome
la
as
items of exchange
food
items, and other
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
XWHQVLOV$JRDWZDVYDOXHGDWIRXURUÀYHKRHVLQPRVWDUHDVRI
AGOA
: African
Growth
Opportunity
the
country. The
number
of hoesand
exchanged
varied Act
according to
their
and durability. Whenever one kept a goat or sheep
$,'6strength$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
for
another
person,
one Indigènes
received itset
kid
for the service rendered.
AIMO
: Affaires
Main-d’oeuvre
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
Rwandaise
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
The price of foodstuffs varied from one period of the year to
AM/AP and according
: Arrêté ministériel/
présidentiel
another
to the supplyArrêté
of crops
harvested. During
AMR season,
: Association
desaMoniteurs
Rwandato bring
harvest
in order to get
hoe, it wasdu
necessary
AMUR
: Association
Musulmans
auofRwanda
two
basketfuls
of beans or des
double
the amount
sorghum. In
periods
a singleNationale
basketful of
was equivalent to
ANT of drought,
: Assemblée
debeans
Transition
two hoes; one basket
of sorghum
was bartered
for one hoe. If an
(Transitional
National
Assembly)
item
was
found
far
from
its
place
of
manufacture,
it was more
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
expensive.
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
APROBAMI
: Association des Partis Monarchistes
x Barter trade and honey
Rwandais
APROCOMIN:
Association
des Rwandans.
Commerçants
Indigènes
Honey
was consumed
by many
Treated
honey was
APROSOMA
Association
pour
la Promotion
Socialeitems
de la like
kept
in pots. :This
honey was
used
to buy important
hoes, butter, and
livestock.
Masse
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
Démocratie
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
Droits de l’Homme
103
Ndekezi,
S.,
Nyagahene
A., Nyetera
P.C., 1987,
op.cit., p.19.
AREDETWA : Association
pour
le Relèvement
104
Nyagahene, A., 1987, op.cit., p.156.
Démocratique des Batwa
x Barter trade and foodstuffs
134
134
v
x BarterACRONYMS
trade and crafts
AND ABBREVIATIONS
___________________________________
The most used craft items were hoes. They were made of different
types
in valueAfricaines
according to their durability and place
A.A. and varied
: Archives
of manufacture:
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
ABAKI
: Alliance
des Bakiga
- Imberuka
manufactured
in Buberuka in the current
ABESC
:
Association
des
Bahutu
Evoluant pour la
Northern Province of Rwanda
Suppression des Castes
- Indamba from Buramba in the present district of Muhanga
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
- Inshikazi
from Bushi,
Buhavu (in des
the present
ADP
: Alliance
Démocratique
PeuplesDemocratic
of Congo)
ADR Republic
: Alliance
pour la Démocratie et la
- Gikondo Réconciliation
manufactured in
Gikondo in the current town of
Nationale
AEC Kigali : Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
AFDL
: Alliance
des(crafts
Forcesquickly
Démocratiques
pour
- Giheshyi
of Gisaka
got depleted
in la
this
region) Libération du Congo-Zaïre
AGOA
: African
Growth and
Opportunity
- Rusengesi
from Nyantango
(present
WesternAct
Province)105
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
AIMOare some: examples
Affaires Indigènes
Main-d’oeuvre
Here
of prices ofet
crafts
and the way they were
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
exchanged:
- 1 hoe = Rwandaise
2 big mats
ALIR
:
Armée
Libération du Rwanda
- 1 hoe = 1 small de
spear
AM/AP
Arrêté
- 1 hoe =: 1
swordministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
AMR
Rwanda
- 2 hoes :=Association
2 mats eachdes
for 4Moniteurs
people anddu
1 goat.
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
- 1 basket = 1 bulkhead
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
- 1 knife = 1 basket
(Transitional National Assembly)
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
x International trade
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
APROBAMI
: Association
des This
Partis
Monarchistes
Some
products
were imported.
was
the case for salt from
Rwandais
Lake Katwe near Lake Edward (Rwicanzige) or from Burundi.
Copper
came from
Shaba, des
pearls
came from Butemb,o
APROCOMIN:
Association
Commerçants
Indigènes and
106
hoes
came
from
Bwishya
or
Buvira.
According
to
A. Kagame’s
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale
de la
107
chronology, RUDOWUDGLWLRQDIÀUPVWKDWSURGXFWVRI(XURSHDQ
Masse
RU$VLDQRULJLQDSSHDUHGIRUWKHÀUVWWLPHLQ5ZDQGDXQGHUWKH
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
105
Démocratie
The blacksmiths from
this region manufactured hoes for the royal court. This activity was
widespread
of the countryRwandaise
like Gishamvu and
Mpungwe
near Huye. The
hoes
ARDHOin many: areas
Association
pour
la Défense
des
from Buberuka were the strongest and were therefore sold everywhere in the country. These
Droits
de l’Homme
areas were very famous.
See Ndekezi
S., Nyagahene A., Nyetera P.C., op. cit., pp.103-104.
106
Ndekezi, S., Nyagahene
A., Nyetera P.C.,
1987,le
op. Relèvement
cit., pp. 55-56.
AREDETWA
: Association
pour
107
Kagame, A., op. cit., 1972, pp. 131-132.
Démocratique des Batwa
135
v
135
reign of KingACRONYMS
Yuhi Mpazimpaka,
between 1642 and 1675. It
AND ABBREVIATIONS
was the Banyamwezi
who
linked
the
Coast up to Karagwe and
___________________________________
Bushubyi. They sent gifts of precious stone and cloth to the
108
Rwandan
monarch.
the reign of King Yuhi Gahindiro
A.A.
: ArchivesUnder
Africaines
(1749-1802), the quantity of cloth material increased. Cloth was
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
worn by chiefs.109 Under King Mutara Rwogera, using cloth as
ABAKI extended
: Alliance
desparts
Bakiga
garments
to many
of Rwanda. As far as luxurious
ABESC
:
Association
des
Bahutu
pour
la and
items were concerned, they were used byEvoluant
the ruling
class
des Castes
were therefore Suppression
not part of mainstream
trade.
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
It
was during :King
KigeriDémocratique
Rwabugiri’s rule
that
Arabs made their
ADP
Alliance
des
Peuples
110
ÀUVWDWWHPSWVWRSHQHWUDWH5ZDQGD
Slave
trade
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et lawas a problem
with socio-economic,
political, Nationale
and humanitarian dimensions.
Réconciliation
King Rwabugiri’s policy consisted of keeping Arabs and their
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
auxiliaries at a distance. However, this policy gradually changed
AFDL
:
Alliance
des Forces
Démocratiques
pour laHis
as the king became
interested
in obtaining
luxurious goods.
Libération
du Congo-Zaïre
supporters were
thus enticed
to begin slave trade in Rwanda.
AGOAtrade was
: African
Growthbyand
Act
Slave
characterized
the Opportunity
presence of intermediaries
between
and Rwandan traders.
$,'6 Arabs
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
House
maids
especially
in slavery.
These were often
AJER
:were
Association
de sold
la Jeunesse
Estudiantine
captured during raids and transported to distant areas for
Rwandaise
sale. In addition, during famine, children from many families
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
were targeted for sale. Thieves and merchants captured these
AM/AP Slave
: Arrêté
ministériel/
Arrêté
présidentiel
children.
trade in
Rwanda can
be traced
as far back as
AMR and was
: Association
des Moniteurs
du Rwanda
1890,
especially prevalent
in 1905-1906
during the
AMUR
: Association
des Musulmans
au Rwandaby E.
Kimwaramwara
famine. Otherwise,
as demonstrated
Mujawimana,
were noNationale
slave trade
in Rwanda.
ANT
: there
Assemblée
demarkets
Transition
(Transitional National Assembly)
Slave
dealers
posed
as merchants
wanted to
buy slaves.
APADEC
: Association
du Partiwho
Démocrate
Chrétien
This business took place in slave trade centers. Kivumu, in the
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
present district of Muhanga was a major centre involved in slave
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
WUDIÀFNLQJFRQWUDU\WRWKHZLVKHVRI.LQJ5ZDEXJLUL2WKHUWUDGH
Rwandais
centers were Rugerero
in Bugoyi, Rwanza near Save, Mubuga in
APROCOMIN:
Association
des111Commerçants
Indigènes
Bukonya, and Byahi in Bugoyi,
including Rukira
in Gasaka.
APROSOMA
: Association
pourcenter
la Promotion
Sociale
la
The
choice of Rukira
slave trade
was motivated
byde
political
108
Massedu Roi Cyirima Rujugira et de la Reine Mère Nyirayuhi, pp.56-66.
Van Noten F., Les tombeaux
109
Kagame,
A.,
«
Les
premiers contacts
et de l’occident
in Grands Lacs,
ARD
: Alliance
pour du
leRwanda
Renforcement
de», la
n° 135, 15 septembreDémocratie
1950, p.8.
110
The sea-Arab merchants reached the East African Coast before the twelfth century.
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
)URPWKHWZHOIWKWRWKH¿IWHHQWKFHQWXU\WKHLUSUHVHQFHZDVFRQFHQWUDWHGDWWKHFRDVW
Droits
de l’Homme
where ivory and slave
trade expanded.
This trade extended to the hinterland of Africa.
111
Ndekezi
S.,
Nyagehene
A.,
Nyetera
P.C., 1987,
op. cit., pp.79-80, A. Pagès , 1933,
AREDETWA : Association pour
le Relèvement
op.cit. p.163.
Démocratique des Batwa
136
136
v
and commercial
factors. TheAND
powers
given by King Rwabugiri to
ACRONYMS
ABBREVIATIONS
the chiefs of Gihunya
and
Mirenge
–
his
intermediaries for slave
___________________________________
dealers – encouraged the development of slave trade as time
went
was theAfricaines
only center where slaves of Rwandese
A.A. on. Rukira
: Archives
origin were exported, including those in transit from Bwishya
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
and Bufumbira.
ABAKI
: Alliance des Bakiga
ABESC
: Association
des Bahutu
Evoluant
pour la and
The
cost of these
slaves varied
according
to age, beauty,
Suppression
Castes
origin. A child aged
less thandes
three
years cost one goat or some
ACR materials;
: Association
deswas
Cultivateurs
du Rwanda
cloth
a young lady
valued at cloth
material for
112
WKUHH
ÀIWHHQDémocratique
JDUPHQWV . Itdes
should
be mentioned
ADP SHRSOH: RU
Alliance
Peuples
that
slave
trade
was
not
as
widespread
in
Rwanda
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la as in other
neighboring countries,
such asNationale
Tanganyika or Congo (present
Réconciliation
DRC). The Congo was ravaged by Tipo-Tipp, or Rumariza. The
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
Rwandese did not support this type of trade because King
AFDL
:
Alliance
Forces
Démocratiques
pour la
Rwabugiri prevented
hisdes
subjects
from
selling their compatriots.
Libération
du Congo-Zaïre
He even fought
those who
supported this trade, including
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity Act
Rumariza.
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
3.3.5.
Cultural
and social
organization
AIMO
: Affaires
Indigènes
et Main-d’oeuvre
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
a. Politics and literature
Rwandaise
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
7KH WHUP ¶FXOWXUH· KDV PRUH WKDQ RQH KXQGUHG GHÀQLWLRQV
AM/AP here: Arrêté
ministériel/
However,
one aspect
of cultureArrêté
will beprésidentiel
stressed - the arts.
AMRinvolving: dance
Association
deswill
Moniteurs
du Rwanda
Arts
and music
not be handled
here. Special
AMUR
: Association
au Rwanda
LPSRUWDQFH
ZLOO
EH SODFHGdes
RQMusulmans
FRXUW OLWHUDWXUH
7KLV RIÀFLDO
literature
was: Assemblée
composed ofNationale
Ibisigo (dynastic
poems), amazina
ANT
de Transition
y’inka (cow poetry),
and ibyivugo
(poems
of heroic warriors).
(Transitional
National
Assembly)
These
three
literary
genres
correspond
to
three Chrétien
stages of the
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate
evolution of Rwandan society and monarchy: the king, the
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
cow, and war. These three things were important to the social,
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
political, and even religious life of Rwandese.113
Rwandais
APROCOMIN:
Association
Commerçants
The art comprising
‘Ibisigo’des
(singular
Igisigo) Indigènes
is known as
APROSOMA
: Association
pour laby
Promotion
Sociale
de la
Ubusizi. Ibisigo
can be understood
their content,
importance,
WUDQVPLVVLRQDQGHYROXWLRQ+HUHRQO\WKHÀUVWWZRDVSHFWVZLOO
Masse
be
developed.
The content
of ledynastic
poetry took
ARD
: Alliance
pour
Renforcement
de latwo forms.
7KH ÀUVW IRUP Démocratie
ZDV IXQGDPHQWDO ,W GHDOW ZLWK WKH FHQWUDO DQG
GRPLQDQW WKHPH ² WKH JORULÀFDWLRQ RI WKH Nyiginya Monarchy.
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
112
Droits
l’Homme
Ndekezi S., Nyagehene
A., de
Nyetera
P.C., 1987, op.cit., pp.79-80, A. Pagès , 1933,
op.cit.
p.84
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
113
Kagame A., « Le Rwanda et son roi », in Aequatoria, no 2, 1945, p.41
Démocratique des Batwa
137
v
137
The second form
was secondary
and was expressed either
ACRONYMS
AND ABBREVIATIONS
GLUHFWO\ RU LQGLUHFWO\
,W
ZDV
WKH
ÀQDO
VXSSOLFDWLRQ RI WKH SRHW
___________________________________
who defends his interests and asks for compensation for his
poetic
A.A. contributions.
: Archives Africaines
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
7KH JORULÀFDWLRQ RI WKH PRQDUFK\ URWDWHG RQ D IHZ SULQFLSDO
ABAKI The: Alliance
Bakiga
symbols.
Karinga des
drum
constituted the essence of the
ABESC
:
Association
des
Bahutu
la
monarchy. The symbol of the ruling
king Evoluant
was alwayspour
associated
des
Castes of the ruling king. The
with the QueenSuppression
Mother and the
ancestors
ACR was addressed
: Association
Cultivateurs
du Rwanda
poem
to thesedes
ancestors,
comprising
a normative
aspect
poetry.
Indeed, thedes
poet
repeated verses
ADP of dynastic
: Alliance
Démocratique
Peuples
that
praised
the
actions
of
the
ruling
king
so
as
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la to satisfy his
audience; he repeated
that the Nationale
king had succeeded in imitating
Réconciliation
his predecessors, but also had surpassed them because
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
“Umwami uhawe Uruharo arwigiza imbere” (the king who has a
AFDL
:
Alliance
Forces
Démocratiques
task to accomplish
mustdes
simplify
it for
his people). pour la
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
AGOA poetry
: African
and Opportunity
Dynastic
was ofGrowth
fundamental
importance Act
to Rwanda’s
political
and its history. The political dimension of
$,'6 ideology
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
dynastic
poems
was
its content. As far as its
AIMO
: Affairesunderstood
Indigènes by
et Main-d’oeuvre
historical
importance
was concerned,
dynastic
poetry constituted
AJER
: Association
de la Jeunesse
Estudiantine
a major reference point for the chronology of facts that took place
Rwandaise
in Ancient Rwanda. A series of poetic contributions was called
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
“ibisigo by’impakanizi.” It should be noted that paragraphs of
AM/AP poems
: Arrêté
ministériel/
présidentiel
dynastic
followed
one anotherArrêté
according
to the chronology
AMR
: Association
des Moniteurs
Rwanda 114 The
of
queens, from
Ruganzu Bwimba
to Mutaradu
Rudahigwa.
AMUR
Association
Musulmans
Ibisigo poems:were
supposeddes
to be
transmittedau
in Rwanda
their entirety.
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
e. Family (family
poems)National Assembly)
(Transitional
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
The family was an important unit in ancient Rwanda. In general,
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
it had a four-fold function: economic value, reproduction,
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
satisfaction of sexual needs for spouses, and socialization of
RwandaisRwanda, the family was composed of
children. In traditional
APROCOMIN:
Association
spouses
and their
children.115des Commerçants Indigènes
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
¾The nuclear
family: this was composed of a woman, man,
Masse
and
their
children;
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
Démocratie
114
Kagame A., Introduction aux grands genres lyriques de l’ancien Rwanda, Butare
ARDHO
:
Association
Rwandaise
la Défense
des
EUNR, 1969 p.187; B. Muzungu, « La
problématiquepour
de l’histoire
du Rwanda
», in
Droitsnode
Cahiers Lumière et Société,
33,l’Homme
mars 2006.
115
D’Hertefelt M.,: Trouborst
A. A., Scherer
J. H.,
Les anciens royaumes de la zone
AREDETWA
Association
pour le
Relèvement
interlacustre méridionale Rwanda, Burundu, Buha, Tervuren, MRAC, 1962, pp. 51-52.
Démocratique des Batwa
138
138
v
¾The polygamous
family:
of a man, his wives,
ACRONYMS
ANDconsisted
ABBREVIATIONS
and their
children.
Each
wife
had
her
own homestead.116
___________________________________
The man considered himself indispensable to the various
families and
thus visited his wives in turn;
A.A. nuclear: Archives
Africaines
¾In the :case
of the death
of a spouse, a woman would
A.G.
Assemblée
Générale
remarry
one
of
the
members
ABAKI
: Alliance des Bakigaof the family of her deceased
husband
in order to form
a Leviticus
family. The
children
ABESC
: Association
des Bahutu
Evoluant
pour
la
resulting from this union were socially considered the
Suppression des Castes
same as those of other spouses. A stranger to the lineage
ACR could cohabit
: Association
des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
with a widow, especially with the consent
ADP of the family.
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
Réconciliation Nationale
The family played several roles. It was the basic unit of
AEC
: Agglomeration
Extra-Coutumières
cooperation
and
economic production.
It produced all that it
AFDL
:
Alliance
des
Forces
Démocratiques
pour la
needed; people only went to the market
if it was unavoidable.
Libération
Congo-Zaïre
For a polygamous
family, du
every
nucleus family comprised an
independent
unit
of production.
sold his
AGOA
: African
Growth The
andhusband
Opportunity
Actlabor. The
occupations
of
women
depended
on
the
social
status
the family.
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
Rich
big-sized
livestocketwhile
poor ones kept smallAIMOfamilies :had
Affaires
Indigènes
Main-d’oeuvre
sized livestock.117 According to the Rwandan mentality, a large
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
number of children brought happiness and strength to the family.
Rwandaise
The marriage of a daughter made it possible to extend alliances
ALIR
: Armée
de Libération
Rwanda
with other lineage
groups.
A daughterdu
was
considered a linking
AM/AP
:
Arrêté
ministériel/
Arrêté
présidentiel
factor between families (umukobwa ni gahuzamiryango). Sexual
AMR
: Association
Rwanda
intercourse between
spousesdes
wasMoniteurs
prescribed du
during
marriage, at
ELUWKGXULQJSXULÀFDWLRQRIWKHPRXUQLQJFHUHPRQLHVDWGHDWK
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
and during the
enthronement
of a king
during planting and
ANT
: Assemblée
Nationale
de or
Transition
118
harvesting seasons.
The
lineage
and,
eventually,
the army
(Transitional National Assembly)
were responsible for the socialization of children. (See the below
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
section on traditional education.)
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
APROBAMI
Association
des Partis
In
traditional: Rwanda,
marriage
was aMonarchistes
union between a man
Rwandais
and woman, after the former had paid dowry (inkwano) and after
a
ceremony where
big quantities
of beer was served
(Imihango
APROCOMIN:
Association
des Commerçants
Indigènes
119
yo
gusaba no: gukwa).
Inkwano
generally
consisted
APROSOMA
AssociationThe
pour
la Promotion
Sociale
de laof a
116
Massedes relations sociales dans le Rwanda ancien, Bruxelles,
Maquet J. J., Le système
MRCB,
1954,
p.
94.
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
117
D’Hertefelt M., etDémocratie
al. 1962, op. cit., p. 33
118
Buregeya S., Les paysans du Bumbogo face aux autorités traditionnelles et
ARDHO 1900-1956,
: Association
pour la Défense des
coloniales,
Butare, UNR, Rwandaise
1996
119
l’Homme
Bigirumwami A.,Droits
Imihangode
n’imigenzo
n’imiziririzo mu Rwanda, Nyundo, 1974,
pp.
112-132;
Ndekezi,
S.,
Ubukwe
bw’Abanyarwanda,
Kigali, 1983.; Ndekezi, S.,
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
Rituel du mariage coutumier au Rwanda, Kigali, 1984.
Démocratique des Batwa
139
v
139
cow, but it could
also consist
of ABBREVIATIONS
goats and hoes. For people of
ACRONYMS
AND
lower social standing,
dowry
consisted
of services rendered by
___________________________________
the future husband in the home of his future father-in-law. This
last
tantamount
to a free marriage.
A.A.category was
: Archives
Africaines
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
A woman who only produced girls was divorced.120 Whenever
ABAKI
: Alliance
Bakigathis act was tantamount to
a
lineage chased
away des
a woman,
ABESC The Inkwano
: Association
desrefunded
Bahutu Evoluant
pour
la not
divorce.
was not
if the woman
had
121
Suppression
des Castes A woman who was
produced children
for her husband.
ACR
: Association
des
Cultivateurs
du Rwanda
chased without
dowry on her
head
could remarry.
It was mostly
orphans who : failed
to get
dowry. A family
never received
ADP
Alliance
Démocratique
des that
Peuples
Inkwano
could,
by
a
way
of
compensation,
kidnap
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la a brother-inlaw (muramu) ifRéconciliation
the two spousesNationale
continued to live together.122 On
the wedding day, wealthy citizens with lots of cows brought two
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
cows, one of which was given to the groom.123
AFDL
: Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
Libération
dudifferent
Congo-Zaïre
Marriage took place
between
ethnic groups and classes
AGOA
Africanexcept
Growth
and Opportunity
of
Rwandan :society,
between
the Batwa. Act
Sometimes,
parents
be opposed to the marriage of their children to
$,'6 would$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
a
particular
person.
They
would decide
who their child should
AIMO
: Affaires
Indigènes
et Main-d’oeuvre
marry.
girl lived de
with
young husband.
There were
AJER The young
: Association
laher
Jeunesse
Estudiantine
some superstitions involved, such as spitting milk on the young
Rwandaise
girl or touching her using the branch of a special tree.124 In
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
some cases, a young man would also elope with a young girl to
AM/AP
: Arrêté
ministériel/
Arrêtédescribes
présidentiel
make
an illegal
marriage.
A. Bigirumwami
the different
125
AMR of Rwandan
: Association
Moniteurs
du Rwanda
stages
marriagedes
as follows:
AMUR
des Musulmans
au Rwanda
x Firstly,: Association
look for Umuranga
(a go-between
of sorts), the
uncle or father
of the boy;
ANT paternal
: Assemblée
Nationale
de Transition
(Transitional
x Make consultations
to National
know the Assembly)
behavior of the girl;
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
x &RQVXOWWKHGLYLQHUVWRNQRZLIWKHÀDQFpHLVDOORZHGE\
APR her family
: Armée
Rwandaise
to getPatriotique
married, if she
comes from a prosperous
APROBAMI
:
Association
des
Partis
Monarchistes
homestead, etc;
Rwandais
x Gusaba (asking for the hand of the girl) with crates of
APROCOMIN:
Association des Commerçants Indigènes
beer. In some families, the father of the girl asks for a
APROSOMA
: Association
lasocio-politique
PromotiondeSociale
la
120
Mukanyamurasa
O., « L’évolutionpour
du rôle
la femmede
rwandaise
Masseet prise de décisions », Mémoire de Licence, Kigali, KIE,
de 1975 à 2000 : éducation
2004,
p.
11.
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
121
D’hertefelt M. et Démocratie
al., 1962, op. cit., p. 54.
122
Bigirumwami A., « Imihango n’imigenzo n’imiziririzo mu Rwanda », Nyundo,
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
1974
,p. 116.
123
Droits de l’Homme
Ibid, p.114.
124
D’Hertefelt
M.
et
al., 1962, op. cit.,p.49.
AREDETWA : Association
pour le Relèvement
125
Bigirumwami, A., 1874 op.cit. pp. 112-132.
Démocratique des Batwa
140
140
v
gift of ACRONYMS
beer. In otherAND
families,
the Umuranga says that
ABBREVIATIONS
the prospective
groom
is
seeking
to become a member
___________________________________
of the new family and that he should be supported
(njeAfricaines
guhakwa, mumpake neza, mundeme
A.A. and accepted
: Archives
amaboko n’amaguru, mumpe ubuhake nanjye nyoboke
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
mpakwe). At this stage, the family of the girl is given a
ABAKI hoe and
: Alliance
Bakiga
Isando (ades
piece
of special stick);126
ABESC
: Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
x Giving Inkwano – at this stage, the date of marriage is
Suppression des Castes
À[HG
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
x
In
the
home:
consultation ofdes
spirits
before marriage
ADP
:girl’s
Alliance
Démocratique
Peuples
ADR day; : Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
x Also at the
girl’s home: advice
is given by aunts of the girl
Réconciliation
Nationale
of marriage; Extra-Coutumières
AEC on the: eve
Agglomeration
AFDL
Alliance
des
Forces Démocratiques
la
x At the :boy’s
home:
consultation
of the spirits ispour
made;
duofCongo-Zaïre
x Look forLibération
the branch
a special tree and milk for the
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and Opportunity Act
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AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
7KHLPSRUWDQFHDWWDFKHGWRHGXFDWLRQRIWKHFKLOGZDVUHÁHFWHG
by what people Rwandaise
thought about the child127 All young children were
educated
by their
mothers.
As far as knowledge
was concerned,
ALIR
: Armée
de Libération
du Rwanda
boys
and
girls
were
considered
to
be
equal.
For
example, they
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
all
learnt folktales
and learnt
famous
They were
AMR
: Association
desabout
Moniteurs
dupoets.
Rwanda
WDXJKWWKDWWKHÀUVWSRHWZDVDZRPDQFDOOHGNyirarumaga.128 As
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
children grew up, girls were initiated to domestic work whereas
ANT
: Assemblée
Nationale
boys learnt how
to be courageous
andde
toTransition
persevere. They were
(Transitional National Assembly)
WDXJKWWRVDFULÀFHWKHPVHOYHVIRUWKHVDNHRIWKHLUFRXQWU\7KH\
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
ZHUHLQLWLDWHGWRVSHFLÀFGXWLHVDQGDFWLYLWLHVDFFRUGLQJWRWKHLU
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
social environment.
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
At sixteen yearsRwandais
of age, a young girl began taking advice from her
mother.
The
latter
instructed des
her daughter
on the Indigènes
dos and don’ts
APROCOMIN: Association
Commerçants
of society and on superstitions. The girl learnt how to keep the
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
homestead clean by imitating those who were older than her. At
Masse
126
Before
the
introduction
of thepour
cow, the
was the major item
ARD
: Alliance
le hoe
Renforcement
deoflawealth. Isando
was brought according
to
the
legend
by
Nyirarucaba.
It
brought
prosperity
to livestock
Démocratie
and gave long life to the family.
ARDHO
: Association
Rwandaise de
pour
la Défense
127
Mukamanase M.C.,
La position socio-juridique
la femme
rwandaise des
face à
de l’Homme
l’égalité de l’hommeDroits
et de la femme,
Mémoire de licence, Butare, UNR, 1983, p.28.
128
Kanakuze J.A.,: Association
L’évolution de lapour
scolarisation
de la femme rwandaise de 1952
AREDETWA
le Relèvement
à 2002 à la lumière de la vision 2020, Mémoire de licence, Kigali, KIE, 2005, p.26.
Démocratique des Batwa
141
v
141
WKHDJHRIÀIWHHQ\HDUVWKHJLUOZDVHGXFDWHGE\KHUSHHUV+HU
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
peers gave her___________________________________
advice on sexual life and behavior regarding her
future spouse. Tradition prevented the mother from speaking of
certain
especiallyAfricaines
sex-related matters, to her daughter.
A.A. things,
: Archives
If a girl became pregnant when she was still single, she was
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
severely punished.129 Virginity was considered a symbol of pride
ABAKI
: Alliance
des Bakiga
for the family.
Once married,
the education of the wife was
ABESC
:
Association
des
Bahutu Evoluant pour la
LQÁXHQFHGE\WKHIDPLO\RIKHUKXVEDQGDQGQHLJKERUV
Suppression des Castes
ACR
Association
des the
Cultivateurs
duthe
Rwanda
The boy was :taught
to defend
interests of
family and
the nation. He
represented
his fatherdes
in Peuples
the home and in
ADP
: Alliance
Démocratique
130
society.
For
the
defense
of
the
nation,
every
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie etnew
la king trained
a new army when
he was enthroned.
The recruits, referred to as
Réconciliation
Nationale
“Intore,” received prolonged sports and military training in the
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
court. They also learnt the art of dance, rhetoric, poetry, and
AFDL
:
Alliance
des Forces
Démocratiques
la
perseverance. They
acquired
qualities
of generosity, pour
tolerance,
du Congo-Zaïre
and courage.131Libération
The education
given in “Itorero” was a formal
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: AfricanRwanda.
Growth and Opportunity Act
training in traditional
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The
place
of theIndigènes
woman et Main-d’oeuvre
AIMO
: Affaires
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
In ancient Rwanda, the woman played a key role.132 She was
Rwandaise
present everywhere up to the highest level of the political,
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
administrative, and military hierarchy. She was the wife and
AM/AP in the: Arrêté
ministériel/
présidentiel
mother
family structure.
SheArrêté
handled
all light domestic
AMR It was :her
Association
descare
Moniteurs
du Rwanda
work.
duty to take
of all necessary
supplies for
AMUR
: Association
des Musulmans
Rwandain the
the
subsistence
of the homestead.
A man whoau
interfered
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
129
(Transitional
National Assembly)
Mikamanase, M.C.,
1983, OP.CIT., P.29
130
Kanakuze,
J.A.
,
2005,
op.cit.,26.
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
131
Heremans, R., Introduction à l’histoire du Rwanda. Bruxelles, Editions A. De
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
Boeck, Kigali, Editions rwandaises, 1973,pp.43-44
132
APROBAMI
des
Partis
Monarchistes
Nyirasafari, G.,: «Association
La situation de la
femme
rwandaise
», in Dialogue, no 26, mai
1971; Erny P., De l’éducation
traditionnelle à l’enseignement moderne au Rwanda
Rwandais
(1900- 1975). Un pays
d’Afrique noiredes
en recherche
pédagogique,Indigènes
Thèse de Doctorat,
APROCOMIN:
Association
Commerçants
Université de Lille, 1981; E. Mukamanase, La femme rwandaise et le développement
APROSOMA
: Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
socio économique, Mémoire de licence, Butare, UNR, 1982 ; Mugwaneza A., Recueil
Masse
des études et ouvrages
ayant trait à la femme rwandaise, Kigali, 1998 ; Nyiracumi A.
M.,
La
situation
socioculturelle
la femme
rwandaise de 1900 a de
1975.
ARD
: Alliance de
pour
le Renforcement
laCas d’Astrida/
Butare, Mémoire deDémocratie
licence, Butare. UNR, 2001 ; Kawema C., L’émancipation de la
femme au Rwanda (1975-1999), Mémoire de licence, Butare, UNR, 2002; Rutabana
ARDHO
: Association
Rwandaise
pour psychosociale.
la Défense Cas
desdes
E., Le rôle des associations
de veuves
dans leur intégration
DroitsDuhozanye
de l’Homme
associations Avega (PVK)(Shyanda), mémoire de licence, Butare, UNR,
2001
;
Uwamaliya
E.,
L’évolution
des
relations
entre l’homme et la femme pendant
AREDETWA : Association pour
le Relèvement
l’époque coloniale belge 1916 -1962, Kigali, KIE
Démocratique des Batwa
142
142
v
daily management
of the home
wasABBREVIATIONS
badly conceived by society.133
ACRONYMS
AND
Beyond the homestead,
the role of the woman was almost
___________________________________
nonexistent: “in public life, not only was she forced to remain
at
home due to
the multiplicity
of domestic duties she had, but
A.A.
: Archives
Africaines
also the culture of the homestead excluded her from anything
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
beyond the homestead. In fact, the woman basically contributed
ABAKI
: Alliance
des Bakiga
134
to
the prosperity
of the home.”
ABESC
: Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
desand
Castes
Some proverbsSuppression
as well as do’s
don’ts help to explain the
ACR which:impacted
Association
des Cultivateurs
du Rwanda
sexism
the woman
and which conferred
a status
of
inferiority: : Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
ADP
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
x A woman
does not sit Nationale
on the chair of her husband as
Réconciliation
long as the husband is still alive (Umugore ntiyicara ku
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
ntebe y XPXJDERZHLJLKH akiriho);
AFDL
: Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
x It is prohibited
for adu
woman
to lend her husband’s spear,
Libération
Congo-Zaïre
arrow, or axe. This can bring her bad omen. (Umugore
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity Act
ntawe yatiza icumu cyangwa u uheto cyangwa intorezo.
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$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
umugabo we);135
AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
x The hen never sings in the presence of the cock (Nta
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
nkokokazi ibika isake ihari);
Rwandaise
x
In
the
homestead
where a woman
makes noise, quarrels
ALIR
: Armée de Libération
du Rwanda
(Uruvuze umugore ruvuga umuhoro).
AM/AP never: end
Arrêté
ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
These
proverbs
expressing dos
and
don’ts were accepted
by society
AMUR
: Association
des
Musulmans
au Rwanda
regarding
the
activities
of
women
and
men.
This
distinction
was
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
observed in the ceremonies and practices which followed the
(Transitional National Assembly)
birth of a boy and a girl. Considering the roles that each of them
APADEC
du Parti
Démocrate
Chrétien
was
supposed: Association
to play in society,
a spear
and shield
were given
APR
:
Armée
Patriotique
Rwandaise
to the boy when he was given a name to wish him well as a
APROBAMI
: Association
des
Partis
Monarchistes
successful
warrior.
A girl was
given
material
for weaving baskets
as a symbol of good
management skills in the homestead.136
Rwandais
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
APROSOMA
: Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
133
Kagame, A., Les organistions socio-familiales de l’ancien Rwanda , Gembloux,
Masse
Editions Duculot, 1954,
p.234.
134
Mukanyamurasa,
O.,
2004, op.
cit., p.7.
ARD
: Alliance
pour
le Renforcement de la
135
Bigirumwami, A.,
Imihango
n’imigenzo
n’imiziririzo, Nyundo, 1974, pp. 43-44;
Démocratie
Mukanyamurasa, O., L’évolution du rôle socio-politique de la femme rwandaise de
ARDHO
: Association
Rwandaise
pour
la Défense
1975
a 2000: éducation
et prise de décision
, Mémoire
de Licence,
Kigali des
, KIE ,
Droits de l’Homme
2004, p.7
136
MIGEPROF, FNUAD,
Etude surpour
les croyances,
les attitudes et les pratiques
AREDETWA
: Association
le Relèvement
socioculturelles en rapport avec le genre au RwandaYHUVLRQ¿QDOH.LJDOLS
Démocratique des Batwa
143
v
143
In addition, “culture
did not
recognize
equality between man
ACRONYMS
AND
ABBREVIATIONS
and woman; patri-lineal
structures
of
the
family gave power and
___________________________________
137
wealth to men.” The boy inherited the property of the family.
His
situated
not far from his parents so that he
A.A.residence: was
Archives
Africaines
could assist them during old age.
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
ABAKIfrom these
: Alliance
des Bakiga
Apart
discriminative
tendencies, culture conferred to
ABESC
:
Association
des
Bahutu
Evoluantby
pour
la
a woman special respect which had
to be protected
her family
Suppression
Castesan agent of production
and husband. A
woman was des
considered
ACR
des Cultivateurs
dugave
Rwanda
of
wealth and: aAssociation
tool to reproduce
children. This
her great
respect.
On her
side, a woman
owed respect
submissiveness
ADP
: Alliance
Démocratique
desand
Peuples
to
her
husband.
She
was
supposed
to
enlarge
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et lathe family of
her husband. The
girl and boyNationale
played different roles. The boy
Réconciliation
played the role of family identity. The girl was, above all, wife
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
and mother. This view must however be put in the context of
AFDL
:
Alliance
Forces
Démocratiques
la by
every generation.
Owingdes
to the
social
economic role pour
played
Libération
du Congo-Zaïre
the wife, she was
indeed respected
in society. It was forbidden
AGOA
: African
Growth
Opportunity
Act
to
kill one’s wife.
Whenever
thisand
custom
was transgressed,
the
family
murderer would looe a relative when a woman of
$,'6 of the $FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
the
same
age
the murdered
wifeetproduced
a baby. This was
AIMO
:as
Affaires
Indigènes
Main-d’oeuvre
in
compensation
for the baby
was going
to be produced by
AJER
: Association
de that
la Jeunesse
Estudiantine
the murdered woman. A woman’s respect was seen in the names
Rwandaise
given to girls, for example: Munganyinka, (one who brings a cow
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
for me), Mukobwajana (one whose dowry price was equal to one
AM/AP cows),
: Arrêté
Arrêté présidentiel
hundred
and ministériel/
Nyampinga (providence).
In pre-colonial
AMR
: Association
du Rwanda
Rwanda
therefore,
the girl des
was Moniteurs
the most protected
person by
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
society.
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
In traditional Rwandan
society,
the occupations
(Transitional
National
Assembly) of men and
women
complemented
each
other.
The
man
did hard
labor in the
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate
Chrétien
garden; he constructed huts, attended to livestock, hunted, and
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
did garden work. The woman attended to all domestic duties and
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
agricultural activities. She ensured cleanness in the homestead,
Rwandais
fermented milk,
cleaned vegetables and food grains, pounded
APROCOMIN:
Association
desDQG
Commerçants
Indigènes
VRUJKXP ORRNHG IRU ÀUHZRRG
ZDWHU SUHSDUHG
IRRG DQG
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
EHHUOLWÀUHDWWHQGHGWRFKLOGUHQFXOWLYDWHGODQGDQGSODQWHG
weeded, and harvested.
Masse
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
As far as widowhood
was concerned, economic solidarity ended
Démocratie
with the death of the husband; “whether she had received cattle
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
from her parents or from the husband, the widow never inherited
Droits de l’Homme
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
137
Adriaenssens, J., La parenté, le mariage et la famille, Butare, 1964, p.148.
Démocratique des Batwa
144
144
v
property of her
husband.”138AND
When
the widow remained in the
ACRONYMS
ABBREVIATIONS
home of her late
husband,
she
continued
to take care of his
___________________________________
property. In case of divorce, widowhood, and old age, the woman
received
a small
patch of Africaines
land.
A.A.
: Archives
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
The marriage gift for the bride was a fat cow (inka ya Gashyimbo).
ABAKIshe got :married,
Allianceshe
destook
Bakiga
When
this gift to her newly established
ABESC
:
Association
des
Bahutu to
Evoluant
pour
la this
home. In case of divorce, she returned
her home
with
Suppression
des Castes
cow. This practice
ended under
King Yuhi Gahindiro’s reign
ACR
: Association
des
Cultivateurs
duowned
Rwanda
because
it is said
that at this
time,
women who
‘Inka ya
gashyimbo’
did
not respect
their husbands.
started to look
ADP
: Alliance
Démocratique
des They
Peuples
down
upon
their
husbands
because
of
the
property
they had
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
acquired. Henceforth,
all gifts they
received became part of their
Réconciliation
Nationale
husband’s property.139 In, succession and divorce were deeply
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
unfair to the woman.
AFDL
: Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
Libération
Congo-Zaïre
It should be noted
that du
some
women climbed to very high
positions
in political,
and military Act
hierarchies.
AGOA
: Africanadministrative,
Growth and Opportunity
In
this
respect,
mention
should
be
made
of
the
Queen
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURPMother
whose
‘Umugabekazi’
head of army).140 In
AIMO title was
: Affaires
Indigènes(Woman
et Main-d’oeuvre
WKH ÀUVW PLOLWDU\ H[SHGLWLRQ RI 5ZDEXJLUL DJDLQVW WKH ,VODQG RI
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
Ijwi, a Queen Mother known as Nyirakigeri IV Murorunkwere
Rwandaise
was commander
of the military expedition. When they arrived
ALIR
: Armée
de Libération
du by
Rwanda
in
Nyamirundi,
operations
were directed
Nzirumbanje, son of
141
AM/APbrother
: Arrêté
ministériel/
Arrêté présidentiel
Mitari,
of Nyirakigeri.
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
The
services
of
women were also
in magical
to annex
AMUR
: Association
des used
Musulmans
aucircles
Rwanda
foreign kingdoms. There were political marriages where some
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
girls were proposed to foreign kings or princes for marriage.
(Transitional National Assembly)
Children resulting from such marriages were expected to
APADECRwanda.
: Association
du Parti
Démocrate
Chrétien
liberate
This was the
case for
Nyirantobwa,
daughter
APR
Armée Patriotique
Rwandaise
of
Mibambwe :Mutabazi,
who was married
by Mashira. She went
APROBAMI
: Association
des to
Partis
Monarchistes
with
a black cow
without horns
symbolize
the future defeat of
Mashira. Mibambwe
Sekarongoro Mutabazi married Bwiza (the
Rwandais
most
beautiful Association
girl); daughter
Mashira and Gahindiro
APROCOMIN:
desofCommerçants
Indigènes (son
of
Mibambwe
with
ancestry
title
of
Abenegahindiro)
married
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de
la
Nyankeri who was Mashira’s daughter also.142 To end the
Masse
138
Bourgeois,
R.,
Banyarwanda
: Coutumes , Bruxelles,
ARD
: Allianceet Barundi.
pour leT2Renforcement
deIRCB,
la 1954, p.367.
139
Kagame A., 1954,Démocratie
op.cit, p.183.
140
Nahimana F., Rwanda. Emergence d’un Etat, Paris, L’Harmattan, 1993, p.36.
ARDHO
: Association
Rwandaise pour
la Défense
desya
141
Minisiteri y’amashuri
makuru n’ubushakashatsi
mu by’ubuhanda,
Ingoma
de Kanjogera,
l’HommeKigali, Ubuyobozi bukuru bw’ubugeni,
Kigeli Rwabugiri naDroits
Nyarayuhi
1988,
p.28.
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
142
Kagame A., 1972, op. cit., p.77.
Démocratique des Batwa
145
v
145
confederationACRONYMS
of Abenengwe
clanABBREVIATIONS
found in the southwestern
AND
part of Rwanda,
Yuhi
III
Gahima
married
Nyankaka, daughter of
___________________________________
Magunguru and young sister of Benginzage (Nyagakecuru), wife
of
Samukendi,
King of Bungwe.
Nyankaka was sent to Bungwe
A.A.
: Archives
Africaines
and on her return, she conceived Binama, son of Samukende.
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
Binama was of royal origin and became the liberator of Bungwe.143
ABAKI
: Alliance des Bakiga
ABESC
des Bahutu
Evoluant
la him
King
Cyirima :IIAssociation
Rujigira married
Nyirantabwa.
This pour
helped
Suppression
des Castes
to conquer Ndirwa
and Gahurira.
He had two sons, Kamali and
ACR
: Association
destoCultivateurs
du Rwanda
Mugozi.
Kamali
was destined
play an important
role in the
future
Ndorwa.
He faked an
alliegance
ADP wars against
: Alliance
Démocratique
des
Peuples in order to
show
that
there
was
friendship
with
Biyoro,
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie etruler
la of Mubari.
King Kigeri III Réconciliation
Ndabarasa proposed
the hand of his daughter,
Nationale
Nyabugondo, to Biyoro. Biyoro accepted eagerly. A girl became
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
a liberator. Kinyange was a court servant who preferred to be
AFDL
:
Alliance
Forces
Démocratiques
poura la
killed in the place
of thedes
Queen
Mother.
This was during
plot
Congo-Zaïre
made by PrinceLibération
Semugaza,du
who
wanted to take over the throne.
AGOA
: African
Growth
and
Opportunity
Act
Nyiramuhanda,
a woman
working
in the
king’s court,
offered her
baby
of Gahindiro. This baby and Kiyange were killed
$,'6instead $FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
as
liberators.
of the esoteric
code was handed over
AIMO
: Knowledge
Affaires Indigènes
et Main-d’oeuvre
to
Nyiramuhanda.
This wasdea la
privilege
originally
prohibited for
AJER
: Association
Jeunesse
Estudiantine
women, including queen mothers themselves.144
Rwandaise
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
From the political point of view, the Queen Mother occupied
AM/AP
: ArrêtéLQ
ministériel/
Arrêté
présidentiel
D
SULYLOHJHG SRVLWLRQ
WKH FRXQWU\
6KH GLG
QRW KDYH VSHFLÀF
AMR but she
: Association
des Moniteurs
duprerogatives
Rwanda with
duties,
shared all responsibilities
and
AMUR
Association
des Musulmans
au Rwanda
the
king. For :example,
whenever
gifts were offered
to the king,
145
the
also hadNationale
to receivede
some.
7KHLQÁXHQFHRI
ANTQueen Mother
: Assemblée
Transition
the Queen Mother
on the kingNational
dependedAssembly)
on the character of the
(Transitional
latter.
In
any
case,
the
responsibility
of
managing
the kingdom
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
fell on the king, except when he was a minor. During such a
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
period, the Queen Mother would assume power.146
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
Rwandais
In principal, there
were no female chiefs. But, a team of NUR
APROCOMIN:
Association
desMajor
Commerçants
researchers and those from the
Seminary Indigènes
of Nyakibanda
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
143
Masse
Ibid. p. 85.
144
Kagame,
A.,
1972,
op.cit, p.148.
ARD
: Alliance
pour le Renforcement de la
145
Coupez, A., Kamanzi
Th.,
Récits
Démocratiehistoriques du Rwanda, Tervuren, 1962, p.93.
146
Mibamwe’s wife called Shetsa of Abega clan was imposed on the throne. She forced
ARDHO
Association
Rwandaise
pour
la Défense
des
the
monarch to do :whatever
she wanted,
she was sure that
the future
king was supposed
to be her son Hondi.Droits
However,de
the l’Homme
future queen mother was supposed to be Umuha. To
outwit
her,
the
court
secretly
brought
from Buha
Mutama daughter of Bigega. See A.
AREDETWA : Association pour
le Relèvement
Kagame, Un abrégé de l’histoire du Rwanda, pp.81-82.
Démocratique des Batwa
146
146
v
LGHQWLÀHGDOLVWRIIHPDOHAbatware
and Ibisonga147 who played
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
NH\SROLWLFDOUROHV,QDGGLWLRQWKH5ZDQGDQWUDGLWLRQWHVWLÀHVWR
___________________________________
the presence of some female chiefs.
A.A.
: Archives Africaines
Nyirantebe provides such an example. She was the sister of
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
King Yuhi Gahima and was charged with heading the Province
ABAKI
: Alliance
Bakiga
of Nyakari. She
governeddes
this
region with her husband and her
148
ABESC
:
Association
des
Bahutu
la
children until she became very old.
SheEvoluant
lived two pour
generations
Suppression
des was
Castes
before Yuhi Gahima.
Nyirangabo
chief of the house of King
ACR Rwabugiri
: Association
des and
Cultivateurs
du Rwanda She
Kigeri
in Ijwi Island
later in Bunyambilili.
protected
the :house
of Rwabugiri
against
intruders.
ADP
Alliance
Démocratique
des
Peuples Gicunatiro
administered
the
region
of
Kagina
in
Rukoma
under
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et
la Rwabugiri.
Nyirakimonyo ruled
Ndago (Nyaruguru)
Réconciliation
Nationaleunder King Rwabugiri
and King Musinga.149
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
AFDL
:
deswomen
Forceshad
Démocratiques
pour la
In other areas Alliance
of Rwanda,
political responsibilities,
Libération
du Congo-Zaïre
such as in Bukunzi
and Busozo.
The queens (abamikazi) had real
LQÁXHQFH
WKDW
VRPHWLPHV
FRXQWHUEDODQFHG
WKDW RIAct
NLQJV 7KH\
AGOA
: African
Growth
and Opportunity
controlled
all
court
foreseers
and
priests,
the
majority
of whom
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
150
were
who numbered
The circumstances
AIMOwomen :and
Affaires
Indigènesdozens.
et Main-d’oeuvre
which called for divine science were those which threatened
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
the life of the king or the kingdom. These included: the king’s
Rwandaise
movements abroad,
the reception of foreign guests by the king,
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
DQGWKHFKRLFHRIWKHÀUVWODG\IRUWKHNLQJ7KHTXHHQVRI%XNXQ]L
AM/AP
: Arrêté
ministériel/
Arrêté
or
Busozo were
informed
in advance
aboutprésidentiel
the program of the
AMRand prepared
: Association
desforMoniteurs
du thus
Rwanda
king
a timetable
him. Queens
determined
and
regulated
the
daily
activities
of
the
court.
In
this
respect,
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
151
Queen
is a prime
example.
ANT Mwalirugamba
: Assemblée
Nationale
de Transition
(Transitional National Assembly)
From the protocol point of view, it seems that the queen and
APADEC
Association
Parti Démocrate
Chrétien
the
king were: equal.
Queen du
Mwalirugamba
went to
Bujumbura
APR
: Armée
Patriotique
in
1904 to plead
for her
son afterRwandaise
the death of her husband,
APROBAMI
: Association
des Partis
Monarchistes
Nyundo,
which
occured when
a group
of dynastic members
wanted to take Rwandais
the royal drums away. The orders were given by
Bujumbura
in Shangi
to reinstate
Buhinga II toIndigènes
his kingdom
APROCOMIN:
Association
des Commerçants
under
the
regency
of
his
mother.
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
147
Masse
Uwamaliya E., 2004,
op.cit., p.24
148
Vansina,
J.,
“History
tales (ibitekerezo)
the history of Rwanda”,
ARD
: Alliance
pour le and
Renforcement
de la in History in
Africa. A journal of methodology,
vol
27/2000,p.384.
Démocratie
149
Uwamaliya, E., 2004, op.cit., p.24.
ARDHO
:
Association
Rwandaise
pour
ladu
Défense
150
Ntezimana, E., « Coutûmes et traditions
des royaumes
Hutus
Bukunzi etdes
du
de XIII,
l’Homme
Busozo », in EtudesDroits
Rwandaises,
2, 1980, pp. 24-25.
151
In May 1923, when
Father Superiorpour
of Mabirizi
visited King Buhinga II of
AREDETWA
: Association
le Relèvement
%XVR]RKHZDVWDNHQWR4XHHQ0ZDOLUXJDPED¿UVW
Démocratique des Batwa
147
v
147
From the judicial
point of view,
was in principle a man’s
ACRONYMS
ANDjustice
ABBREVIATIONS
affair. A woman
did
not
have
the
right
to speak in public for
___________________________________
fear of being banished. Gacaca traditional courts were reserved
for
Women only
expressed their opinions via their
A.A.adult men.
: Archives
Africaines
husbands. Family interests were defended by heads of families.
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
Some exceptional cases existed where, owing to their knowledge,
ABAKI
: Alliance des Bakiga
ZLVGRPDQGSROLWLFDOLQÁXHQFHZRPHQSDUWLFLSDWHGLQWUDGLWLRQDO
ABESC
: Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
justice.
Suppression des Castes
According
to : the
Ubwiru institution,
the belts
belonging to
ACR
Association
des Cultivateurs
du Rwanda
queen
mothers
who
had
died
were
honored
by
members of
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
152
the
of ‘Abiru
of relics’
ADRlineage. A: group
Alliance
pour lacustodian
Démocratie
et la kept these
belts. Knowledge of the Ubwiru institution was kept secret. It
Réconciliation Nationale
is narrated that the wife of Mibambwe Mutabazi and her son
AEC
: Agglomeration
Extra-Coutumières
perished
for having
wanted to probe
the improbable. Similarly,
AFDL
:
Alliance
des
Forces
Nyiramavugo Nyiramongi, mother of Démocratiques
Mutara Rwogera,pour
out oflaher
du Congo-Zaïre
curiosity, madeLibération
Kigeri Rwabugiri
put Inkoroko to death for having
153
spread
on the issue
of Rwogera’s succession.
AGOA false information
: African Growth
and Opportunity
Act
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
The tombs of the queen mother of Mukobanya Nyirakigeri I
AIMO
: Affaires
Indigènes
Nyangige
prove
the political
role et
of Main-d’oeuvre
some Rwandan women.
AJER tombs are
: Association
de la Jeunesse
Estudiantine
These
found at Rubingo
in the place
called Ku Kabira
Rwandaise
6K\RURQJL 7KH ÀUVW TXHHQ PRWKHU ZKRVH FHPHWHU\ LV NQRZQ
ALIRin these :tombs.
ArméeThe
de Libération
du Rwanda
lies
minor dynasty
of Mugina residing in
this
area was: charged
with performing
a special
ritual for this
AM/AP
Arrêté ministériel/
Arrêté
présidentiel
queen
mother
under
the
management
of
the
Abiru
of Nyamweru.
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
Under
Ruganzu
Ndori,
the
Ubwiru
Institution
stipulated
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda that
queen mothers were supposed to be buried in the same locality
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
as their husbands. Hence, Nyiramavugo I Nyirakabogo was
(Transitional aNational
buried in Mutangampundu,
cemeteryAssembly)
reserved for kings who
154
APADEC
:
Association
du
Parti
Démocrate
had died violently. Queen Mother Nyirakigeri II Chrétien
Ncendeli was
APR buried there
: Armée
Patriotique
Rwandaiseincluding having
also
owing
to her misbehavior,
become
pregnant.
APROBAMI
: Association des Partis Monarchistes
Rwandais
Under Mutara II Semugeshi, it was decided that during the
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
celebration ceremony of the cows’ drinking place, the king would
APROSOMA
: Association
pour
Promotion
Sociale
de laand
identify
the clan
from which
thelaqueen
mothers
of Kigeli
Masse
0LEDPEZHZHUHWREHFKRVHQ+HDOVRLGHQWLÀHGWKHIDPLO\RIWKH
ARD Clan, from
: Alliance
pour
le Renforcement
detolabe chosen.
Abega
which the
mother
of Cyirima was
Démocratie
He was chief of the Abakuna lineage which was made of descendants of Mukuna.
ARDHO
:
Association
pour la
Défense
des
This privilege was withdrawn in 1945Rwandaise
during the introduction
of Abiru
to A. Kagame
153
l’Homme
Nkulikiyimfura Droits
J.N., Lesde
sources
de l’histoire du Rwanda, Collection Cours
universitaires,
Ruhengeri,
UNR,
1992.
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
154
Kagame A., 1972, op.cit., p.74.
Démocratique des Batwa
152
148
148
v
King Yuhi Mazimpaka
decreed
his descendants would no
ACRONYMS
ANDthat
ABBREVIATIONS
longer marry women
from
the
Abacyaba
Clan. This was because
___________________________________
King Nsoro III Nyabarega of Bugesera had questioned the beauty
of
the wives of
the Rwandan
monarch and due to a conspiracy
A.A.
: Archives
Africaines
between some of his wives, namely Kihunde and Kiranga.155
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
ABAKI
: Alliance
des Bakiga
157
B.
Muzungu156
and A. Kagame
identify some women who were
ABESC
:
Association
des
Bahutu
important personalities in the history ofEvoluant
Rwanda. pour
Therelawere
des in
Castes
Nyiragahira, a Suppression
woman who lived
Mukingo, and Mwanabili, a
ACR
: Association
destradition
Cultivateurs
Rwanda
woman mentioned
in Rwandan
amongdu
the
women who
arranged the :return
of King
Ruganzu Ndori.
Under the latter’s
ADP
Alliance
Démocratique
des Peuples
rule,
Nyirarumaga
from
Abasinga
clan
distinguished
herself
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
by her artistic Réconciliation
talents. She updated
a new form of poem called
Nationale
‘Impakanizi,’ which is composed of several parts speaking about
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
several kingdoms simultaneously. This differed from previous
AFDL
:
Alliance
des Forces
Démocratiques
poems that never
went beyond
ten verses
(Ibinyeto). pour la
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
AGOA
: African
Growth
andKing
Opportunity
Act
Poems also spoke
of women.
Under
Kigeri III Ndabarasa,
a
poet known as
Musare noted in her poem that “mbwire umwami
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
uko
abandi
bami
bantumye”
(let me
tell the king the message
AIMO
: Affaires
Indigènes
et Main-d’oeuvre
transmitted by
other kings).
MusareEstudiantine
informed kings and
AJER
: Association
deThus,
la Jeunesse
queen mothers of what the population wanted to say. The queen
Rwandaise
mother used to go to the poet Muganza for advice. Muganza’s
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
poem, entitled “Mvulire Ubuhaka” (I will succumb to slavery),
AM/AP
Arrêtéabout
ministériel/
Arrêté between
présidentiel
managed to :bring
reconciliation
the Queen
158 Moniteurs du Rwanda
AMR
: Association des
0RWKHU·VWZRFRQÁLFWLQJVRQV
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
Under
Gahindiro,Nationale
Queen Mother
Nyirayuhi Nyiratunga
ANT King Yuhi
: Assemblée
de Transition
acted as regent(Transitional
until Gahindiro
becameAssembly)
mature. Mucuma lived
National
under
the
reign
of
King
Kigeri
Rwabugiri
and
was known
for her
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate
Chrétien
musical and poetic talents. She is the author of ‘Uramutashye’
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
(send to him my greetings), ‘Wibabara’ (don’t be sad), and ‘Inkuru
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
nziza yabaye’ (the good news has come).
Rwandais
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
$VIDUDVVRFLDOLGHQWLW\ZDVFRQFHUQHGVRPHFKLOGUHQLGHQWLÀHG
APROSOMAby: Association
la Promotion
de la
themselves
using namespour
of their
mothers. Sociale
For polygamous
communities in
the northern part of the country, basic family
Masse
PHHWLQJVZHUHDOZD\VKHOGLQWKHKRPHRIWKHÀUVWZLIH6RPHWLPHV
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
children who were
born by other wives refused to meet with their
Démocratie
ARDHO
: Association
155
Kagame, A., 1972,
op.cit., p.127. Rwandaise pour la Défense des
156
Droits
de l’Homme
Muzungu, B., Histoire
du Rwanda
precolonial, Paris, l’Harmattan, 2003, pp.349-353.
157
Kagame,
A.,
1972,
op.cit.,
pp.99-100.
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
158
Kagame, A., 1972, op.cit, pp.158, 164.
Démocratique des Batwa
149
v
149
IDWKHULQWKHKRPHRIWKHÀUVWZLIH7KH\SUHIHUUHGWRPHHWLQWKH
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
houses of their
respective mothers. When the father succumbed
___________________________________
to these demands of his children, divisions in the family were
SURYRNHG7KHHPHUJHQFHRIDVXEJURXSRIVRQVZKRLGHQWLÀHG
A.A.
: Archives Africaines
themselves by women’s names followed; sons produced by one
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
ZRPDQPHWLQRQHSODFHDQGZHUHXQGHUWKHGLUHFWLQÁXHQFHRI
ABAKI
: Alliance des Bakiga
this
woman.159
ABESC
: Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
Suppression
des Castes
It should be noted
that the family
of Abatabaro from Nyaruguru
ACR
: Association
Cultivateurs
dutook
Rwanda
(current
Southern
Province)des
produced
sons who
the name
of
their mother.
This was
the case of the
ADP
: Alliance
Démocratique
desAbatambi,
Peuples who were
descendants
of
Nyirankwitambi,
and
the
Abaremezo,
who were
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
160
Nyiraremezo’s Réconciliation
descendants. Nationale
7KLV QDPHLGHQWLÀFDWLRQ ZLWK
women was not only found in Ancient Rwanda. We can therefore
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
speak of matri-lineal descendants. Matrilineal societies trace the
AFDL
:
Alliance
des
Forces
pour
la
line of descendency
from
mother
to Démocratiques
daughter. Children
inherit
Congo-Zaïre
not from their Libération
father, butdu
from
their maternal uncle. For the
AGOA
: African
Growth
and Opportunity
Act 161
Abatabaro,
however,
children
inherited
from their father.
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
A
few
Rwandan
womenIndigènes
are citedetinMain-d’oeuvre
Rwandan tradition with
AIMO
: Affaires
DQFHVWU\
WLWOHV
RI 5ZDQGDQ
+HQFH
VRPH RIÀFLDO DQG
AJER
: Association
de FODQV
la Jeunesse
Estudiantine
popular legendary traditions associate the Abacyaba Clan with
Rwandaise
the great hero Gihanga, whose mediation was achieved through
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
his daughter Nyirarucyaba.162 The origins of the Abasobe clan
AM/AP
: Arrêté
Arrêté
présidentiel
are
contradictory
and ministériel/
confusing. One
version
associates them
AMR a servant
: Association
des Moniteurs
durevealed
Rwandato King
with
of Nzibira, Nyirarusobe,
who
AMUR Ndori
: Association
Musulmans
au Rwanda
Ruganzu
the trick to des
defeat
Nzira. Clearly,
some women
have
mark Nationale
on the history
of Rwanda.163
ANT left an indelible
: Assemblée
de Transition
(Transitional National Assembly)
g.
Beliefs
and
cults
APADEC
: Association
du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
The Rwandese believed in the existence of a Supreme Being
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
called ‘Imana.’ Their belief dealt with the survival of ancestors
Rwandais
after death. The
latter were divided into two categories, namely
APROCOMIN:
Association
des ‘Ingabwa,’
Commerçants
Indigènes
the benevolent ancestors, called
and the
evil ones.
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
Masse
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
159
Nahimana, F., 1993,
op.cit, p.47.
Démocratie
160
Minani, O.G., Evolution sociopolitique d’un lignage : Abatabaro dit Abahebyi dans
ARDHO
: Association
pour
la p.5
Défense des
le
Nyaruguru (18501935) , MémoireRwandaise
de Licence, Butare,
1981,
161
Droits
de
l’Homme
Nahimana, F., 1993,
op. cit.,
p.40.
162
Nyagahene,
A.,
op.
cit.,
p.454.
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
163
Kanakuze, J.A., 2005, op.cit., p.32
Démocratique des Batwa
150
150
v
x The
concept of Imana
ACRONYMS
AND ABBREVIATIONS
___________________________________
For ancient Rwandans, the universe was totally dominated by
Imana (God). :Even
if there
were neither temples nor cults for
A.A.
Archives
Africaines
worshiping Imana, the Rwandese made their supplications to
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
him and thanked him. They gave names to their children that
ABAKI
des
Bakiga
invoked God’s: Alliance
attributes.
There
were some names that invoked
ABESC
:
Association
des
Bahutu
Evoluant
pourRurema
la
the major qualities of God, such as Iyakare
(the alpha),
Suppression
des
Castes
(the creator), Ruhanga
(one who
gives
life to something that never
ACR
: Association
des puts
Cultivateurs
duexistence),
Rwanda and
existed before),
Rugira (one who
things into
164
Rugaba (the giver).
Given
this context,des
thePeuples
two major themes
ADP
: Alliance
Démocratique
of
‘Rurema’
and
‘Rugira’
dominate
in
Rwanda’s
literary genres.
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
The secondaryRéconciliation
attributes of Imana
are principally found in
Nationale
legends, proverbs, and anthroponomy and stress the themes of
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
transcendence and immanence.
AFDL
: Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
du Congo-Zaïre
One etiologicalLibération
legend in Rwanda
shows how Imana is very far
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity Act
from
us:
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
“Once
a time,
it wasetbelieved
that Imana lived
AIMO
:upon
Affaires
Indigènes
Main-d’oeuvre
people. He de
used
to help them
byfollowing them
AJER near his
: Association
la Jeunesse
Estudiantine
and protecting them day and night. Indeed, Imana took
Rwandaise
care of all children. Then, one day, when a father in
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
one homestead had gone hunting, and while a mother
AM/APZDV ZRUNLQJ
: ArrêtéLQ
ministériel/
Arrêtéstared
présidentiel
WKH ÀHOG Imana
taking care of
AMR the children
: Association
des Moniteurs
du Rwanda
in that family.
He caressed
them them and
AMURmade fun
: Association
des Musulmans
Rwanda
for them. Suddenly,
on returnau
from
his hunting
the fatherNationale
of the children
was surprised to see
ANT expedition,
: Assemblée
de Transition
an unknown
being among
his children.
He got shocked by
(Transitional
National
Assembly)
and
said,
‘What
on
earth
is
this
amazing
Without
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocratebeing?’
Chrétien
hesitation, he drew his arrow and directed it towards the
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
strange being which, in a twinkle of an eye, escaped in the
APROBAMI
: Association des Partis Monarchistes
sky. This is why Imana is no longer seen among people
today.” Rwandais
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
APROSOMA
: Association
pour Rwandan
la Promotion
Sociale
de lathat
The
above legend
and other
sayings
show
although Imana
is all knowledgeable and omnipotent, he is also
Masse
omnipresent
in
our daily
life.leThis
is similar to
and
ARD
: Alliance
pour
Renforcement
deBurundi
la
Buha legends in
present
Tanzania.
Such
legends
give
Imana
an
Démocratie
anthromorphus form: he walks and works! However, he is also
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
considered immaterial. Imana is very powerful; he knows, hears,
Droits de l’Homme
164
D’hertefelt
M.,
Trowborst,
A., Scherer
Les anciens royaumes de la zone
AREDETWA : Association
pourJ.H.,
le Relèvement
interlacustre meridionale Rwanda, Burundi, Buha, Tervuren, MRAC, 1962.
Démocratique des Batwa
151
v
151
and sees everything.
He is also
and offerings should
ACRONYMS
ANDbenevolent
ABBREVIATIONS
be made to appease
him.
In
the
absence
of such offerings to
___________________________________
Imana, man resorts to the king who acts as Imana’s intermediary.
The
considered
a national priest who links the
A.A.king is therefore
: Archives
Africaines
spirits of ancestors and the divine world.
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
ABAKI
: Alliance
Bakiga
However,
there
is an des
inferior
but powerful force of evil,
ABESC
:
Association
des
Bahutu
Evoluant
pour165
la The
Ruremankwaci, which is the cause of man’s
problems.
Suppression
Castesis not the same as the
previously discussed
conceptdes
of Imana
ACRin Christianity.
: Association
des
Cultivateurs
Rwanda
one
Ancient
dynastic
poems,duanthroponomy,
proverbs,
wishes,
and pleas
constitute the
ADP
: Alliance
Démocratique
desprincipal
Peuples sources of
knowledge
about
the
Supreme
Being
for
Rwandans.
Man and
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
his cosmic environment
are thus
sacrosanct. Imana alone is the
Réconciliation
Nationale
absolute master. Men are just managers and ministers of the
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
divine power.166 Here are some examples of proverbs and verses
AFDL
:
des Forces Démocratiques pour la
to illustrate theAlliance
above point:
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
AGOAx Umukama
: African
and
Opportunity
Act
uyuGrowth
akamirwa
n’Imana,
natwe akadukamira
akadukwira (the king who is present drinks milk
$,'6 amata
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
which
is
milkedIndigènes
by Imana and,
in turn, the king milks it
AIMO
: Affaires
et Main-d’oeuvre
hence the milk
abundant…).
Ordinary
AJER for us,
: Association
de labecomes
Jeunesse
Estudiantine
work is considered fruitful because it is blessed and
Rwandaise
perfected and realized within Imana’s actions behind it.
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
x
Uhingiwe
n’Imana
agirangoArrêté
azi guhinga
(a person whose
AM/AP
: Arrêté
ministériel/
présidentiel
cultivation
task
is
done
by
Imana
may
think that he is
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
the one who knows how to cultivate, but....)
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
ihaye irobe
agirango
abandi guhinga
ANT x Uwo :Imana
Assemblée
Nationale
de arusha
Transition
(a person
to
whom
Imana
gives
some
little
(Transitional National Assembly) energy may
think that he can cultivate better than others, but....)167
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
x
Imana
and imana
APROBAMI : Association
des Partis Monarchistes
Rwandais
Ancient Rwandans distinguished between the existence of
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
‘imana’ and ‘Imana Rurema.’ However, they also established a
APROSOMAbetween
: Association
pour
Promotion
de la
168
relationship
‘imana
andlaImana.’
It Sociale
should be
noted
Masse
165
Mbonimana, G.,
Le culte despour
mandwa
Rwanda. Contribution
à l’histoire des
ARD
: Alliance
le au
Renforcement
de la
mentalités, MémoireDémocratie
de Licence, Université Catholique de Louvain, 1973- 1974,p.12
166
Muzungu, B., “Religions traditionnelles rwandaises et le problème démographique
ARDHO
Association
Rwandaise pour la Défense des
“,
in Dialogue, no:104,
1984, pp.86-87.
167
dedel’Homme
Schumacher, P., Droits
“ Un cours
théologie dans la brousse Africaine », in Grands
Lacs,
1935,
no
5-6,
pp.163-175.
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
168
Nothomb, D., “ Le Dieu de nos pères », in Dialogue, janvier- février1974, No 49, p.39.
Démocratique des Batwa
152
152
v
that from the ACRONYMS
historical andAND
socio-religious
points of view, God,
ABBREVIATIONS
$QJHOV DQG 'HPRQV
²
ZKLFK
OHDYH
WKH
ÁHVK
DIWHU GHDWK ² IDOO
___________________________________
169
under the category of spirits.
The following things are also
called
imana
(god):
the
king,
chance,
A.A.
: Archives Africaines animals of divine science
(bull calves, rams, chicks), talismans containing stuff obtained
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
from sacred animals, diviners, the intermediary of Ryangombe
ABAKI
Alliance
des Bakiga
in
ceremonies: of
the Imandwa
cult, the lineage protective spirit,
ABESC
:
Association
des
Bahutu Evoluant pour la
VDFUHGWUHHVDWWKHERWWRPRIZKLFKVDFULÀFHVDUHRIIHUHGV\FDPRUH
Suppression
Castes to spirits or places of
and erythrin trees
which givedes
sanctuary
ACR for the ancestral
: Association
des Cultivateurs
du Rwanda
cult
founders
of lineages, and
places where
objects
for religious functions
are organized.
ADP of commemoration
: Alliance Démocratique
des Peuples
Benevolent
and
generous
persons
are
also,
by
metonymy,
under
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
the name of “imana
y’I Rwanda,”
or “god of Rwanda.”
Réconciliation
Nationale
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
In Rwanda, there were also Imana-related names170 that served
AFDL
: Alliance
Forces
Démocratiques
la
as
a tool for analyzing
thedes
concept
of God
before 1900. pour
Currently,
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
&KULVWLDQWHDFKLQJKDVH[HUWHGDORWRILQÁXHQFHRQWKHImanaAGOA names
: African
and
Opportunity
Act
invoking
used inGrowth
Rwanda.
Names
that are God-invoking
KDYH
LQ RUDO DQG RIÀFLDO WUDGLWLRQDO VRXUFHV %XW
$,'6EHHQ IRXQG
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
names
like
Gihanga
andIndigènes
Rumeza make
reference to divine power.
AIMO
: Affaires
et Main-d’oeuvre
It
is important
to stress that
God-bound
names for many
AJER
: Association
dethose
la Jeunesse
Estudiantine
Rwandans were given between 1928 and 1994 when the Catholic
Rwandaise
UHOLJLRQZDVDWLWVKHLJKW7KHVHQDPHVUHÁHFWWKHEHOLHIVRIWKH
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
ancestors from which ancestral religion was born.
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
AMR x Guterekera
: Association
desfor
Moniteurs
or cult
ancestorsdu Rwanda
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
The cult of ‘Guterekera’ was based on the belief in life after death
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
and the relationship between the living and the dead. According
(Transitional
National
Assembly)
to this belief, man
and animals
were made
of a visible part, the
APADEC
:
Association
du
Parti
Démocrate
Chrétien
body, and an invisible part, or “shadow.” At death,
the body
APR
: Armée
became
a carcass
and Patriotique
the shadow Rwandaise
escaped from the body. In a
mysterious
the shadow
was
transformed
into “spirits” or
APROBAMIway,
: Association
des
Partis
Monarchistes
‘Umuzimu.’ TheRwandais
dead could interfere with the living with both good
and
bad intentions,
which is des
whyCommerçants
spirits were sometimes
feared
APROCOMIN:
Association
Indigènes
171
and inspired cults. In addition, a vertical solidarity connected
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
both the living and the benevolent people to the ancestor called
Masse
Ingabwa (hence the name Habingwaba).
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
169
Misago, A., « La croyance
aux esprits au Rwanda et son impact sur la vie quotidienne
Démocratie
d’aujourd’hui », in Foi et Culture, Séminaire du 26-31 Octobre 1987, p.8.
ARDHO
Association
pour
la »,Défense
des
170
Muzungu, B., «:Imana
y’I Rwanda :Rwandaise
Dieu qui règne au
Rwanda
in Cum Paraclito,
Droits de l’Homme
1965, p.12.
171
Heremans,
R.,
Introduction
à l’Histoire
, Kigali, Editions Rwandaises,
AREDETWA : Association
pourduleRwanda
Relèvement
1988, p.51.
Démocratique des Batwa
153
v
153
The dead always
demandedAND
love ABBREVIATIONS
and respect from their living
ACRONYMS
relatives. They___________________________________
also demanded that the rights on the property of
their heirs be respected. Every family used to construct small
huts,
dedicatedAfricaines
to the appeasement of the spirits of
A.A. ‘Indaro,’: Archives
known ancestors. It should be noted that Rwandans believed in
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
metaphysics. It was believed that the dead king was transformed
ABAKI
: Alliance
into
a leopard.
This is des
why Bakiga
kings were called Abambarangwe
ABESC
:
Association
des
Bahutu Evoluant
pouranother
la
(those who were dressed in leopard-skin).
There was
Suppression
des Castes
belief that some
mysterious beings
manifested their evil power
ACR
: Association
des
Cultivateurs
du Rwanda
by
acting in mysterious
ways.
They
were given different
names in
different
regions.
Almost Démocratique
everywhere, anddes
especially
in the central
ADP
: Alliance
Peuples
and
eastern
regions
of
Rwanda,
they
were
called
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la ‘Amahembe.’
In the central and
southwest, Nationale
they were called ‘Ibitega.’ In the
Réconciliation
former province of Cyangugu, they were called ‘Ibihume,’ and
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
had other names like ibigashanyi.172 According to the legend
AFDL
:
Alliance
des Forces
pour
la
above, the origin
of ‘Guterekera’
can Démocratiques
be summarized as
follows:
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
AGOA
: African
Opportunity
Act friends;
x The two
brothersGrowth
Basindi and
and Kibanda
were great
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
x The son
of Basindi killed the son of Kibanda;
AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
x This forced the family of Basindi into exile;
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
x The two Rwandaise
brothers met after very many years in a foreign
country;
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
AM/AP
: Arrêté
ministériel/
présidentiel
x Kibanda
refused
to commit Arrêté
vendetta
on the son of his
brother;
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
AMUR
: Association
Musulmans
Rwanda
x Kibanda
married the des
sister-in-law
of theau
murderer;
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
x Kibanda accepted an olive branch and accepted to be
National
Assembly)
173
smeared(Transitional
with kaolin butter.
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
The use of the olive branch and ‘kaolin’ symbolized reconciliation
APROBAMI
des
Partisdespite
Monarchistes
and
refusal of: Association
revenge in the
family,
the act of murder
Rwandais
commited by an immediate cousin. The act of reconciliation
APROCOMIN:
Association
des Commerçants
prevented
the dead
from bringing
misfortune toIndigènes
the living. In
fact,
this narrative
was created
the Ababanda
APROSOMA
: Association
pour to
la enable
Promotion
Sociale de to
la live
harmoniously with
the
Abasindi
after
the
conquest
of
Nduga.
Masse
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
Démocratie
172
Misago, A., op. cit., 1987, p.10; Ibihume are spirits of the dead which families own
ARDHO
:
Association
pourwhich
la Défense
des
or invoke. They appear in the form ofRwandaise
ghosts and phantoms
live in woodlands,
de l’Homme
rivers and caves etc.Droits
Their actions
manifest themselves through attacks similar to
epilepsy
and,
hysteria
or
other
queer
which
are above ordinary therapy.
AREDETWA : Association diseases
pour le
Relèvement
173
Bigrumwami A., 1974,op.cit., p.270.
Démocratique des Batwa
154
154
v
In the practice
of Guterekera,
the ABBREVIATIONS
family chief woke up at dawn
ACRONYMS
AND
and went to the
hut
dedicated
to
his
ancestor so as to appease
___________________________________
him. He sat at the threshold of the hut and was smeared with
kaolin
on an erythrin
leaf. The person who brought
A.A. brought
: Archives
Africaines
WKLV OHDI SXW KLV ÀQJHU LQ WKH kaolin and made a sign on the
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
forehead and chest of the family chief, wishing him happiness
ABAKI
: Alliance
des splashed
Bakiga some water in the hut and
and
power. The
family chief
ABESC
: Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
EURXJKWPLOOHWJUDLQVDQGNDROLQLQDVPDOOEDVNHW+HOLWDÀUH
Suppression
des Castes
so that the spirit
could get warmth
and threw some grains that
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
FUDFNHGDVWKH\FDPHLQFRQWDFWZLWKÀUH7KHFUDFNLQJRIWKH
grain
laughter
by the appeased
spirits. This ritual
ADP symbolized
: Alliance
Démocratique
des Peuples
was
accompanied
by
other
cultural
rites
so
that
the dead could
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
be assured of good
deeds done Nationale
by the family. At the same time,
Réconciliation
the spirits gave mercy and protection to all.174
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
AFDL
:
des Forces
Démocratiques
la
For all intents Alliance
and purposes,
the ancient
Rwandese pour
consulted
du Congo-Zaïre
diviners.175 TheLibération
diviner knew
how to interpret the signs of the
AGOA
African
Growth
and Opportunity
Act of divine
visible world :and
God’s
willingness.
Different types
science were used:
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
x
Divination
by bones,
pumpkin-seeds,
small pieces of
AJER
: Association
de la
Jeunesse Estudiantine
wood, magic horn
Rwandaise
x Divination
by bull
calf, ram, goat,
chick
ALIR
: Armée
de Libération
du Rwanda
AM/AP
: Arrêté
ministériel/
ArrêtéSODQWV
présidentiel
x $QLPDO
IDW GU\
ÁRZHUV EXWWHU
JUDVVKRSSHUV
AMR water : Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
AMUR
: Association
desNyabingi
Musulmans
x Invoking
Imandwa and
spirit au Rwanda
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
x Intuition or prophecy
(Transitional National Assembly)
$%LJLUXPZDPLLGHQWLÀHVVRPHFDXVHVRI¶Guterekera.’
It was a
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
way
someone’s
heritage
and his family, or it was
APR of protecting
: Armée
Patriotique
Rwandaise
an activity intended to appease a woman who had lost a child
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
to murder by her co-wife (mukeba). Before the act of murder,
the Rwandese Rwandais
believed that man was resurrected immediately
APROCOMIN:
desthe
Commerçants
Indigènes
after
death. TheAssociation
cult prevented
spirit of a dead
woman from
176
APROSOMA
:
Association
pour
la
Promotion
Sociale
de la
exterminating all of humanity.
The practice of ‘guterekera’
Massea male heir and the transformation into an
also aimed at getting
immortal
being
by the cult
of the
living.
ARD
: Alliance
pour
le Renforcement
de la
Démocratie
ARDHO
:
Association
Rwandaise pour la Défense des
174
Ibid. p.19
175
l’Homme
There were other Droits
specialistsde
for mysteries
namely abacunyi or the healers who made
FKDUPVDEDKDQ\LRUULWXDOSXUL¿HUV
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
176
Bigrumwami, A., 1974, op.cit. p. 270.
Démocratique des Batwa
155
v
155
¾ Kubandwa
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
___________________________________
We have described the ritual for Rwandese ancestors at family
level.
thereAfricaines
existed spirits which were consulted
A.A. Nonetheless,
: Archives
after death. The cult which praised them surpassed both family
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
and clan levels. The cult of ‘kubanda’ existed in all parts of the
ABAKILakes Region.
: Alliance
des
Bakiga
Great
This
was
the Mandwa or Ryangombe cult.
ABESC
:
Association
des
Bahutu
Evoluant pour
la
While observing it, its followers sought
Ryangombe’s
protection.
des Castes
The Imandwa Suppression
cult has a long
history in Rwanda and has
177
ACR
: Association for
desyears.
Cultivateurs
du Rwanda
undergone
transformations
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
The
refers
to both
the specialistetand
ADRword Imandwa
: Alliance
pour
la Démocratie
la the medium
of the cult. ThisRéconciliation
word is interpreted
in different forms in Bunyoro,
Nationale
Toro, Nkore, Kigezi (Uganda), Buhaya, Bujinja, Buha, Bukerewe
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
(island in Lake Victoria), Rwanda, Burundi, and Kivu (DRC).
AFDL
:
Alliance des
Forces
Démocratiques
pour la
Practicing Ukubandawa
refers
to participating
in ceremonies
du Congo-Zaïre
that helped anLibération
individual become
a member of society. The act
AGOA
: African
Growth
and Opportunity
of
honoring the
Imandwa
was realized
by imitatingAct
their ritual
sounds
Ukubandwa is celebrated when one is a
$,'6 and gestures.
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
full
and
complete
member.
There isetno
unanimity on the origin
AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes
Main-d’oeuvre
178
of
Ryangombe: Association
and Imandwa
The existing
literature on
AJER
decults.
la Jeunesse
Estudiantine
Ryangombe, like that of the Bacwezi, is characterized by the
Rwandaise
Hamite179K\SRWKHVLV6RPHSHRSOHDIÀUPWKDWWKHImandwa cult
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
preceded that of Ryangombe and that it is of Hutu origin.180
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
AMR posit : that
Association
Moniteurs
Rwanda
Others
the cultdes
was
imported du
into
Rwanda and
AMUR came
: Association
des Musulmans
auBarenge
Rwandain the
therefore
after the disappearance
of the
181
ÀIWHHQWK
FHQWXU\
Others
claim that
cult is a relatively
ANT
: Assemblée
Nationale
dethis
Transition
recent development
and thatNational
Ryangombe
was Tutsi, contrary
(Transitional
Assembly)
to
those
who
thought
he
was
Twa
or
Hutu.
TheChrétien
ruling class
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate
accepted Ryangombe as a tool to facilitate the domination of the
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
people who were culturally assimilated.182
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
Rwandaisdo not determine the exact cause of
The existing narratives
APROCOMIN:
Association
des
Commerçants
Indigènes
‘Kubandwa.·
6RPH
WUDGLWLRQV
DIÀUP
WKDW WKH FXOW
ZDV LPSRVHG
APROSOMA
:
Association
pour
la
Promotion
Sociale
de la
177
Arnoux A., « Le culte de la société secrète des Imandwas au Rwanda », in Anthropos,
Masse P., « Les mystères des Mandwas sont d’origine hamite »,
vol. VIII 1913 ; Schumacher
in
Congo,
1931,
I,
pp.
549-550. pour le Renforcement de la
ARD
: Alliance
178
Kagame, A., 1976,
La philosophie bantoue-rwandaise, p.24, 416.
Démocratie
179
Berger, I., Religion and resistance, East African Kingdoms in the pre-colonial
ARDHO
: Association
pour la Défense des
period,
MRAC, 1981,
p. 57. p. 59, op.Rwandaise
cit. p. 312
180
l’Homme
Arnoux, A. 1912,Droits
art. Citedde
p. 290
181
Ndagijimana,
A.,
Personal
notes,
copy in our archives)
AREDETWA : Association s.l.n.d.
pour(manuscript
le Relèvement
182
Berger, I., 1981, op. cit p. 57
Démocratique des Batwa
156
156
v
on the entire ACRONYMS
Rwandan population
by King Mutara Semugeshi.
AND ABBREVIATIONS
For others, the
imposition
was
done
during the reign of King
___________________________________
Ruganzu Ndori. Under King Yuhi Mazimpaka, the ‘Imandwa”
FXOWZDVZHOONQRZQ.LQJ&\ULPD5XMXJLUDSXWLQSODFHWKHÀUVW
A.A.
: Archives Africaines
Imandwa Leader (Umwami w’imandwa). The King of Imandwa
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
and the chief of the initiated were traditionally the Abashambo,
ABAKI
: Alliance
des Bakiga
from
the lineage
of Abayumbu.
They rose to dignity under King
183
ABESC
:
Association
des
pour
la
Mibambwe Sentabyo’s rule . ABahutu
herd of Evoluant
cattle called
‘Impara’
desofCastes
was associatedSuppression
with this group
warriors. It was among these
ACR
: Association
des Cultivateurs
du
Rwanda 184
people that King
Rwabugiri brought
up his son,
Sharangabo.
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
The
‘kubandwa’
‘guterekera’FDQEHH[HPSOLÀHG
ADRlink between
: Alliance
pourand
la Démocratie
et la
by the concept of
virginity
in
the
service
of
King
Yuhi Mazimpaka
Réconciliation Nationale
in Kamonyi.1856RPHVSLULWVZHUHDVVRFLDWHGZLWKVSHFLÀFFXOWV
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
:
AFDL
: Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
x The king, but this was done in his residence;
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
x The woman who had produced many children;
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity Act
x
A
woman
who was married to put an end to a vendetta;
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
whoIndigènes
had diedetfar
away from his or her
AIMO x Someone
: Affaires
Main-d’oeuvre
relatives;
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
x A child
who had died two or three days after birth;
Rwandaise
girl;de Libération du Rwanda
ALIR x A young
: Armée
had died in
someone
else’s home.186
AM/APx A foreigner
: Arrêté who
ministériel/
Arrêté
présidentiel
It should be remembered that while the myths of Imandwa
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
and Kubandwa were taking place, another cult of two heroes
ANT
: Assemblée
Nationalethey
de Transition
was born: Kibogo
and Cyumweru;
were supposedly the
National
Assembly)
contemporaries(Transitional
of King Ruganzu
Ndori.
It is said that Kibogo
APADEC
: Association
du Parti Démocrate
Chrétien with
was
son of King
Ndahiro Cyamatare
and was massacred
APRfamily in a: Armée
Patriotique
Rwandaise
his
clan vendetta.
According
to A. Pagès, Kibogo was
offered
by
his
father
to
beg
the
spirits
for good weather after
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
a serious famine.
His body was burned in a place called “Mu
Rwandais
kadasaya
ka
Ngoma”
in the des
present
district of Kamonyi.
It was
APROCOMIN: Association
Commerçants
Indigènes
sent to Heaven in the form of smoke. This took place during the
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
reign of King Semugeshi and not during King Ndahiro’s rule.
Masse
The rain-makers
considered Kibogo their heavenly master. The
ARD
:
Alliance
pour
le Renforcement
de la
Imandawa Cult offered him
a crate
of beer and some
bananas for
Démocratie
Rennie, K. J., Kingdom of Rwanda, p. 38, cited by I. Berger religion and
ARDHO
:
Association
Rwandaise pour la Défense des
resistance, p. 59, op. cit. p. 312.
184
Droits
de 312.
l’Homme
De Lacger, L., 1959,
op. cit.p.
185
Buhigiro,
J.
L.,
op.
cit.
p.
19
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
186
Bigirumwami, A., 1974, op. cit., pp. 278- 280.
Démocratique des Batwa
183
157
v
157
his wife. Kibogo
became Imandwa.
He was honored by a special
ACRONYMS
AND ABBREVIATIONS
cult in the royal
court
until
1931,
when
King Yuri Musinga was
___________________________________
dethroned and banished to Kamebe by the Belgian colonial
187
administration
.
A.A.
: Archives
Africaines
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
Cyumweru is said to have lived in Ruhina in the present district
ABAKI
Alliance
desKibogo
Bakigaand even accompanied him
of Muhanga. :He
protected
ABESC
: Association
Bahutu
pour
la
to heaven. Given
his honor,des
King
MutaraEvoluant
Semugeshi
exempted
Suppression
des Castes
Cyumweru’s wife
from all forced
labor and reduced the forced
ACR
: Association
du Rwanda
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ADP
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ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
As far as the Réconciliation
‘UkubanGwa,’ Nationale
or feast for initiated members
was concerned, this ritual was organized in solemn and
AEC
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public ceremonies. It was accompanied by gestures,
AFDL
:
ForcesofDémocratiques
pour la —
speeches, andAlliance
chants des
in honor
the “king of spirits”
Libération
du Congo-Zaïre
Ryangombe. Its
membership
was generally restricted to those
AGOA
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and Opportunity
who were already
initiated
those who Act
applied to
become candidates
for initiation. The non-initiated members
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were
called
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death, et
the
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AIMO
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Indigènes
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Nyiragongo, :an
active volcano,
while the
‘Imandwa’ were
AJER
Association
de la Jeunesse
Estudiantine
compensated after death. They joined Ryangombe in paradise
Rwandaise
where a volcano had gone extinct in Muhabura, Karisimbi.
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/
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présidentiel
Before the ceremonies
of this cult took
place,
the diviners were
AMR
: Association
desmisfortune
Moniteurs
du Rwanda
consulted in order
to avoid all
during
the ceremony.
AMUR
: Association
des Musulmans
Rwandahad a
Every candidate
who attended
the initiation au
ceremony
godfather for :men
and a godmother
The godfather
ANT
Assemblée
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de women.
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and godmother(Transitional
had also passed
throughAssembly)
the same process. Their
National
choice
and
the
choice
of
place
where
the
initiation
ceremony
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate
Chrétien
took place were determined by a diviner. Participation in the
APR
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Ryangombe cult consisted of two steps: ‘kwatura’ initiation
APROBAMI
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and ‘gusubira kuntebe’ FRQÀUPDWLRQ ,W VKRXOG EH QRWHG WKDW
all ceremonies Rwandais
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festivity called ‘gutonora’, or sharing
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feasts.
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The initiation ceremony
of ‘Kwatura’ was a ceremony through
Masse
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Thede
latter
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement
la therefore
became the parent
and
protector
of
his
son.
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recipient
and
Démocratie
KLVJRGIDWKHUSXWRQDFORWKPDGHRIVNLQ7KHÀUVWRQHSXWRQ
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
his head a piece of empty sorghum trunk (urugori) and some
Droits de l’Homme
NLQGRIVKRHVDURXQGRQHRIKHUKLVWRHV7KHÀUVWVWHSFRQVLVWHG
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
187
Pagès, A., 1933, op. cit. pp. 127-132, 236- 238.
Démocratique des Batwa
158
158
v
of going to the
erythrin tree,AND
which
was considered a protective
ACRONYMS
ABBREVIATIONS
tree. The initiated
woman
begged
Ryangombe to protect her
___________________________________
sons. The recipient underwent some exams on sexual taboos,
accompanied
the ringing
of bells and serving beer. After that,
A.A.
:by
Archives
Africaines
the candidate was stripped naked and smeared with mud. This
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
stage consisted of transmitting the secrets of the Imandwa cult,
ABAKIwere neither
: Alliance
des Bakiga
which
supposed
to be disclosed to his father nor
ABESC
:
Association
des
Bahutu
Evoluant
pour
la
his mother if they were not initiated.
Then,
when he
returned
Suppression
Castes
home, the candidate
slept fordes
some
time with his godfather or
ACR
: Association
Cultivateurs
du Rwanda
godmother.
He
received the des
name
of RuziQgo (the
wretched)
and
without sitting
proceeding to
ADPattended: ceremonies
Alliance Démocratique
desbefore
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the
next
stage.
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the
initiated
member
sat
ADR
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Réconciliation
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imandwa), the initiated member was given a seat and was
AEC
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worshiped as Ryangombe. He received an initiation name. This
AFDL
:
Alliance
des
Forces
Démocratiques
la a
was followed by
drinking
and
dancing.
The godfatherpour
received
Congo-Zaïre
cow, sheep, or Libération
a hoe. Thisdu
ceremony
generally ended at dawn
AGOA
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Growth
Act
with
a holy ritual,
after
which and
the Opportunity
Imandwa disappeared
in
neighboring
families
while begging for or taking possession of
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anything
he
came
across.
AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
During these rites, there was a feast known as ‘kubagirwa
Rwandaise
imandwa or gutonora.’ This consisted of a meal the participants
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
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: Arrêté Every
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initiatedArrêté
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and their assistants
AMR
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du accompanied
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received
a piece
of meat to des
eat. Moniteurs
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by
AMUR DQG GDQFHV
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optional
because
it had to be
imposed de
by Transition
the diviner.
ANT
: Assemblée
Nationale
(Transitional National Assembly)
Besides
cult,
another cult
known as
APADECthe Ryangombe
: Association
duthere
Partiwas
Démocrate
Chrétien
Nyabingi. It was widespread in some parts of the county. The
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
name Nyabingi referred to a wealthy person, and ‘Nyabingi
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
Nyiramubyeyi’ meant mother. In some areas, she was called
Rwandais
Biheko or Nyabiheko.
Some legends consider Nyabingi to be a
APROCOMIN:
Association
Indigènes
woman who was not marrieddes
andCommerçants
living in Ndorwa
or Karagwe.
APROSOMA
la Promotion
Sociale
de la
It
is also said: Association
that ‘Imana’pour
transformed
her into
an immortal
creature. The Nyabingi
Masse cult was very widespread in the north
and
northwest
of Rwanda
up to
It extended
to Bwishya,
ARD
: Alliance
pour
le Mutara.
Renforcement
de la
Bufunbira, andDémocratie
Kigezi.188
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
During King Rwabugiri’s expedition to Nkore he attacked King
Droits
de l’Homme
Ntare. When he
returned
victoriously to Rwanda, Rwabugiri
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
D’hertefelt, M., Trouwborst A. A.., Scherer J. H., 1962, op. cit., p. 85.
Démocratique des Batwa
188
159
v
159
brought herds
of cattle and
several
hostages, one of whom
ACRONYMS
AND
ABBREVIATIONS
was a young___________________________________
girl called Nyiramubyeyi Nyabingi. The latter
became famous because she played a very important role in the
legendary
history
of this Africaines
expedition. In compensation, she was
A.A.
: Archives
given authority to command some parts of Northern Rwanda
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
such as Mulera and Ndorwa, where she later ended her career.
ABAKI
: Alliance des Bakiga
ABESC that
: Association
des Bahutu
Evoluant
pour
la
Traditions
associate historic
events to
Ndori also
associate
Suppression
des Castes
the Nyabingi cult
with this king.
Nyabingi was a daughter of
ACR
des
Cultivateurs
Ndahiro,
wife :ofAssociation
Nyanka, and
sister
of the sonsdu
of Rwanda
Ndahiro, who
was
Ndori,
Kinywi, anddes
Kibigo.
The narratives
ADPking of Rwanda:
: Alliance
Démocratique
Peuples
that
speak
of
these
last
two
kings
originate
from
pure
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la mythology.
But in reality, the
Nyabingi cultNationale
is more recent than the Mandwa
Réconciliation
cult, which only came to northern Rwanda in the mid-nineteenth
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
century.
AFDL
: Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
Libération
Congo-Zaïre
After her death,
Nyabingi du
was
not forgotten. Her cult spread
AGOA
Growth
in
the regions: African
cited above.
Her and
cult Opportunity
was different Act
from that of
Ryangombe
since
it was characterized by the absence of initiation
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ceremonies.
Nyabingi
her own et
priests
and priestesses, also
AIMO
: Affaireshad
Indigènes
Main-d’oeuvre
called
There was de
also
woman who
was known to be
AJER Nyabingi.
: Association
la aJeunesse
Estudiantine
the intermediary between Nyabingi and her followers. Nyabingi’s
Rwandaise
priests played the roles of prophets and healers. Although it is
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
said that in theory Nyabingi’s priests ascended to priesthood
AM/AP inspiration,
: Arrêtéinministériel/
Arrêté
présidentiel
through
practice a son
or daughter
replaced the
AMR or mother
: Association
des
Moniteurs
du husband,
Rwanda etc.
father
and a widow
replaced
her late
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
Nyabingi’s
help
and protection
were de
sought
by men who had
ANT
: Assemblée
Nationale
Transition
been hit by misfortune
and calamity
in life.
Through the power of
(Transitional
National
Assembly)
the
spirit
communicated
by
priests
and
priestesses,
Nyabingi’s
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
intervention was invoked and she made her appearance in a
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
special hut constructed in the man’s compound. It was then that
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
Nyabingi asked for offerings in terms of foodstuffs or small-sized
Rwandais
livestock. Nyabingi’s
priests were reputed for being greedy for
189
APROCOMIN:
Association
Commerçants
Indigènes
property. The Nyabingi cultdes
later
took a political
dimension at
APROSOMA
Associationcentury.
pour laThe
Promotion
de lawith
the
end of the: nineteenth
cult wasSociale
associated
an insurrectionMasse
that aimed at overthrowing King Yuhi Musinga.
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
In short, nobody
knows for certain the identity of Ryangombe
Démocratie
or that of Nyabingi. Some circles often confuse the latter with
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
Muhumuza. Research should be conducted to discover the
de l’Homme
nature of otherDroits
spirits worshiped
in different parts of the country
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
189
D’hertefelt M., Trouwborst A.A., Scherer J. H., 1962, op. cit., p. 85.
Démocratique des Batwa
160
160
v
DQG WR ÀQG RXW
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ACRONYMS
AND
before 1900. The
‘Ukubandwa’
practice
or ‘Ryangombe’ cult is
___________________________________
a cult of genius, a cult of initiation, a cult of ancestry, a cult of
heroes,
and a: Archives
feast that Africaines
had anthropological, sociological, and
A.A.
psychological implications.
A.G.
ABAKI
Throughout
ABESC we
Rwanda,
: Assemblée Générale
: Alliance
desanalysis
Bakiga of the history of Ancient
the
present
: Association
pour
la
have
presenteddes
the Bahutu
history ofEvoluant
pre-colonial
Rwanda
des Castes
under multipleSuppression
facets. The salient
points of the formation of
ACR
Association
Cultivateurs
du Rwanda
Rwanda
as a :kingdom
havedes
been
examined. The
points raised
stress
of Rwanda
from itsdes
nucleus
of Gasabo, its
ADP the formation
: Alliance
Démocratique
Peuples
territorial
expansion,
its
socio-political
organization,
and its
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
relations with neighbouring
lands.
Réconciliation
Nationale
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
The chronology of the formation of the Kingdom of Rwanda is
AFDL
:
Démocratiques
pourwhile
la
disputed. SomeAlliance
authorsdes
dateForces
it to the
thirteenth century,
Libération
du Congo-Zaïre
others date it to
earlier than
that. The Nyinginya dynasty was
AGOA
: African
Growth and
Opportunity
Act
established
near
the beginning
of the
sixteenth century.
This
dynasty
brought more than 50 small kingdoms under
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its
authority,
each
of
which
was ruled
a king called “Umuhinza”
AIMO
: Affaires
Indigènes
etby
Main-d’oeuvre
or
“Umwami.”: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
AJER
Rwandaise
The political formation emerged with King Ruganzu Ndori towards
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
the middle of the sixteenth century. He was supported, like all
AM/AP
: Arrêté
Arrêté
présidentiel
other
kingdoms
in the ministériel/
Great Lakes, by
two basic
factors: religion
AMRwar. The: political
Association
desinMoniteurs
dutime
Rwanda
and
system
place at the
combined a
AMUR of centralized
: Association
des Musulmans
Rwanda
system
government
at the royal au
court,
subdivided
into
residences,
with ande
army
network hinged on
ANT several royal
: Assemblée
Nationale
Transition
controlling big (Transitional
livestock and National
pastures.Assembly)
The entire system was
united
by
a
system
of
servants’
contracts
called Ubuhake.
During
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate
Chrétien
the eighteenth century, the introduction of new crops led to
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
improvements in agriculture and consequently to the reduction
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
of food shortages. Population also increased, leading to territorial
Rwandais
expansion and land
ownership problems, a combination of which
APROCOMIN:
Association
Commerçants
led to the creation of pastoraldes
land
reserves calledIndigènes
‘Ibikingi.’
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
The political and
social history of Rwanda is best understood
Masse
from
the
eighteenth
andpour
nineteen
centuries. During
this period,
ARD
: Alliance
le Renforcement
de la
documents provide
information
about
Rwanda’s
history.
This
Démocratie
history was characterized by an increasingly centralized system,
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
especially during the reign of King Cyirima Rujugira. He erected
l’Hommeborders. He encouraged the
military campsDroits
at thedecountry’s
AREDETWA
: Association
le royal
Relèvement
presence
of principal
chiefspour
at the
court and introduced
Démocratique des Batwa
161
v
161
many royal rituals,
exploiting
country’s traditions to the
ACRONYMS
ANDthe
ABBREVIATIONS
EHQHÀWRIWKHG\QDVW\
___________________________________
During
century,
the Nyingnya dynasty endeavored
A.A. the nineteenth
: Archives
Africaines
to expand and consolidate its conquests from central Rwanda.
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
The expansion was facilitated by the genius of military science,
ABAKI
: techniques,
Alliance desand
Bakiga
agro-pastoral
by commercial ties within and
ABESC
:
Association
des
Bahutu Evoluant
la
outside the country. This expansionist
movementpour
continued
Suppression
up to the end of
the reign of des
KingCastes
Kigeri IV Rwabugiri, the last
ACR
: Association
Cultivateurs
du Rwanda
independent
king
of Rwanda.des
Having
entirely resisted
the coming
of
Arab slave: traders,
became des
one Peuples
of the last African
ADP
AllianceRwanda
Démocratique
countries
ushered
into
the
European
colonial
system
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et
la at the end
of the nineteenth
century, in 1897.
Réconciliation
Nationale
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
Rwanda’s kings extended their powers to their subjects, but
AFDLpowers :were
Alliance
des
Forces
pour
la
such
heavily
limited
byDémocratiques
three key factors:
a strong
Libérationfamilies,
du Congo-Zaïre
rise of some aristocratic
the role of manipulators, and
AGOA
: African
Growth
and
Opportunity
the
interpreters
of Ubwiru
esoteric
code
and diviners.Act
The system
of
centralization
was not based on a uniform and integrated
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system
of
territorial
administration
instead followed a trialAIMO
: Affaires
Indigènes etbut
Main-d’oeuvre
and-error
method.
The realization
of the ideology
of conquering
AJER
: Association
de la Jeunesse
Estudiantine
neighboring countries was undermined, among other things, by
Rwandaise
the ambition and intrigue of political and military elites.
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/
Arrêté in
présidentiel
By
the time Europeans
set foot in Rwanda
1892, the political
AMR
: Association
des Moniteurs
du IURP
Rwanda
VLWXDWLRQ
RI WKH
NLQJGRP GLIIHUHG
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AMUR
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des Musulmans
auwas
Rwanda
to
another. The
mystic pre-eminence
of the king
recognized
in
many parts: Assemblée
of Rwanda. Nationale
Political authority
was exercised in
ANT
de Transition
a very inequitable
manner. InNational
the northern
region, recognition
(Transitional
Assembly)
of
political
authority
was
not
as
strong
as
elsewhere
because
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
SHRSOH ZHUH RUJDQL]HG DFFRUGLQJ WR D FODQ V\VWHP 7KH ÀVFDO
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
administration aimed at collecting taxes and paying of royal
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
tribute (ikoro). This practice was entrenched in the central and
Rwandais
southern region.
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
APROSOMA
: Association
pour
la Promotion
Sociale
de lathat
Senior
chiefs who
hailed from
dynastic
lineages and
lineages
produced queen
mothers commanded armies in some territories.
Masse
Intrigues
aimed
at controlling
were frequent
ARD
: Alliance
pour lepower
Renforcement
de laamong the
aristocracy. There
were
endless
wars
principally
directed
against
Démocratie
Burundi and Bushi kingdoms, as well as other regions in the
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
north and southwest.
Droits de l’Homme
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
Démocratique des Batwa
162
162
v
The population,
which experienced
tumultuous daily lives,
ACRONYMS
AND ABBREVIATIONS
sought to improve
its
standard
of
living
by establishing a strong
___________________________________
V\VWHPRIYDOXHV%HORQJLQJE\SDWHUQDODIÀOLDWLRQWRHLWKHU+XWX
or
Tutsi lineage
was determined
A.A.
: Archives
Africainesby genealogy. However, this
never prevented intermarriage or economic exchange from taking
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
place harmoniously. The Tutsi and Hutu lineages belonged to
ABAKI clans.
: Alliance
des Bakiga
common
These groups
participated together in dynastic
ABESC
:
Association
des
Bahutu
Evoluant pour
rituals of initiation (kubandwa) and
were integrated
in thela
same
Suppression des Castes
armies.
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
Hutu-Tutsi
dualism
didDémocratique
not exist in the
that it took in
ADP
: Alliance
desform
Peuples
the
twentieth
century.
Neither
the
Hutu
nor
the
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la Tutsi formed
a distinct ethnic
group. They all
spoke the same language, had
Réconciliation
Nationale
the same religious beliefs, and lived together. The relationship
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
between them was not a source of confrontation. History
AFDL
:
Alliance des
ForcesDW
Démocratiques
pour
la
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dubetween
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competing families,
but not
Hutus and Tutsis. During
AGOA
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Actmembers
the
last quarter
of the Growth
nineteenth
century,
when key
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easy
prey
for
the
colonialists.
The
and Christian
AIMO
: Affaires
Indigènes
et colonialists
Main-d’oeuvre
missionaries
the idea
eventually
bringing Rwanda
AJER
:coveted
Association
de laofJeunesse
Estudiantine
under their colonial yoke. This is how the Nyinginya kingdom
Rwandaise
lost its sovereignty.
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
(Transitional National Assembly)
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
Rwandais
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
Masse
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
Démocratie
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
Droits de l’Homme
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
Démocratique des Batwa
163
v
163
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
___________________________________
A.A.
A.G.
ABAKI
ABESC
Archives Africaines
Assemblée Générale
Alliance des Bakiga
Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
Suppression des Castes
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
Réconciliation Nationale
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
AFDL
: Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity Act
$,'6
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AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
Rwandaise
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
(Transitional National Assembly)
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
Rwandais
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
Masse
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
Démocratie
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
Droits de l’Homme
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
Démocratique des Batwa
164
164
:
:
:
:
v
IV ABBREVIATIONS
ACRONYMS AND
___________________________________
RWANDA UNDER GERMAN AND BELGIAN COLONIZATION
A.A.
A.G.
ABAKI
ABESC
:
:
:
:
Archives Africaines
By Paul RUTAYISIRE
Phd.
Assemblée
Générale
Alliance des Bakiga
Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
Suppression des Castes
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
Réconciliation Nationale
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
AFDL
: Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
uropean colonial imperialism in Rwanda, which started
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity Act
at the end of the nineteenth century, was unprecedented
$,'6 in Rwanda
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
and disrupted all aspects of Rwandan
AIMO
: Affaires
Main-d’oeuvre
identity within
a period Indigènes
of only 60 et
years.
It began with German
AJER
: Association
de la Jeunesse
Estudiantine
colonialism and
was later followed
by Belgian
colonialism, both
of which were subscribed
Rwandaise to ideologies of “divide and rule” and
“rule for exploitation.”
It Libération
should be borne
in mind that these
ALIR
: Armée de
du Rwanda
ideologies
characterized
the
foundation
for
and action of the
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
colonial administration. The colonized people were not aware
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
of these manipulations; the intention of the colonialists was to
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
create a country that was dependent on the outside world.
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
(Transitional
Assembly)
4.1. Rwanda during
GermanNational
colonization
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
Germany discovered
country that Rwandaise
had enjoyed a certain degree
APR
: Arméea Patriotique
of
organization.
It
was
to
this
country
a protectorate regime
APROBAMI : Association des Partisthat
Monarchistes
was imposed. This
was
done
in
collaboration
with missionaries
Rwandais
ZKR FRQIURQWHG D VHULHV RI UHVLVWDQFHV DQG FRQÁLFWV IURP WKH
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
Rwandese. The protectorate regime also confronted a tense
APROSOMA
Association
pour la Promotion
de laThis
international :situation
culminating
in the First Sociale
World War.
Masse
war ended German
imperial rule in Rwanda.
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
Démocratie
4.1.1. Period of
explorers
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
Before the coming
of the
Droits
deEuropeans
l’Hommeand Arab merchants, Rwanda
was a region enveloped
in legends.
From
1894 to 1920, a number
AREDETWA
: Association
pour le
Relèvement
of important documents were written about the country. These
Démocratique des Batwa
E
165
v
165
documents described
a society
that
was still virgin from external
ACRONYMS
AND
ABBREVIATIONS
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___________________________________
for a long time.” It was only belatedly subjected to the colonial
regime.
Rwanda
was previously
a “terra incognita;”1 it remained
A.A.
: Archives
Africaines
inaccessible for a long time to the Arabs who wanted to penetrate
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
it. A great Arab businessman, Hamed Ibrahim, was stationed in
ABAKI
Alliance
desattempts
Bakiga to establish commercial ties
Karagwe and :made
several
ABESC
: Association
des
Evoluant
with “the empress
of Rwanda,
butBahutu
he always
failed.”2 pour la
Suppression des Castes
7KHÀUVWH[SORUHUVZHUHDWWUDFWHGWRGLVFRYHULQJWKHVRXUFHRIWKH
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
3
Nile
River
–
an
obsession
that dated to des
antiquity.
They wanted
ADP
: Alliance
Démocratique
Peuples
to penetrate the mysteries of Mountain M’Foumbiro, or the
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
“Mountains of the Moon in Western Rwanda.” They also wanted to
Réconciliation
exploit opportunities
in Rwanda Nationale
for commerce and evangelization.4
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
The
Society Démocratiques
organized the voyages
AFDLLondon :Geographical
Alliance des Forces
pour la of
WKH ÀUVW H[SORUHUV
VHHNLQJdu
WRCongo-Zaïre
GLVFRYHU ´WKH VRXUFH RI WKH 1LOHµ
Libération
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AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity Act
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RI
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AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
7DQJDQ\LND DURXQG 1RYHPEHU -RKQ +DQQLQJWRQ 6SHNH
AJER
: Association
de lawas
Jeunesse
Estudiantine
who
was stationed
in Karagwe,
attracted
by the “high coneRwandaise
OLNHPRXQWDLQWRSVORFDWHGLQ5RXDQGDµ+HUHSRUWVLQKLVQRWHV
ALIR originating
: Armée
Libération
duinhabitants
Rwanda of Rwanda,
stories
fromdemyth
about the
according
was a Arrêté
dangerous
and mysterious
AM/AP to :which
ArrêtéRwanda
ministériel/
présidentiel
country
where
foreigners
were
not
welcome.
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
In 1857, H.M. Morton Stanley became the second European to
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
VSHDNRI5ZDQGD+HZDVLQIRUPHGRI5ZDQGDE\WKHLYRU\DQG
(Transitional National Assembly)
slave Arab merchants. Hitherto, these merchants had not been
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
DEOHWRHVWDEOLVKWUDGHOLQNVZLWK5ZDQGD+06WDQOH\ZDQWHG
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
WRVKDWWHUWKHP\WKRIWKHXQNQRZQFRXQWU\²DSRZHUIXONLQJGRP
APROBAMI
Association
des Partis
Monarchistes
LQKDELWHG
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RULJLQV
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foreign intrusion.
He tried to enter the country from the eastern
Rwandais
ERUGHUWKURXJK/DNH,KHPD+HZDVZHOFRPHGE\Á\LQJDUURZV
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
ZKLFK
IRUFHG:KLP
WR FKDQJH
KLVla
FRXUVH
,Q KLV
ERRN KH
APROSOMA
Association
pour
Promotion
Sociale
de VWDWHV
la
that the country could only be penetrated with care and caution. It
Masse
ZDV6WDQOH\ZKREDSWL]HG$NDJHUDZLWKWKHQDPH´1LOH$OH[DQGDµ
Lugan, B., “ Sources
écrites pouvant server à l’histoire (1863- 1919)”, in Etudes
Démocratie
Rwandaises, vol, XI, 1980, p.209.
Association
la Défense
des
2ARDHO
Stanley, H.M., A:travers
le continentRwandaise
mystérieux, T.I.,pour
Paris, 1879,
p.436.
3
l’Homme
Map of Ptolemy, inDroits
antiquity,de
located
the sources of the Nile in the Great Lakes near
“the
mountains
of
the
moon”.
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
4
Baker, S.W., Le Lac Albert. Nouveau voyage aux sources du Nil, Paris, 1879, p.48
1
166
166
Démocratique des Batwa
v
In March 1891,
the expeditions
by E. Schinitzer (alias
ACRONYMS
ANDlaunched
ABBREVIATIONS
Emin Pasha) and
Franz
Stuhlmann
arrived
in Karagwe. On the
___________________________________
orders of Wissmann, the Commissioner of the German empire,
these
were to explore
the German zone, located between
A.A. explorers
: Archives
Africaines
/DNH9LFWRULDDQG/DNH7DQJDQ\LND7KH\DOVRZDQWHGWRHVWDEOLVK
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
IULHQGO\UHODWLRQVZLWKORFDONLQJV7KHVHZHUHWKHÀUVW(XURSHDQV
ABAKIobjective
: Alliance
Bakiga relations with Rwanda. The
whose
was to trydes
to establish
ABESC
: Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
WZRH[SORUHUVUHTXHVWHGWREHUHFHLYHGLQWKHNLQJ·VFRXUWEXWJRW
Suppression
des
Castes
no response and
changed their
itinerary.
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
Oscar
(1864-1899),
a philosopher
and PhD holder in
ADP Baumann
: Alliance
Démocratique
des Peuples
geography
from
the
University
of
Leipzig,
was
employed
in 1891
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et
la
to serve on theRéconciliation
“German committee
against slavery.” Sent from
Nationale
the country of the Massai, he went to Burundi to explore the
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
source of the River Nile. From the 11th to the 14th of September
AFDL
:
Alliance
des
Démocratiques
pour
1892, he passed
through
theForces
southern
part of Rwanda
butladid
not cross the Libération
country. Asdu
heCongo-Zaïre
tried to leave Rwanda, he was
AGOA E\ D
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which
with gun powder. He left the country, leaving
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several
dead
bodies
behind
him.5 et Main-d’oeuvre
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: Affaires
Indigènes
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
,Q&RXQW*XVWDYH$GROI9RQ*RW]HQ HPEDUNHG
Rwandaise
on an expedition with the aim of identifying the region.6 On the
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
3rdRI0D\KLVFDUDYDQÀQDOO\DUULYHGLQ5ZDQGD,Q5ZDPDJDQD
AM/AP9RQ *RW]HQ
: ArrêtéZDV
ministériel/
Arrêté
présidentiel
&RXQW
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AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
VRQZKRZDVWROHDGWKHYLVLWRUWR.LQJ.LJHUL,95ZDEXJLULLQ
AMUR a hill :located
Association
desday
Musulmans
au Rwanda
Kageyo,
in present
District of Nyabihu
(Western
Province).
Contrary
to whatNationale
previous reports
had disseminated
ANT
: Assemblée
de Transition
UHJDUGLQJWKHVHQWLPHQWVRIWKHUR\DOFRXUW&RXQW9RQ*RW]HQ
(Transitional National Assembly)
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9RQ 3ULWWZLW]
.HUVWLQJ
UHFHLYHG DQ
APADEC
: Association
du Parti DQG
Démocrate
Chrétien
amicable reception. This is corroborated in Rwandan myths.
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
The greetings and the exchange of gifts were performed according
Rwandais
WR9RQ*|W]HQ)URPWKHSHUVSHFWLYHRIWKHUR\DOFRXUWRI.LQJ
APROCOMIN:
Association
Commerçants
Indigènes
.LJHUL
,9 5ZDEXJLUL
KLV ZDVdes
D VXUSULVH
YLVLW PHW
E\ WKH NLQJ·V
APROSOMA : Association
pour la
Promotion
Sociale
la to
astonishment
and indignation.
This
indigination
wasdedue
VXGGHQDZDUHQHVVRI5ZDQGD·VPLOLWDU\LQIHULRULW\9RQ*|W]HQ
Masse
ZDV
LPSUHVVHG
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SHUVRQDOLW\
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ARD
: Alliance
le Renforcement
de7KH
la FDUDYDQ
crossed the remaining
part
of
the
country,
climbing
Kageyo
Démocratie
XS WR /DNH .LYX SUHVHQW WRZQ RI *LVHQ\L DQG SHQHWUDWHG WKH
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
5
Droits de
l’Homme
He put down his observation
on Rwanda
in his book entitled Durch Massailand zur
Nilquelle,
Berlin,
1894.
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
6
Von Götzen, G.A., Durch Afrika von Ost nach West=ZHLWH$XÀDJH%HUOLQ
Démocratique des Batwa
167
v
167
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ACRONYMS
AND ABBREVIATIONS
RIÀFLDO FRQWDFW
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WKH FRORQLDO SRZHU DQG WKH 5ZDQGHVH
___________________________________
There were other military expeditions in Rwanda, notably those
E\:LOKHOP/DQJKHOG
$XJXVW
A.A.
: Archives
Africaines /RWKDU9RQ7URWKD Hans Ramsay (1897), and Henrich Bethe (1898), all of which are
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
UHFRUGHGLQWKHQRWHVRIWKHPLVVLRQDULHV5DPVD\DQGWKHNLQJ
ABAKI
: Alliance des Bakiga
HVWDEOLVKHG´OLQNVRIEORRGIULHQGVKLSµE\W\LQJORQJWKUHDGVRI
ABESC
: Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
FORWK
EHOWV DURXQGWKHLUZDLVWVDQGE\H[FKDQJLQJKDQGVKDNHV
Suppression des Castes
2QWKLVRFFDVLRQWKHNLQJUHFHLYHGDOHWWHURISURWHFWLRQDQGWKH
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
*HUPDQÁDJ5DPVD\DQGKLVVXFFHVVRUGLGQRWNQRZWKDWWKH\
KDGEHHQUHFHLYHGE\DIDOVHNLQJ
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
In 1898, Richard
Kandt arrived
in Rwanda to study the local
Réconciliation
Nationale
FXOWXUH DQG WR ÀQG D GHÀQLWH DQVZHU WR WKH TXHVWLRQ RI WKH
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
source of the Nile. He lived in Rwanda until the eve of the First
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:
Forces
Démocratiques
pour la
:RUOG :DU +HAlliance
EHFDPHdes
WKH ÀUVW
(XURSHDQ
WR PHHW \HDUROG
Libération
Congo-Zaïre
.LQJ <XKL ,9 0XVLQJD
LQ du
2FWREHU
0SDPEDUD KDG EHHQ
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: African Growth and Opportunity Act
VHUYLQJDVUHJHQWIRUWKH\RXQJNLQJXQWLOKHUHDFKHGWKLVDJH%\
meeting
the royal court wanted to protect the young
$,'6 the regent,
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NLQJIURPYLVLWRUVZKRVHLQWHQWLRQVZHUHVWLOOXQFOHDU8SWRWKH
AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
end
of
the
German
colonialism,
no European
managed to see
AJER
: Association
de la Jeunesse
Estudiantine
the Queen Mother (Kanjogera) or King Musinga’s wives, except
Rwandaise
Madam Schloiferen in 1901.
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
AM/AP
Arrêté others,
ministériel/
Arrêté
It
was Kandt,: among
who was
able présidentiel
to specify the source
AMR
Association
des
Moniteurs
du5XNDUDUD
RwandaZDV WKH
RI
WKH 1LOH E\: VWDWLQJ
WKDW WKH
VRXUFH
RI 5LYHU
AMUR RI 5LYHU
: Association
Musulmans
au,Q
Rwanda
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$NDJHUD DQGdes
WKDW
RI :KLWH 1LOH
VR GRLQJ KH
contradicted
the
vision given
by Baumann,
who stated that the
ANT
: Assemblée
Nationale
de Transition
source of the Nile
River was River
Ruvubu,
sourced in Burundi
(Transitional
National
Assembly)
DQG
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LQ
WKH
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: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
Rwanda. Kandt instead followed the most important branch of the
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
river towards the source.7 Later, the Belgian Trusteeship arbitrarily
APROBAMI
: Association des Partis Monarchistes
decided that the southern part of Burundi was the southern-most
Rwandais
source of the Nile,
building at Rutovu a small pyramid symbol.
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
APROSOMA
Association
pour of
lathe
Promotion
Sociale deSociety,
la
In February of:1900,
Bishop Hirth
African Missionary
RU WKH :KLWH )DWKHUV
Masse 6RFLHW\ EHFDPH WKH ÀUVW $SRVWROLF 9LFDU RI
Southern
Nyanza
to arrivepour
in thele
King’s
court. He headed
ARD
: Alliance
Renforcement
de laa delegation
8
of three missionaries
and
other
foreign
visitors.
He
came following
Démocratie
the call made by R. Kandt to establish a mission in Kinyaga, a
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
7
Droits de l’Homme
Kandt, R., &DSXW1LOL(LQHHPS¿QGVDPH5HLVH]XGHQTXHOOHQGHV1LO,
Berlin, 1921.
8
Minnaert,
S.,
Premier
voyage
de
Mgr
Herth
au
Rwanda,
Editions
rwandaises,
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
Kigali, 2006.
Démocratique des Batwa
168
168
v
region which Protestant
pastors
had
explored. He encouraged the
ACRONYMS
AND
ABBREVIATIONS
&DWKROLF0LVVLRQDULHVWRFRPHDQGHVWDEOLVKWKHPVHOYHVÀUVWEHIRUH
___________________________________
the Protestants. Mgr Hirth changed his plans after discussing with
Captain
Bethe: and
Kandt Africaines
at Shangi because the colonial status of
A.A.
Archives
Kinyaga region was still contested by colonial powers.
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
ABAKI
: Alliance
des
Mgr.
Hirth was
authorized
byBakiga
the royal court to establish himself
ABESC
:
Association
des
Bahutu
Evoluant
pourGLG
la QRW
ZKHUHYHU KH ZDQWHG LQ %ZDQDPLNDUL
7KH
UR\DO FRXUW
Castes
impose his staySuppression
in Mara. Thedes
ease
with which he obtained this
ACR should be
: Association
des Cultivateurs
du Rwanda
area
put in the perspective
of the good
relations that
existed
the royalDémocratique
court and the Germans.
Mgr Hirth did
ADP between
: Alliance
des Peuples
not
explicitly
tell
the
court
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Source: Lugan B., Histoire du Rwanda: De la préhistoire à nos
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On examining the narratives of these
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Démocratique des Batwa
169
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explorer to give a more detailed account on Rwanda. To him, the
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reported:
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he la
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population of Bantu Negros who numbered
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population depended subserviently on the Watutsi, a
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noble cast
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originated from the Galla
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170
170
Démocratique des Batwa
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These had
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entire inter-lacustrine region.
ACRONYMS
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Goetzen___________________________________
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ACR who lived
: Association
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in caves of des
volcanic
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of animals in the
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Alliance
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9
virgin
forest.
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in terms of their in-depth study of Rwanda. R. Kandt lived in
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also
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the spread
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of false ideas by Europeans who lived in Rwanda, and later by
Rwandaise
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There
existed: the
belief
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during
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organization
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APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
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Rwandais
This theory assumed
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APROCOMIN:
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have moved southwards beyond
the Sahara andIndigènes
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them
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on the European
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existence of different
ethnic
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AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
9
Lugan, B. 1980, op. cit., p.27.
Démocratique des Batwa
171
v
171
these groups ACRONYMS
physically differed
one another but formed a
ANDfrom
ABBREVIATIONS
common society
in
which
each
ethnic
group played a different
___________________________________
role. The Tutsi most attracted the attention of explorers. The
Tutsi
to beAfricaines
a “noble class that seized the country
A.A. were thought
: Archives
probably some hundreds of years ago and who continued to
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
retain power up to today and who have reduced to servitude all
ABAKI
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desbelieved
Bakiga“the Batutsi operate[ed] an
10
the
rural people.”
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arbitrary
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ADR
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11
chief.”
Réconciliation Nationale
AEC
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The Tutsi were sometimes thought to be members of a royal
AFDL which :“descended
Alliance des
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who
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were probably associated
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the Abyssinians,” with
AIMO
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colonizers
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AJER
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This raceRwandaise
which is a conquering race is found everywhere
ALIR RQKLJKPRXQWDLQVWKDWVHSDUDWHWKH*UHDW/DNHVRIWKH
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They consider
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AM/APEquator.
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North hardlydes
some
centuries ago.
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AMR from the
: Association
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of these people is found along the line which descends
AMUR
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IURP/DNH$OEHUWXSWR1RUWK7DQJDQ\LND
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
(Transitional
National
O. Baumann was
thrown into
ecstasy Assembly)
by the physical beauty
APADEC
Association
du Parti
Démocrate
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of
the Batusi,: called
“Wahuma
or Wahima”.
“Everywhere
were,”
he
says,
“the
Watussi
who
were
astonishing
by their
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
slenderness
their quasi-resemblance
of Europeans. Some
APROBAMI and
: Association
des Partis Monarchistes
were hardly brown
and
were
probably
the
origin
of the legend of
Rwandais
13
White Negros.” He continued, “the Batutsi are considered as
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
immigrants from the North. They are Ethiopian-related, Hamites
APROSOMA
: Association
pour
Promotion
de la[and
or Semites: They
have faces
thatlaare
perfectly Sociale
Abyssinian
are] people whoMasse
strongly resemble Semites in many respects.”14
ARD explorers
: Alliance
pour
le Renforcement
la physical
The
expressed
admiration
of bothdethe
Démocratie
10
Lugan B., 1980, op. cit., p. 27.
ARDHO
:
Association
Rwandaise pour la Défense des
11
Ibid , p. 59.
12
deH.M.
l’Homme
Hamed, I., quotedDroits
by Stanley
1879, op. cit., p. 436.
13
Honke,
G.,
Au
plus
profound
de
l’Afrique,
1990, p. 100
AREDETWA : Association pour Wuppertal,
le Relèvement
14
Ibid.
Démocratique des Batwa
172
172
v
atributes andACRONYMS
behavior of AND
the ABBREVIATIONS
Tutsi nobility. They claimed
that Tutsi behavior
was
comparable
to the model of classical
___________________________________
antiquity. Regarding Tutsi physicality, they claimed they were “
(…)
A.A.a people extremely
: Archivesdistinguished
Africaines by their physical traits not
only by the Negros but also by Europeans. They are slender, tall
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
LQKHLJKWKDYHÀQHKDQGVZLWKZHOOVKDSHGIHHW7KH0XKLPD
ABAKI all the
: Alliance
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combines
characteristics
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ABESC
:
Association
des
Evoluant
pour15la
the canons of classical beauty ofBahutu
the Statue
of Praxitele.”
Suppression des Castes
ACRexplorers: were
Association
desbyCultivateurs
du Rwanda
The
fascinated
the senior chiefs
at the royal
court,
Ruhinankiko
and Rwidegemya:
ADP such as: Alliance
Démocratique
des Peuples
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
Those people
who surrounded
the Sultan were particularly
Réconciliation
Nationale
interesting. They had faces that resembled those described
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
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AFDL mood. :They
Alliance
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depicted
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character that made
Libération
believe that
we weredu
notCongo-Zaïre
among Negroes.16
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Abyssinian or an Arab, with a beautiful nose which distinguished
Rwandaise
him from the uncouth Negros.”17 $FFRUGLQJ WR +LUWK WKH NLQJ
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
was not only the tallest, but also “the most intelligent among the
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
18
Tutsi.”
AMR
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percent
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population,Nationale
but had managed
to rule over the
ANT
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de Transition
others due to their
intelligence:
(Transitional
National Assembly)
APADEC
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APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
are characterized by their beautiful shape, beautiful
APROBAMI
: Association des Partis Monarchistes
facial features measuring a height of two meters and
Rwandais
above. They
do not only surpass the Hutu in size but
APROCOMIN:
Association
Commerçants
they even beat them des
in intelligence.
ThisIndigènes
explains why
APROSOMA
: Association
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they managed
to succeed,
theirSociale
small numbers,
in becoming
absolute masters and in instituting a feudal
Masse
19
VWDWHZKLFKORRNHGOLNHD&RPPXQLVW6WDWHRIVRUWV
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
Démocratie
15
Ibid.
ARDHO
:
Association
Rwandaise
Défense des
16
Honke, G., Au plus profond de l’Afrique,
Wuppertal,pour
1990, p.la100.
17
de215.
l’Homme
Lugan, B., 1980, Droits
op.cit., p.78,
18
Ibid.
p.
229.
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
19
Ibid.
Démocratique des Batwa
173
v
173
On the other ACRONYMS
hand, the physical
characteristics of the Bahutu
AND ABBREVIATIONS
almost attracted
no
attention.
Explorers
stated, “contrary to
___________________________________
the Tutsi who resembled Europeans, the Bahutu were genuine
1HJURHV
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OLSVAfricaines
DQG D ÁDW QRVHµ20 The Bahutu were
A.A.
Archives
described as “a poor people and serfs and of a lower class; a
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
race of the Aborigines, ancient inhabitants of the country who
ABAKI
: Alliance des Bakiga
21
« WRRNWKHVWDWXVRIVODYHVµ
Kandt painted a negative picture
ABESC
:
Association
des
Evoluant
pour
la to
of the Hutu in the central part Bahutu
of Rwanda
who never
dared
Suppression
Castes
confront their Tutsi
masters. des
He had
this to say:
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
a strange des
behavior.
Before their
ADP(...) the :Bahutu
Alliancehave
Démocratique
Peuples
masters,
they
are
serious
and
avoid
questions
but when
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
we are alone
with them they
tell us almost everything that
Réconciliation
Nationale
ZH ZDQW WR NQRZ DQG HYHQ ZKDW ZH GRQ·W ZDQW WR NQRZ
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:
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they complain
about
the
oppression
from whichpour
theylaare
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their total
of all rights. On several
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AMR
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the Rwandan
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AMUR
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country than that of the Bahutu: they are almost dwarfs,
(Transitional National Assembly)
short people who don’t feel cold, robust.23 In the Rwandan
APADEC
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Démocrate
Chrétien
society, the
Batwa are du
notParti
considered
as human
beings
APREHFDXVHWKH\UHVHPEOHPRQNH\V
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
24
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
Some notes of explorers deal with Rwandese in general. According
Rwandais
to Hamed Ibrahim, the Rwandese were a people characterized
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
by “cunningness” practiced at the royal court.25 The Rwandese
APROSOMA
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ZHUH´QRWFRZDUGVµJLYHQWKHLUFDSWXUHRI*LVDND0XEDULDQG
Masseare described as “a great people,” but this
Mpororo. Rwandese
ARD
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20
Lugan, B., 1980, op.
cit., pp.78, 229.
Démocratie
21
Ibid.
ARDHO
Association
Rwandaise pour la Défense des
22
Lugan, B., 1980,: op.cit.
p. 27.
23
Droits de l’Homme
Ibid. p.79.
24
Ibid,.
p.227
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
25
Stanley, H.M. 1879, op.cit., p. 436.
Démocratique des Batwa
174
174
v
admiration is ACRONYMS
sometimes paired
antipathy. Hamed claimed
ANDwith
ABBREVIATIONS
WKDWWKH5ZDQGHVHZHUH´JUHHG\ZLFNHGGHFHLWIXODQGWUDLWRUVµ
___________________________________
given that “they never allowed any Arab to do trade with them.”26
They
described
as “The Vouanya-rounda and also
A.A. are further
: Archives
Africaines
very naughty” for not wanting “any strangers in their country,”
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
DQGDV´XQLTXHSHRSOHDQGJHQXLQHO\IXOORIWULFNVµ27
ABAKI
: Alliance des Bakiga
ABESC
: Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
$VKHZDVQDYLJDWLQJDURXQG/DNH,KHPD6WDQOH\VWDWHGWKDWKH
des
Castes
was prevented Suppression
from landing by
the
natives:
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
to land;
the indigenous
opened their
ADP (...) We: tried
Alliance
Démocratique
des people
Peuples
teeth
with
dog-anger
manifesting
a
lot
of
aggressiveness
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
pointing Réconciliation
their arrows to
us in a menacing way, this
Nationale
(…) forced us to go way and leave these people to their
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
ferocious exclusion (...)28
AFDL
: Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
Libération
du Congo-Zaïre
Mgr. Hirth, having
been disappointed
by his porters, concluded
AGOA
: African
Growth
and Opportunity
Actthieves.”29
that
“the Rwandese
people
are reputed
for being great
Bethe
that “the Wanyaruanda are a beautiful and a
$,'6 claimed
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7KH\
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: Affaires
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etDJJUHVVLYH
Main-d’oeuvre
30
their
AJERneighbors.”
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
Rwandaise
As can be seen from the above accounts, explorers painted
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
a picture of Banyarwanda that was full of contradictions,
AM/AP
: Arrêté
ministériel/
Arrêté
prejudices,
and
stereotypes.
Despite
theirprésidentiel
inaccuracy, many
AMR
: Association
des maintained.
Moniteurs du
of
these stereotypes
have been
TheRwanda
explorers were
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
LQWHUHVWHGLQWKHPDVWHUVRUUXOHUVRIWKHFRXQWU\9RQ*RHW]HQ
reported
that :the
“Watussi Nationale
chiefs” were
dominant class, while
ANT
Assemblée
dea Transition
the Bahutu, who
earn their living
on agriculture,
(Transitional
National
Assembly)are a mass of
UXUDOIRON7KHH[SORUHUVLQWHUFKDQJHDEO\XVHGWKHH[SUHVVLRQV
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
“race,” “cast,” and “social class.”
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
According to Langheld, Rwanda was an absolute monarchy with
Rwandais
VWURQJ DQG SDUWLDO
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APROCOMIN:
Association
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people” living on agriculturedes
while
the Tutsi were
preoccupied
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
ZLWKORRNLQJDIWHUKHUGVRIFDWWOH+RZHYHUQRWDOO%DWXWVLZHUH
born to occupyMasse
high positions. Political power seems to have
been
reserved
for
members
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some
families.
ARD
: Alliance
pour
Renforcement
de la
'XULQJKLVÀUVWWULS0JU+LUWKZDVVWUXFNE\WKHVRFLDOLQHTXDOLWLHV
Démocratie
26
Ibid.
ARDHO
:
Association
Rwandaise pour la Défense des
27
Ibid.
28
Droits
l’Homme
Stanley, H.M. 1879,op.
cit., de
P.444.
29
Lugan,
B.
,
1980
,
op.
cit.
75.
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
30
Lugan, B. , 1980 , op. cit. 57.
Démocratique des Batwa
175
v
175
that manifested
as a ruling class
exploited the short people.
ACRONYMS
AND that
ABBREVIATIONS
“There is no country
in
the
world,
during
our time, where the
___________________________________
poor people are exploited by their masters as in this country of
Rwanda;
time that missionaries entered this
A.A. 31 it is :therefore
Archiveshigh
Africaines
region.” Mgr Hirth viewed missionaries as “liberators” of the
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
short people.
ABAKI
: Alliance des Bakiga
ABESCGLYLVLRQV
: Association
des Bahutu
Evoluant
pour
laZLWK
(WKQLF
LQ WKH SROLWLFDO
ÀHOG ZHQW
KDQG LQ
KDQG
Suppression
des Castes
economic divisions.
In Rwandan
society, all sectors were
ACR as divided
: Association
Cultivateurs
viewed
accordingdes
to ethnic
criteria; du
theRwanda
Batutsi were
pastoralists
and
the Bahutu
were agriculturists.
This view did
ADP
: Alliance
Démocratique
des Peuples
not
always
conform
to
reality:
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
Réconciliation Nationale
In Rwanda itself, the masters and subjects were almost
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
totally assimilated by their customs and culture. As far as
AFDL their arms
: Alliance
deswere
Forces
Démocratiques
pour
and dress
concerned,
most of the
timelathe
dudistinguished
Congo-Zaïrefrom the cultivators.
MuhumaLibération
could not be
AGOA There are
: African
Growth
andacts
Opportunity
signs of
arbitrary
“of despoticAct
oppression
32
the Wahutu.”
$,'6 towards
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
Further,
all
groupsdebelonged
to Estudiantine
the same linguistic
AJER
:ethnic
Association
la Jeunesse
EUDFNHW
Rwandaise
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
According to Bethe, in the North and especially at the border
AM/AP
ministériel/
Arrêté
présidentiel
with
Mpororo,: Arrêté
the Bahutu
occupied
positions
of chiefs. Bethe
AMRmet a Mutwa
: Association
des is
Moniteurs
du on
Rwanda
even
chief. Kandt
more explicit
the situation
AMUR
Association
desDXWRQRPRXV
Musulmans 7KH
au Rwanda
LQ
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ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
travelers have portrayed.
(Transitional National Assembly)
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
The ethnic divide seems to have had a solid social and economic
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
bearing. The determination of the social status was not only an
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
LVVXHRIELUWK,QKLVERRNSXEOLVKHGLQ33-&]HNDQRZVNL
Rwandais
GLVWLQJXLVKHGEHWZHHQIRXUVRFLDOFODVVHVLQ5ZDQGD7KHÀUVW
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
FODVVZDVPDGHRIWKHSULYLOHJHGNLQJ·VDJHQWVQDPHO\WKHNLQJ·V
APROSOMAtheir
: Association
pour
Promotion
Sociale
de lawere
abagaragu,
sub-chiefs,
andlacourt
dignitaries.
These
exclusively Batutsi.
The second class was composed of warriors,
Masse
or
the
“ingabo,”
who
were
under
the command of
ARD
: Alliance
pour
le Renforcement
dealachief. They
settled on theirDémocratie
own land, which had been cultivated by their
ancestors. They paid normal taxes and were always ready to
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
31
Droits de l’Homme
ibid. p. 37.
32
An
opinion
by
Von
Goetzen
AREDETWA : Association
pour le Relèvement
33
Czekanowski, J., Forschungen in Nil-Kongo-Zwischengebiet, Leipzig, 1917.
Démocratique des Batwa
176
176
v
defend the country
in periods
of war.
They lived in big numbers
ACRONYMS
AND
ABBREVIATIONS
along border ___________________________________
areas. The third class of Rwandese was formed
by the “Biletwa,” i.e. the free peasants without rights over land
RZQHUVKLS7KH\ZRUNHGRQWKHODQGRIWKHNLQJDQGGLGWZRWR
A.A.
: Archives Africaines
WKUHHGD\VRIIRUFHGODERUHYHU\ZHHNIRUWKHFKLHI7KH\KDGDQ
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
obligation of paying taxes. The fourth class was formed by the
ABAKI KXQWHUV
: Alliance
des Bakiga
34
%DWZD
DQG SRWPDNHUV
&]HNDQRZVNL FRQFOXGHG E\
ABESC
:
Association
des
Bahutu
Evoluant
pour
la
saying that the situation of indigenous people
worsened
because,
Suppression
des Castes
despite the humanitarian
phraseology
of the missionaries and
ACR
: Association
Cultivateurs
du by
Rwanda
colonizers,
the
new juridicaldes
system
introduced
Europeans
gave
protection
than the old
norms
on which the
ADP them less
: Alliance
Démocratique
des
Peuples
organization
of
the
state
was
founded.
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
Réconciliation Nationale
$FFRUGLQJ WR - &]HNDQRZVNL ´WKH GHWHUPLQDWLRQ RI HWKQLF
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
EHORQJLQJ ZDV FORVHO\ OLQNHG WR WKH VRFLDO DQG SROLWLFDO UDQNVµ
AFDL
:
Alliance
Démocratiques
la a
and this belonging
was des
“notForces
determined
once for allpour
among
35
duELUWKµ
Congo-Zaïre
VSHFLÀF HWKQLFLibération
JURXS DIWHU
Accordng to him, “social
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity Act
DFFHVVLRQDQGLWVPRGLÀFDWLRQSHJJHGWRHWKQLFDOEHORQJLQJZDV
one
of the major
reasons for the apparition of the Hutu lineage
$,'6
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names
among
the
Batutsi.”
There was
“an ethnic adaptation to
AIMO
: Affaires
Indigènes
et Main-d’oeuvre
social
by many families
the arrival
of Europeans.
AJER change”: Association
de la before
Jeunesse
Estudiantine
-&]HNDQRZVNLZDVWKHÀUVWDXWKRUWRFULWLFL]HWKHVWULFWGLYLVLRQ
Rwandaise
of the population along ethnic lines in all domains. However,
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
his observations had no effect since the colonial administration
AM/AP
: Arrêté
ministériel/
Arrêtéa présidentiel
and
missionaries
made
the ethnic divide
cornerstone of their
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
programs.
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
Examples
abound
on the Nationale
perpetration
the ethnic divide in
ANT
: Assemblée
deofTransition
Rwandan society
during colonialism.
the myths, proverbs,
(Transitional
National In
Assembly)
and
oral
tradition,
the
version
of
the
royal
courtChrétien
and nobility
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate
were changed by the Europeans to suit their view of the
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
Rwandan society: a civilization composed of three ethnic groups
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
RI ZKLFK WKH 7XWVL ZHUH PDVWHUV 6RPH LQIRUPHUV ZKR NQHZ
that EuropeansRwandais
admired the Tutsi manipulated information to
APROCOMIN:
Association
des Commerçants
conform to what the Europeans
wanted to hear.Indigènes
This explains
APROSOMA
: Association
pour la Promotion
Sociale
la
why
they insisted
on the centrality
of the concept
of de
ethnicity
promoted by Europeans
while ethnicity was neither found in
Masse
5ZDQGD·V
WUDGLWLRQDO
UHOLJLRQV
IRXQG LQ RIÀFLDO
ARD
: Alliance pour leQRU
Renforcement
de laDQG IDPLO\
rites. If carefully
studied,
these
sources
of
Rwandan
history
Démocratie
would lead to a more nuanced description of a society that could
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
be understood without any centrality of ethnicity.
Droits de l’Homme
le Relèvement
Démocratique des Batwa
Lugan, B., 1980,
op.cit. pp.174-175.
AREDETWA
: Association
pour
35
Honke, G., 1990. op.cit., p.108.
34
177
v
177
Map 9: Territorial organization and arrival of Germans
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
___________________________________
When the Germans arrived in Rwanda, the country was made
of
10 provinces:
Nduga, Africaines
Kinyaga, Bugesera, Bugoyi, Bwishaza,
A.A.
: Archives
0XUHUD %ZLVK\D %XEHUXND 1GRUZD DQG *LVDND 7KHVH WHQ
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
provinces were divided into historic regions. (See Map 9 below).
ABAKI
: Alliance des Bakiga
ABESC
: Association
des Bahutu
Evoluant
pour la
Map 9: Historic
regions retained
by the colonial
administration
Suppression des Castes
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
Réconciliation Nationale
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
AFDL
: Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity Act
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
Source: LuganRwandaise
and Mutombo, Africa-Tervuren, XXIX, 1989, 1-2
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
The
provinces
were divided
into many
territorial
entities given
AM/AP
: Arrêté
ministériel/
Arrêté
présidentiel
to those who lived in the royal court. Some peasants did forced
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
labor in return for land they were given to occupy. The chief
AMUR D SRUWLRQ
: Association
des Musulmans
Rwanda
GHGXFWHG
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ANT
:
Assemblée
Nationale
de
Transition
clients managed their property with the help of of sub-chiefs
(Transitional
(Ibisonga) who were
supportedNational
by villageAssembly)
chiefs. There were many
Hutu
among :them,
especially
the areas
of Mulera,
Bwishya,
APADEC
Association
duinParti
Démocrate
Chrétien
DQG
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,9
5ZDEXJLUL
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: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
the
state
and
the Partis
property
of chiefs owing to the
APROBAMI : redistributed
Association des
Monarchistes
separatist tendencies manifested by senior chiefs. This led to
Rwandais
FRQÁLFWVDPRQJSRZHUIXOIDPLOLHVFXOPLQDWLQJLQWKH5XFXQVKX
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
coup d’état.
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
Masse
At the turn of the
19th Century, the country experienced a chaotic
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
VLWXDWLRQUHVXOWLQJIURPWKH5XFXQVKXLQFLGHQW/HXWHQDQW9RQ
3DULVKUHSRUWVWKDWPDQ\SHRSOHZHUHNLOOHGEHFDXVHWKH\ZHUH
Démocratie
“suspected
asylum to
King Kigeri’s
son la
who
had escaped.
ARDHO of :giving
Association
Rwandaise
pour
Défense
des
The fear for theDroits
reappearance
of
this
candidate
to
the
throne
was
de l’Homme
one of the causes of bitterness which stained the happiness of
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
King Musinga. It is said that Kigeri designated Bilegeya as his
Démocratique des Batwa
178
178
v
successor, who
later escapedAND
without
leaving any trace. He acted
ACRONYMS
ABBREVIATIONS
TXLFNO\WRDYRLGJLYLQJKLVHQHPLHVDFKDQFHWRDVVDVVLQDWHKLP
___________________________________
Everybody lived in a state of permanent fear to see him reappear
on
the scene :(...).
Today, Africaines
the ‘Bilegeya affair’ is sometimes used
A.A.
Archives
by the Batutsi as a means of defaming another Mututsi (sic)
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
EHIRUH.LQJ0XVLQJDLHVDFULÀFLQJKLPWREHNLOOHGµ36
ABAKI
: Alliance des Bakiga
ABESC
: Association
Evoluant
pour lawith
When
the Germans
arrived, des
they Bahutu
found that,
in comparison
Suppression des Castes
WKHQHLJKERULQJNLQJGRPRI%XUXQGLWKH.LQJGRPRI5ZDQGDZDV
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
KLJKO\GLVFLSOLQHGDQGSHDFHIXO´WKDQNVWRWKHNLQJ·VDXWKRULW\µ
According
to :Bethe,
“Kigeri
(sic) was an
absolute
ruler whose
ADP
Alliance
Démocratique
des
Peuples
RUGHUVZHUHREH\HGLQDOOSDUWVRIWKHFRXQWU\LQFOXGLQJ.LVDND
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
+LVLQÁXHQFHFRQVLGHUDEO\IDFLOLWDWHGHFRQRPLFGHYHORSPHQWLQ
Réconciliation Nationale
collaboration with the Germans.”37 However, toward the North
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
DQG VWUHWFKLQJ IURP WKH :HVWHUQ FRDVW RI /DNH .LYX .DQGW
AFDL
:
des“some
Forces
Démocratiques
pourruling
la
observed that Alliance
there were
Batutsi
who were not
Libération
Congo-Zaïre
the country but
who weredu
living
in isolated villages alongside
AGOA
: African
and
OpportunityWKHLU
Act ZRUN DV
WKH
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%H\RQG5LYHU0XNXQJZD.DQGWREVHUYHGWKDWORFDOSRSXODWLRQV
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
also were, in principle, under the domination of the King,
Rwandaise
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ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
HQMR\HGRQO\´DVHPEODQFHRIDXWKRULW\µWKH&KLHIRI%XVKDNX
AM/AP did not
: Arrêté
Arrêté
présidentiel
Province
dare ministériel/
continue his rule
there.
This also applied
AMR
Association
Moniteurs
Rwanda
to
sub-chiefs :who,
althoughdes
belonging
to thedu
nobility,
gradually
AMUR
: Association
des Musulmans
au Rwanda
ZLWKGUHZ
WRZDUG
WKH LQWHULRU
RI WKH NLQJGRP
7KRVH ZKR
remained
behind
never dared
to impose
their authority.38 This
ANT
: Assemblée
Nationale
de Transition
situation worsened
as the European
presence
started to be felt,
(Transitional
National
Assembly)
especially
with
the
emergence
of
new
exploitative
H. Meyer
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocraterules.
Chrétien
encountered this situation when he went to the North to visit
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
the volcanic mountains. There he found a “hostile” population
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
and rebellious elements opposed to the King of Rwanda and
Rwandais Murders and the settlement of scores
the German government.
APROCOMIN:
Association
des Commerçants
Indigènes
between
clans and
lineages were
frequent.39
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
,Q5XNLJDUHJLRQWRZDUGV0SRURUR%HWKHREVHUYHGWKHRSSRVLWH
Masse
“It
is
not
only
the Watussi
assume the function
ARD
: Alliance
pourwho
le Renforcement
de la of chiefs
but there are also
the
Wahutu
who
are
appointed
by King Kigeri
Démocratie
ARDHO
Association
36
Lugan, B., 1980,: op.
cit., p. 115. Rwandaise pour la Défense des
37
Droits de l’Homme
Ibid, p.59.
38
Ibid,
46.
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
39
Lugan, B., 1980, op. cit., p. 209.
Démocratique des Batwa
179
v
179
VLF µ%HWKHLQWHUYHQHGWRVROYHVRPHFRQÁLFWV´UHVXOW>LQJ@IURP
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
ethnic clans because
the chief of the dwarf Batwa did not want
___________________________________
to bow before the tall Watutis.”40 In Ndorwa, the clans were
41
LQGHSHQGHQWFRPSOLFDWLQJWKHVLWXDWLRQIRUWKHNLQJ·VHQYR\V
A.A.
: Archives Africaines
,Q0XOHUDWKHFODQVZHUHVXEPLVVLYHWRWKHNLQJDQGSDLGWD[HV
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
The Tutsi had chased the natives from some villages to enable
ABAKI of the
: Alliance
Bakiga
members
dissolveddes
clans
to settle there. These people were
ABESC
:
Association
des
Bahutu
supposed to do forced labor in return
forEvoluant
protectionpour
fromlatheir
des
Castes
masters. Some Suppression
members of old
clans
(e.g. Bishingwe) associated
ACR with the: Association
des
Cultivateurs
duresidents
Rwanda were
them
conquerors. In
Nduga,
the village
mixed;
of theDémocratique
area belonged to
a class
of landowners,
ADP a large: part
Alliance
des
Peuples
while
there
were
also
peasant
warriors
free
from
an
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la obligation of
42
forced labor (Uburetwa).
Réconciliation Nationale
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
To put an end to the anarchy prevailing in the North, R. Kandt
AFDL
: Alliance
des Forces
Démocratiques
la
proffered
solutions
to those
who wanted
to become pour
residents.
du Congo-Zaïre
He stated: “it isLibération
in the interest
of our colonial policy to have the
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity Act
NLQJRQRXUVLGHDQGWRPDLQWDLQWKHUXOHRIWKH:DWXVVLZLWK
total
of the masses.”43 He noted that the integration
$,'6subjugation
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
process
areas et
in Main-d’oeuvre
the central region had not
AIMO of the: “autonomous”
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: Association
Jeunesse
Estudiantine
initial stage.
Rwandaise
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
-&]HNDQRZLVNLDOVRDQDO\]HGWKHWD[DWLRQV\VWHPXVHGLQWKH
44
AM/AP The
: Arrêté
ministériel/
présidentiel
country.
taxes levied
on the Arrêté
peasants
were divided into
several categories
collected des
by different
chiefs.
latter acted
AMR
: Association
Moniteurs
du The
Rwanda
as
intermediaries,
but
a
big
fraction
of
these
taxes
remained
in
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
their
hands.
The
taxes
paid
by
peasants
included:
food
items,
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
EHHUFXOWLYDWLQJJDUGHQVUHDULQJOLYHVWRFNDQGRWKHUIRUPVRI
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taxes to the court. The taxes in the form of food items were
APR
: Armée
Patriotique
collected during
the harvest
seasonRwandaise
and differed from one region
45
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Association
desGLVWLQJXLVKHG
Partis Monarchistes
to the next. : -
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Rwandais
of taxes which were not proportionately distributed.46 The most
important tax was
“UburetwaµRUZRUNLQJSK\VLFDOO\LQWKHÀHOGV
APROCOMIN:
Association
des Commerçants Indigènes
RIWKHFKLHIVIRUWZRRUWKUHHGD\VRIWKHWUDGLWLRQDOZHHN7KLV
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
ZRUNZDVSHUIRUPHGDVDPHDQVRIFRPSHQVDWLRQIRUSHDVDQWV
Masse
40
Lugan,
B.,
1980,
op.
cit., pp. 55-57.
ARD
: Alliance
pour le Renforcement de la
41
Ibid. p. 177.
Démocratie
42
Ibid. p. 177.
ARDHO
:
Association
Rwandaise pour la Défense des
43
Ibid. p. 46.
44
Droits de l’Homme
Ibid. p. 229.
45
Lugan,
B.,
1980,
op.
cit., p. 180. pour le Relèvement
AREDETWA : Association
46
Lugan, B., 1980, op. cit., p. 181.
Démocratique des Batwa
180
180
v
who had no land
of their own.AND
This ABBREVIATIONS
forced labor was not performed
ACRONYMS
by the free peasants
(ingabo)
who
had settlements on their own
___________________________________
land. The oldest tax (butaka) was principally made of food items,
tobacco,
hoes,
and bringing
offers for the chief (kugemurira
A.A.
: Archives
Africaines
umutware) who often lived at the royal court. King Rwabugiri
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
added a war tax called umuheto. King Musinga introduced
ABAKI
Bakiga(irari).47 The “Ubutaka” and
food
taxes for: Alliance
Europeandes
travelers
ABESC
: Association
des Bahutu
pour
la
“Umuheto”
taxes
were theoretically
paid Evoluant
all over the
country.
Suppression
destax
Castes
The collection of
the “Umuheto”
was performed by the chief
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
ZKRORRNHGDIWHUWKHNLQJ·VOLYHVWRFNLQWKHGLVWULFW+HKDGWKH
right
his cattleDémocratique
on the peasants’
The “irari” tax
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travelling in theRéconciliation
country. There Nationale
was also a tax collected from the
chiefs called “Umusogongero.” It was levied on “ubutaka” and
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
“umuheto,” but did not apply to “irari” tax. In addition, there were
AFDL
:
Alliance des Forces Démocratiques
pour la
WD[HVSDLGE\VSHFLÀFOLQHDJHVVXFKDVDVDOWWD[
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du items
Congo-Zaïre
the marshland Libération
grasses), craft
made from grass (ubutega),
AGOA
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Act RI WUHH
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and arms. The lineages charged with performing
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big quantities
of ‘Ubutega’
were produced,
AJER region: where
Association
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while the Bihenyi lineage specialized in the construction of royal
Rwandaise
huts.
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
AM/AP
Arrêté ministériel/
présidentiel
In
Mulera, the: payment
of tax was aArrêté
clan affair.
Taxes were paid
AMR
: Association
des Moniteurs
Rwanda
via
the oldest member
of the clan,
and the taxdu
levying
process was
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
DQLQWHUQDODIIDLU$OOPHPEHUVZRUNHGLQVROLGDULW\WRSD\WD[HV
The
taxes in the
form of honey
and, every year, they
ANT“ingabo” paid
: Assemblée
Nationale
de Transition
JDYHWKHWZHQWLHWKFRZWRWKHNLQJ7KHUHZDVDOVRDWD[LPSRVHG
(Transitional National Assembly)
on
businessmen
(indamu) and
by chiefs.Chrétien
In Bugoyi, it
APADEC
: Association
du collected
Parti Démocrate
consisted of 10-15% of the value of the items sold in Nyundo.48
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
King Rwabugiri introduced another new tax to entertain his
Rwandais
newly appointed
chiefs. The complexity of Rwanda’s traditional
APROCOMIN:
Association
Commerçants
Indigènes
ÀVFDO V\VWHP UHVXOWHG IURP des
LWV VSHFLÀF
FKDUDFWHULVWLFV
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LQFOXVLYH
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factors, all of which
Massechanged as time went on.
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
47
Hence, the northern
provinces were governed as follows : Bugoyi Bushaku
Démocratie
concurrently assumed the functions of “ku muheto” and “ku butaka”; Kinunu,
ARDHO
: Association
Rwandaise
pour
la Défense
des
Rwindegembya
concurrently
held the
two functions;
In Bwishaza,
Bushahu
was
Droits de“ku
l’Homme
“kubutaka” and Rwidegembya
muheto”; In Kinyaga, Rwabilinda assumed the
function
of “kubutaka”
and Rwidegembya
“kulemuheto”
(Lugan, op. cit., 1980, p. 183
AREDETWA
: Association
pour
Relèvement
48
Lugan, B., op. cit., 1980, p. 183.
Démocratique des Batwa
181
v
181
4.1.3. ACRONYMS
The Protectorate
(1897)
ANDregime
ABBREVIATIONS
___________________________________
As a result of the partition of Africa during the Berlin conference
(1884-1885),
process
of power devolution saw Rwanda
A.A.
: the
Archives
Africaines
GLSORPDWLFDOO\ DQQH[HG WR WKH *HUPDQ VSKHUH RI LQÁXHQFH ,Q
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
WKH *HUPDQ VSKHUH RI LQÁXHQFH LQ (DVW $IULFD RIÀFLDOO\
ABAKI the : title
Alliance
des Bakiga
assumed
of ‘German
East African Protectorate’ (Das
ABESC
:
Association
des
Bahutu
Evoluant
pour la
deutsch-ostafrickanische Shutzgebeit).
Two
stages characterized
Suppression
Castes
the period of German
rule: ades
period
of military administration
ACRthe protectorate
: Association
Cultivateurs
Rwanda
and
and thedes
period
of indirect du
rule.
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
a.
From
Nominal
Rule
to Military
Administration
ADR
: Alliance
pour
la Démocratie
et la (1897-1906)
Réconciliation Nationale
In general, German rule was unique in the way it was implemented.
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
Effectively, in the beginning, Germany practiced a policy of “wait
AFDL
:
Alliance
Forces
Démocratiques
pour
la of
and see.” On March
22,des
1897,
Captain
Hans Ramsay,
Chief
Libération
duestablished
Congo-Zaïre
“Udjidji Station,”
peacefully
political relations with
AGOA
Growth
and Opportunity
the
Rwandan: African
royal court.
He presented
himself Act
to the royal
court
with 112 soldiers, 129 porters, and an escort
$,'6in Rwanda
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
of
Europeans.
They
were
received et
with
“fear and suspicion.”49
AIMO
: Affaires
Indigènes
Main-d’oeuvre
Captain
managed de
to laform
a ‘pactEstudiantine
of friendship’ with
AJER Ramsay
: Association
Jeunesse
Mpamarugamba, King Yuhi Musinga’s cousin. Ramsay gave
Rwandaise
KLPDOHWWHURISURWHFWLRQDQGD*HUPDQÁDJRQO\WKHQWRWDNH
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
possession of Rwanda and usher it under the ‘German sphere
AM/AP
Arrêté
ministériel/
Arrêté présidentiel
RI
LQÁXHQFH·: 7KH
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AMR Ramsay
: Association
des Moniteurs
du
Rwanda
Captain
and the representative
of the
King
of Rwanda is
AMUR as follows:
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
described
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
(...) I was
supposed toNational
attach aAssembly)
thread on him and he
(Transitional
himself
rolled
me
with
the
same
threads
and
together we
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate
Chrétien
VKRRN KDQGV YHU\ VWURQJO\ DQG WKH ¶EORRG SDFW· EHWZHHQ
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
WKHNLQJDQG,ZDVFRQFOXGHG 50
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
While RwandaRwandais
was placed under German rule, King Yuhi
APROCOMIN:
Association
des Commerçants
Indigènes
Musinga, represented by Mpamarugamba,
made protests
against
APROSOMA
: Association
pour la
Sociale
de la
Rwanda’s
invasion
by the army
of Promotion
the Congo Free
State
(EIC).
He did so by referring
Masse to the Shangi affair/Cyangugu where the
Rwandan
army
had been
defeated.
The royal court
ARD
: Alliance
pour
le Renforcement
de la hoped to
obtain some support
against
those
who
had
occupied
Western
Démocratie
Rwanda and against any other internal opposition.
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
Droits de l’Homme
49
Honke,
G.,
1990,
op. cit., p. 115. pour le Relèvement
AREDETWA : Association
50
Lugan, B., 1980, op. cit., p. 189
Démocratique des Batwa
182
182
v
A year later, ACRONYMS
Captain Hinerich
Bethe visited Rwanda. The
ANDand
ABBREVIATIONS
ODWWHUZDVQLFNQDPHG¶*DKL]D·EHFDXVHRIKLVPLOLWDU\KHDGJHDU
___________________________________
%HWKH·VYLVLWHQGHGDW*LWZLNR5R\DO&RXUWQHDU.DPRQ\LIURP
rd
th
the
of March,
1898. This visit was conducted in the
A.A.3 to the 6
: Archives
Africaines
FRPSDQ\RI/W9RQ*UDZHUWQ'U+RHVHPDQQ3IHXIIHUDQXUVH
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
DVNDULV DQG SRUWHUV 7KH FKLHI RI WKH GHOHJDWLRQ DOVR
ABAKIRI ´IULHQGO\
: Alliance
des Bakiga
VSRNH
UHODWLRQVµ
WR 0SDPDUXJDPED51 Meanwhile,
ABESC
: Association
pour
la an
in
1897, Usumbura
station des
was Bahutu
founded.Evoluant
Up to 1907,
it was
52
des
Castes
administrative Suppression
post for Burudi
and
Rwanda. In the same year,
ACR
: Association
following quarrels
between des
the Cultivateurs
Germans and du
theRwanda
army of the
Congo Free State
on the issue
of the Eastern
Congolese
ADP
: Alliance
Démocratique
des
Peuples border, the
Germans
established
other
military
stations
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie(Regierungussitze).
et la
In November 1898,
Shangi
Military
Station
was established,
Réconciliation Nationale
followed by the Kisenyi Military Station in August 1898. From
AEC rd
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
the 3 to the 6th of March 1898, while visiting the Rwandan
AFDL
:
Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
FRXUW&DSWDLQ%HWKHFRQÀUPHGKLVGHÀQLWLYHUHFRJQLWLRQRIWKH
du 5R\DO
Congo-Zaïre
VRYHUHLJQW\ RILibération
WKH 5ZDQGDQ
&RXUW ,Q UHWXUQ WKH NLQJ
AGOA assurance
: African
and Usumbura
Opportunity
Act Station.
received
and Growth
support from
Military
$,'6
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For
more than: ten
years,Indigènes
the border issue
with the EIC constituted
AIMO
Affaires
et Main-d’oeuvre
a
point of discord
betweende
Germany
and Estudiantine
Belgium. In unclear
AJER
: Association
la Jeunesse
accords signed regarding Congo, King Leopold II espoused that,
Rwandaise
from 1885, the border between his colony and the future German
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
East Africa was indicated by a right angle from the geographic
AM/AP
ministériel/
Arrêté
point
located :atArrêté
30° longitude
east and
20° présidentiel
latitude south, up to
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
WKHQRUWKHUQSRLQWRI/DNH7DQJDQ\LND7KHUHJLRQORFDWHGZHVW
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
RIWKHLPDJLQDU\OLQHMRLQLQJ*DWXQD*LWDUDPD*LNRQJRUR1VKLOL
went
(See Map
10 below)
ANT to the Belgians.
: Assemblée
Nationale
de Transition
(Transitional National Assembly)
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
Rwandais
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
Masse
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
Démocratie
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
51
Honke, G., 1990, Droits
op cit., p. de
117 l’Homme
52
Bindseil,
R.,
Le
Rwanda
et
l’Allemagne
depuis
le temps de Richard Kandt, Berlin,
AREDETWA : Association pour
le Relèvement
1988, p. 1.
Démocratique des Batwa
183
v
183
Map 10: Ruanda-Urundi
ACRONYMS(1884-1919)
AND ABBREVIATIONS
___________________________________
A.A.
A.G.
ABAKI
ABESC
Archives Africaines
Assemblée Générale
Alliance des Bakiga
Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
Suppression des Castes
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
Réconciliation Nationale
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
AFDL
: Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity Act
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
Rwandaise
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
(Transitional National Assembly)
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
Rwandais
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
Masse
Source:
Louis
R.,
Ruanda-Urundi
1884 -1919, Oxford,
ARD
: Alliance
pour le Renforcement
de laClarendon
Press, 1963
Démocratie
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
7KH *HUPDQ JRYHUQPHQW KRZHYHU WKRXJKW WKDW /DNH .LYX
DroitsERUGHU
de l’Homme
SURYLGHG D FRPPRQ
7KH\ MXVWLÀHG WKLV E\ UHIHUULQJ WR
AREDETWA
:
Association
pour
le Relèvement
WKH $QJOR*HUPDQ 7UHDW\ +HOLJRODQG
7UHDW\=DQ]LEDU RI -XO\
Démocratique des Batwa
184
184
:
:
:
:
v
ZKLFKKDGGHPDUFDWHGWKHVSKHUHVRILQÁXHQFHIRUWKHVH
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
two countries___________________________________
in East Africa. According to this treaty, German
East Africa extended from the coast of the Indian Ocean to the
53
*UHDW/DNHV
A.A.
: Archives Africaines
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
At that time, the Congo Free State (EIC) did not have military
ABAKIto impose
: Alliance
des Bakiga
power
its position;
beginning in 1896, it had been
ABESC
:
Association
des
Bahutu Evoluant pour la
ZHDNHQHGE\VHYHUDOPLOLWDU\PXWLQLHV7KH*HUPDQJRYHUQPHQW
Suppression
des stationed
Castes in Ujiji, to occupy the
charged Captain
Bethe, who was
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
(DVWHUQEDQNRI5XVL]LDQG/DNH.LYXFRQVLGHUHGWREHORQJWR
the
It was
in this context
Shangi became
ADPGerman empire.
: Alliance
Démocratique
desthat
Peuples
a
military
post.
A
provisional
accord
that
maintained
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la the status
TXRRQWKHEDQNVRIWKHODNHVZDVFRQFOXGHGRQ1RYHPEHU
Réconciliation Nationale
1898, between Capt. Heqc and Capt. Bethe. When Msg. Hirth
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
crossed Kinyaga at the beginning of 1900, the border question
AFDL
:
Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
ZDVVWLOOXQFOHDU7KH%HOJLDQVDUULYHGÀUVWLQWKHYDOOH\RI5XVL]L
du Congo-Zaïre
DQG /DNH .LYXLibération
EXW ZHUH FKDVHG
E\ WKHLU RZQ UHYROWLQJ WURRSV
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity Act
7KH*HUPDQVWRRNDGYDQWDJHRIWKLVWRHVWDEOLVKPLOLWDU\SRVWV
DORQJ5LYHU5XVL]LDQG/DNH.LYXWRSURWHFWWKHPVHOYHVIURPWKH
$,'6
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rebellious
armies.
AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
7KH WDVN RI WKH FRPPLVVLRQ FKDUJHG ZLWK ERUGHU GHPDUFDWLRQ
Rwandaise
EHJDQLQ7KHVNHWFKPDSVGUDZQE\.DQGWKHOSHGWRFRUUHFW
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
WKHHUURQHRXVGDWDSURYLGHGE\6SHNH6WDQOH\DQG6WXKOPDQ
AM/AP
: Arrêté
ministériel/
Arrêté
présidentiel
and
Were useful
to the
commission.
Kandt
favored drawing
AMR
: Association
desofMoniteurs
dunatural
Rwandaphysical
borders
based
on the criteria
“ethnic and
AMUR
: Association
des Musulmans
au Rwanda
features,”
namely
the Rusizi-Kivu
boundary, and
he was ready
to
release Idjwi
Island, which
physically
ANT
: Assemblée
Nationale
de demarcated
Transition areas that
belonged to different
cultures.National
For him,Assembly)
any other demarcation
(Transitional
ZRXOG
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QHJDWLYH
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RI WKH
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate
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county into small units would instead solve many endless
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
DGPLQLVWUDWLYHSUREOHPVDQGHQGOHVVFRQÁLFWV+DYLQJIDLOHGWR
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
solve this border question, Kandt concluded that he would “give
Rwandais
up Rwanda entirely.”
In order to put pressure on the Belgians,
APROCOMIN:
Association
desclaimed
Commerçants
Indigènes
he occupied Shangi, which was
by Congo.
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
7KHDFFRUGRI0D\FRQÀUPHGWKHSURYLVLRQDOVLWXDWLRQ
Masse
obtained
at
that
time. Belgium
ended
up accepting
ARD
: Alliance
pour le
Renforcement
dethe
laborderline
of the volcanoes
along
the
Karisimbi-Sabyinyo-Muhabura
Démocratie
Mountains. Rwanda lost Bufumbira, Bwishya, Gishari, and Idjwi
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
Island. In 1911, the German Residence created a military post
de l’Homme
at Tshangugu Droits
after removing
Shangi, which was of no military
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
53 Loius, W.M.R., Ruanda-Urundi 1994-1919, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1963.
Démocratique des Batwa
185
v
185
LQWHUHVW WR WKHP
.LQJ 0XVLQJD
ZDV QRW DW DOO VDWLVÀHG ZLWK
ACRONYMS
AND ABBREVIATIONS
these demarcations
and
was
deeply
concerned by the loss of his
___________________________________
territories, although his relations with the Germans remained
unchanged.
The
Germans
continued to recognize some of his
A.A.
: Archives
Africaines
remaining rights.
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
ABAKI
: Alliance des
Bakiga
b. Implementation
of the
Protectorate or Indirect rule
ABESC
:
Association
des
Bahutu
Evoluant pour la
(1906-1916)
Suppression des Castes
ACR
Association
du
Rwanda
Between
1904: and
1905, thedes
MajiCultivateurs
Maji rebellion54
EURNHRXWLQWKH
*HUPDQ(DVW$IULFDQVSKHUHRILQÁXHQFH,WZDVVXSSUHVVHGZLWK
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
heavy
losses.
revolt pour
discredited
the German
colonization in
ADR
:The
Alliance
la Démocratie
et la
the civilized world.
It had repercussions
Réconciliation
Nationaleon the German colonial
system and forced the government in Berlin to proceed with the
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
re-organization of the administration of her colonies. In addition,
AFDL
:
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pour la by
the military command
of different
districts was replaced
Libération
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Congo-Zaïre
civilian rule. Dernburg,
the
General of colonies under
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: African of
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the
German Ministry
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: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
According
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Burundi
were the most
AJER
: Association
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beautiful and populated possessions of the German East Africa
Rwandaise
VSKHUHRILQÁXHQFH/W9RQ3HULVK GHVFULEHG5ZDQGDDV
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“one of the most interesting areas of German East Africa and
AM/AP
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in
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is theministériel/
last despoticArrêté
state of
the colony.”55 The
AMR in Rwanda
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interest
was hinged
the following
factors: it was
AMUR
: Association
Musulmans
Rwanda
the
most interesting
countrydes
in German
East au
Africa,
one of the
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and was a densely populated country with a good climate and
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
very beautiful landscapes. It was a region that presented a bright
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
future for white colonialists .56
Rwandais
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separating
it from
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On November
15, 1907,
Dr.de
Richard
APROSOMA
: Association
la Promotion
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la
Kandt57 (alias Kanayoge) established his station at Shangi
Masse
54
In
Swahili,
the
word
« Maji-Maji
» means
a magical portion (of
ARD
: Alliance
pour
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de water)
la which the
natives of some tribes
in
DeutschOstafrika
drank
to
protect
themselves
from the
Démocratie
bullets of the German guns.
ARDHO
: Association
55
Lugan, B., 1980.,
op. cit., p. 106 Rwandaise pour la Défense des
56
Droits de l’Homme
Ibid. p. 126.
57
Bindseil,
R.
stressed
that R. Kandt claimed
to have
a doctorate but had not written a
AREDETWA : Association
pour le
Relèvement
thesis to deserve this title as required by the regulations in Germany at that time.
Démocratique des Batwa
186
186
v
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1898 and had studied natural sciences (e.g. botany and geology).
He
as a civil
servant and the “Imperial Resident
A.A.was appointed
: Archives
Africaines
to
Rwanda”.
Beginning
in
1905,
Kandt received a salary almost
A.G.
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equivalent to that of a commander. As an explorer of the Ministry
ABAKI
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ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
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Prior to 1870, there
was practically
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structure.
There
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posts in the entire country.
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: Agglomeration
Extra-Coutumières
They
in Shangi
(Ischangi)
and Gisenyi pour
(Kissenji).
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: Alliance
des Forces
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la
Thereafter, others
were established
in Kigali (1907), Ruhengeri
Libération
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(1909),
and
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(1914).
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Belgian colonial period and was associated with the problem of
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political, administrative, and economic considerations.
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58
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Démocratique des Batwa
187
v
187
permission. InACRONYMS
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AND ABBREVIATIONS
to mean:
___________________________________
and enhancement
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la
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et
la
Tutsi children in 1910;
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cows and blamed
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German
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Massethat there was “deep bitterness against
Watutsi
rule
(...)
in the pour
entirelecountry.”
He reported
ARD
: Alliance
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de la that this
would constitute
danger for the Germans and the best way of
Démocratie
confronting this danger was not to put their guns in support
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
of the Watutsi, but to replace gradually the arbitrary rule of
Droits de l’Homme
the Watutsi by introducing the rule of law.”59 The interests of
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
59
Bindseil, R., 1988, op. cit.
Démocratique des Batwa
188
188
v
the GermansACRONYMS
were not permanently
protected through this
AND ABBREVIATIONS
unconditional___________________________________
support of the Watutsi because the German
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A.A. ruled :aArchives
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receive follow-up because of the First World War. However, it
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
demonstrated that some civil servants were against the policy
ABAKI by Kandt.
: Alliance
des Bakiga
pursued
M. Wintgens
envisioned introducing reforms
ABESC
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des
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la
by imposing uniform taxes and by subjecting
the Tutsi
Suppression
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to another judicial
system favorable
to the Hutu.
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policy.
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organized
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punitive expeditions
in the country
against those who opposed
Réconciliation
Nationale
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themForces
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authority.
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They quelled rebellions
aimed at avenging the death of
AGOA
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missionaries,
as Growth
the repression
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after
of Father Superior Loupias of Rwaza
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AIMO
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authorities
and
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each
other.
AJER
: Association
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Rwandaise
c. Economic policy
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
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: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
the high altitude of the region and its favorable climate to the
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
whites. He asserted, “We should remove the Batutsi from power
Rwandais
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leave
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entirely on
60
APROSOMA
Association
la Promotion
de la
the
support of: the
Batwa,” pour
a position
that wasSociale
later dismissed.
Masse
The
budget
for
the German
was modest
because the
ARD
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le Renforcement
de la
country was considered
to
be
less
developed.
As
a
result,
no taxes
Démocratie
were imposed. The biggest resources came from the government
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
of Dar-es-salaam in the form of grants. In 1912, the effective
Droits deResidence,
l’Homme 42,000 DM, was subsidized
budget of the German
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
60
Lugan, B., 1980, op. cit., p. 113.
Démocratique des Batwa
189
v
189
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ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
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and custom duties. 50% of this budget was used to pay salaries
of
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A.A.
: Archives Africaines
A.G.
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In order to increase income and to obtain money from
ABAKI
:and
Alliance
des Bakiga
businessmen
Europeans,
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ABESC
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des
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a compulsory tax by implementing
the Evoluant
central government’s
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decision of introducing
a capitation
tax of one rupee per year
ACR
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want
the process
of levying this
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Bindseil, R., 1988, op. cit., p. 120.
Démocratique des Batwa
190
190
v
Rwanda and Burundi
whereAND
Rubavu
meets Kagera. This project
ACRONYMS
ABBREVIATIONS
was supported
by
Governor
Schnee,
who visited Ruanda___________________________________
Burundi with an expert to study its implementation. It was
approved
by the
government
in Berlin. This line was supposed
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advantage of
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regions,
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proposal because they feared the high costs involved due to the
Rwandaise
WRSRJUDSKLFFRQVWUDLQWVRIFRQVWUXFWLQJDUDLOZD\OLQHRINP
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
via a mountainous region and crossing the Congo-Nile Crater.
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
AMRlast proposal
: Association
descompete
Moniteurs
The
intended to
with du
theRwanda
British railway
AMUR
: Association
Musulmans
au Rwanda
line
(the Uganda
Railway) wasdes
to connect
the Tanga-Moshi
railway
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(Transitional National Assembly)
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: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
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APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
constraints involved; the proposed railway line was supposed to
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
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eve of the FirstDémocratie
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AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
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191
v
191
project.62 TheACRONYMS
German Parliament
(Reichtag) in Berlin voted for
AND ABBREVIATIONS
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million DM for the construction of the railway line from Tabora
WR5XVXPR+RZHYHUWKLVSURMHFWGLGQRWWDNHRIIEHFDXVHRIWKH
A.A.
: Archives Africaines
First World War.
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
ABAKI
: Alliance
Bakiga
d. Development
of des
trade
ABESC
: Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
des was
Castes
Prior to the 19thSuppression
Century, Rwanda
excluded from the caravan
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
WUDGHQHWZRUNWKDWFURVVHGWKHHQWLUH*HUPDQVSKHUHRILQÁXHQFH
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ADP
: Alliance
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des Peuples
century.
Many
believed
in
the
theory
that
Rwanda’s
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la pre-colonial
economy closed.
They argued that
the only movement of goods
Réconciliation
Nationale
was associated with feudal constraints in the form of grants and
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
royalties.63 They further argued that political minorities drained
AFDL
:
Alliance
des Forces from
Démocratiques
la
the entire surplus
of production
the peasantpour
masses,
Congo-Zaïre
preventing the Libération
emergence du
of trade
exchange.64 Hence, in their
AGOA
: African
Growth
and Opportunity
Act trade.
view,
institutional
structures
in Rwanda
did not encourage
Peasants
concentrated
on subsistence farming without leaving
$,'6
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their
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environment
except
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: Association
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Jeunesse
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structures that were organized and restricted to households.65
Rwandaise
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
In spite of the above feudal royalties,66 there is considerable
AM/AP
Arrêté
ministériel/
Arrêté
présidentielRwanda.
evidence that :trade
of food
items existed
in pre-colonial
AMR
Association
des Moniteurs
du Rwanda
The loyalties :were
less burdensome
than what
was imagined.
AMUR
: Association
Musulmans
auofRwanda
The food tax was
levied oncedes
a year
at the time
harvests, but
not all products
were taxable.
Taxes were
imposed on beans
ANT
: Assemblée
Nationale
de only
Transition
and sorghum. Feudal
servicesNational
and forced
labor did not prevent
(Transitional
Assembly)
WUDGHUVIURPJHWWLQJSURÀWQHHGHGWRSXUFKDVHLWHPVQHHGHGE\
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
each household. Further, food trade was not reduced by the
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
imposition of taxes.67
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
Rwandais
APROCOMIN: thAssociation des Commerçants Indigènes
62
Zaza’s diary of 13 December 1915
APROSOMA
: Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
63
Leurquin P. H., Le niveau de vie des populations rurales du Ruanda-Urundi,
Louvain, Institut de Masse
recherche économique, 1960, p. 30-36.
64
Vidal,
C.,
«
Economie
de la société
rwandaise », in Cahiers
d’Etudes
ARD
: Alliance
pourféodale
le Renforcement
de la
Africaines, XIV, 53,Démocratie
1973, p.53.
65
Ruzindana, E., L’évolution du commerce au Rwanda (du dernier quart du XIX
ARDHO
: Association
pour la Défense des
siècle
à 1950), Université
catholique Rwandaise
de Louvain, 1974.
66
Droits
de l’Homme
Lugan, B., 1980, op.
cit p. 103.
67
Lugan,
B.,
L’économie
de
l’échange
au Rwanda
de 1850 à 1914, Thèse, Université
AREDETWA : Association pour
le Relèvement
de Province, 1976, p. 106.
Démocratique des Batwa
192
192
v
Pre-colonial Rwanda
operated
twoABBREVIATIONS
types of trade: internal and
ACRONYMS
AND
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___________________________________
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Noten’s
notes,:68Archives
at the end
of the 18th century, Rwanda received
A.A.
Africaines
products from the Indian Ocean coast such as glass pearls from
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
(XURSHDQGVWRQHSHDUOVIURP,QGLD7KHÀUVWSURGXFWVWRDSSHDU
ABAKI
: Alliance des Bakiga
RQWKHPDUNHWIURP$VLDDQG(XURSHGDWHEDFNWRWKHUHLJQRI.LQJ
69
ABESC
: Association
des
Bahutu
pour
la
<XKL0D]LPSDND
The use of
cloth
startedEvoluant
under King
Rwogera.
Suppression des Castes
Products from:the
east became
numerous
under du
King
Rwanbugiri.
ACR
Association
des
Cultivateurs
Rwanda
The
latter
even
appointed
a
treasurer
at
the
royal
court
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples charged
ZLWKVWRFNLQJLQGLJHQRXVSURGXFWV umunya byuma) and another
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
FKDUJHGZLWKNHHSLQJLPSRUWHGSURGXFWV urwunguko). The Arab
Réconciliation Nationale
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: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
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AFDL
:
Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
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Libération du Congo-Zaïre
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: African Growth and Opportunity Act
Rwanda
was
also involved in peripheral trade with Western
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Kivu. Kinyanga Province was a commercial area connecting
AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
WKH WUDQVSRUW QHWZRUN RI JRRGV IURP %XQ\DEXQJR70 The areas
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
ORFDWHGVRXWKRI/DNH(GZDUG Rwicanzige) exported important
Rwandaise
TXDQWLWLHVRIVDOWDQGFRZULHVWRWKHUR\DOFRXUWIURPWKHEDQNV
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
RIWKLVODNH&RZULHVZHUHXVHGIRUGHFRUDWLQJUR\DOUHVLGHQFHV
AM/AP
Arrêté ministériel/
Arrêté présidentiel
Rwanda thus :participated
in inter-lacustrine
trade, implying the
absence
of
an
autocratic
system.
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
Internal trade was organized on a regular basis between
ANT
: Assemblée
Nationale de
Transition
regions and according
to agricultural
seasons.
This trade was
(Transitional
National
Assembly)
based on an exchange of products within the country (artisan
APADEC
: Association
duDQG
Parti
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Chrétien
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barter trade between
andRwandaise
consumers. The mobility of
APR
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Patriotique
WUDGLWLRQDOWUDGHUVLQPDUNHWVORFDWHGLQGLIIHUHQWFOLPDWLF]RQHV
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
was facilitated Rwandais
by natural conditions. The products produced
depended on physical climatic conditions such as altitude. This
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
diversity led to both complex and complimentary trade in the
APROSOMA
Association
pourcrops
la Promotion
de la
region.71 The :exchange
of food
consistedSociale
of transactions
Masse of ‘inter-regional compensation,’ or the
based on the principal
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
68
Les tombes du roi Démocratie
Cyirima Rujugira et e la reine mère Nyirayuhi, INRS, Butare
1972, pp. 34 : 55-56
ARDHO
: Association
pour la
Défense
des35,
69
Kagame, A., « Premiers
contacts duRwandaise
Rwandaet de l’Occident
», in
Grands Lacs,
Droits de l’Homme
1950, p. 7.
70
Czekanowiski,
J.,
1917, op. cit., pp.pour
162-169.
AREDETWA : Association
le Relèvement
71
Lugan, B., 1976 op., cit., p. 99
Démocratique des Batwa
193
v
193
exchange of both
seasonal and
regular
products. It was not trade
ACRONYMS
AND
ABBREVIATIONS
organized by professional
businessmen,
but trade was based on
___________________________________
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: Archives Africaines
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ABAKI PDGH
: Alliance
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(XURSHDQV72 By 1916, 40 regular
ABESC
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Evoluant
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73
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Castes
of the Germans.
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ACR along :border
Association
Cultivateurs
du Rwanda
located
regions des
sharing
a distinct climate.
The areas
ZKHUHWKHPDUNHWVZHUHFRQFHQWUDWHGLQFOXGHGWKHFHQWUDOSDUWRI
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
the
country,
namely
Kibali,
Kingogo,
Buliza, and
In total,
ADR
: Alliance
pour
la Démocratie
et Nduga.
la
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Réconciliation Nationale
the climatic and ecological barrier in the North, there were 11
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
PDUNHWV0XOHUD%XVKLUX%XEHUXNDDQG%XJR\L,QWKHVRXWKHUQ
AFDL
:
Alliance des Forces
Démocratiques
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la of
74
SDUWRI/DNH.LYXLQ.LQ\DJD
and in
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part
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
WKHFRXQWU\WKHUHZHUHQRPDUNHWVDWDOO'XULQJSHULRGVRIIRRG
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organized
regularly
whileIndigènes
others were
There were also
AIMO
: Affaires
et periodical.
Main-d’oeuvre
some
people de
frequently
met Estudiantine
to discuss pertinent
AJER places where
: Association
la Jeunesse
issues, especially during famine and periods of food scarcity.
Rwandaise
0DUNHWV LQ .LYX UHJLRQ ÁRXULVKHG XQGHU WKH LQÁXHQFH RI WKH
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
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AMR
: Association
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Moniteurs
du Rwanda
pre-colonial
Rwanda
was deeply
in trade.
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
ANT
Assemblée
de Transition
Kandt, R., Caput :Nil,
pp. 294-307. HeNationale
refers to the market
organizeded regulary in Mulera
in the valley of Mukungwa
and to the important
commercial
role of Kivu region as well as the
(Transitional
National
Assembly)
existance of peripheral trade conducted around Bugoyi. Czekanowiski J., op. cit., pp. 159-169,
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
UHYLVLWVWKHLGHDVRI.DQGWDQGFRPSOHWHVWKHPKHLVWKH¿UVWSHUVRQWRVSHDNDERXWRIPDUNHWV
APR
Armée
Patriotique
in
the central part of: Rwanda
(Nduga).
The dairies ofRwandaise
the Catholic missionares sometimes note
WKHH[LVWHQFHRIRIVXFKDQGVXFKDPDUNHWDQGSURYLGHVRPHLQIRUPDWLRQZKLFKFRQ¿UPRUDO
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
traditions; the dairy of Rwanza (1903-1907, 26th August 1903) speaks of a mrket near the mission;
Rwandais
the dairy of Mibirizi mentions
several occasions that this market was held (example Mibirizi’s
th
dairy 1903-1912, 13 July
1907); Save dairy
(25th$XJXVW
FRQ¿UPVWKHH[LVWHQFHRIDSUH
APROCOMIN:
Association
des
Commerçants
Indigènes
colonial market called Rwanza, and others at Kinyaga and in the northern part of the country.
APROSOMA
: Association
pour la Promotion Sociale de la
73
Lugan, B., op., Cit.,
p. 19
74
The known markets
in the North (11 were recorded) were as follows: in Bugoyi there
Masse
was Mushwiza, Rwabizege (Rwerere), Kibali; these were peripheral markets dominated by
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
africultural products et food crops. In Mulera: Teru, mahenge, Kiryi, Rwankeli, Agasakuza; in
Démocratie
Bubekura: Base (Mugobore),
Miyove; the specialization of the area was manufacting hoes of
best
quality compared
to those of the Bushi;
in Bushiru: Vunga
(Supply
of consumption
ARDHO
: Association
Rwandaise
pour
la centre
Défense
des
perishable goods in Kingogo and Nduga. The markets in the central part (9 counted in Northern
l’Homme
Nduga) : they were: inDroits
Kingogo: de
Milinzi,
Kizirabageni (Magorogonza); In Kibali: Mubuga; in
Buliza:
Mburamazi;:InAssociation
Nduga: Nyabitare (near
Mushioshiro),
The markets in the south were: in
AREDETWA
pour
le Relèvement
Kinyangayinga, Mururu, Nyagahinga, Bitare; in Bwanamukali: Rwanza (near Save)
Démocratique des Batwa
72
194
194
v
In an attemptACRONYMS
to explain the
localization
and centralization of
AND
ABBREVIATIONS
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SURYLQFHV
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“feudal
institutions
imposed
by the minority Tutsi prevented
A.A.
: Archives
Africaines
or slowed down the organization of trade.”75 The point to note
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
LV WKDW IRU D ORQJ WLPH PDUNHWV ZHUH QRQH[LVWHQW LQ UHJLRQV
ABAKI WR WKH
: Alliance
Bakiga7KH YROXPH RI PDUNHWV ZDV
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DXWKRULW\
ABESCin provinces
: Association
dessubjected
Bahutu Evoluant
pour la or
higher
belatedly
to royal authority
des Castes
in regions thatSuppression
were autonomous
vis-à-vis the central power,
ACR
Association
des
Cultivateurs
Rwanda
especially
the:east.
A big part
of the
central anddu
southern
region
did
in trade.
ADPnot participate
: Alliance
Démocratique des Peuples
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
In attempts to Réconciliation
explain the localization
Nationaleof internal trade, both
institutional and political reasons should be avoided, especially
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
the “Tutsi factor.” Integrated regions such as Nduga and Buliza
AFDL
:
Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
DOVRRSHUDWHGPDUNHWV7KHDULVWRFUDF\UHVRUWHGWRPDUNHWVWRJHW
Libération
du Congo-Zaïre
supplies of items
they needed,
such as hoes and bracelets. By
AGOA
: African
Growththe
and
Opportunity
Act security
subduing
small
principalities,
royal
power imposed
and
created $FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
a favorable environment for the development of
$,'6
trade.
Explanations
thatIndigènes
put geographical
factors at the forefront
AIMO
: Affaires
et Main-d’oeuvre
(relief,
rainfall) are
more plausible
explanations
AJER soils and
: Association
dethus
la Jeunesse
Estudiantine
for the existence of internal trade.
Rwandaise
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
7KXVWUDGHZDVSDUWO\WKHUHVXOWRIQDWXUDOFRQGLWLRQV0DUNHWV
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AMR
: Association
desorMoniteurs
Rwanda
or
imported artisan
products
food items.du
They
also existed
AMUR
: Association
des that
Musulmans
Rwanda
in
contact regions,
or areas
producedaucomplementary
products;
these
areas wereNationale
located near
another, especially
ANT
: Assemblée
de one
Transition
LQ WKH FHQWUDO (Transitional
SODWHDX 0DUNHWV
DOVR H[LVWHG
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National
Assembly)
WKHUHZHUHKLJKZD\URXWHVHVSHFLDOO\LQ0XNXQJZDYDOOH\DQG
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
in regions that connected areas that produced complementary
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
items, including those that were located far from one another
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
such as Mulera and Nduga.
Rwandais
APROCOMIN:
Association
des Commerçants
Famine
complicated
the phenomena
of social Indigènes
mobility and
APROSOMA
Association
pour
la Promotion
Sociale
de la
movement
of :goods.
However,
inter-regional
trade
in food
items
76
WRRNSODFHHYHQDIWHUSHULRGVRIIRRGVKRUWDJH
%XJDQ]D*LVDND
Masse
Bwanacyambwe,
and
Nduga
supplied
cattle
to
in
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcementthe
de provinces
la
WKH QRUWK LQFOXGLQJ
5XNLJD
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ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
75
l’Homme
Czekanowiski, J., Droits
op., cit., p.de
164.
76
The
food
shortages
and
famine
which
hit Rwanda
since 1897 up to the eve of the
AREDETWA : Association
pour
le Relèvement
First World War was caused by the invasion of locusts of 1897.
Démocratique des Batwa
195
v
195
DQG EUDFHOHWV
,Q UHJLRQV ZKHUH
OLYHVWRFN ZDV NHSW WKH ODWWHU
ACRONYMS
AND ABBREVIATIONS
was bartered for
food
items.
Every
year, Nduga and the regions
___________________________________
of central Rwanda resorted to Bugoyi, Bushiru, and Mulera for
food
of shortage.
A.A. during times
: Archives
Africaines
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
7KH %HOJLDQ DGPLQLVWUDWLRQ FORVHG PDQ\ ROG PDUNHWV WR
ABAKI commercial
: Alliance
des Bakiga
control
activities.
However, in 1922, the Belgian
77
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:
Association
des
Bahutu
Evoluant
la LQ
administration HQFRXUDJHG WKH
GHYHORSPHQW
RI pour
PDUNHWV
Suppression
descenters.
Castes The colonial authority
both urban and
administrative
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
IHOWWKDWQDWLYHPDUNHWVZHUHGHHSO\LPSRUWDQWJLYHQKRZRIWHQ
78
they
ADP were frequented.
: Alliance
Démocratique des Peuples
ADR
AEC
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
x Reversal
of traditional
trade circuits
Réconciliation
Nationale
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
In the last decade of the 19th Century, just before the arrival of the
AFDL
: Alliance
desout
Forces
Démocratiques
pour
la
Europeans,
Rwanda
moved
of isolation
and gradually
opened
dutrade.
Congo-Zaïre
up its easternLibération
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v
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were used as mediums of exchange. Trade was conducted along
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accepted standards and principles that varied from one province
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198
198
v
The quantity ACRONYMS
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trade of ivory and rubber from the Congo. They also traded in
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AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
80
Jahresbericht, A.K.R. 1911/ 1912, p.23
Démocratique des Batwa
199
v
199
products fromACRONYMS
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more individuals
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Droits de l’Homme
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
81
Classe, P., Letter to Father Superior of 30th Januray 1910.
Démocratique des Batwa
200
200
v
The ordinance
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ACRONYMS
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trade, the German
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Catholic and Protestant
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Islamizing the country.82 The White Fathers considered Rwanda
AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
to be their “personal property,” where they could conduct
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
their own religious and moral experiments. They resented any
Rwandaise
stranger who would
corrupt their territory, and it was therefore
ALIR
Armée
deforeign
Libération
du Rwanda
necessary
to :avoid
any
competing
doctrine. Thus, the
AM/AP
:
Arrêté
ministériel/
Arrêté
présidentiel
&DWKROLFPLVVLRQDULHVHPEDUNHGRQDSURWHVWRIWKH´PHUFDQWLOH
AMR
: Association
des Moniteurs
du Rwanda
mentality,”
hoping
to undermine
Muslim penetration
in order to
83
safeguard
their
interests. des Musulmans au Rwanda
AMUR
: Association
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
The Protestant (Transitional
missionaries tried
to beat
Muslims at their own
National
Assembly)
game.
They
opened
shops
in
Nyanza,
Kigali,
and
Cyangugu,
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate
Chrétien
where
and Patriotique
sold productsRwandaise
from the Christian natives.84
APR they bought
: Armée
They opened new Christian-run trading centers and conducted
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
EDUWHU WUDGH E\ H[FKDQJLQJ VNLQV ZLWK FORWK DQG EHDGV 7KLV
Rwandais
helps to explain why the Handels-Mission became a failure.
APROCOMIN:
Association
des by
Commerçants
Indigènes
Rwandans
preferred
goods sold
Muslim traders,
and family
APROSOMA
Association
la Promotion
de of
la the
heads
needed: rupees
to paypour
the taxes
imposed Sociale
on the eve
Masse
82
Rutayisire,
P.,
La
christianisation
du Rwanda
(1900-1945). Méthodes
ARD
: Alliance
pour
le Renforcement
de la missionaries
et politiques selon Mgr
Léon
Classe,
Fribourg,
1987
Démocratie
83
See the exaggerated proposals made by the White Fathers in connection with the
ARDHO
:
Association
Rwandaise
pour
lanumerous
Défense
des
religious competition, which was in reality
non-existent
and the
complaints
Droitsofde
l’Homme
against the acts of violence
traders
visa-à-vis the Germans by surpassing their own
abuses
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
84
Lacger, L. (de)., Ruanda, Kabgayi, 1961, p. 382.
Démocratique des Batwa
201
v
201
First World War.
These factors
the impact of the
ACRONYMS
ANDundermined
ABBREVIATIONS
German presence
in Rwanda. The objective of the Residence was
___________________________________
to encourage Rwandans to participate in economic development
and
to this
effect, they partly succeeded.
A.A.administration;
: Archives
Africaines
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
ABAKI
: Alliance des Bakiga
ABESC
: Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
7KHÀUVW&DWKROLFDQG3URWHVWDQWPLVVLRQDULHVFDPHWR5ZDQGD
Suppression
Castes This was discernable
with the spirit of
conquest anddes
domination.
ACR
:
Association
des
Cultivateurs
du Rwanda
from the occupation strategies they adopted, their
contempt of
the
people, their
use of force,
and
the priority they
ADPdominated
: Alliance
Démocratique
des
Peuples
gave
of the
colonizers.
ADR to the interests
: Alliance
pour
la Démocratie et la
Réconciliation Nationale
Founded
in
1868,
the White Fathers
of Cardinal Lavigerie arrived
AEC
: Agglomeration
Extra-Coutumières
LQ5ZDQGDLQ)HEUXDU\8QGHU0JU-+LUWKWKH\HVWDEOLVKHG
AFDL
: Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
WKH ÀUVW &DWKROLF 0LVVLRQ LQ 5ZDQGD DW %ZDQDPXNDUL ZKLFK
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
XQGHUWRRN WKH WDVN RI HYDQJHOL]DWLRQ WKDW FRPSOHPHQWHG WKH
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity Act
colonial enterprise. He wanted to establish his mission before
$,'6
the
arrival of$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
Protestants and Muslims.85 7KH $SRVWROLF 9LFDU
AIMO
: Affaires
Indigènes
et Main-d’oeuvre
was aware of what
explorers,
slave dealers,
soldiers, and colonial
AJER
Association
la Jeunesse
Estudiantine
civil servants :had
written ofdeRwanda,
and of
Rwanda’s capacity
Rwandaise
to attract world attention.
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
Up to the eve
of theministériel/
First World Arrêté
War, priests
had founded
AM/AP
: Arrêté
présidentiel
missions
in
several
regions
in
the
country,
including:
Save and
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
Zaza (1900), :Nyundo
(1903),
(1903),au
Kabgayi
(1905),
AMUR
Association
desRwanza
Musulmans
Rwanda
Rulindo
(1908),
Rambura
(1910),
Kigali
(1912),
Muramba,
and
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
Kansi. (See map 11 below)
(Transitional National Assembly)
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
Rwandais
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
Masse
85
7KHERRNRI)DWKHU0LQQDHW6WHIDDQDOUHDG\FLWHGLVGHYRWHGWRWKH¿UVWMRXUQH\
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
PDGHE\0JU+LUWKWRHVWDEOLVKWKH¿UVWPLVVLRQLQ5ZDQGD6HHDOVRWZRDUWLFOHVE\WKH
Démocratie
same author: “Un regard neuf sur la première fondation des missionnaires d’Afrique au
ARDHO
:
Association
pour la
Rwanda en février 1900”, in Histoire Rwandaise
et Missions Chretiennes
, noDéfense
8, 2008, pp.des
39-66;
Droits
de l’Homme
“ « Les pères Blancs
et la société
durant l’époque coloniale allemande (1900-1916):
une
rencontre entre
religion”, in
Rutayisire,
P. et al., Les religions au Rwanda:
AREDETWA
: culture
Association
pour
le Relèvement
Gp¿VFRQYHUJHQFHVHWFRPSpWLWLRQV, Ed. De l’UNR, septembre, 2009, pp.53-101.
Démocratique des Batwa
4.1.4. Presence of missionaries
202
202
v
Map 11: Establishment
of AND
Catholic
and Protestant
ACRONYMS
ABBREVIATIONS
___________________________________
missions in Rwanda (1900-1916)
A.A.
A.G.
ABAKI
ABESC
:
:
:
:
Archives Africaines
Assemblée Générale
Alliance des Bakiga
Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
Suppression des Castes
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
Réconciliation Nationale
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
AFDL
: Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity Act
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AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
Rwandaise
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
Source: Annual reports of the missionaries of Africa
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
AMUR
: Association
des Musulmans
au Rwanda
As
far as the Catholic
Missionaries
were concerned,
the strategy of
occupation
achieved
many Nationale
of their goals.
ANT
: Assemblée
de Primarily,
Transitionthey wanted
to occupy the most
populatedNational
areas before
Protestants could do
(Transitional
Assembly)
so.
Secondly,
they
wanted
to
win
over
those
personalities
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate
Chrétien they
considered to be politically and economically important. Further,
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
they wanted to recruit those who facilitated communication
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
EHWZHHQWKH5ZDQGDPLVVLRQVDQGWKHVHDWRIWKH$SRVWROLF9LFDU
Rwandais
ORFDWHGDORQJ/DNH9LFWRULD/DVWO\WKH\ZDQWHGWRUHVSRQGWRWKH
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
UHTXHVWIURPPLVVLRQDULHVZKRZDQWHGWRPDNHQHZJHRJUDSKLFDO
APROSOMA
: AssociationContrary
pour la Promotion
SocialeRwandese
de la
boundary
demarcations.
to what many
thought, no area
was given to the missionaries by the royal
Masse
court
or
by
colonial
authorities.
All missions were
founded on
ARD
: Alliance
pour le Renforcement
de la
WKHLQLWLDWLYHRIWKHPLVVLRQDULHVWKHPVHOYHVDIWHUPDNLQJFDUHIXO
Démocratie
preparations and surveys of the area. Many areas were occupied
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
without prior agreement by existing Rwandan authorities, while
Droits
de in
l’Homme
colonial authorities
were
collaboration.
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
Démocratique des Batwa
203
v
203
The missionaries
of the Bethel
Society under Pastor
ACRONYMS
AND German
ABBREVIATIONS
(UQHW-RKDQVVHQDFFRPSDQLHGE\5HFLXVDUULYHGLQ5ZDQGDLQ
___________________________________
1907. They settled in Zinga, in the east, and in Kirinda, in the
central
1909, they
had settled in Rubengera, Kiteme,
A.A. west. :By
Archives
Africaines
DQG,MZL,VODQG7KH\DOVRVHWWOHGLQ5HPHUD5XNRPDLQ%\
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
the time of their retirement in 1916, most Germans, including
ABAKI RIÀFHUV
: Alliance
des Bakiga
PLOLWDU\
DGPLQLVWUDWLYH
FLYLO VHUYDQWV DQG /XWKHUDQ
ABESC
:
Association
des
Bahutu
Evoluant
pour la
missionaries, had left Rwanda after having
established
three
Suppression des Castes
VWURQJPLVVLRQVLQ.LOLQGD5XEHQJHUDDQG5HPHUD5XNRPD
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
a. Methods
of evangelization
ADP
: Alliance
Démocratique des Peuples
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
The methods used
by missionaries
to convert Rwandans were
Réconciliation
Nationale
FORVHO\ OLQNHG WR WKHLU QHJDWLYH SUHFRQFHSWLRQV )DWKHU %UDUG
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
QLFNQDPHG Telebura FODLPHG WKDW ´EODFN SHRSOHµ ZHUH QHYHU
AFDL
:
Alliance
des Forces
Démocratiques
pour la
“morally upright.”
According
to him
and his counterparts,
Libération
du Congo-Zaïre
Rwandans were
“naïve,” possessing
only “crude intelligence,”
AGOA was a: sign
African
Growth and
Act
which
of “original
sin.86Opportunity
They were strongly
and
“excessively attached
to their tradition and were therefore
$,'6
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superstitious
rather
than
historic.”
In addition, Rwandans
AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes
et Main-d’oeuvre
were described
as “lazy byde
nature.”
He referred
to the religion
AJER
: Association
la Jeunesse
Estudiantine
of the Rwandans as “naïve,” saying that it was characterized
Rwandaise
by “materialism” and “spiritualism,” with evil spirits existing
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
everywhere. Rwandans were “all childish, naïve, simple” and
AM/AP
: Arrêté
présidentiel
“dominated by
fear.”87 ministériel/
In short, the Arrêté
missionaries
did not expect
AMR
: Association
des Moniteurs
du this
Rwanda
anything good
from the Rwandan
people. For
reason, the
AMUR
Association
Musulmans
au Rwanda
missionaries :did
everything des
possible
to establish
“a clean-slate
mentality” with
Rwandan Nationale
practices and
beliefs, attempting to
ANT
: Assemblée
de Transition
replace them with
a new religious
identity.
(Transitional
National
Assembly)
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
This was a racist-religious model espoused by the missionary
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
WKHRORJLFDOGRFWULQHDQGUHÁHFWHGLQD%LEOLFDOVWRU\WKDWH[SODLQV
APROBAMI
: Association des Partis Monarchistes
WKHRULJLQVRIWKHFXUVHIRUWKHEODFNSHRSOH6RPHPLVVLRQDULHV
Rwandais
explained the fate
of Africans by the sin committed by Cain,
APROCOMIN:
Association
desas
Commerçants
Indigènes
son of Noah who became guilty
a result of seeing
the nudity
APROSOMA
Association
pour laAPromotion
de on
la all
of his father :(Genesis
9, 18-28).
curse was Sociale
thus put
WKHGHVFHQGDQWVRI&DLQ7KHLGHDRIEODFNLQIHULRULW\ZDVWKXV
Masse
religiously
and
culturallypour
motivated.
ARD
: Alliance
le Renforcement de la
Démocratie
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
86
Droits
de l’Homme
Brard, P., Notes, 1902,
pp.26-27;
P. Classe, “ A travers l’Afrique équatorialé”, in
Les
missions
catholiques,
1902,
pp.437-438.
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
87
Brard, P., Notes, p.23.
Démocratique des Batwa
204
204
v
Anthropological
studies AND
conducted
by colonialists and
ACRONYMS
ABBREVIATIONS
missionaries ___________________________________
established cultural and racial differences to
describe fundamental inequalities. The majority of missionaries
used
of ‘inherited
inequality’ between races to
A.A. the theory
: Archives
Africaines
study Rwandan society. They claimed that all Rwandese were
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
foreigners in their country; Bahutu came from Chad while
ABAKI came: from
Alliance
des Bakiga part of Africa. The Batwa
Batutsi
the northeastern
ABESC
: Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
ZHUHFRQVLGHUHGWREHQDWLYHVZLWKRXWDQ\MXVWLÀFDWLRQ5ZDQGDQ
Suppression
des Castesthis view of Rwandan
elites internalized
and disseminated
ACR 887KLVSVHXGRVFLHQWLÀFFODLPFRQWLQXHGWREHWKHEDVLV
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
history.
on
which Rwandan
history
was understood
missionaries. The
ADP
: Alliance
Démocratique
desby
Peuples
‘Bantu-Hamitic
theory’
developed
by
the
missionaries
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la served the
interests and objectives
of the colonizers
Réconciliation
Nationaleand missionaries, who
needed a dominant and historically legitimate group to govern
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
and convert the native population. They used the same myth to
AFDL
:
Alliance
des Forces
Démocratiques
pour
justify their change
of alliegance
in the
1950s. Needless
to la
say,
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
WKLVP\WKKDVEHHQIHUYHQWO\GLVSURYHGE\VFLHQWLÀFVWXG\
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity Act
a. The use
of force and duress
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AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
Missionary
action
was characterized
by the
use of violence.
AJER
: Association
de la Jeunesse
Estudiantine
Missionaries claimed that it was their right to obtain services
Rwandaise
from Rwandans, including requisitions for foodstuffs, hoes,
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
VPDOO OLYHVWRFN DQG FRQVWUXFWLRQ PDWHULDOV )RUFHG ODERU ZDV
AM/AP on the
: Arrêté
Arrêté présidentiel
imposed
local ministériel/
population “ubunetsi,”
especially for the
AMR
: Association
des Moniteurs
duissue
Rwanda
construction
of
churches in Bugoyi.
In Zaza, the
of wood was
AMUR
: Association
desclaimed
Musulmans
au rights
Rwanda
very
problematic;
missionaries
monopoly
on wood
LQ
*LVDND 7RJHWKHU
ZLWK
IRUHLJQ VXSSRUWHUV
ANT
: Assemblée
Nationale
deWKHLU
Transition
and recruits, the
missionariesNational
committed
many abuses.
(Transitional
Assembly)
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
7KH EXUGHQ RI IRUFHG ODERU ZDV E\ IDU WKH PRVW GLIÀFXOW WKLQJ
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
for Rwandans to support, especially when compared to the
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
ZRUN GRQH IRU WUDGLWLRQDO DXWKRULWLHV 7KH FKLHI LQ 1\DUXJXUX
Rwandaisforced labor. The same situation was
resented the unpopular
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
UHSRUWHGLQ*LVDND7KHPLVVLRQDULHVMXVWLÀHGWKHLUIRUFHGODERU
APROSOMA
: Association
pour
la Promotion
by
its urgency
and necessity.
According
to theSociale
Diariesde
of la
Save,
forced labor was
a disastrous system of which no mission was
Masse
89
innocent.
The
missionaries
that given
ARD
: Alliance pour leargued
Renforcement
detheir
la meager
resources, theyDémocratie
had no option but to resort to forced labor by
the natives. The system of paid labor was rarely used by the
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
missionaries, and salaries were very modest. In the early days,
Droits de l’Homme
88
For
example,
read
Bushayija, S., inpour
La Revue
XXVIII, 12, 1958
AREDETWA : Association
le Nouvelle,
Relèvement
89
Diary of Save, 7 July 1905.
Démocratique des Batwa
205
v
205
they used beads
and cloth toAND
pay for
the services of transporting
ACRONYMS
ABBREVIATIONS
EULFNVDQGZRRG6XFKSUDFWLFHVFRQWLQXHGXSWR
___________________________________
The
missionaries
had absolute power and refused
A.A. Christian: Archives
Africaines
to compromise with Rwanda’s traditional beliefs. Christian
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
converts were supposed to renounce their cultural identity. The
ABAKI
:fanatically
Alliance des
Bakiga
missionaries
wanted
to put an end to all signs of
ABESC
:
Association
des
Bahutu
pour unjust
la
“paganism.” In achieving this objective, Evoluant
even the most
Suppression
desused.
CastesThey wanted Rwandan
and humiliating
means were
ACR
Association
des Cultivateurs
duoverhauled
Rwanda and
civilization
to :be
wiped to a “clean
slate” – totally
replaced.
They
launched
a campaign to
witch-hunt
ADP
: Alliance
Démocratique
des
Peuples sorcerers
and
traditional
warriors.
They
destroyed
talismans
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la and anything
that had a relationship
with the
rituals of the dead, including
Réconciliation
Nationale
kuragura, guterekera, and kubandwa. The catechists, the Bakuru
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
b’inama, and the Christian Batware supported this campaign.
AFDL
: Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
Libération
du Congo-Zaïre
The term “Imana”
was judged
inappropriate in designating the
AGOA God because
: African
and Opportunity
Act
Biblical
of Growth
the numerous
meanings associated
with
it.
The term Imana
meant several things to the Banyarwanda,
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including:
chance
(kugira
Imana), et
a divine
animal (sheep, calf,
AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes
Main-d’oeuvre
lamb,
and a person
an upright
moral character
AJER etc.), a :tree,
Association
de lawith
Jeunesse
Estudiantine
(ni Imana y’u Rwanda). The Catholic missionaries imposed a
Rwandaise
Swahili word that they considered less polluted: “Mungu” (in
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
some original text “Mulungu”). Nonetheless, Rwandans and
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/
Arrêté
présidentiel
Burundians
continued
to use the term
‘Imana’
to designate the
AMR
: Association
des Moniteurs
Supreme
Being,
using it in religious
texts. du Rwanda
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
Apart
religious
goal, the
missionaries became
ANT from :their
Assemblée
Nationale
de Transition
partners in furthering
the National
colonial Assembly)
enterprise. The White
(Transitional
Fathers
of
Cardinal
Lavigerie
Association
and Chrétien
the Germans
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate
lived in continuous suspicion of one another. The White Fathers
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
considered the Germans to be Protestants. Further, the majority
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
RIWKHÀUVWPLVVLRQDULHVZHUH)UHQFK0LVVLRQDULHVKHOGGLIIHUHQW
Rwandais
political opinions
than those held by the colonial administration
APROCOMIN:
Association
des Commerçants
Indigènes
authorities. Despite these differences,
the Germans
and the
APROSOMA
Association
pour la
Sociale
la
White
Fathers: managed
to solve,
forPromotion
sixteen years,
theirde
internal
FRQÁLFWV DQG HVWDEOLVK
Masse WKH EDVLF LQIUDVWUXFWXUH IRU H[SORLWLQJ
Rwanda.
In
this
endeavor,
thele
Catholic
missionaries
ARD
: Alliance
pour
Renforcement
de laconsidered
the Belgians toDémocratie
be their natural allies because they came from
a Catholic country. They therefore joined hands with them
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
to exploit the country. Entire sectors such as education and
Droits
l’Homme
health were totally
or de
partially
ceded to missionaries iven the
AREDETWA
:
Association
pour
le Relèvement
ZHDNQHVVHVRIWKHFRORQLDODGPLQLVWUDWLYHV\VWHP
Démocratique des Batwa
206
206
v
The missionaries
used a discourse
that favored and supported
ACRONYMS
AND ABBREVIATIONS
the West and the
colonial
government.
They did not only support
___________________________________
colonization, but they also felt that it represented an overall
colonization
program
established
by the metropolitan powers in
A.A.
: Archives
Africaines
the name of civilization. Missionary action was one of the pillars
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
that supported the colonial system. The process of evangelization
ABAKI
des Bakiga
did
not put an: Alliance
end to national
aspirations.
ABESC
: Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
Suppression
Castes
b. Islam: an
obstacle to des
evangelization
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
,Q
5ZDQGD ,VODP
ZDVDémocratique
OLQNHG WR WKH DGYHQW
RI WUDGH LQ WKH
ADP
: Alliance
des Peuples
country.
Arab
slave
traders
moved
around
Rwanda
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la during the
reign of King Rwabugiri
withoutNationale
managing to penetrate it. Slave
Réconciliation
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ALIR
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AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
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207
v
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The Catholic and
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ACRONYMS
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___________________________________
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A.A. cash economy
: Archives
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A.G.
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ABAKI
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des The
Bakiga
was
associated
with slavery.
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ABESC
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Association
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in Kigali because it was considered
a place
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decadence
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converting the Rwandese. Given the limited number of Muslims
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ALIR
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time.
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: Association
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4.1.5.
movements
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AMUR
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of the colonized
people vis-à-vis the
ANT
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de Transition
European intrusion,
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(Transitional
National
Assembly)
activities
of
the
Europeans
and
the
changes
they
brought with
APADEC
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apparent facility. Those who attach importance to the colonized
APR
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people insist on the colonial conquest and the armed revolt, thus
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
downplaying that a society which has not experienced armed
Rwandais
revolts or armed
popular resistance movements is a society
APROCOMIN:
Association
des Commerçants
Indigènes
which succumbs easily to foreign
occupation. Father
Arnoux
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places
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arguingSociale
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91
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resistance was suppressed at a very early
Démocratie
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ARDHO
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resistance of the colonized people can no longer be categorized
Droits de l’Homme
90
Rutayisire,
P.,
2009,
op.cit., p.24. pour le Relèvement
AREDETWA : Association
91
Arnoux, A., Les Pères Blancs aux sources du Nil, Paris, 1953, p.54.
Démocratique des Batwa
208
208
v
as armed confrontation
alone
because
this was not the only way
ACRONYMS
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ABBREVIATIONS
of opposing newcomers.
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series
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behaviors
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___________________________________
the Rwandan natives aimed at expressing categorical refusal
not
foreignAfricaines
occupation and exploitation, but also
A.A.only towards
: Archives
towards local authority.
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
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desthe
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way
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internal
situations
into which
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ADP
: Alliance
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desEuropeans.
Peuples 92
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
a. The crisis
of legitimacyNationale
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King Kigeri Rwabugiri was responsible for the legitimacy crisis
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nobility
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the
nobility who
were seen as
threats,
and an increase
AJER
: Association
de potential
la Jeunesse
Estudiantine
of the Ibikingi system for his supporters.
Rwandaise
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
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AM/AP
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Arrêté présidentiel
with
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AMRRutarindwa
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son
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him.
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Rwabugiri
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ANT
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However,Assembly)
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all
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Queen
Mothers
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from the
APADEC
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same clan as the real mother and were not supposed to have
APR
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children eligible for the throne. There was another more recent
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prohibition that prevented the appointment of a queen mother
from the AbegaRwandais
clan, or from the line of Abakagara, because
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some of its members were AbiruDQGWKHUHIRUHNQHZWKHVHFUHWV
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of
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was from
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Kanjogera was Masse
Umwakagara and had a son, Musinga, who was
a
possible
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to the
throne.
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92
Conference proceedings: Kigali, 1985.
About Rwanda,
contributions
Droits
de l’Homme
Ntezimana E., pp.59-94;
Mbonimana,
B., 111-124 et Rumiya J.,p..463, Des Forges
A,
Defeat
is
the
only
bad
news;
Rwanda
under
1896-1932, Yale University,
AREDETWA : Association pour
leMusinga,
Relèvement
Ph.D, 1972
Démocratique des Batwa
209
v
209
Others argueACRONYMS
that King Rwabugiri
wanted to bring the Abega
AND ABBREVIATIONS
clan closer to ___________________________________
power.
King
died inAfricaines
1895 during a military campaign
A.A. Rwabugiri
: Archives
against the Bashi. The accession to power by Rutarindwa and
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
Kanjogera was easy because it was planned for a long time.
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was confronted with a challenge whose
consequences
Suppression
des Castes
crucial in determining
the relations
between the royal court and
ACREuropeans.
: Association
des Cultivateurs
du Rwanda
the
A Belgian Lieutenant
who was pursuing
soldiers
that
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in the Congo Free
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Shangi
with
many
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soldiers.
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sent its best warriors
under the
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inability of the royal court of Rwanda to confront a European
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against
ANT
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Assembly)
with
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a signal
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who committed suicide, because the power relations were not in
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by the Abiru, who agreed to legitimize the coup.
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son of Rwabugiri. He had withdrawn
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210
210
v
to be enemies.
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this fate and declared himself
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he committed suicide.
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AEC
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royalists did not attain support as expected. The two sons of
AFDL
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and
her
son,
Rwabugiri’s
wife originated
from Buha
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: Biregeya.
Association
de la Jeunesse
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and lived in Bwanacyambwe. The royal court thought that the
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northeast in des
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population
AMUR
: Association
des
Musulmansthat
au Rwanda
to
rise against
Musinga by
prophesizing
Biregeya was
going
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prophecyde
did
not gain ground. In
ANT to be enthroned.
: Assemblée
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reaction to this (Transitional
revolt, the royal
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National
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houses
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not stop
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ARD
: Alliance
le Renforcement
de for
la the royal
court during the
rule
of
King
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scenarios
portended
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a serious crisis of a big scale in the years that followed.
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surrounding his
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___________________________________
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so,
in the
royal court remember if the gifts and
A.A.why did nobody
: Archives
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A.G.
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child of this name? Why was there no trace of Biregeya at the
ABAKI
: Alliance
des
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royal
court? Some
people
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that Biregeya and his mother
ABESC
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des
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of Biregeya than refusing to let the court be controlled by the
AFDL
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followed
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other uprisings in
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Even after their victory, Kanjogera and his brothers had reason
ALIR
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212
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ACRONYMS
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___________________________________
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A.A. Rwandans
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Association
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93
Lugan, B., 1980, op. cit., p. 86.
Démocratique des Batwa
213
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latter gave him___________________________________
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punitive
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He gave a third
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Démocratique des Batwa
214
214
v
to support theACRONYMS
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September.
The Zaza missionaries
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who frequently visited the mission, managed to get sympathy from
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in
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intention was to get better information on the complaints at the
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215
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215
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216
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royal court. This scenario gave birth to numerous rumors. Some
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the mission. To quell this resistance, the priests responded by
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217
v
217
The missionaries
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ACRONYMS
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Some animals remained in Rwaza Parish as compensation and
ABAKI
Alliance
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: Association
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c. Ambivalent
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the north au Rwanda
ANT
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APADEC
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appointing representatives in peripheral regions. Many notables
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
of the Banyinginya clan were demoted by Kabare and replaced
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
with his favorite supporters. This meant that regions were to
Rwandais
be administered
directly in an intensive manner compared to
APROCOMIN:
Association
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the previous nominal controldes
of the
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the advent of the First World War.
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94
Concerning
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the role
Father Superior, Father Classe,
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Démocratique des Batwa
218
218
v
In the northeast,
the royal court
worried about the growing
ACRONYMS
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ABBREVIATIONS
popularity of ___________________________________
a woman from Mpororo who claimed to be King
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to
the throne.
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A.A.
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as Muhumuza ZKLOH 5ZDQGDQV NQHZ KHU DV Nyiragahumuza.
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ABAKI
: Alliance
des
Bakiga
who had escaped
death
during
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Association
des
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pour wife
la of
1898. Others referred to her as Nyakayoga,
the former
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King
ADR
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et la
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and Rutarindwa.
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Réconciliation
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From 1903, Muhumuza
associated
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Nyabingi
Libération
Congo-Zaïre
movement. This
got himdu
very
many sympathizers. At the
AGOA
African
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Act
beginning of :1905,
Muhumuza
mobilized
her sympathizers
to
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her.
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Germansde
refused
to do so
for reasons which
AJER
:the
Association
la Jeunesse
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were not clear. While waiting for a solution, some soldiers and
Rwandaise
Rwandan armies under the command of Nturo, who was the
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
chief of Ndorwa and Rwatangabo, chief of Mutara, were sent to
AM/AP
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ministériel/
Arrêté
présidentiel
Mpororo to capture
The
two armies
accomplished
AMR
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Rwandans believed
that theNationale
end of Abega
rule was approaching.
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and to National
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(Transitional
MuhumuzaWRFXVWRG\LQ%XNRED
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
When the Muhumuza movement was at its height in 1905, the
APROBAMI
: Association des Partis Monarchistes
regions surrounding Mpororo lived in a state of terror organized
by Basebya andRwandais
his troops of the Abatwa. Basebya’s mother was
APROCOMIN:
Association
des Commerçants Indigènes
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established their
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marshland.
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Démocratie
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ARDHO
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neighboring terrorized populations. The royal court feared
Droits
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Basebya not only
because
of the destruction he had caused but
AREDETWA
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Association
pourMuhumuza.
le Relèvement
also because of his alliance with
Démocratique des Batwa
219
v
219
In 1905, the
army of AND
the royal
court commanded by
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abstained from publicly participating in the movement, but they
ABAKI
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desrecognized
Bakiga their suzerainty. Basebya
sent
gifts to the
rebels and
ABESC
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deshis
Bahutu
Evoluant
pour
la of
had
no intention
of pursuing
conquest
up to the
center
Suppression
des over
Castes
the country. He
wanted to rule
the area located north of
ACR
: Association
des Cultivateurs
Rwanda
Nyabarongo
and
leave the southern
part underdu
King
Musinga’s
rule.
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ADR
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AIMO
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result of the border dispute between the Belgians and British, he
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du northern
Congo-Zaïre
colonial powersLibération
that the entire
part of Rwanda belonged
AGOA
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Act the facts
to
King Musinga.
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against
Basebya
jeopardized
on
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When
commission
charged
with demarcating
AJER the international
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Rwandaise
of another anti-European movement. She escaped from prison
ALIR
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AM/AP
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ministériel/
présidentieldirected
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Ndungutse.Arrêté
Her sympathizers
AMR
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Association
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Musulmans
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the
Germans :and
missionaries.
people escaped
to Uganda
WRVHHNUHIXJH
ANT
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(Transitional National Assembly)
Kandt
wanted: to
capture Muhumuza
but this
became an
APADEC
Association
du Parti again,
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exercise in futility. During a joint operation led by British and
APR
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Demarcation, she was captured in December 1910 and more
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Masse
court
representatives.
alsole promised
to remove
ARD
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pour
Renforcement
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royal court, and to chase away the notables who
KDGXQMXVWO\WDNHQFODQODQG,WLVVDLGWKDWNdungutse fought
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
alongside Muhumuza’s movement. He survived with Basebya
Droitscombatants
de l’Homme
when the Basebya’s
were captured. Ndungutse and
AREDETWA
:
Association
pour
le Relèvement
Basebya established their headquarters
in Rugezi. The northern
Démocratique des Batwa
220
220
v
population regarded
Ndungutse
asABBREVIATIONS
a foreigner because his origins
ACRONYMS
AND
were traced to___________________________________
Mpororo.
Ndungutse
based
his Africaines
authority on Muhumuza, who was
A.A.
: Archives
sometimes considered King Rwabugiri’s wife. She was also
A.G.
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ABAKI
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Ndungutse,
he
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be Rwabugiri’s son. Many people
ABESC
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with a crown symbol
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the
but against King
who had
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had many sympathizers
even in places
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Alliance Démocratique
des Peuples
where
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monarchy
was
deeply
entrenched
for
generations.
The
ADR
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supported Ndungutse’s
legitimacy
to the throne because he had
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for saying
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AIMO
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Main-d’oeuvre
Rwabugiri.
The
clan leadersde
from
the north Estudiantine
saw in his movement
AJER
: Association
la Jeunesse
an opportunity to come together and oust the Tutsi notables
Rwandaise
who were imposing new heavy taxes on them. The emergence of
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
Ndungutse as a single leader put an end to the rivalry between
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magical
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ARD
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Muhumuza’s
was directed
against
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Ndungutse
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anti-European
image.
On
several
occasions,
he sent
gifts to the
APADEC
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Chrétien
priests of Rwaza and Rulindo. He even appointed representatives
APR
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WRNHHSLQSHUPDQHQWWRXFKZLWKWKHPLVVLRQ+HJDYHDGLUHFWLYH
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to his sympathizers not to mistreat those who frequented the
Rwandais
mission. The priests
who were suspicious of his legitimacy refused
APROCOMIN:
Association
des Commerçants Indigènes
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la Promotioncollaboration
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this
refusal was
motivatedpour
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Germans through donations of cows for cooperation. Everybody
ARDHO
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doubted Ndungutse’s intentions. He used a number of tactics.
Droits de l’Homme
The myth shows:her
ability to exterminate
through diseases, returning the
AREDETWA
Association
pourthe
le enemy
Relèvement
enemy’s arrows and transforming bullets into water.
95
Démocratique des Batwa
221
v
221
First, he wanted
to use Europeans
to outwit King Musinga. Once
ACRONYMS
AND ABBREVIATIONS
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___________________________________
to deal with the problem of the Europeans. Ndungutse cooperated
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A.A.
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popular. Those who suffered from the ill-treatment of forced
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
labor saw in Ndungutse a savior and symbol of resistance to the
ABAKI
: Alliance
des Bakiga
Europeans.
The
Batwa from
Bugoyi saw in him a perpetrator of
ABESC
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des
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the Muhumuza movement.
Suppression des Castes
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went
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south
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cover
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Buhoma, and Bushiru accepted his leadership. In other regions,
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they regarded him with sympathy because he gave gifts to people
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des
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everywhere he set
foot. He
didForces
not useDémocratiques
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decided
to
escape
towards the
south.
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Rwandaise
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Ndungutse revolt. Two notables of the Abanyiginya clan, Kanuma
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ministériel/
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and
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sent him
gifts and Arrêté
declared
their readiness to
AMR
Association
des Moniteurs
recognize
his :suzerainty.
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APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
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believed that Gudovius wanted
to deprive
him of his power.
222
222
Démocratique des Batwa
v
At the beginning
of 1912, Gudovius
decided to crush the rebellion
ACRONYMS
AND ABBREVIATIONS
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intention of getting rid of a dangerous ally, Ndungutse handed
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th
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A.A.
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Association
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Dead or alive,: this
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Gudovius demonstrated
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Germans. Chief Rwubusisi proposed to meet the rebels to give
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body was exposed for a day to show the local population that
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the justice of the
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up encouraging it. Clan chiefs
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open
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was
Droits de l’Homme
96
Chrétien, J.P., “ :LaAssociation
révolte de Ndungutse
in Revue française d’Histoire
AREDETWA
pour(1912)”,
le Relèvement
d’Outre-Mer, LIX, no 217, 172, pp.647-680
Démocratique des Batwa
223
v
223
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ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
ways to compromise
with European and Tutsi notables.
___________________________________
4.1.6. The First World War
A.A.
: Archives Africaines
A.G.military :hostilities
Assemblée
Générale
The
started
on September 24, 1914, when
ABAKI
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Alliance
des
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: Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
(Tembasi
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Castes in 1909.97 As a result,
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and
the
Congo. Démocratique des Peuples
ADP
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ADR
Alliance
la Démocratie
et la below shows
Germany
had: less
men pour
and equipment.
The table
the numbers ofRéconciliation
German troops Nationale
in Ruanda-Urundi:
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: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
Table
troopsdes
in Ruanda-Urundi
during WWI
AFDL 4: German
: Alliance
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EUROPEANS
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Kisenyi
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18
152
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la
Jeunesse
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Total
24
224
Rwandaise
Despite their: small
Germans
gave the impression
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de Libération
du Rwanda
of having a big, well-disciplined force. At the beginning, they
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
adopted a smash-grab-and-attack strategy that brought no
AMR
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Association
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Rwanda was
to carry out :revenge
on Gisenyi,
but Captain
ANT
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Assemblée
Nationale
de
Transition
opposed to large-scale resistance. On October 27, the Belgians
(Transitional
Assembly)
made an attempt
to overrun National
Ruhengeri
post without success.
The year 1915
was characterized
by operations
harassment.
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unleashed frequent raids in the areas controlled by Belgians,
Rwandais
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operations had Association
disastrous effects
on the peopleIndigènes
who were on
APROSOMA
Association
pourout
la Promotion
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la the
the run. The :year
1915 turned
to be advantageous
Masse
Belgians because
the frontline had shifted to the German zone.
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
King Musinga Démocratie
did everything possible to bring necessary
assistance to the Germans by putting at their disposal warriors
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
armed with guns (Indugaruga). He provided them with supplies
Droits de l’Homme
97
Roehl,
K.
“Ruanda-Erinnerungen
Gedaechtnis
an Major Wintgens”, in
AREDETWA : Association(zum
pour
le Relèvement
Koloniale Rundschau, 1925, 9, pp. 290-298.
Démocratique des Batwa
224
224
v
in terms of foodstuffs
and AND
human
porters. In the meantime,
ACRONYMS
ABBREVIATIONS
behind the Belgian
lines,
there
was
intensive activity ready to
___________________________________
launch serious offensives. Great Britain and Belgium managed
to
conclude an
accord inAfricaines
October 1914 during the conference
A.A.
: Archives
of Kibati. The accord stipulated that Belgian troops would
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
assist British forces in the case of a campaign carried out in
ABAKI
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deswaited
Castesfor so long to launch a
April 1916. The
Belgian Congo
ACR
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IXOOVFDOHDJJUHVVLRQRIWKLVPDJQLWXGHEHFDXVHWKH\ODFNHGWKH
competitive
spirit
of the Démocratique
British. The British
had enough troops
ADP
: Alliance
des Peuples
in
Uganda,
Kenya,
and
Rhodesia,
but
they
preferred
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la to buy time.
The military operations
were triggered
on April 21, 1916 along
Réconciliation
Nationale
two major axes:
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
AFDL
:
Alliance
des the
Forces
Démocratiques
la
ƒ The southern
axis:
Olsen
Brigade was pour
supposed
Libération
to overrun
Nyanza du
andCongo-Zaïre
then head towards Gitega and
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: Affaires
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and advancing
the east.
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Rwandaise
some Indugaruga of Nturo and Rwabusisi. In Kigali, the troops
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chiefs
and
led
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AMUR
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troops
their surrender.
On de
May
9th, Colonel Molitor
ANT to witness
: Assemblée
Nationale
Transition
arrived in Kigali(Transitional
with two battalions
and
celebrated
National Assembly) victory there.
The last German soldiers left Kigali on May 5, 1916. Fearing that
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
they would be surrounded, Wintgens led his troops to withdraw
APR
: Armée
Patriotique
on
May 11th and
12th 1916
towards Rwandaise
Kigali, Save, and Burundi.99
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The Olsen Brigade
overrandes
Shangugu
and crossed Nyungwe
Rwandais
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Muller. King Musinga
regretted
destruction Indigènes
caused by the
APROCOMIN:
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Commerçants
war and promised
to establish
relations
with de
thelanew
APROSOMA
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la Promotion
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RFFXSDQWV7KHNLQJZDQWHGWRSURWHFWWKHPRVWHVVHQWLDOWKLQJV
Masse
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
98
Ministère de la défense
nationale, Les campagnes coloniales belges 1914 1918,
Démocratie
Bruxelles, 3 tomes, 1927-1932 ; Louwers, O., La campagne africaine de la Belgique
ARDHO
: Association
pour la Défense des
et
ses résultats politiques,
Bruxelles , Rwandaise
Weisssenbruch, 1921.
99
Droits
de l’Homme
Lettow Verbeck (von)
P.,La geurre
de brousse dans l’Est africain (1914-1918), Paris
1933
;
Dellicour
M.F.,
«
La
conquête
du Ruanda-Urundi
», in Bulletin de l’Institut
AREDETWA : Association pour
le Relèvement
Royal Colonial Belge, 1935, 6,1 pp., 142 166.
Démocratique des Batwa
225
v
225
100
– his people and
their property.
But with troops on the move,
ACRONYMS
AND ABBREVIATIONS
the destruction
of
goods
and
vandalism
increased under the
___________________________________
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people and property
as booty.
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Africaines
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: Assemblée Générale
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: Alliance des Bakiga
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ABESC
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Belgium had: Association
declared herdes
intentions
use thepour
territorial
possessions inSuppression
East Africa des
as Castes
collateral during the peace
ACR
: Association
des Cultivateurs
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WKH YLFWRU\ RIdu
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DOOLHV101 The
occupation therefore
was
supposed to be
provisional.
ADP
: Alliance
Démocratique
des
Peuples Following
the
victory
of
the
Belgian
troops,
German
colonization
came to
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
an end abruptly,
leaving behindNationale
many unaccomplished projects.
Réconciliation
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
Up to 1916, the Germans were committed to changing indigenous
AFDL
:
Alliance
des declared
Forces Démocratiques
pouralabig
institutions; this
was their
intention. However,
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
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Rwandaise
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felt very nostalgic about his German friends until his last days.
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Association
du Rwanda
The Germans: did
not have des
timeMoniteurs
to accomplish
their numerous
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had expressed
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(Transitional National Assembly)
WRRNSODFH
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
APRƒ The opening
: Armée
up Patriotique
of Rwanda toRwandaise
the east; the Arabs managed
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inter-lacustrine
trade des
in which
they admitted
Rwanda.
APROCOMIN: Association
Commerçants
Indigènes
APROSOMA
: Association
la Promotion
de la
ƒ From 1905,
Rwandapour
became
a centre ofSociale
export for
hides
Masse
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for this
trade.
The traditional trade
ARD warehouse
: Alliance
pour
le Renforcement
de la organized
along western
Kivu did not come to an end. On the
Démocratie
contrary,
it
increased
and the opening
of this des
trade
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise
pour laup
Défense
100
Droits
l’Homme
Rumiya, J, Le Rwanda
sousde
le régime
du mandat Belge (1916 1931), , L’Harmattan,
Paris
1992,
p.29
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
101
Letter written by Renkin, J., Minister of colonies for General Tombeur 27th March 1916
Démocratique des Batwa
226
226
v
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WRZDUGV WKH HDVW
WZR WUDGH QHWZRUNV WR
ANDHQDEOHG
ABBREVIATIONS
come together.
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ƒ The royal power was strengthened by 22 years of German
A.A. rule. : Archives Africaines
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
42.
Belgian
- 1962)
ABAKI
:colonization
Alliance des(1916
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: Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
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des
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D SURWHFWRUDWH
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ACR
:
Association
des
Cultivateurs
du Rwanda
neighboring Belgian Congo that was operated under
the Belgian
ADP
:
Alliance
Démocratique
des
Peuples
mandate of the League of Nations. Later, Rwanda became a
ADR
: Alliance
pour
Démocratie
et United
la
Belgian Trusteeship
under
the la
supervision
of the
Nations.
Réconciliation Nationale
4.2.1.
Regime
of occupation 1916
- 1926
AEC
: Agglomeration
Extra-Coutumières
AFDL
: Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
a. Diplomatic challenges
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
AGOA
: African Growth
Opportunity
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Belgian
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there was a qualitative need to improve the Congolese territory
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et RI
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problem
was
supposed
to
be
solved
by
acquisition of the
AJER
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Estudiantine
Kabinda enclave
and some Portuguese territories situated on
Rwandaise
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accept this arrangement in compensation for some territories
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Minister of colonies responsible for conducting operations in
AMUR
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Musulmans
au Rwanda
Africa, preferred
to obtain des
access
to the Atlantic
Ocean and
ANT
:
Assemblée
Nationale
de
Transition
QRW /DNH 9LFWRULD ZKLFK KH FRQVLGHUHG OHVV LPSRUWDQW +HOS
(Transitional
Assembly)
from England was
necessary National
in convincing
Portugal to achieve
this objective;
otherwise, other
alternatives
were
needed to
APADEC
: Association
du Parti
Démocrate
Chrétien
compensate
for
the
services
rendered
by
Belgium.
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
%HOJLXP ZDV LQWHUHVWHG LQ PDNLQJ 5ZDQGD ZDU ERRW\ IRU WKH
Rwandais
highest bidder and had intentions of dropping her conquests
APROCOMIN:
Association des Commerçants Indigènes
if she was paid an attractive indemnity. The African Colonial
APROSOMA
: Association
la Promotion
Sociale
la not
Authority agreed
with the pour
Minister
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Démocratique des Batwa
227
v
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to avoid a very
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famine (1916
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The Belgians arrived when a big part of the country was hit by
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Rwandais
in 1916 and lasted
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country and resulted in many
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Bugoyi at the time
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Démocratique des Batwa
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228
v
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chiefs imposed forced labor aimed at reconstructing residences
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and supplying food stuffs.
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: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
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Sisters ofArrêté
Nyundo
of May 1915 to
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December
1917
reports many
that were
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November
1915,
only 50 Christians
mass. Before the
ANT
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war, mass-goers
numbered almost
8,000.
400 children attended
(Transitional
National
Assembly)
school
before
the
war,
but
during
famine,
there
were
around 20.
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate
Chrétien
According to Father Classe,103 the number of deaths surpassed
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
three quarters of the population; missionaries reported a total
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Rwandais
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Father Classe’s
letter on the
calamity
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Masseinforming him of the situation and reported
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that
ARD
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102
P.Soubielle, “Quarterly
report
by
Nyundo
Mission
during
the
years
1916-1917”,
in
Démocratie
Société des missionaires d’Afrique, T.13 p. 300.
ARDHO
Association
Rwandaise
pour
lathe
Défense
des
103
Classe also gave: some
information on
the famine which
swept
people of Bugoyi.
104
Droits
deinl’Homme
Philippin, « Report
on famine
Bugoyi (1917) », in Lugan B. , Etudes Rwandaises,
op.cit.
p.247.
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
105
Letter to the Honarable Minister of 29th June 1917.
Démocratique des Batwa
229
v
229
the local administration
was
responsible
for the calamity and
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106
the western zone.
The letter also accused Mr. Lignon, the
administrator
of
the
territory,
for having done nothing to help the
A.A.
: Archives Africaines
SRSXODWLRQZKHQWKHWZRRIÀFHUVKDGVHYHUDORSWLRQVWRKHOS107
A.G.
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The commissarSuppression
pointed out des
again
that some foodstuffs were
Castes
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ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
of
Bugoyi.
Lastly,
he stopped
recruiting
because the
ADP
: Alliance
Démocratique
desporters
Peuples
population was in a state of insecurity and anxiety.
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
Nationale
The missions Réconciliation
and the Belgian
authorities organized rescue
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for the
starving people Extra-Coutumières
by distributing foodstuffs bought
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part of food supplies at their disposal was only distributed to
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a small fraction of their people, namely the native Christians.”
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
The non-Christians living near the Mission were obliged to go to
Gisenyi to fendRwandaise
for themselves.
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
AM/AP
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présidentiel
In
a letter written
by ministériel/
Mortehan to Arrêté
the Resident,
the following
criticisms
were
leveled:
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the Catholic priests was not well thought out. Instead of
(Transitional National Assembly)
establishing big plantations, a big part of the manpower
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
was used to pay state subsidies, solely for clearing banana
APR
: Armée
plantations
whose Patriotique
owners were Rwandaise
dead or had migrated. They
APROBAMI
Association
des
Partis
Monarchistes
used their: people
to clear
these
banana
plantations hoping
Rwandais
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owners did not
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Commerçants
106
“In the letter written
by Steven adressed
to the
royal Commissar
in hisde
reports
APROSOMA
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pour la
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la of
December 1916, January and February 1917, the Commander of the army said nothing
Masse
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possible to respond to the request made to solve the problem.” (Steven addresses the
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
letter
to the royal Commissar)
107
Droits
l’Homme
According to Mortehan,
Mr de
Lignon
“would have given to the Nyundo mission credit,
food
stuffs,
seeds
and
part
of
the
equipment
at his
He asked himself what could
AREDETWA : Association pour
le disposal”
Relèvement
have happened to Mortehan’s letter addressed to the Resident on 18 September 1917.
Démocratique des Batwa
230
230
v
land.108
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
___________________________________
The famine of 1916-1918 was therefore caused by the foreign
factor
It was Africaines
worsened by an imbalance in the rain
A.A. in Rwanda.
: Archives
season and by the negligence of a hesitant colonial administration,
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
coupled with traditional constraints and abuses.
ABAKI
: Alliance des Bakiga
ABESC
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Bahutu
a. Military
administration
1916 Evoluant pour la
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Belgium
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intend to impose
its sovereigntydu
onRwanda
the occupied
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ADR
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occupied territory was supposed to serve as collateral during the
Réconciliation Nationale
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AJER
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this responsibility. He dealt directly with the Minister of Colonies
Rwandaise
in Brussels without
having to pass through the Governor General
ALIR
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Rwanda
in Belgian Congo. Thede
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Commissar was to
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and
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desthrough
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the
signing
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a
peace
treaty.
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ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
In light of the negotiations, the Metropolis gave instructions
(Transitional National Assembly)
that General Tombeur was to be obeyed faithfully by the
APADEC
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natives, who were newly subdued, and he was even supposed
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
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APROBAMI
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were
concerned,
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divided
two autonomous zones:
Rwandais
the Western zone headquartered in Gisenyi and the Eastern
zone
with headquarteres
in Kigali.
These two zones
were under
APROCOMIN:
Association
des Commerçants
Indigènes
a
military
command
based
at
Gitega.
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zones
were
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la
in two militaryMasse
posts that were called upon to sensitize the
population on political matters by using village chiefs or senior
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chief representatives.
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duties opted for
a type
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AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
108
Letter by Mortehan to the Resident written on 18th September 1917.
Démocratique des Batwa
231
v
231
Musinga. His ACRONYMS
royal court was
considered
to be an obstacle that
AND
ABBREVIATIONS
had to be avoided
and
removed.
Nyanza
was
located in the western
___________________________________
109
zone. 7KHÀUVWDGPLQLVWUDWLYHUHSRUWRIWKHZHVWHUQ]RQHZDV
dated
1916. After
the victory, a report outlined the
A.A. December
: Archives
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situation of different posts: Kissignies (i.e. the chieftaincies of
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: Assemblée Générale
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Alliance
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Ruhengeri.
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examination
of the report shows that the end
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of 1916 was relatively calm. The only
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were in Ruhengeri,
where the
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the Rumanura
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had Peuples
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ADP
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reference
was
made
to
this
calamity
and
the
general
ADR
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report was satisfactory.
Réconciliation Nationale
AEC
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The case of Nyanza
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confusion that characterized
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King Musinga: African
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that
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from the Western
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AJER
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Rwandaise
ALIR
: Armée
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On May 19, 1916,
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King
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However,
the
Indugaruga
buried
their
arms
a few
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
110
NLORPHWHUVIURP1\DQ]DWRMRLQWKHPDVVHV
(Transitional National Assembly)
APADEC
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APR
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occured
between
King Patriotique
Musinga andRwandaise
Captain Philippin, the chief
of
Nyanza
Post
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commander
of
the
Western Zone. The two
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ARD
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Démocratie
109
Note the absence of Save Post in the archieves. May be, it was destroyed by De
ARDHO
:
Association
Rwandaise
pouroflablatant
Défense
des of
Clerck as a result of the Father Huntzinger
affair, an example
interference
deaffairs.
l’Homme
the Church memberDroits
into civilian
110
Kagame,
A.,
Un
abrégé
de
l’histoire
de 1853 à 1975, Editions
AREDETWA : Association
pour du
le Rwanda
Relèvement
universitaires rwandaises, Butare 1973, p 173.
Démocratique des Batwa
232
232
v
proof, he cited ACRONYMS
the good relations
that
existed between the two. Chief
AND
ABBREVIATIONS
Gisazi of Cyangugu
was
also
suspected
of having 40 guns, which
___________________________________
were reduced to 4. There was nothing to prove that King Musinga
had
arms from
the Germans or from anywhere else.
A.A.received any
: Archives
Africaines
There was also no proof that he was heavily armed as was alleged.
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
ABAKI this uncertainty,
: Alliance des
Bakiga
Despite
the chief
of the post and the commander
ABESC
:
Association
des
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were convinced of the existence of a plot. The
tone grew
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ACR
: Association
des
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of
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the
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rumors were
circulated
and
minor issues
were blowndes
outPeuples
of proportion. The
ADP
: Alliance
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ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
and wanted to get
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were advised by the Catholic
Réconciliation
Nationale
Missionaries, who especially hated King Musinga, and Father
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
Huntzinger who lived in Save. King Musinga was also accused of
AFDL
:
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desthe
Forces
stealing food supplies
storesDémocratiques
of the Belgians.pour la
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
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African
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In
February :1917,
Captain
Philippin
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Yenga
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of
the
Germans.
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a letter
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AIMO
: Affaires
Indigènes
Main-d’oeuvre
which
a list two hundred
people who
were supposedly
AJER contained
: Association
de la Jeunesse
Estudiantine
assassinated by the occupation troops. In order to set his father,
Rwandaise
5ZLGHJHPE\D IUHH 5ZDJDWDODND DIILUPHG WKDW WKH OLVW KDG
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: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
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AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/
Arrêté this
présidentiel
was Father Huntzinger
who had invented
story. The affair
AMR
: Association
des Moniteurs du Rwanda
was suspended
for further investigation.
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
,Q 0DUFK WHQVLRQ EURNH
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.LQJ 0XVLQJD ZDV
ANT
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accused of wishing to poison the Europeans living in Kigali
(Transitional National Assembly)
by supplying their foodstuffs. Some chiefs were arrested.
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
Gashamura was a case in point; tt was once again Father
APR
: Armée
Patriotique
Rwandaise
Superior of Save
Mission
who was the
source of this information.
APROBAMI
: Association
Partis
Monarchistes
He was convinced
that the des
intrigue
involved
a house boy who
Rwandais
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Masse
a military plan was hatched to counteract any eventual popular
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
rising, including any chances of intervention from Karagwe. The
Démocratie
military authorities
of Rwanda waited for authorization from the
ARDHO
:
Association
Rwandaisearmy,
pourwho
la Défense
des
Commander in Chief of the occupation
was stationed
Droits
de l’Homme
in Gitega. Instead,
Brussels
opted for a political solution and not
AREDETWA
pour
le Relèvement
a military one.: Association
On the basis of
ordinance
number 2/5 of 6th April
Démocratique des Batwa
233
v
233
1917, the Royal
CommissarAND
re-established
the former German
ACRONYMS
ABBREVIATIONS
DUUDQJHPHQWDQGUHVWRUHGWKHNLQJGRP
___________________________________
The Belgian soldiers believed that King Musinga made fun of the
A.A.
: Archives Africaines
administration and treated their orders with contempt. There
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
was no coordination of activities between the zonal chiefs and the
ABAKI
: Alliance des Bakiga
NLQJ7KHNLQJZDVFRQIURQWHGZLWKVRPHRIKLVFKLHIV·GHVLUHIRU
ABESC
: Association
des Bahutu
Evoluant
pour
la
independence.
This led to anarchy
in some
parts of the
country.
Suppression des Castes
a. Establishment
of thedes
Belgian
Residence
Rwanda
ACR
: Association
Cultivateurs
du in
Rwanda
ADP$SULO :
Alliance
Démocratique
des Peuples
2Q
0DMRU
'HFOHUFN QLFNQDPHG
Majoro) was
ADR
: Allianceofpour
la Démocratie
la on May 30,
appointed
as Resident
Rwanda.
He arrived inetKigali
Réconciliation
Nationale
1917, with a mission
of appeasing
King Musinga and restoring his
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
DXWKRULW\)URPWKHWDNHRYHURI.LJDOLXSWRWKHDUULYDORI0DMRU
AFDL
: Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
'HFOHUFNWKHUHVSRQVLELOLW\RIPDQDJLQJWKHFRXQWU\RULJLQDOO\
conducted by soldiers,
wasdu
given
to Commander Scharfes.
Libération
Congo-Zaïre
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity Act
In 1917, the Residence of Rwanda was divided into three
$,'6
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sectors. In 1921, it was divided into four “territories”: the
AIMO territory
: Affaires
Indigènes etinMain-d’oeuvre
western
with headquarters
Rubengera, the northern
AJER
:
Association
de
la
Jeunesse
territory with headquarters in Ruhengeri, Estudiantine
the Nyanza territory
Rwandaise
with headquarters
in Nyanza, and the eastern territory with
ALIR
: in
Armée
de Libération
du Rwanda
headquarters
Kigali.
These territorial
divisions aimed to
AM/AP the: Arrêté
ministériel/
facilitate
implementation
of Arrêté
militaryprésidentiel
orders, especially
111
In
1919, Major
food
and providing
porters.
AMRrequisitions
: Association
des Moniteurs
duMay
Rwanda
'HFOHUFN
ZDV
UHSODFHG
E\
)
9DQ
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(GH
WKH
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AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
Belgian
Resident.
The civilian
administration
was maintained
ANT
: Assemblée
Nationale
de Transition
during the entire
period
of
military
occupation
ending
in 1926.
(Transitional National Assembly)
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
7KHUH ZDV ODFN RI FRRUGLQDWLRQ EHWZHHQ WKH ]RQDO OHDGHUV DQG
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
.LQJ0XVLQJDSRVLQJDVHURXVULVNRIGLYLGLQJWKHNLQJGRP$V
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
indicated in the annual report of 1920 to 1921, “the authority
of the King wasRwandais
seriously undermined by military requisitions112
APROCOMIN:
Association
Commerçants
Indigènes
and by a starving populationdes
caused
by Rumanura
famine.” To
APROSOMA
:
Association
pour
la
Promotion
Sociale
de lawas
these challenges was added Ikoro tax, a royal tribute that
paid as a sign Masse
of allegiance. This tax also served as income to
the
Royal court.
From the
beginning
of 1917, thede
Belgians
found
ARD
: Alliance
pour
le Renforcement
la
themselves amongst
total
anarchy:
“most
of
the
Watutsi
chiefs
Démocratie
expressed
a vague desire
for independence,
a thingdes
that
ARDHO (…): Association
Rwandaise
pour la Défense
Droitsofde
l’Homme
111
Van Den Eede E. (Resident
Rwanda),
Notes on the current political situation of Rwanda,
th
26 July 1921 archives
africaines: AE/II no
1847 (3288)
AREDETWA
: Association
pour
le Relèvement
112
Ministère des Colonies Rapport annuel , sur l’administration belge 1920-1921, p11.
Démocratique des Batwa
234
234
v
threatened to ACRONYMS
throw RwandaAND
into ABBREVIATIONS
complete anarchy.”113
___________________________________
2Q$SULODQRUGLQDQFHZDVHQDFWHGÀ[LQJWKHWHUULWRULDO
and
organization
A.A. administrative
: Archives
Africaines of the occupied territory.
This
ordinance
removed
Eastern and Western zones and
A.G.
: Assembléethe
Générale
reintroduced the former territorial sub-divisions, i.e. the
ABAKI
: Alliance des Bakiga
Residence of Rwanda similar to the one that existed during the
ABESC
: Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
%HOJLDQUXOH,QDGGLWLRQLWVSHFLÀHGWKHSULQFLSOHVDFFRUGLQJWR
Suppression des Castes
which the Residences of Rwanda and Burundi were supposed to
ACR
:
Association
Cultivateurs
du Rwanda
be governed. Article
4 of the des
ordinance
stipulated:
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
ADRIn the zones
: Alliance
la Démocratie
et lathe Residents
where pour
the Sultanate
prevailed,
representedRéconciliation
the occupationNationale
government. They were therefore
maintaining law
and order as well overseeing
AECcharged with
: Agglomeration
Extra-Coutumières
public security.
The Sultans
wereDémocratiques
responsible to the
Resident
AFDL
: Alliance
des Forces
pour
la
and were supposed
to cede
their political and judicial powers
Libération
du Congo-Zaïre
in
accordance
with
native
and instructions
AGOA
: African Growthcustoms
and Opportunity
Act of the
114
Royal Commissar.
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AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
7KH \HDU DOVR ZLWQHVVHG WKH ELUWK RI XQLÀHG SURYLQFHV
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
governed by senior chiefs. From that time on, the command of
Rwandaise
the chiefs was not
exercised in territories under a single tenant.
ALIR all chiefs
: Armée
de Libération
Almost
commanded
partsduofRwanda
villages scattered in
AM/AP
:
Arrêté
ministériel/
Arrêté
présidentiel
different provinces of the country. The native
provinces formed
AMRthe Rucunshu
: Association
deswere
Moniteurs
Rwanda
after
coup d’état
nominaldu
groupings
devoid of
a
common chief
at the top. The
administration
appointed
AMUR
: Association
desBelgian
Musulmans
au Rwanda
a
Provincial :chief
in 1919,
who was
notable who owned
ANT
Assemblée
Nationale
de aTransition
SHUVRQDO UHVRXUFHV
OLNH OLYHVWRFN
,Q DGGLWLRQ
WR DGPLQLVWHULQJ
(Transitional
National
Assembly)
his
own
village,
he
was
meant
to
command
villages
of other
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate
Chrétien
provincial
chiefs.
He collected
government
duties and taxes and
APR
: Armée
Patriotique
Rwandaise
VXSHUYLVHGURDGZRUNDQGHTXLSPHQW+HKDGQRULJKWWRGHPDQG
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
customary services for his SHUVRQDOEHQHÀWIURPYLOODJHVEH\RQG
Rwandais
the province.115
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
Masse
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
Démocratie
113
Ministère des Colonies Rapport annuel , sur l’administration belge 1920-1921, p11.
ARDHO
:
Association
Rwandaise pour la Défense des
114
Marzorati., Notes for the Royal Commissar s.l.n.d. Rwa (163) 1917 1924 (archives of the
Droits de l’Homme
Ministry of Foreign affairs)
115
Lenaerts,
Answer
to question No. pour
10, Report
of 1921/ Nyanza Adminstration, in
AREDETWA : Association
le Relèvement
Derscheid Papers, Bruxels.
Démocratique des Batwa
235
v
235
4.2.2. Belgian
Mandate (1926
ACRONYMS
AND- 1948)
ABBREVIATIONS
___________________________________
D'HÀQLWLRQRIWKHQDWLYHSROLF\
A.A.
: Archives Africaines
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: Assemblée Générale
RFFXSDWLRQNQHZQRWKLQJDERXWWKHUHDOLW\RQWKHJURXQGEXWLW
ABAKI
des
Bakigathemselves with the political
was
necessary: Alliance
for them to
acquaint
players
local systems
and dynamics
involved.
ABESC and :the
Association
des Bahutu
Evoluant
pour laThis
information was
provided
by
the
White
Fathers
in
the regions
Suppression des Castes
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WKH
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: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
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ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
political organization of Rwanda at the beginning of the Belgian
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
occupation in 1916,”116 a point of reference was created for the
Réconciliation
new authorities.
This documentNationale
attracted the attention of a large
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
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AFDL
Alliance
des
Forces
Démocratiques
la
of the Belgian: rule.
It was
also
quoted
by all visitors topour
Rwanda.
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
The theory developed
in Fatherand
Classe’s
document
AGOA
: African Growth
Opportunity
Act was that
Rwanda could
be compared to a feudal regime of the Middle
$,'6
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Ages. All authority theoretically lay in the hands of King Musinga,
AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
although in practice, power was monopolized by the Queen
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
Mother and her brothers. The latter commanded authority in
the peripheral Rwandaise
provinces whereas at the center of Nduga, the
ALIR
:
Armée
de Libération
du sought
Rwanda
authority was shared. Every
senior chief
to have areas or
AM/AP
: Arrêté
Arrêtéwhere
présidentiel
villages that served
as ministériel/
connecting points,
they could stay
whenever
they
were
at
the
royal
court.
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
According to Father
Classe,Nationale
power wasde
in the
hands of two clans:
ANT
: Assemblée
Transition
the Bega and Banyiginya. Part of the political game was marred
(Transitional National Assembly)
in intrigue which degenerated into power deprivation. All this
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
WRRNSODFHLQDQHQYLURQPHQWRIMHDORXV\DPDMRUZHDNQHVVRI
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
the Tutsi monarchy.
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
The documentRwandais
further described the fragmentation and
geographical distribution
power
that rendered
chiefs less
APROCOMIN:
Associationofdes
Commerçants
Indigènes
SRZHUIXO,QVRPHDUHDVWKHNLQJZDVDEOHWRFUHDWHDSHUVRQDO
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
clientele by removing
Masse villages from his senior chiefs. There were
VRPH H[FHSWLRQV LQ %XJR\L .LQJRJR %XGDKD *LVDND DQG
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
Kinyaga, where chiefs exercised limited authority and local clans
Démocratie
or lineages enjoyed
a wide range of autonomy.
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
116
de l’Homme
With a sub-title:Droits
“notes written
by Father Classe of the White Fathers Mission
of
Kabgayi
on
request
by
the
Belgian
administration”,
28th August 1916, Derscheid
AREDETWA : Association pour
le Relèvement
Papers.
Démocratique des Batwa
236
236
v
In addition, the
document describes
the services of the political
ACRONYMS
AND ABBREVIATIONS
LQVWLWXWLRQV$QRIÀFLDOWD[ZDVOHYLHGRQKHUGVRIFDWWOHIRUWKH
___________________________________
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goods.
of the population,
especially the Bahutu, paid a
A.A. The rest
: Archives
Africaines
land tax (Ikoro ry’ubutaka). Some exceptions existed among the
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
residents of Nduga and Marangara. The paying of taxes was a
ABAKI
: Alliance des Bakiga
YHU\OXFUDWLYHRSHUDWLRQIRUWD[FROOHFWRUVZKRHDUQHGSURÀWV7R
ABESC
Bahutu
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la
these
multiple: Association
services, newdes
taxes
were added
such pour
as Amararo
Suppression
des Castesor traders).
(gifts for loading
caravans of Europeans
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
Father
report also
referred to Rwanda’s
social structure
ADP Classe’s
: Alliance
Démocratique
des Peuples
by
insisting
on
the
Ubuhake
institution
(system
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la of pastoral
clientele) in Marangara,
which
he understood very well. He
Réconciliation
Nationale
especially understood the obligations associated with this type of
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
clientele. Father Classe also raised the issue of the social-militia
AFDL
:
des
Démocratiques
pour
la
(Ingabo) under Alliance
the theme
of Forces
providing
services. Lastly,
he dealt
du Congo-Zaïre
with the ethnicLibération
groups in Rwanda.
The Tutsi exercised command
AGOA
: African
Growth
and Opportunity
Act 117 He
DQG
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RZQHUV
RI PDQ\
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described the$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
Hutu as the “short Tutsi.” According to him, the
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were
divided
into two
categories:
who lived with other
AIMO
: Affaires
Indigènes
et those
Main-d’oeuvre
5ZDQGHVH QHDU
WKH UHVLGHQFH
FKLHIV DQG
WKH NLQJ QHDUO\
AJER
: Association
de la RI
Jeunesse
Estudiantine
5,000 in number), and those who lived in the forests of Kingogo,
Rwandaise
Buhiru, Mulera, and Kinyaga.
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
,QWKLVWH[W)DWKHU&ODVVHJDYHWKHHVVHQWLDOSRLQWVWREHNQRZQ
AMUR
Association
des Musulmans
au Rwanda
by the new :masters.
However,
by generalizing
the political
V\VWHP ZKLFK
KH VXSSRUWHG
DQG NQHZ
YHU\ ZHOO HVSHFLDOO\
ANT
: Assemblée
Nationale
de Transition
in Marangara, (Transitional
he distorted National
local realities
that differed from
Assembly)
WKH
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LQ
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Chrétien
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APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
LQÁXHQFHGIXWXUHNQRZOHGJHRI5ZDQGDQVRFLHW\JLYHQWKDWKLV
APROBAMI
: Association des Partis Monarchistes
theories were quoted without criticism.
Rwandais
APROCOMIN:
Association
des Commerçants Indigènes
b. Indirect
rule
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
)UDQFNVXFFHHGHG5HQNLQDVWKH0LQLVWHUIRU&RORQLHV+HYLVLWHG
Masse
the
occupied
territories
and the
Congo.118 During
ARD
: Alliance pour
le Renforcement
de this
la visit, he
outlined major Démocratie
guidelines for effective administration of Ruanda8UXQGL/LNHWKH*HUPDQVKHRSWHGIRULQGLUHFWUXOH+HZDVRI
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
the view that this would succeed in countries organized along
Droits de l’Homme
117
In
Mulera,
the
term
Tutsi meant anypour
inhabitant
of Nduga, notes the report.
AREDETWA : Association
le Relèvement
118
Franck L., Le Congo belge. T.1, La renaissance du livre, Bruxelles, 1931.
Démocratique des Batwa
237
v
237
traditional structures,
or those
with solid native institutions
ACRONYMS
AND ABBREVIATIONS
and with a political
class
of
“sure
talents.” “The European,” he
___________________________________
said, “was supposed to assume the role of educator and guide.”
)UDQFNGHYHORSHGWKHIROORZLQJRUJDQL]DWLRQDOFKDUW
A.A.
: Archives Africaines
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
ƒ Two Residents and a Resident General shall constitute
ABAKI a competent
: Alliance
des Bakiga
Executive
Council to prepare a budget to
ABESCsubmit: Association
des
Bahutu
Evoluant
pour la a
to the Minister of
Colonies
for implementing
Suppression
des Castes
SURJUDP
RQ SXEOLF ZRUNV
FRQWUROOLQJ DQG VXSHUYLVLQJ
ACR the native
: Association
des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
policy.
ADPƒ The Resident
: Alliance
Démocratique
Peuples
General
shall enjoy des
direct
relations with the
ADR Minister
: Alliance
pour
la
Démocratie
et
of Colonies; the Governor Generallaof Congo shall
Réconciliation
Nationale
be responsible
for the two
Residents.
AECƒ The Resident
: Agglomeration
Extra-Coutumières
shall be
responsible for territorial
AFDL administration
: Alliancewith
des aForces
pour
la
help ofDémocratiques
territorial services
divided
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
LQWRVHYHUDOGHSDUWPHQWV
DGPLQLVWUDWLRQSXEOLFZRUNV
AGOA KHDOWKÀQDQFHFLYLOVHUYLFH
: African Growth and Opportunity Act
$,'6
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departments of the Resident shall enjoy “regular
AIMO VXSSRUWRIWKH:DWXVLµEHFDXVHRIWKHLU´LQQDWHVNLOOVDV
: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
AJER IDUDVWDNLQJFRPPDQGVµDVIDUDVWKH.LQJLVFRQFHUQHG
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
These collaborators
Rwandaise shall be trained and remunerated.
7KLVLVZKDWWKH1\DQ]D6FKRROZDVWDVNHGWRGRVLQFHLWV
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
re-opening in 1919.
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
The
Minister
was supposed
respect and
use traditional
AMR
: Association
destoMoniteurs
du Rwanda
political
whose recognized
legitimacy
was based on
AMUR structures
: Association
des Musulmans
au Rwanda
history.
He
had
this
to
say:
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
It was not a question of tampering with political
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Association
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and are a capable people and we will respect
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status. The charter facilitated the occupation of the new territory
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at minimum cost in terms of manpower and money. In practice,
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authorities who
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and maintaining
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119
Franck L., Le Congo belge, t.1, La renaissance du livre, Bruxelles, 1931.
Démocratique des Batwa
238
238
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described the royal class and Tutsi aristocracy with contradictory
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ethnographical features of the Tutsi, Hutu, and Twa. This myth
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to their slender features, tall height, diplomatic qualities, and
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: Association du Parti Démocrate
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APR
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Nyanza Territory of 1925 described them in the following terms:
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Démocratique des Batwa
239
v
239
This racial discrimination
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ABBREVIATIONS
was not the image
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exceptional and as playing special roles. This function elevated
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120
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:
Association
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: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
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represented
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people who
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des Peuples
needy
and
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were
portrayed
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: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la as members
of the “nobility,Réconciliation
discrete and grateful.”
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to as “naïve, stupid and cruel.” Such derogatory perceptions
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: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
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:
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middle of the
19th Century. Rwandan proverbs
AGOA
: African
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and Moniteurs
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many
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such
as language,
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ANT
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of inequality”121HYHUH[LVWHGLWZDVOLQNHGWRKLVWRULFIDFWRUVEXW
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not to static congenital criteria or even to the criterion of cowAPR
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ownership.
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Rwandais
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as the second half of the 19th Century, when the Hutu and
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
Tutsi lived together for a long time.122 Before the arrival of chiefs
Masse
appointed by the
royal court, emphasis was put on clan groups
ARD
: Alliance
pour leThis
Renforcement
la regions
or neighboring
communities.
was true ofdeother
Démocratie
Crepeau, P. and Bizimana, S.,Proverbes du Rwanda, INRS, Tervuren, 1980.
ARDHO
:
Association
Rwandaise
pour
la Défense
des
121
Maquet, J.J., Le système des relations
sociales dans
le Rwanda
ancien, Tervuren,
Droits de l’Homme
MRAC, 1954.
122
Newbury
C.,
The
cohesion of oppression.
century of clientship in Kinyaga,
AREDETWA : Association
pour le ARelèvement
Rwanda, Madison, University of Wisconsin, 1975.
Démocratique des Batwa
120
240
240
v
such as Bumbogo,
the northern
region, and other territories
ACRONYMS
AND ABBREVIATIONS
where power belonged
to
the
lineage
and not to external factors
___________________________________
connected with the court. It was the Rwandan royal court and
the
that
imposed the predominance of Tutsi
A.A.colonial machine
: Archives
Africaines
chiefs.
A.G.
ABAKI
b. End
ABESC
: Assemblée Générale
des Bakiga
of: Alliance
the traditional
monarchy
: Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
Suppression
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endCastes
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Association
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Rwanda
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that targeteddu
it. In
1917, King
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occupation.
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the
same
year,
the
administration
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et laconcentrated,
among other things,
on the terrible
Rumanura famine. It was
Réconciliation
Nationale
necessary to solve this calamity with the help of the Catholic
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
Missions, the only organizations present in the country at that
AFDL
:
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desleft
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la
time. The Protestants
with Démocratiques
the Germans. Atpour
the same
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Congo-Zaïre
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between
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AGOA
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the
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of King Musinga,
the legal proceedings
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: Affaires Indigènes
et Main-d’oeuvre
against
his entourage
were suspended
pending the
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handle and solve the matter.123 As soon as he arrived in Rwanda,
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: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
AMUR
: Association
des Musulmans
au Rwanda
The hypothetical
poison affair
led to the arrest
of the King
of Rwanda by
the occupying
authorities
followed by a legal
ANT
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that existed
APADEC
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Parti
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Chrétien
between the royal court and the Belgian soldiers. Later on, other
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
measures that progressively undermined the foundation of the
APROBAMI
: Association des Partis Monarchistes
traditional Kingdom of Rwanda were put in place. The most
Rwandais
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APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
APROSOMA
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death de
(1917)
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remove the unconditional right over life and property from
ARDHO
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traditional leaders. The right of justice (jus gladii) was reserved
Droits de l’Homme
123
Marzorati,
Notes
by the Royal Commissar,
s. l.,
n.d, Native politics information
AREDETWA : Association
pour le
Relèvement
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Démocratique des Batwa
241
v
241
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ABBREVIATIONS
mere titles and
honors.
King
Musinga
was
fully aware of their
___________________________________
intentions. He and his mother were not moved by this measure.
Their
unexpected
demotion reminded them of the
A.A. abrupt :and
Archives
Africaines
happy days of German protection and led to their desire to
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
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ABAKI
: Alliance
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resistance
which
led, fourteen
days later, to the deposition of the
ABESC
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Association
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supreme
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“Since
I can no
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¾ Declaration
of freedom
of worship (July 1917)
Réconciliation
Nationale
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
In -XO\WKHUHZDVDELJPHHWLQJEHWZHHQ0DMRU'HFOHUFN
AFDL
: Alliance
des represented
Forces Démocratiques
and
the Catholic
Church,
by the Mgr pour
Hirth,lahis
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
9LFDU*HQHUDODQG)DWKHU&ODVVH2QWKHUHTXHVWRIWKHUHOLJLRXV
AGOA King : Musinga
African Growth
and to
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leaders,
was obliged
declare the Act
existence of
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code.
In
reality,
this act
was aimed
stopping the monopoly
AIMO
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et at
Main-d’oeuvre
enjoyed
traditional religion.
Any contravention
of this act
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de la Jeunesse
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by traditional leaders would result in legal proceedings. This law
Rwandaise
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: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
on the ground.
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AMR ¾ Undermining
: Association
des Moniteurs
du Rwanda
Mwami’s
judicial powers
(1992)
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7KH
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1922, however, it was decided in discharging his judicial
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APROCOMIN:
Association
des Commerçants Indigènes
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APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
¾ Limitation
Masse of King Musinga’s powers to make
political
nominations
(1923)
ARD
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pour le Renforcement
de la
Démocratie
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de l’Homme
notables whoseDroits
command
originated from the court. Provincial
AREDETWA
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Association
pour or
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chiefs could no longer appoint
remove their subordinates
Démocratique des Batwa
242
242
v
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decision had serious consequences. The Belgian
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sub-chiefs
were
no longer
responsible to King Musinga, but
A.A.
: Archives
Africaines
instead were subordinates of the administration.
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
ABAKI ¾Abolition
: Alliance
des Bakiga
of “Ubwiru”
and “Ubuganura” in 1925
ABESC
: Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
des Castes decided to banish
In 1925, theSuppression
Belgian administration
ACR
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des
Rwanda
Gashamura,
the
chairman of
theCultivateurs
Abiru esotericdu
code,
to Gitega,
Burundi.
He was
accused
of opposing development
projects and
ADP
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Démocratique
des Peuples
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colonial and missionary
literature,
Gashamura is portrayed as
Réconciliation
Nationale
a great medicine man and sorcerer. He was different from his
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
son Rwampungu, who was admitted to the school for sons of
AFDL
:
Alliance
des
Forces
Démocratiques
pour
la
chiefs in Nyanza.
His son
was
baptized
by the Catholic
Church
Libération
du Congo-Zaïre
in 1928. By deporting
Gashamura,
the Abiru institution was left
AGOA
African Growth and Opportunity Act
with
no more :successors.
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AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
The fall of the traditional monarchy was characterized by the
Rwandaise
loss of its principal ideology and judicial power and the removal
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
from the monarch the powers to appoint or remove chiefs. Under
AM/AP rule, :Queen
ArrêtéMother
ministériel/
Arrêté
présidentiel
German
Kanjongera
and
her brothers could
AMR
: Association
Moniteurs
du Rwanda
do
as they pleased.
With thedes
arrival
of the Belgians,
this power
AMUR
Association
des Musulmans
Rwandain the
was
reduced :due
to the presence
of several au
informers
court.
the chiefs
in the royal
court to a precarious
ANT This subjected
: Assemblée
Nationale
de Transition
situation. King(Transitional
Musinga complained
being constantly spied
NationalofAssembly)
upon
by
the
Whites
and
especially
by
Leenaerts,
a delegate
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head teacher, Leenaerts used students and teachers in Nyanza
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
School and Rwandans who were opposed to King Musinga’s
Rwandais
rule as informers.
These informers were given protection by the
APROCOMIN:
Association
des Commerçants Indigènes
Belgians.
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
King Musinga lost
all powers before his chiefs because he could
Masse
no
longer
physically
punish
In addition,de
any
ARD
: Alliance
pour them.
le Renforcement
la dismissal
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resorted to intimidation, but even then his victims complained
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AREDETWA
pour
le was
Relèvement
fraction
of his: Association
material wealth
and
unable to refurbish his
Démocratique des Batwa
243
v
243
residence. The
services provided
by his subjects were reduced
ACRONYMS
AND ABBREVIATIONS
as many of his
chiefs
shifted
their
allegiance from him. He
___________________________________
received a good monthly salary from Belgian administration. The
discount
on taxes
earned
him 7,000 Francs per month. There
A.A.
: Archives
Africaines
is little information on the royal court expenditure. According
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
to administrative reforms of 1962, there were budgetary cuts
ABAKI
Alliance
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Association
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his salary and food to support the
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victimized
124
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by Europeans. Suppression
He used thedes
royal
tribute to assist those who
ACR faithful to
: Association
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him. This generosity
was done du
at the
expense of
repairs
palace.
King Musinga
ADP to the: royal
Alliance
Démocratique
desdivorced
Peupleshis wives in
DQGWKH\ZHUHKHQFHIRUWKWDNHQFDUHRIE\WKHLUUHVSHFWLYH
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: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
families. In 1927,
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Réconciliation
meet the expenses of his sons. The colonial authority wanted to
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monarchy’s
neutralization
was characterized
by the neglect and
AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes
et Main-d’oeuvre
isolation
by German
administrators
at political and
AJER conducted
: Association
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Association
des Musulmans
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between
in Kigali
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though their
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s : separated
byNationale
times of de
relative
calm. The major
ANT
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APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate
to respect the role assigned to him as far as his legitimacy was
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
concerned. The Belgian authorities thought of stopping all
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
contact with him from 1922-1929. However, they dropped this
Rwandais
idea due to local
government matters and due to the fact that
APROCOMIN:
Association
des Permanent
Commerçants
Indigènes
they did not want to upset the
Commission
of the
APROSOMA
Association
la Promotion Sociale de la
Mandate
and :the
League of pour
Nations.
Masse
The
annual
report
of 1928
a big chargedesheet
ARD
: Alliance
pourcarried
le Renforcement
la against
King Musinga Démocratie
made by the Governor of Ruanda-Urundi. He
was accused of several crimes, including incest, ambition,
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
LQFRPSHWHQFH DQG ODFN RI UHVSRQVLELOLW\ 0RVW RI WKH FKDUJHV
Droits de l’Homme
124
Résidence
du
Rwanda,
Rapport politique
1929 du territoire de Nyanza,
AREDETWA : Association
pourpour
le l’année
Relèvement
A.A. Bruxelles.
Démocratique des Batwa
244
244
v
rotated around
moral crimes.
Consequently,
the report proposed
ACRONYMS
AND
ABBREVIATIONS
his deposition.
As
they
waited
for
the
decision
from Brussels,
___________________________________
it was decided that the King’s allowances be reduced. Brussels
refused
the proposition
two reasons:
A.A.
: Archivesfor
Africaines
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
ƒ The advantages of indirect rule: it was still necessary
ABAKI
Alliance
des Bakiga
to: use
the prestige
of the royal court to implement
ABESC
:
Association
des
Bahutu Evoluant pour la
administrative orders;
Suppression
des Castes
ƒ Diplomatic
constraints:
it was seen as a serious
ACR
: Association
des Cultivateurs
du Rwanda
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indirect
rule.
The Permanent
of the
ADP
: Alliance
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desCommission
Peuples
Mandatory
Powers
insisted
on
respecting
this
type
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
of institution;
its abolition
would be perceived badly
Réconciliation
Nationale
in Geneva, Germany, and Great Britain.
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
AFDL
:
Alliance
des Forces
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pour la
Equally important
however
was King
Musinga’s grievances
Libération
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: African
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side,
reports
and witnesses
of administrators
and
missionaries
expressing
his bitterness and anger. King Musinga
$,'6
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refused
to
recognize
the
authority et
of Main-d’oeuvre
the delegate appointed by
AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes
WKH5HVLGHQWWRWKHUR\DOFRXUW$VIDUDVWKHNLQJZDVFRQFHUQHG
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
the delegate of the Resident was supposed to be equivalent to a
Rwandaise
VHQLRU FKLHI 7KH NLQJ regarded him as his subordinate as the
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
delegate continued to adopt a paternalistic attitude toward the
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
NLQJ
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
AMUR
: Association
des
Musulmans
au Rwanda
The function of
the Resident’s
delegate
was maintained
and even
reinforced. Leanaerts,
the successor
Defawe, doubled as
ANT
: Assemblée
Nationale of
dethe
Transition
Chief of Nyanza
Territory andNational
head teacher
of Nyanza School.
(Transitional
Assembly)
His
grievences
with
King
Musinga
were
numerous,
although at
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
ÀUVWKHGLVFKDUJHGKLVUHVSRQVLELOLWLHVZLWKWDFWDQGIULHQGVKLS
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
This relationship initiated him to the secrets of the Royal court.
APROBAMI
: Association des Partis Monarchistes
However, this sympathy was short lived. Out of disgust, the
Rwandais
FRXUWQLFNQDPHGKLP´Rurenge.”
He was accused of interfering
APROCOMIN:
Association
des
Commerçants
in court matters on several occasions, leading Indigènes
to 9 years in
APROSOMA
: Association
pour la Promotion
Sociale
la
which King Musinga
was victimized
and surrounded
byde
a crowd
of spies. The Resident’s
Masse delegate became more powerful than the
NLQJ
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NLQJ·V
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ARD
: Alliance
pour
le Renforcement
de la E\ WKRVH
who paid homage
to
the
white
man
in
Nyanza.
Démocratie
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
King Musinga protested the appointment of his son Rudahigwa
Droits
de l’Homme
to the chieftaincy
of Marangara.
He feared it would subject him
AREDETWA
:
Association
pour
le Relèvement
WREDGLQÁXHQFHE\0JU&ODVVH+HHYHQDVVHUWHGWKDW0JU&ODVVH
Démocratique des Batwa
245
v
245
was the KingACRONYMS
of Rwanda because
all appointments had to be
AND ABBREVIATIONS
discussed in advance
between
him
and
the Resident.
___________________________________
During
in August 1929, King Musinga and
A.A. the Governor’s
: Archivesvisit
Africaines
the Queen Mother expressed their grievances about the removal
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
of customary services and rights. They complained about their
ABAKI that had
: Alliance
des Bakiga
powers
been eroded
and about the misunderstandings
ABESC
:
Association
des
Bahutu Evoluant pour la
ZLWKWKH%HOJLDQDXWKRULWLHV7KH\UHVHQWHGWKH%HOJLDQVODFNRI
125
desGovernor
Castes concluded, “the Royal
respect for theirSuppression
customs. The
ACR
: Association
Cultivateurs
du Rwanda
institution
relied
entirely ondes
custom
and tradition
and that the
NLQJZDVLQDZD\DVODYHRIWUDGLWLRQEHFDXVHZKDWWKHDQFHVWRUV
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
126
had
declared
to be respected.”
In the eyes
ADR
:had
Alliance
pour la Démocratie
et laof the colonial
authorities, culture
and traditional
religion were synonymous
Réconciliation
Nationale
with stagnation while the religion of the whites was seen as
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
SURJUHVVLYH 7KH EDFNZDUGQHVV RI WKH FRXQWU\ ZDV DWWULEXWHG
AFDL
:
Alliance
des Forces
to King Musinga,
who through
his Démocratiques
commitment to pour
followlahis
Libération
duchange,
Congo-Zaïre
ancestors without
accepting
gave the impression that
AGOA
: African with
Growth
and Opportunity
he was not concerned
the development
of his Act
people. This
OHGVFRUHVRI5ZDQGDQVWRFRQFOXGHWKDWWKHNLQJGLGQRWFDUH
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AIMO
: Affaires
Main-d’oeuvre
would promote
colonial goals.
AJER
: Association
de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
Rwandaise
King Musinga made visits on the ground and violated a cultural
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
prohibition. He crossed River Nyabarongo and went to Kigali to
AM/AP
: Arrêté
ministériel/
présidentiel
handle matters
without
consultingArrêté
his mother.
The Governor
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
ZDQWHGWRQHXWUDOL]H.LQJ0XVLQJD·VZLVKHV7KHNLQJDFFHSWHG
AMUR
Association
des Musulmans
au Rwanda
collaborating :with
the Governor,
but only as his
superior. This
SHULRG ZDV EULHI
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DFFXVHGde
WKH
NLQJ RI LPSDWLHQFH
ANT
: Assemblée
Nationale
Transition
irregularity, and
contempt toward
the Resident’s
(Transitional
National
Assembly)delegates. The
NLQJ·VGHSRVLWLRQZDVLQHYLWDEOH
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
The process of deposing King Musinga entailed putting pressure
APROBAMI
: Association des Partis Monarchistes
on the Ministry of Colonies, which had expressed interest in
Rwandais
NHHSLQJKLPIRUDGPLQLVWUDWLYHUHDVRQV/RFDODXWKRULWLHVWKXV
APROCOMIN:
Association
des
Commerçants
Indigènes
launched a campaign
against
King
Musinga after
consultating
127
APROSOMA
pour
la Promotion
la
Mgr Classe. : Association
The argument
developed
by MgrSociale
Classe de
achieved
its objective; Brussels
Masse started developing an idea of initiating a
OHJDOVXLWDJDLQVWWKHNLQJWRMXVWLI\KLVGHSRVLWLRQ
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
Démocratie
ARDHO
:
Association
pour
la Défense
des
125
Postiaux, Interview notes from 9th Rwandaise
to 19th August 1929
between
Musinga and
his
Droits de l’Homme
mother Nyirayuhi, C.P./I
126
Ibid.
AREDETWA
: Association pour le Relèvement
127 Essor colonial et maritime, 21-12 and 25-12-1930
Démocratique des Batwa
246
246
v
The administration
did not want
involve the Abiru institution,
ACRONYMS
AND to
ABBREVIATIONS
ZKLFKZDVUHJDUGHGDVDQLQVWLWXWLRQRIVRUFHUHUV,WVLQÁXHQFH
___________________________________
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A.A.
: Archives Africaines
fear that the Belgian administration would impose sanctions on
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
them. King Musinga’s deposition was planned in the following
ABAKI
: Alliance des Bakiga
way:
ABESC
: Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
Suppression des Castes
*RYHUQRU9RLVLQDUULYHGRQ1RYHPEHU+HQRWLÀHGWKH
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
NLQJDERXWWKHGHFLVLRQWRGHSRVHKLP,QUHDFWLRQWKHNLQJLV
said
he had been des
waiting
for that decision
ADPto have responded
: Alliancethat
Démocratique
Peuples
for
along
time.
An
inquisitive
mood
followed.
The
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et lateam aware of
WKH SODQ ZDV FRPSRVHG
RI 9RLVLQ
&ODVVH &RXEHDX /DQHDUWV
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Nationale
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AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
\RXQJPDQZKRZDVIDLWKIXOWRKLVIDWKHUFRXOGKDYHNHSWVXFK
AFDL
:
Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
a serious secret.
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
AGOA
: African
Growth
and
Opportunity
Act 14 on
Rudahigwa
was
declared
King of
Rwanda
on November
behalf
of Belgium and was enthroned on November 16.
$,'6 of the King
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The
Abiru
were
happy
their
institution remained
AIMO
: Affairesbecause
Indigènes
et royal
Main-d’oeuvre
intact.
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
Rwandaise
,WLVKDUGWRNQRZ5ZDQGDQV·RSLQLRQVRIWKLVHYHQW7KHSRSXODWLRQ
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: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
GLG QRW UHDFW WR WKH DQQRXQFHPHQW RI WKH NLQJ·V GHSRVLWLRQ
AM/AP to : Kabgayi
Arrêté ministériel/
Arrêté
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128
According
Mission Diary,
Rwandans
and their
AMR
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du Rwanda
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2WKHUV LQÁXHQFHG
E\ WKH DQWL0XVLQJD
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ANT
: Assemblée
Nationale deFDPSDLJQ
Transition
Musinga for refusing
to come
to termsAssembly)
with the Belgians. He
(Transitional
National
refused
to
join
the
Catholic
religion
because
he was
very much
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate
Chrétien
attached to the Germans. Others claimed King Musinga was
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
betrayed by his own relatives. The administration gave an order
APROBAMI
: Association des Partis Monarchistes
WRIROORZWKHQHZNLQJDQGWKH5ZDQGDQVDFFHSWHG7KRVHZKR
refused to obeyRwandais
were threatened with consequences.129
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
APROSOMA
Association
pour la Promotion
de laThe
The
happiest :group
in this arrangement
was theSociale
Christians.
130
Missionary campaign
Masse insisted on King Musinga’s illegitimacy,
i.e.
Musinga’s
unfaithfulness
the Belgians
ARD
: Alliance pour vis-à-vis
le Renforcement
de and
la his antiChristian stance.
Outside
the
Kingdom,
no
reaction
was noted.
Démocratie
ARDHO
Rwandaise pour la Défense des
128
Kabgayi Diary :ofAssociation
16th November 1931.
129
Droits
de l’Homme
Rwamagana Diary
of 14th November
1931.
130
A
campaign
reproduced
by
Gishoma
Thaddee,
a former senior seminarian: the fall
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
of Musinga, Derscheid papers.
Démocratique des Batwa
247
v
247
No embassy of
the Western AND
world,ABBREVIATIONS
not even Geneva, was moved
ACRONYMS
by King Musinga’s
deposition!
___________________________________
Far
a simple
affair, King Musinga’s deposition
A.A. from being
: Archives
Africaines
became an important event in the history of Rwanda. The
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
colonial authority wanted to purge the royal institution of its
ABAKIclaims :toAlliance
desitsBakiga
divine
power and
cultural and historical claims. The
ABESC
:
Association
des
Bahutu Evoluant pour la
GHSRVLWLRQRIWKHNLQJDLPHGDWPDNLQJWKHODWWHUUHVSRQVLEOHWR
Suppressionstructure
des Castes
the colonial administrative
by assigning him duties
ACR
Association
des Cultivateurs
du Rwanda
supervised
by: Belgian
civil servants.
The deposition
also aimed
DW
PDNLQJ WKH
NLQJ D FRPPRQ
PDQ DQG
VRPHRQH ZLWK D
ADP
: Alliance
Démocratique
desQRW
Peuples
131
divine
right
to
rule
the
Rwandan
people.
King
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la Rudahigwa’s
HQWKURQHPHQW Réconciliation
WHVWLÀHG D ZLOOLQJQHVV
NationaleWR FRQVHUYH WKH UR\DO
NLQJGRPDVDSROLWLFDODQGFXOWXUDOLQVWLWXWLRQWKDWZRXOGXVKHU
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
the entire country under colonial rule.
AFDL
: Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
$IWHUWKHFHUHPRQ\RIHQWKURQHPHQW*RYHUQRU9RLVLQGHFUHHGD
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity Act
VHULHVRIUHIRUPVUHJDUGLQJWKHNLQJ6HUYLFHVUHQGHUHGLQNLQG
were replaced$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
by an annual deduction of 1 Franc to be levied as
$,'6
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Main-d’oeuvre
PLON FRQÁLFWV: LQ
WKH UR\DOde
FRXUW
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AJER
Association
la Jeunesse
Estudiantine
JLYHWKHNLQJERWKHFRQRPLFDQGPDWHULDOHPSRZHUPHQWVRDVWR
Rwandaise
ensure his self-reliance vis-à-vis his chiefs.
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
AM/APd. Administrative
: Arrêté ministériel/
Arrêté présidentiel
reorganization
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
AMUR
des Musulmans
au Rwanda
The
process :ofAssociation
Belgian colonial
administration
was gradual.
It
started as :soon
as the Belgians
in the country and
ANT
Assemblée
Nationalearrived
de Transition
ended with natives
becoming docile
civilAssembly)
servants who supported
(Transitional
National
European
administration.
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
131
Musinga died in Kitendwe
district in Tanganyika in Baudoinville Territory on 25th
Rwandais
December
1944.
He
was
bunished
theredes
by the
ordinance of 18th June
1940. In a letter
APROCOMIN: Association
Commerçants
Indigènes
by Jungers, the Vice Governor General, to King Rudahigwa of 12th February 1945, he
APROSOMA
: Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
DI¿UPHGWKDWWKH'LVWULFW&RPPLVVDULQ$OEHUWYLOOHKDGWROGKLPWKDW.LQJ0XVLQJD
Masse
died if bronchitis which
developed into pneumonia and that he left no will. He only left
behind
some
kitchen
utensils
andpour
some garments.
The family leftde
behind
ARD
: Alliance
le Renforcement
la by Musinga
ZDVPDGHRIWZHQW\SHRSOH
¿YHZLYHVQLQHFKLOGUHQDQGVL[VHUYDQWV
5XGDKLJZD
Démocratie
was authorized to exhume the remains of his father and to repatriate them home. On
ARDHO
Association
Rwandaise
pour la to
Défense
2nd July 1946, the :exhumation
of Musinga’s
body was announced
take placedes
on 30th
l’Homme
July 1946. This dateDroits
was alsode
postponed
to 15th June 1947. Thereafter, nothing was
said
about this matter.
Mystery still pour
surrounds
fate of the remains of Musinga
AREDETWA
: Association
le the
Relèvement
(Archives Africaines, Brussels, dossier n° RWA (1)21).
Démocratique des Batwa
248
248
v
7KH ÀUVW PHDVXUH
E\ WKHAND
FRORQLDO
DGPLQLVWUDWLRQ ZDV WKH
ACRONYMS
ABBREVIATIONS
deposition of chiefs
“who
demonstrated
a retrogressive character
___________________________________
and who refused to abandon their arbitrary procedures of
132
administration.”
This measure
was announced in 1924. The
A.A.
: Archives
Africaines
IROORZLQJ\HDU PDUNHG WKH RIÀFLDO IRUPXODWLRQ RI D SROLF\ WR EH
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
implemented by the colonial authority regarding chiefs and
ABAKI
: Alliance
Bakiga and reinforcing customary
sub-chiefs.
This
entaileddes
recognizing
ABESC
: Association des
Bahutu Evoluant
la
authority,
implementing
“respectable”
customs,pour
replacing
Suppression
des and
Castes
stubborn chiefs
and sub-chiefs
those who were abusing
ACR and gradually
: Association
des Cultivateurs
du Rwanda
power,
replacing
all “dead wood”
by educated
133
people.
In 1924,
theseDémocratique
reforms underwent
revisions and were
ADP
: Alliance
des Peuples
134
later
adopted.
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
Réconciliation Nationale
The complexity of the organizational chart of Rwanda’s traditional
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
authority is seen in the number of junior and senior chiefs
AFDL
:
Alliance
des Forces
Démocratiques
pour la
maintained. Under
the reign
of King Rwabugiri,
the country
was
Libération
Congo-Zaïre
divided into two
provincesdu
(prefectures)
with a royal palace as
AGOA
: African
andresponsible
Opportunity
the headquarters;
the Growth
palace was
forAct
channeling
135
all regional services.
Some border-areas were exempted from
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Rwandaise
Two civil servants collected taxes (Ikoro): the chief of pastures
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
(Umutware w’umukenke) collected pastoral taxes and the land
AM/AP
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chief (Umutware
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Association
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Nyanza court :under
King Musinga.
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were
carried out
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forced
labor by people in
ANT
: Assemblée
Nationale
Transition
peripheral regions.
(Transitional National Assembly)
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
Below the province, there was another small division called
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
Igikingi/ Ibikingi. Long ago, the Ibikingi were related to pastures.
APROBAMI
: Association des Partis Monarchistes
By extension, the word came to mean a command-base of
Rwandais
one or more village
hills (collines in French). According to A.
APROCOMIN:
Association
des
Indigènes
Kagame, there were two types
of Commerçants
Ibikingi. There was
the Igikingi
APROSOMA
: Association
la Promotion
Sociale de
that depended
on the war pour
chief (Umutware
w’ingabo)
andlathat
PHW WKH UHTXLUHPHQWV
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scattered.
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royal court
was
interested inde
having
people
ARD
: Alliance
pour
le not
Renforcement
la
with big pieces of
land
as
this
would
threaten
the
power
of
central
Démocratie
ARDHO
:
Association
Rwandaise
pour labelge,
Défense
des
132
Ministère des Colonies, Rapport annuel
sur l’administration
1924, p.7.
133
Droits
de l’Homme
Ministère des Colonies,
Rapport
annuel sur l’administration belge, 1925, p.64.
134
Ibid,
1927,
p.37.
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
135
Kagame, A, op, cit., p.184.
Démocratique des Batwa
249
v
249
authority. There
were also royal
(Imisozi y’ibwami) for
ACRONYMS
AND enclaves
ABBREVIATIONS
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Kigali, and parts of Cyangugu. Here, land ownership depended
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
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ABAKI
: Alliance des Bakiga
ABESC of traditional
: Association
des Bahutu
Evoluant
pour
la the
Reforms
administration
started
in 1926
with
Suppression
des Castes
abolition of the
system of three
chiefs. This had a profound
ACR on social
: Association
du Rwanda
impact
relations.des
TheCultivateurs
former authoritarian
system
offered
a possibility
ofDémocratique
choosing between
several protectors
ADP
: Alliance
des Peuples
(chiefs),
but
this
was
abolished
in
favor
of
a
single
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et
la chief. This
system penalized
the most vulnerable
social classes.
Réconciliation
Nationale
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
By abolishing the system of three chiefs, the colonial authority
AFDL
:
Alliance the
des Forces
la
wanted to simplify
politicalDémocratiques
administrative pour
process.
du Congo-Zaïre
The Belgians Libération
were convinced
the traditional structure was
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity Act
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aim of the
colonial administration was to administer the
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according
to European
administration
standards so as
AIMO
: Affaires
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WRDFKLHYHDGPLQLVWUDWLYHHIÀFLHQF\
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
Before 1922, the administration appointed a notable (chef
Rwandaise
d’akazi) who recruited carriers of equipment and providers of
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
free labor. This chief was appointed on regional level to carry out
AM/AP
: Arrêté
ministériel/
Arrêté
présidentiel
administrative
instructions.
This new
system
established a more
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
VLPSOLÀHGFKDLQRIFRPPDQG
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
The
responsible
for appointing
and dismissing
ANT Resident: was
Assemblée
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de Transition
RIÀFHUV DW DOO OHYHOV
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APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
the absenteeism of senior chiefs, who were obliged by custom
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
to stay at the royal court most of the time. The duration of their
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
stay at the palace was reduced to 15 days per year.
Rwandais
APROCOMIN:
desend
Commerçants
Indigènes
The
“Mortehan Association
reform” put an
to the traditional
system of
APROSOMA
: Association
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dealasubthree
chiefs and
created a pour
structure
of chieftaincy
and
FKLHIWDLQF\ VXSHUYLVHG
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reform
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ARD
: Alliancefrom
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and sensitizing the entire population on political matters.
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
Droitsatde
l’Homme
There were reforms
the
Igikingi level. The Igikingi consisted
AREDETWA
:
Association
pour lebyRelèvement
of a hill or part of a hill covered
homesteads. The Belgian
Démocratique des Batwa
250
250
v
administration
believed thatAND
divisions
at the Igikingi level were
ACRONYMS
ABBREVIATIONS
GRQHEDGO\,QWKHNLQJDEDQGRQHGWKHHVWDEOLVKPHQWRI
___________________________________
new Ibikingi. All Ibikingi that had fallen vacant due to the death
136
of their owners
or otherwise
were to be attached to a subA.A.
: Archives
Africaines
chieftaincy. In 1930, the Resident abolished Ibikingi divisions
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
DQGWKRVHZKRZHUHEHQHÀWLQJIURPWKHPVXEFKLHIVDQG
ABAKI
Alliance
desremoved.
Bakiga
the
owners of:Ibikingi
were
ABESC
: Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
Suppression
des Castes started a policy of
In the meantime,
the administration
ACR
: Association
destoCultivateurs
du Rwanda
combining
chieftaincies
so as
include neighboring
territorial
sub-divisions.
The objective
of this policy
was to have the
ADP
: Alliance
Démocratique
des Peuples
provincial
chief
as
“the
centre
of
genuine
decentralization
of
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
137
power. The administration
composed of sub-chieftaincies
Réconciliationwas
Nationale
of at least 100 tax payers. This number later increased to 300.
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
In some areas, the initiative of exchanging territories was left to
AFDL
:
Alliance des
Démocratiques
pour la of
the notables themselves.
In Forces
other cases,
a massive removal
138
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
FKLHIVWRRNSODFHIURPWR
leading to the grouping of
AGOA territories.
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The Growth
removal and
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desired
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AIMO
: Affairesgoals
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AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
7KHWHUULWRULDOUHRUJDQL]DWLRQDQGVLPSOLÀFDWLRQRIWKHKLHUDUFK\
Rwandaise
led to the problem of existing Ubuhake contracts. Someone could
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
become a client of a notable under the arrangement of Ubuhake,
AM/AP
: Arrêté
Arrêtétoprésidentiel
but
also a subject
of ministériel/
another according
the administrative
AMR
: The
Association
Moniteurs
du Rwanda
arrangement.
notablesdes
were
always forced
to exchange
AMUR commands
: Association
des Musulmans au Rwanda
political
and servants.
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
The reorganization
was completed
by the end of 1933.
(Transitional
National Assembly)
Consequently,
there
were
65
provincial
chiefs
exercising
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate
Chrétien
authority over an average of 5,500 tax-payers, and 1,043 subAPR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
chiefs whose jurisdictions had an average of 343 tax payers.
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
Divisional groupings continued, but at a low rate. In 1938, there
Rwandais
were 56 chiefs and
860 sub-chiefs, in 1947, there were 51 chiefs
APROCOMIN:
Association
des Commerçants
Indigènes
and 625 sub-chiefs, and in 1959,
there were 55 chiefs
and 559
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
sub-chiefs.
Masse
The
new
political
organization
to the monopoly
of power by
ARD
: Alliance
pour leled
Renforcement
de la
the Tutsi. It reinforced
ethnic
identity
through
the
extension
of
Démocratie
ARDHO
: Association
Rwandaise
pour la
Défense
des
136
Ministère des Colonies,
Rapport annuel
sur l’administration
belge,
1926, p.67
137
Ibid, 1927, p. 37.Droits de l’Homme
138
10
chiefs and 316
sub-chiefs were dismissed
top of King Musinga, in otherwords
AREDETWA
: Association
pour leonRelèvement
more than half of those who existed before the re-organisation.
Démocratique des Batwa
251
v
251
Tutsi authority
and aristocracy
regions where it was never
ACRONYMS
AND to
ABBREVIATIONS
before recognized.
Many
Hutu
chiefs
and sub-chiefs were
___________________________________
thrown out, not because they were incompetent but due to their
HWKQLFLW\,WLVGLIÀFXOWWRNQRZKRZPDQ\+XWXZHUHGLVPLVVHG
A.A.
: Archives Africaines
but during the 1929 reform, no Hutu were retained. Those few
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
who remained met in remote areas where Tutsi presence was
ABAKI
: Alliance des Bakiga
139
LQVLJQLÀFDQW
ABESC
: Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
Suppression
des Castes
a. End of local
and autonomous
political entities
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
the administrative
At
the end of: the
19th Century,
ADP
Alliance
Démocratique
des Peuplesstructure of
5ZDQGDZDVDQXFOHXVXQGHUWKHGLUHFWUXOHRIWKHNLQJDQGKLV
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
court. The peripheral
areas were
under the nominal supervision
Réconciliation
Nationale
RIFKLHIVDSSRLQWHGE\WKHNLQJ7KHUHZHUHDUHDVZKHUHFHQWUDO
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
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AFDL
:
des Forces
Démocratiques
pour
la
All depended Alliance
on the duration
of the
control of the
central
Libération
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WKH OHYHO du
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: African Growth
and
factors were especially
important
to Opportunity
this control: Act
the regional
and political organization
of the region, its strategic importance
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and
the
needs
of
the
central
government.
Some peripheral areas
AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes
et Main-d’oeuvre
ZHUHVHPLDXWRQRPRXVHLWKHUEHFDXVHWKHNLQJZLVKHGWKHPWR
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
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Rwandaise
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ALIR
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AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/
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Ikoro).
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
AMUR
desofMusulmans
Rwanda
According to: Association
the rationale
the Belgianauadministration,
territories were
not allowed Nationale
to defy the de
Rwandan
royal authority,
ANT
: Assemblée
Transition
though the colonial
and native
boundaries
were not similar. It
(Transitional
National
Assembly)
ZDVWKHUHIRUHQHFHVVDU\WRHPEDUNRQDQDGPLQLVWUDWLYHSURFHVV
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
that would synchronize the entire system, putting an end to the
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
relative autonomy of these regions. Central royal authority was
APROBAMI
: Association des Partis Monarchistes
extended across the entire country. Tutsi notables were appointed
Rwandais
to replace all local
authorities, leading to ethnic divisions on an
APROCOMIN:
Association
des Commerçants Indigènes
administrative level.
APROSOMA
: Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
139
Here are two examples of Hutu sub Chiefs who were dismissed: Nkunzuwimye a
Masse
sub-chief in Rwabutogo
Chieftaincy in Gatsibu Territory. He is presented as follows:
“a
sub-chief
who
was
least
impressive
the prestigious point
view. He was a
ARD
: Alliance
pour from
le Renforcement
deofla
Muhutu who had toDémocratie
be supervised in all he asked his subordinates to do” (General
Report of Gatsibu 1929, p.24 Derscheid papers). Another sub-chief was from Mutara
ARDHO
: Association
la Défense
des
in
Gabiro Territory:
“Muhuku was notRwandaise
a bad sub-chief.pour
But he was
a Muhutu who
was
Droits
dehisl’Homme
supposed to be supervised
in all
actions. He has to feel that he is supervised. This
was
the same for all
the Bahutu who were
in key
positions” (General report of Gabiro
AREDETWA
: Association
pour
le Relèvement
1929, p.29 Derscheid papers).
Démocratique des Batwa
252
252
v
This expansionist
policy was
in the north in
ACRONYMS
ANDimplemented
ABBREVIATIONS
Murera and Ndorwa,
in
the
northwest
in
Bushiru,
___________________________________ and in the
VRXWKZHVW LQ %XNXQ]L DQG %XVR]R 7KHVH UHJLRQV KDG QHYHU
been
administered by the royal court. The
A.A. directly :occupied
ArchivesorAfricaines
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A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
regions, though this was false.
ABAKI
: Alliance des Bakiga
ABESC
: Association
Bahutu
Evoluant pour
la
It
was in Murera
that the des
Belgian
administration
introduced
Suppression
Castes
a central administration
in des
1923.
E. Borgers was sent as as
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
DGPLQLVWUDWRURIWKHUHJLRQ+HLPSRVHGÀUPVXSHUYLVLRQRIWKH
Europeans
and
the Tutsi.
Appointments
supposed to be
ADP
: Alliance
Démocratique
deswere
Peuples
made
jointly
by
the
.LQJ
and
the
Resident.
He
appointed
some
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
7XWVL QRWDEOHVRéconciliation
IURP RWKHU UHJLRQV
GXH WR LQVXIILFLHQW QXPEHUV
Nationale
of Tutsis in the northern region; they were referred to as the
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
“imported Tutsi.”140
AFDL
: Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
Libération
Congo-Zaïre
By the 1920s, the
colonial du
administration
was unable to occupy
AGOA
: African Growth and OpportunityofAct
%XVKLUXEXWWROHUDWHG1\DPDNZDWKHUmuhinza
the area.141
Confronted
with
increased demands imposed by the Belgian
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colonialists,
the
royal
was
by its subjects
AIMO
: Affairesauthority
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Main-d’oeuvre
who
implement de
itslaorders.
It became
impossible to
AJERrefused :toAssociation
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Estudiantine
obey the orders of both traditional and colonial administrators.
Rwandaise
The colonial administration proposed that King Musinga appoint
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
a Tutsi chief approved by the Resident.142 Although the northern
AM/AP
: Arrêté
ministériel/
Arrêté
and north western
regions
were under
the présidentiel
central government,
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
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AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
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ZHUHVXSSUHVVHGE\WKHQHZDGPLQLVWUDWRUVDQGVHFXULW\RIÀFHUV
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
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(Transitional
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APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
the death of its King Ndagano, who died on March 30, 1923.
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
“Ritual assassinations” followed. The Cyangugu administrator,
APROBAMI
: Association des Partis Monarchistes
Mr. Keiser, sent a military expedition in April. The expedition
Rwandais
failed to achieve
its goal of subordinating Ndagano’s successors
APROCOMIN:
Association
des Commerçants
Indigènes
because they were considered
to be rebels who
refused to
APROSOMA
Association
pour laadministrators,
Promotion Sociale
de taxes,
la
recognize the :authority
of colonial
to pay
and to provide Masse
laborers.
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
The Germans also
tried to subdue Ndagano in 1907, 1909 and 1914
Démocratie
140
Newbury M.C., The cohesion, op.cit., p.21, The book evokes “double
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
colonialism”
141
Pauwels M., « LeDroits
Bushiru etde
sonl’Homme
Muhinza ou roiteler hutu », in Annali Lateranensi,
1967,
pp.205
322.
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
142
Térritoire de Kabaya, rapport politique 1924 et 1F925, collection Derscheid.
Démocratique des Batwa
253
v
253
without success.
Administrators
that Bigirumwera,
ACRONYMS
AND determined
ABBREVIATIONS
Ndagano’s brother
acting
as
regent
for
King
Ngoga,
would come to
___________________________________
0LELUL]LDQGPHHW)DWKHU.QROO+HDVNHGKLPWRPHGLDWHIRUKLP
and
colonial
authority. The Catholic priest accepted
A.A.the Cyangugu
: Archives
Africaines
the role. He managed to convince Fiolle, the administrator, to
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
“save” Bigirumwera from the condemnation pronounced by the
ABAKICommissar.
: Alliance
des
Bakiga
Royal
Father
Knoll
met Bigirumwera and gave him
ABESC
:
Association
des
Bahutu
Evoluant
pour
la
conditions that Bigirumwera accepted.
These
included
returning
des expedition,
Castes
guns captured Suppression
during the Keiser
giving 50 cows and
ACR
: Association
des Cultivateurs
Rwanda
25
francs as tax
and for damages
for the lossesdu
incurred
by the
FRORQLDOJRYHUQPHQWDQGSURYLGLQJPHQHYHU\GD\WRZRUNLQ
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
143
the
carpentry
the territory.
ADR
:ofAlliance
pour la Démocratie et la
Réconciliation Nationale
A deadline of three days given to Bigirumwera expired without
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
KLPIXOÀOOLQJWKHVHFRQGLWLRQV$GPLQLVWUDWRU)LROOHWKUHDWHQHGWR
th
th Forces Démocratiques pour la
AFDL
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to 13
April 1924, a new military expedition
Libération
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army
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andand
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AGOA(ingabo).: African
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Actto escape.
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: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
7KHDGPLQLVWUDWRUDQG&KLHI5ZDJDWDUDNDDFFRPSDQLHG
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: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
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Rwandaise
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ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
WKH\RXQJ1JRJDZDVLQMXUHGDQGWDNHQSULVRQHU%LJLUXPZHUD
AM/AP by crossing
: ArrêtéRiver
ministériel/
escaped
Rusizi. Arrêté présidentiel
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
$IWHUWKHVHHYHQWV%XNXQ]LZDVJLYHQWR5ZDJDWDUDNDDQG7XWVL
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
sub-chiefs
were
appointed there
beginning
in 1926.144 The Mibilizi
ANT
: Assemblée
Nationale
de Transition
priests regretted the destruction of Ndagano’s residential house
(Transitional National Assembly)
but blamed Bigirumwera. Bigirumwera could have avoided war
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
DQGPDVVDFUHVEXWQRWWKHGLVDSSHDUDQFHRIKLVNLQJGRP
The
submission
of Busozodes
was
less Monarchistes
demanding and fewer
APROBAMI
: Association
Partis
SHRSOHGLHGWKDQLQ%XNXQ]L7KHVPDOONLQJGRPZDVUXOHGE\
Rwandais
.LQJ
%XKLJD
VRQ
RI 1\XQGR
GLHG DURXQGIndigènes
8QOLNH
APROCOMIN: Association
desZKR
Commerçants
Ndagano and his successors, his court expressed allegiance to
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
the European and missionary administration. However, they did
Masse
not meet the Cyangugu demand of providing laborers, paying
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
Démocratie
143
Mibilizi Diary May 1924.
ARDHO
:
Association
Rwandaise pour la Défense des
144
1HZEXU\&RSFLW1WH]LPDQD(³/¶DUULYpHGHV(XURSpHQVDX.LQ\DJDHWOD¿Q
deetl’Homme
des royaumes Hutu Droits
du Bukunzi
du Busozo”, in Etudes Rwandaises, XII, 1980, pp.
1AREDETWA
29 ; Ntezimana:E.,
«
Cotumes
et
royaumes hutu du Bukunzi et du
Association traditions
pour ledes
Relèvement
Busozo », in Etudes Rwandaises, XII, 1980, pp. 15-35
Démocratique des Batwa
254
254
v
taxes, and settling
near theAND
colonial
administration.145 Father
ACRONYMS
ABBREVIATIONS
Knoll played the
same role of mediation but did not succeed in
___________________________________
convincing Buhiga and his son, Bizimana, the effective rulers of
Busozo
(with :Queen
Mother),
to accept the audacity of colonial
A.A.
Archives
Africaines
authority. In response to this intransigence, a military expedition
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
was sent to Busozo in March 1924. Although the royal family
ABAKI heavy: Alliance
Bakigain escaping.
suffered
losses, it des
succeeded
ABESC
: Association des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
$V ZLWK %XNXQ]L
WKH H[SHGLWLRQ
ZDV IROORZHG E\ D ORQJ
Suppression
des Castes
military
occupation
until 1926.
was also
to Chief
ACR
: Association
des Busozo
Cultivateurs
du given
Rwanda
5ZDJDWDUDNDDQGWR7XWVLVXEFKLHIV)DWKHU.QROO·VPHGLDWLRQ
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
HIIRUWVGLGQRWSUHYHQWWKHVXSSUHVVLRQRIWKHVHVPDOONLQJGRPV
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
and this was not his objective. In the new administrative
Réconciliation Nationale
IUDPHZRUNWKHH[LVWHQFHRIWKHVHHQFODYHVZKLFKWKH5ZDQGDQ
AEC hitherto: Agglomeration
Extra-Coutumières
court
respected, was against
the policy of the colonial
AFDL
:
Alliance
des
Forces
pourpower
la
authority characterized by power Démocratiques
centralization and
Libération
du Congo-Zaïre
monopoly by the
minority Tutsi.
This partly explains the stubborn
UHVLVWDQFHRIWKHODVWVPDOO+XWXNLQJGRPVRI5ZDQGD
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity Act
The
extension: of
royal authority
extended in the northeast
AIMO
Affaires
Indigèneswas
et Main-d’oeuvre
WR DUHDV OLNH 1GRUZD %XEHUXND 5XNLJD DQG %X\DJD 7RZDUG
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
WKH HQG RI WKH V WKHVH NLQJGRPV UHVLVWHG WKH %HOJLDQ
Rwandaise cadres. The administration resorted
and Tutsi administrative
ALIR
duauthority,
Rwanda the Belgians
to
repression.: Armée
In orderdetoLibération
entrench its
AM/AP a permanent
: Arrêtéadministrative
ministériel/ Arrêté
created
post inprésidentiel
Byumba in 1928.146
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
f.
Tutsi
political monopoly
AMUR
: Association
des Musulmans au Rwanda
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
During the colonial
period, one
of theAssembly)
principle defenders of
(Transitional
National
the Tutsi cause was Mgr Classe. On one hand, he pursued
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
the missionary strategy mentioned above, which consisted of
APR
: Armée
Patriotique
Rwandaise
converting
the
ruling class
to Christianity.
On the other hand,
APROBAMI
Association
Partis Monarchistes
he
wanted to :implement
thedes
Tutsi-Hamitic
theory.
Rwandais
In
a letter addressed
to Mr. Mortehan,
the Resident
of Rwanda
APROCOMIN:
Association
des Commerçants
Indigènes
in
1927, Mgr :Classe
defended
thelaTutsi:
APROSOMA
Association
pour
Promotion Sociale de la
Masse
The Batutsi authority (...) is opposed to that of Musinga
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
(...): currently, if we want to sound practical in the interests
Démocratie
of the country with the Tutsi youth, we have achieved
ARDHO
:
Association
Rwandaise pour la Défense des
LQFRPSDUDEOHSURJUHVVDQGWKDWHYHQDOOWKRVHZKRNQRZ
Droits de l’Homme
145
Mibilizi
diary
February
1924.
AREDETWA : Association
pour le Relèvement
146
Ministère des Colonies, Rapport annuel sur l’administration belge, 1928 p.42.
Démocratique des Batwa
255
v
255
Rwanda
can recognize
this ABBREVIATIONS
fact (…) the youth have come
ACRONYMS
AND
closer to
the
Europeans
and
they fear nothing (except)
___________________________________
the return of the former regime (...), the senior and junior
chiefs who
have lost
their posts (...) are very many.
: Archives
Africaines
A.A.
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
It is in this context that Mgr. Classe exaggerated the praises of the
ABAKIqualities
: Alliance
des Bakiga
innate
of the Batutsi
and their exceptional intellectual
ABESC
:
Association
des
Bahutu Evoluant pour la
FDSDFLWLHVFRPSDUHGWRWKH%DKXWX7KLVLVDIÀUPHGE\VHYHUDO
Suppression
des Castes
examples in the
following statements:
“(...) the Batutsi have the
ACR
: Association
des Cultivateurs
du Rwanda
NQRZKRZ
WDFW
DQG WHFKQLTXHV
ZKLFK WKH %DKXWX
GRQ·W KDYH
the
more timid. des
TheyPeuples
still have a sense
ADPlatter are :uncouth
Allianceand
Démocratique
RIVHOIFRQÀGHQFHDQGDXWKRULW\ZKLFKFDQHYHQEHVHHQDPRQJ
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
FKLOGUHQRIRU\HDUV$VIRUD0XKXWXKHLVKDUGZRUNLQJ
Réconciliation Nationale
obstinate but less polished”147.
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
AFDL
:
Alliance
Forcesviews
Démocratiques
pour
la
In 1922, Mgr Classe
helddes
contrary
from those cited
above.
Libération
du Rwandan
Congo-Zaïre
He had this to say:
“(...) all the
population is intelligent.
$QGFRQWUDU\WRWKHJHQHUDOLGHDVKHOG,ZRXOGOLNHWRVD\WKDW
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity Act
the
Batutsi are
generally not more intelligent than the Bahutu
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
« 7KH 0XKXWX
LV KDUGZRUNLQJ
REVWLQDWH
DQG OHVV SROLVKHG
AIMO
: Affaires
Indigènes et
Main-d’oeuvre
But
we
also
see
frequently
in
more
serious
studies
conducted
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
WKDWWKH0XKXWXLVJUDGXDOO\VXUSDVVLQJWKH0XWXWVL/LNHKHUH
Rwandaise
in Europe, we sometimes observe in colleges that a child from
ALIRrural areas
: Armée
de up
Libération
du Rwanda
the
can end
by succeeding
better than a child
148
AM/AP
:
Arrêté
ministériel/
Arrêté
présidentiel
from town (...)” .
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
It
was
a
sign
that
what had been
before on
identities
AMUR
: Association
desanalyzed
Musulmans
auethnic
Rwanda
was
not
as
true
as
demonstrated
in
the
explanations
given.
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
(Transitional
National
Assembly)
6RPH KLVWRULDQV
DIÀUP WKDW WKH
LQWHUYHQWLRQ
RI 0JU &ODVVH LQ
APADEC
: Association
du Parti
Démocrate
favor
of the Tutsi
youth came
to contradict
the Chrétien
experience of
APRFRORQLDO JRYHUQPHQW
: Armée Patriotique
Rwandaise
WKH
RI DSSRLQWLQJ
WKH %DKXWX DW WKH UDQN
APROBAMI
: Association
desexperience
Partis Monarchistes
of
Batware and
Bakarani. This
failed because of “the
innate incompetence
of the Bahutu to lead”. As for others, it was
Rwandais
because
of the Association
“opposition of
theCommerçants
Batutsi”149. The
intervention
APROCOMIN:
des
Indigènes
by
Mgr Classe
would havepour
prevented
the recurrence
APROSOMA
: Association
la Promotion
Sociale deoflathis
experience and obliged the government to rely on the Batutsi.
Masse
7KH%DWXWVLVDLG)DWKHU9DQ2YHUVFKHOGZHUHDEOHWRPDLQWDLQ
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
147
A document, a tale,
op. cit,
Démocratie
148
Classe, L., « Le Ruanda et ses habitants : organisation, politique, la religion, la
ARDHO
: Association
Rwandaise pour la Défense des
famille
», in Congo,
1922, p 681.
149
de l’Homme
Van Overscheld Droits
A., 8Q RGDFLHX[
SDFL¿TXH PJU /HRQ 3DXO &ODVVH DS{WUH GX
Rwanda,
Namur,
1948,
p
105
;
de
Lagger,
op ; p. 523. Linden, I., Church and
AREDETWA : Association pour1959,
le Relèvement
revolution in Rwanda, Manchester, 1978, pp 161 162
Démocratique des Batwa
256
256
v
SRZHUWKDQNVWRWKH&DWKROLF&KXUFK7KHVHDIÀUPDWLRQVDUHQRW
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
founded for two
reasons. First of all, there is no documentary
___________________________________
evidence to show that the Bahutu were appointed to posts of
UHVSRQVLELOLW\
6HFRQGO\Africaines
WKHVH DIÀUPDWLRQV ZHUH FRQWUDGLFWHG
A.A.
: Archives
by the policy which was implemented at that time, namely
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
promoting Nyanza graduates to positions of chiefs and subABAKIThe following
: Alliance
des Bakigareports prove that this policy
chiefs.
administrative
ABESC unchanged.
: Association
des Bahutu
Evoluant
pour it
la was
remained
Therefore,
if this project
existed,
Suppression
never implemented
at all. Ondes
theCastes
other hand, the intervention
ACR
: Association
des in
Cultivateurs
by
Mgr Classe
should be seen
the context du
of aRwanda
preparatory
campaign
to depose
KingDémocratique
Musinga and indes
the Peuples
context of the Tutsi
ADP
: Alliance
youth
movement;
the
latter
wished
to
convert
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et lathe Rwandese
youth to Christianity.
Réconciliation Nationale
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
7KH $SRVWROLF 9LFDU GLG QRW KLGH KLV UHOLJLRXV VHQWLPHQWV LQ
AFDL
: Alliance
des Forces
Démocratiques
the
letter he wrote
to Resident
Mortehan:
“(...) as far pour
as welaare
Libération
du Congo-Zaïre
concerned, from
the religious
point of view, we believe from
AGOA
: African
Growth
andisOpportunity
Act the most
experience
that
the Mututsi
factor
the best for us,
active,
convinced, the most capable, and one who
$,'6 the most
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
H[HUWVWKHVWURQJHVWOHDGHUVKLSLQÁXHQFHRQWKHPDVVHV
« WKLV
AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
HIÀFLHQWSHUVRQQHOWKDWLVLQRXUPLGVWZHVKRXOGHPSOR\WKHP
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
in order to develop Rwanda (...)”150.
Rwandaise
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
7KHVH YLHZV KDG D JUHDW LQÁXHQFH 7KH\ UHLQIRUFHG WKH %HOJLDQ
AM/AP
: Arrêté
présidentiel
administration
in itsministériel/
policy of Arrêté
“Tutsinizing”
the colonial
AMR
: Association
du to
Rwanda
administration.
By preventingdes
the Moniteurs
Hutu to accede
administrative
AMUR
: Association
desones,
Musulmans
au administration
Rwanda
posts, including
the very lowest
the Belgian
as well as the :missionary
Catholic
Church
exacerbated the ethnic
ANT
Assemblée
Nationale
de Transition
divide in Rwanda.
In reality, the
Tutsi monopoly
(Transitional
National
Assembly)was restricted
because
among
the
45
existing
Tutsi
chiefs,
only 6 out
of 18 clans
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate
Chrétien
were represented. The Tutsi lineages of two clans, that is to say the
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
Nyiginya and the Bega shared 80 % of the entire administrative
APROBAMI
: Association des Partis Monarchistes
posts. The remaining administrators were Tutsi chiefs and subchiefs promotedRwandais
on the basis of school education. In 1948, out of
APROCOMIN:
Association
des Commerçants
68 chiefs and sub-chiefs occupying
administrativeIndigènes
posts, 192 of
APROSOMA
la or
Promotion
la
them (i.e. 28.2: Association
%) never hadpour
a chief
sub-chiefSociale
in theirde
families.
The Rwandan society
Massewas therefore led by almost 5 % of the Tutsi.
Hence,
the
power-sharing
arrangement
was a privilege
ARD
: Alliance pour
le Renforcement
de la of a few
151
limited Tutsi lineages
.
Démocratie
150
In a long article
published in L’Essor
colonial etpour
maritime
newspapers des
of 4th
ARDHO
: Association
Rwandaise
la Défense
December 1930 under the title “Pour moderniser le Rwanda” ( n° 489, 490, 491), Mgr
Droits
de l’Homme
Classe raised the theory
developed
in his letter to Resident Mortehan.
151
Linden, I, Church: and
Revolution, op pour
cit., p 18.leSee
also Reytentjens P.; 1985,op.cit.; 107;
AREDETWA
Association
Relèvement
Mbonimana G., « Christianisation indirecte et cristallisation des clivages ethniques au Rwanda »
Démocratique des Batwa
257
v
257
g. NewACRONYMS
native cadresAND
of the
colonial administration
ABBREVIATIONS
___________________________________
The training of cadres was a major preoccupation of the Belgian
administration.
A schoolAfricaines
for the sons of chiefs was opened in
A.A.
: Archives
Nyanza in 1918 in order to conform to King Musinga’s demands
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
who never wanted a Christian school. This was replaced by
ABAKI school
: Alliance
des Bakiga
another
of the same
type started by the Germans. The
ABESC
:
Association
des
Bahutu
Evoluant
pour
la i.e.
school scored immediate success.
Musinga’s
three
sons,
Suppression
des Castes
Munonozi, Rudacyaha
and Rudahigwa
attended this school. The
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
ÀUVWJUDGXDWLRQRI\RXQJVRQVRIFKLHIVWRRNSODFHLQ
7KH
WKHLU LQWHUQVKLS
RQ WHUULWRULDO
DGPLQLVWUDWLRQ
ADPÀQDOLVWV :GLG
Alliance
Démocratique
des Peuples
ZLWKVSHFLÀFGXWLHVRQUHJLVWUDWLRQWD[FROOHFWLRQHWF,Q
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
before they graduated
as leaders,
58 ex-students from Nyanza
Réconciliation
Nationale
got administrative posts. The movement continued to grow
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
because at the end of 1935, the percentage of educated chiefs
AFDL
:
Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
DQGVXEFKLHIVZDV2QWRSRIWKHNQRZOHGJHDFTXLUHGLQ
Libération
du Congo-Zaïre
their administrative
specialization,
the trained graduates were
AGOA
:toAfrican
Growth
andeducation
Opportunity
Act
brainwashed
consider
European
as the
best.
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
On
11th-XO\WKHJRYHUQPHQWVLJQHGDFRQYHQWLRQZLWKWKH
AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
congregation
of
Brothers of Charity
of the Teachers
of Gand. This
AJER
: Association
de la Jeunesse
Estudiantine
FRQYHQWLRQDLPHGDWHVWDEOLVKLQJWKHRIÀFLDO´*URXSH6FRODLUHRI
Rwandaise
Astrida”. This school was supposed to complement the Nyanza
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
School and later on replace it in 1935. The “Groupe Scolaire”
AM/APbusiness
: Arrêté
Arrêté présidentiel
th
started
on 20ministériel/
-DQXDU\,WDGPLWWHG\RXQJSHRSOH
AMR
: Association
du Rwanda
from the Tusti
ruling class. des
The Moniteurs
school uprooted
students from
AMUR
: Association
au Rwanda
the customary
environmentdes
to Musulmans
the extent that
they despised
culture and the
Nyanza royal
court. de Transition
ANT
: Assemblée
Nationale
(Transitional National Assembly)
The Belgian administration
the Démocrate
role of sensitizing
people. It
APADEC
: Associationplayed
du Parti
Chrétien
was argued that both educated people and Christians, preferably
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
Catholics should be recruited into administration posts. The
APROBAMI
: Association des Partis Monarchistes
Nyanza students understood this appeal. Hence, from 1928,
Rwandais
they joined catechism
in big numbers. In 1936, 78% of the chiefs
APROCOMIN:
Association
des
Commerçants
Indigènes
and 84% of sub-chiefs were of
Catholic
denomination
while only
APROSOMA
: Association
pour la Promotion
la
18% of the total
Rwandan population
convertedSociale
to this de
religion.
Masse
The customary
cadres pour
gradually
became civildeservants
who
ARD
: Alliance
le Renforcement
la
supported the colonial
administration
apparatus.
They
could
be
Démocratie
promoted, punished, dismissed, demoted or transferred. They
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
were required by the colonial administration to provide services
Droits
de l’Homme
that contradicted
traditional
norms and values. These services
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
Démocratique des Batwa
(1925 1931) », in Enquêtes et documents d’histoire africaine, 1978, p. 155-56.
258
258
v
of chiefs and ACRONYMS
sub-chiefs were
rewarded
by a good salary. They
AND
ABBREVIATIONS
HVWDEOLVKHGDGHSDUWPHQWRIÀQDQFHDWWKHFKLHIWDLQF\OHYHOZKLFK
___________________________________
was charged with purchasing customary vestiges. Ordinance
No.
/ A.I.M.O
of 20th1RYHPEHUÀ[HGVDODULHV
A.A.67/ Section
: Archives
Africaines
of chiefs and sub-chiefs. The salary was divided into taxable and
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
non-taxable bases. The former was composed of a tax of 50 Cents
ABAKIon cattle
: Alliance
levied
for chiefsdes
andBakiga
a tax of 3 Francs on capitation tax
152
ABESC
:
Association
des
Bahutu Evoluant pour la
for sub-chiefs .
Suppression des Castes
ACR
: Association
desno
Cultivateurs
du Rwanda
The chiefs and
sub-chiefs had
real responsibility.
They were
UHVHQWHGE\WKHPDMRULW\RIWKHLUVXEMHFWVGXHWRWKHZRUNWKH\
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
forced
them
to
againstpour
theirla
wish.
They were
to Belgian
ADR
: do
Alliance
Démocratie
etcloser
la
administrators Réconciliation
and were used as
instruments of repression. The
Nationale
natives suffered a lot of ill-treatment. The common-man lived in
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
a state of permanent fear because of being terrorized by native
AFDL
:
Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
FDGUHVZKRIRUFHGKLPKHUWRZRUNXQGHURUGHUVRI(XURSHDQV
Libération
Congo-Zaïre
Thus, cadres created
a gapdu
between
them and the common-man
AGOA
AfricanWR
Growth
Opportunity
Act
EHFDXVH WKH\: ZDQWHG
SURWHFWand
WKHLU
OHDGHUV NHHS
WKHLU SRVWV
but also maintain
their salaries.
$,'6
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AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
The
European
staff directly
theEstudiantine
new native cadres.
AJER
: Association
decontrolled
la Jeunesse
7KH5R\DO&RPPLVVDULQWKHRFFXSLHGWHUULWRULHVEHFDPH9LFH
Rwandaise
Governor General and Governor of Ruanda-Urundi according
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
to the law of 21st August 1925. This law put Rwanda at the
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/
Arrêté
présidentiel
level
of a Congolese
Province. The
Royal
Commissar was
AMR
: Association
Moniteurs
du
Rwanda
UHSUHVHQWHG
LQ
5ZDQGD E\ des
D 5HVLGHQW
IURP
$W ÀUVW KH
AMUR
: Association
des
Musulmans
au Rwanda
was
a military
man who was
afterwards
replaced
by a civilian.
In
1917, the: Assemblée
Residence of
Rwanda de
was
sub-divided into 3
ANT
Nationale
Transition
VHFWRUVRUVXEGLYLVLRQVZLWKRXWVSHFLÀHGERUGHUV+RZHYHUIURP
(Transitional National Assembly)
WKH
DGPLQLVWUDWLRQ
DFFXUDWH
WHUULWRULDO
APADEC
: Association VWDUWHG
du PartiPDNLQJ
Démocrate
Chrétien
demarcations. At that time, 9 territories were established. These
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
ZHUH .LJDOL 1\DQ]D $NDQ\DUX $VWULGD 5XEHQJHUD *LVHQ\H
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
0XOHUD%XVKLUX&\LQJRJR*DWVLEXDQG5XNLUD*LVDND,Q
Rwandais
and 1931 respectively,
Kamembe Shangugu and Byumba were
APROCOMIN:
Association
Commerçants
Indigènes
added to this list. In 1932, 10des
territories
were created
as a result
th
153
APROSOMA
Association
pour
Sociale
de lagave
of
Ordinance :No.
26/ A.I.M.O
of la
17Promotion
March 1932
. This
WKHIROORZLQJRIÀFLDOWHUULWRULDOGLYLVLRQV.LJDOL1\DQ]D$VWULGD
Masse
Kamembe-Shangugu,
Kibuye,
Kisenyi-Kabaya,
ARD
: Alliance pour
le Renforcement
de laRihengeri,
%\XPED *DELUR
DQG
.LEXQJR5XNLUD
7KH
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Droits de l’Homme
152
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AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
153
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Démocratique des Batwa
259
v
259
in 1935. Later
in 1936, Kibuye
was also dropped. However,
ACRONYMS
AND ABBREVIATIONS
these territories
were
later
re-introduced
in 1953. The territory
___________________________________
of Gitarama was created in 1959. The demarcation of native
divisions
was: aArchives
major criterion
in establishing these territorial
A.A.
Africaines
divisions.
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
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and was deputized
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des Cultivateurs
who
him in native
chieftaincies. du
TheRwanda
powers and
duties
administrative
authorities
(Resident and
ADP of Belgian
: Alliance
Démocratique
des Peuples
territorial
administrators)
were
stipulated
in
the
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la Royal decree
th
of 11 -DQXDU\7KHSRZHUVRIFRUUHVSRQGLQJDXWKRULWLHV
Réconciliation Nationale
in Belgian Congo were replaced by the Royal decree of 29th
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
-XQHDQGWKHGHFUHHRIst-XO\7KHSRZHUVRI9LFH
AFDL
:
Alliance
des Forces
Démocratiques
la
Governor General
and Governor
of the
Territory werepour
conferred
du Congo-Zaïre
by ordinance. Libération
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were administered by territorial
AGOA
: African
Growth
and Opportunity
Act deputy
administrators
under whose
jurisdictions
were several
territorial administrators
and agents. It should be noted that
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territorial
administrators
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responsible
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The obligations and functions of the territorial administration
Rwandaise
ZHUHGHVFULEHGLQWKH´KDQGERRNRIGXWLHVDQGUHVSRQVLELOLWLHV
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of civil servants and agents of the territorial authority”. The
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This collection
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AMUR
: Association
des and
Musulmans
Rwanda
responsibilities
of Civil Servants
Territorialau
Agents
in Belgian
Congo. It was
published Nationale
in 1953. There
existed very many
ANT
: Assemblée
de Transition
hierarchical relations
at the level
of the territorial
administration.
(Transitional
National
Assembly)
(DFK
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for his subordinates.
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Rwandais structure, the European administrator
In this new administrative
had several functions.
He supervised
several chieftaincies.
APROCOMIN:
Association
des Commerçants
Indigènes It
was him who :centralized
power
hands. He
supervised
APROSOMA
Association
pourinlahis
Promotion
Sociale
de laand
oversaw the implementation
of
orders.
He
was
a
judge
and
at the
Masse
VDPH WLPH DQ RIÀFHU RI WKH 0LQLVWU\ RI 3XEOLF $IIDLUV D SXEOLF
ARD
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ARDHO
:
Association
Rwandaise
facilitator, etc154. The administrator
led pour
a life la
of Défense
a travelerdes
and
Droits de l’Homme
154
Van Leeuw, Cl.,: L’administration
Cong Belge et au Rwunda-Urundi,
AREDETWA
Associationterritoriale
pour le au
Relèvement
Louvain la Neuve, 1981.
Démocratique des Batwa
260
260
v
ZDV D MHUN RIACRONYMS
DOO WUDGHV $V
D UHVXOW
RI KLV YHUVDWLOLW\ KH ZDV
AND
ABBREVIATIONS
always concerned
with
concrete
achievements.
The territorial
___________________________________
DGPLQLVWUDWLRQZDVDWUXHZRUNVKRSRIWKH%HOJLDQFRORQL]DWLRQ
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A.A.
: Archives Africaines
supervised the smallest detail of the entire administrative and
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
political apparatus including the royal court in Nyanza155. Their
ABAKI
: Alliance
Bakiga
number increased
from des
1926
to 1960 in Ruanda-Urundi. The
ABESC
:
Association
des
Bahutu of
Evoluant
pour la the
legislative ordinance No. 347/ A.I.M.O
1943 restricted
Suppression
desimplementation
Castes
role of customary
rulers to the
of orders made
ACR
: Association
Cultivateurs
du administrator
Rwanda
without the participation
of des
the latter.
Hence, the
RI1\DQ]DVKDUHGZLWKWKHNLQJWKHUHVSRQVLELOLW\RIDVXSUHPH
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
judge.
In
implementing
administrator
ADR
: Alliance orders,
pour lathe
Démocratie
et laexercised a lot
RI SUHVVXUH WKUHDWV
DQG EODFNPDLOV
RQ QDWLYH FDGUHV WKURXJK
Réconciliation
Nationale
WKUHDWV RI SXQLVKPHQWV VXFK DV GLVPLVVDOV ÀQHV EHDWLQJV
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
etc. The administrator did not have any direct contact with the
AFDL
:
des barrier.
Forces He
Démocratiques
pour la
population dueAlliance
to language
used an interpreter
who
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
VRPHWLPHVIDOVLÀHGKLVPHVVDJHV
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity Act
The
actual
relationship
between territorial authorities and
$,'6
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: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
NLQJFRXOGJLYHWRFKLHIVZDVWKDWRIVD\LQJWKDW%HOJLDQRUGHUV
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
had to be obeyed. The line of command respected the following
Rwandaise
order: Residentadministrator-chief-sub-chiefs. According
ALIR
de Libération
du Rwanda
to customary: Armée
law, chiefs
and sub-chiefs
were responsible
AM/AP
ministériel/
Arrêté présidentiel
to the .LQJ. : Arrêté
They were
also responsible
to the European
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
administration.
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
Owing to the responsibilities and powers exercised by the
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
European civil servants, indirect rule ended up becoming a
(Transitional National Assembly)
GLUHFW UXOH 6RPH DGPLQLVWUDWRUV HYHQ DVNHG WKHPVHOYHV ZK\
APADEC
: Association
Parti Démocrate
Chrétien that
the policy used
was called du
“indirect
rule”. They proposed
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
WKLVH[SUHVVLRQEHGURSSHGEHFDXVHLWGLGQRWUHÁHFWWKHUHDOLW\
APROBAMI
: Association
des
Partis
Monarchistes
RQ WKH JURXQG
´:H FDQ QR
ORQJHU
VHULRXVO\
VSHDN RI LQGLUHFW
rule,” said one Rwandais
of the Nyanza delegates156,Q-3DUDGLV
WKH DGPLQLVWUDWRU
RI $VWULGDdes
RQFH
DVNHG ´ :KDW
LV WKH MRE
APROCOMIN:
Association
Commerçants
Indigènes
description
of
the
.LQJ?
In
all
the
areas,
we
have
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Socialeeffectively
de la
WDNHQDFRGHRIFRQGXFWLQGLVFXVVLQJRXUGHFLVLRQV.LQJ
Masse
155
The
colonial
agents
were trained
at the
colonial University
ARD
: Alliance
pour
leAntwerp
Renforcement
de la among others
by Professor Louis Verlaine
whose
book
was
entitled
“Notre
colonie,
contribution à la
Démocratie
recherche, entre autres, de la méthode de colonisation”, became a reference text book
ARDHO
: Association
for
the colonial era.
Hence, the viewRwandaise
that the abuses pour
sufferedlabyDéfense
the natives des
were a
de l’Homme
result of the colonialDroits
method from
this teaching.
156
Nyanza Territory:
Political report pour
during 1930,
Archives Afric n° R/RU (89); see
AREDETWA
: Association
le Relèvement
also Residence of Ruanda, annual report 1930, Arch. Afric n° R/RU 2 (54), p 121.
Démocratique des Batwa
261
v
261
Musinga continues
to give his
views
on all questions related to
ACRONYMS
AND
ABBREVIATIONS
politics (...); but
in
effect,
it
is
our
views
that prevail (...). This
___________________________________
consultation of .LQJ on all matters, hasn’t it become pure
FRPHG\ZLWKDVLQJOHREMHFWLYHRIFRQÀUPLQJWKHXVHRIFXVWRPDU\
A.A.
: Archives Africaines
authority on all administrative decisions which sometimes are
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
directly against custom? (...). And from the notables, what are
ABAKI
Alliance des
their
current :functions?
(...) Bakiga
to faithfully carry out orders from
ABESC
:
Association
des
Bahutu
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WKH DGPLQLVWUDWLRQ QRW LQVWUXFWLRQV
EXW
VSHFLÀF pour
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RYHUVHHLQJWKHVPDOOHVWGHWDLORIWKHLULPSOHPHQWDWLRQ,QDOOÀHOGV
ACRthe notables
: Association
Cultivateurs
Rwanda the
(...)
are nothingdes
more
than agents du
to implement
157
decisions
of the
administrative
authoritydes
(...) Peuples
.
ADP
: Alliance
Démocratique
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
th
1943 on
The legislative ordinance
No. 347/A.I.M.O
Réconciliation
Nationale of 4 October
native political organization of Ruanda-Urundi158 ZDV WKH ÀUVW
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
WH[WLQZKLFK%HOJLXPGHÀQHGWKHWHUPVRIWKHQDWLYHSROLF\LQ
AFDL
:
destoForces
Démocratiques
a legal manner.Alliance
According
the specialists,
its legalpour
base la
was
159
Libération
du Congo-Zaïre
extremely narrow
. A sentence
from Article 4 of Ordinance No.
AGOA
: African
Growth
and
Opportunity
Actunder the
2/5 of 6th April
1917 stated
that:
“The
Sultans shall,
supervision
of$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
the Resident exercise political and judicial duties
$,'6
in
accordance
with native
custom et
and
shall follow instructions
AIMO
: Affaires
Indigènes
Main-d’oeuvre
of
the Royal Commissar”.
points
of this ordinance
AJER
: AssociationThe
de important
la Jeunesse
Estudiantine
were:
Rwandaise
¾ The .LQJ, chiefs and sub-chiefs were to be
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
recognized by the mandatory authority which had
AM/AP powers
: Arrêté
ministériel/
to dismiss
them; Arrêté présidentiel
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
¾ The Resident supervised the actions of the .LQJ
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
and territorial administrator, chiefs and sub-chiefs;
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
¾ Native
customs became
source of customary
(Transitional
NationalaAssembly)
authority in traditional matters only where it did not
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
contradict public order or legal provisions with aim of
APR
: Armée Patriotique
Rwandaise
substituting
other laws by
native custom;
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
¾ The obligations imposed on the .LQJ, chiefs and
Rwandais
sub-chiefs were under Territorial Authority;
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
¾ 7KHPDQDJHPHQWRIWKHFRXQWU\·VÀQDQFHVDQGWKRVH
APROSOMA
: Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
from the chieftaincy was to be
supervised and
Masse
managed by the Territorial Authority.
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
Démocratie
This
ordinance
legally protected
the political
organization
that
ARDHO
: Association
Rwandaise
pour la
Défense des
157
de l’Homme
Paradis, J., LetterDroits
to the Resident
(O. Coubeau), of 7th May 1931, N° 291, p.1.
158
%XOOHWLQRI¿FLHOGX5XDQGD8UXQGLSS
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
159
Renytjens, F. 1985, op. cit, pp. 143 148.
Démocratique des Batwa
262
262
v
was developedACRONYMS
in accordanceAND
with the
Commissar and Governor’s
ABBREVIATIONS
instructions. It
therefore
became
a
legal
document during the
___________________________________
colonial period.
A.A.
: Archives Africaines
a. Organization of legal system
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
ABAKI
: Alliance
des
Bakiga
The
organization
of justice
was
based on the Belgian philosophy.
ABESC
:
Association
des
Bahutu
Evoluant
la 160.
The organization of native justice
was made
legal pour
in 1943
th
Suppression
des Castes
Article 2 of Ordinance
No. 2/5/
of 6 April 1917 cited above
ACR German: Association
desand
Cultivateurs
du Rwanda
gave
administration
instructions
of the Royal
Commissar
the
right toDémocratique
judge civil anddes
criminal
matters. The
ADP
: Alliance
Peuples
native
jurisdictions
were
restricted
to
customs
and
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la traditions.
In principle, justice
towards natives
was in the hands of the .LQJ
Réconciliation
Nationale
and chiefs. The native legal reorganization was part and parcel
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
of the policy of indirect rule.
AFDL
: Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
Libération du
Congo-Zaïre
/LNH LQ DGPLQLVWUDWLRQ
PRGLÀFDWLRQV
ZHUH HQYLVDJHG DQG
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity Act
LPSOHPHQWHGLQWKHOHJDOÀHOGDWDQHDUO\VWDJH7KH2UGLQDQFH
of
27th April $FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
1917 established several jurisdictions (territorial
$,'6
courts
and
police
posts) Indigènes
which wereetcompetent
to judge offenses
AIMO
: Affaires
Main-d’oeuvre
on
written criminal
law andde
offences
committed
by natives.
AJER
: Association
la Jeunesse
Estudiantine
Rwandaise
There were criticisms
against traditional judicial systems.
ALIRexample,: Armée
de Libération
du Rwanda
For
the recourse
to royal
court was ridiculous
161
AM/AP
: Arrêté
ministériel/
and
crimes were
badly
judged, etc.Arrêté
. Inprésidentiel
1925, jurisdictions
162
were
. This established
a territorial
court at the
AMR reorganized
: Association
des Moniteurs
du Rwanda
headquarters
of
each
territory
and
a
court
of
appeal
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwandaor the
NLQJ·V
FRXUW
LQ
1\DQ]D 7KH
WHUULWRULDO
ZHUH FRQVWLWXWHG
ANT
: Assemblée
Nationale
deFRXUWV
Transition
by a judge, a chief, 2 to 5 assessors, sub-chiefs and a court
(Transitional National Assembly)
FOHUN 7KH WHUULWRULDO DGPLQLVWUDWRU VXEVWLWXWHG D QDWLYH MXGJH
APADEC the :court
Association
du
Parti Démocrate
whenever
sat at the
administrative
post. Chrétien
But whenever
APR
:
Armée
Patriotique
Rwandaise
it sat elsewhere, the European civil servant chaired the court
APROBAMI
: Association
desNyanza
Partis Monarchistes
without
acting
as judge. The
court was composed of
judges, assessors,
and chiefs who were all appointed by the
Rwandais
Resident.
The Resident
and des
his deputy
or administrators
APROCOMIN:
Association
Commerçants
Indigènes who
were
specially
designated
constituted
the
judge
of thede
court
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale
la of
appeal. The .LQJ chaired this court and had the same powers OLNH
Masse
WKH 5HVLGHQW 7KH QDWLYH MXULVGLFWLRQV ZHUH FRPSHWHQW WRMXGJH
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
DOOFRQIOLFWVEHWZHHQWKH5ZDQGHVHRUEHWZHHQ5ZDQGHVHand
Démocratie
natives of neighboring
territories163. These jurisdictions were 160
ARDHOF.,1985,: Association
Rwandaise pour la Défense des
Renytjens,
op. cit, pp. 149 160.
161
Droits
de l’Homme
Ministère des Colonies,
Rapport
annuel sur l’administration belge, 1922, P.10.
162
Ministère
des
Colonies,
Rapport
belge, 1925, P.68 69.
AREDETWA : Associationannuel
poursurlel’administration
Relèvement
163
Vanhove J., « Les juridictions indigènes du Rwanda”, in Congo, 1939, p.161.
Démocratique des Batwa
263
v
263
successful in ACRONYMS
judging people,AND
givenABBREVIATIONS
the number of cases handled
at that time, i.e.
1,352
cases
in
1924
and 3,219 cases in 1929164.
___________________________________
In 1934, reconciliation courts were created in Nyanza Territory.
A.A.
: Archives Africaines
They aimed at solving less important cases and were supposed
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
WRPDNHFRQÁLFWLQJSDUWLHVWRDJUHHEHIRUHQDWLYHFRXUWVKDQGOHG
ABAKI
: Alliance
des Bakiga
their cases. This
was extended
to other territories from 1935165.
ABESC
: Association
des Bahutu
la
These “courts”
did not solve
problemsEvoluant
but justpour
reconciled
FRQÁLFWLQJSDUWLHV
Suppression des Castes
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
1937
only recognized
The order of :the
.LQJ No.
3 of 13th April
ADP
Alliance
Démocratique
des
Peuples
indigenous courts as the only courts in the Province (chieftaincy
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
courts and reconciliation courts). There were also territorial
Réconciliation Nationale
FRXUWV WKH FRXUW RI DSSHDO DQG WKH NLQJ·V FRXUW 7KHVH FRXUWV
AEC
: Agglomeration
Extra-Coutumières
handled matters
between natives.
Matters before the chieftaincy
AFDL
:
Alliance
des
Forces
Démocratiques
la
court were only heard after presenting
cases to thepour
sub-chief
Congo-Zaïre
who acted as aLibération
reconciler, du
assisted
by 2 notables. A case could
be brought :toAfrican
the chieftaincy
court
if reconciliation
had
AGOA
Growth and
Opportunity
Act
failed
to
be
reached.
The
.LQJ
acted
as
judge
in
all
native
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
courts
of
the
country.
He was
also free to revisit all
AIMO
: Affaires
Indigènes
et Main-d’oeuvre
judgments made. The revenue to run chieftaincy’s court came
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
from the chieftaincy ILQDQFHGHSDUWPHQWZKLOH7HUULWRULDOFRXUWV
Rwandaisesupported by the Mutara Fund.
DQGWKHNLQJ·VFRXUWwere
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
7KHFRORQL]HUVLQWHUIHUHGVLJQLÀFDQWO\LQWKHRUJDQL]DWLRQRIOHJDO
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
matters
through
Ordinancedes
No.Moniteurs
348/ A.I.M.O
of 5th October
AMR
: Association
du Rwanda
1943
jurisdictions.
text handled
3 customary
AMURon native
: Association
desThis
Musulmans
au Rwanda
jurisdictions, namely the chieftaincy court, territorial court and
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
NLQJ·VFRXUW7KHFKLHIZDVDde jure chairman of the chieftaincy
(Transitional National Assembly)
FRXUWEXWFRXOGEHUHSODFHGE\DQDVVLVWDQW DVVHVVRU FRQÀUPHG
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
E\WKHWHUULWRULDODGPLQLVWUDWRU7KHNLQJ·VWULEXQDOZDVFKDLUHG
APRthe .LQJ : and
Armée
by
wasPatriotique
composed Rwandaise
of 2 or several assessors
APROBAMI
: Association
Monarchistes
chosen
by the
.LQJ amongdes
thePartis
country’s
notables who were
supposed to beRwandais
approved by the Resident.
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
As far as native courts were concerned, they were exclusively
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
made of natives and were despised by Europeans. That is why
Masse
European courts
were different from native ones. The Territorial
ARD was a jurisdiction
: Alliance for
pour
le Renforcement
deat
lathe level of
court
Europeans
and only sat
the Residence. Démocratie
It could annul judgments made by native courts.
As
result, customary
normsRwandaise
were only applied
they were
not
ARDHO
: Association
pour laifDéfense
des
164
Droits
l’Homme
Ministère des Colonies,
Rapportde
annuel
sur l’administration belge, 1924, p.13 and pp. 50-51.
165
Ministère
des
Colonies,
Rapport
annuel
belge, 1934, p.75 ;
AREDETWA : Association poursurlel’administration
Relèvement
ibid. 1935, p.78.
Démocratique des Batwa
264
264
v
contrary to public
order (colonial)
legal provisions/regulations.
ACRONYMS
ANDand
ABBREVIATIONS
___________________________________
/LNH LQ WKH DGPLQLVWUDWLYH DSSDUDWXV WKH SHUVRQQHO LQ WKH
judicial
machinery
were Africaines
Tutsi. This arrangement was strongly
A.A.
: Archives
criticized. From 1957 to 1962, the Hutu accused all Tutsis of
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
being unfair and arbitrary. We have already seen how this was
ABAKI
: Alliance
des Bakiga
done
by the colonial
powers.
The Rwandese also faced trials of
ABESC
:
Association
des
Bahutu Evoluant
pour
la
a colonial nature referred to as “common
law” in both
criminal
desofCastes
and civil cases.Suppression
The jurisdictions
common law dealt with cases
ACR on written
: Association
des
Cultivateurs
du handled
Rwandacases
based
law whereas
native
jurisdictions
on
norms. They
did this asdes
long
as “they did not
ADPcustomary: Alliance
Démocratique
Peuples
contravene
public
order
and
good
moral
standards”.
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
Réconciliation Nationale
The organic text on civil and repressive justice was the Ordinance
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
law No. 45 of 30th August 1944. It dealt with police courts whose
AFDL
:
Alliance
des Forces
pour
jurisdiction was
determined
by theDémocratiques
Royal Commissar.
It la
delt
Libération
with a territorial
court for du
the Congo-Zaïre
entire country and a court of the
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity Act
ÀUVWLQVWDQFHRUDFRXUWRIDSSHDOIRUWKHHQWLUH5XDQGD8UXQGL
territory.
These
courts were, in principle, competent to handle
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
all
crimes
committed
byIndigènes
natives. Inetpractice,
these crimes were
AIMO
: Affaires
Main-d’oeuvre
of
written nature
(written law).
AJER
: Association
de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
Rwandaise
The judicial organization of the common law was reformed by
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
the decree of 5th-XO\ZKLFKKDQGOHGSROLFHFRXUWVLQHYHU\
AM/AP This: was
Arrêté
ministériel/
Arrêté
présidentiel
territory.
organized
as follows:
the
prosecution court,
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
WKH5HVLGHQFHFRXUWIRUWKH5ZDQGDQ5HVLGHQFHWKHFRXUWRIÀUVW
AMUR and :the
Association
des Musulmans
au Rwanda
instance
court of appeal
for Ruanda-Urundi
territory.
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
The dual-judicial
system which
madeAssembly)
it possible for the co(Transitional
National
existence
of
both
traditional
and
imported
law was
not as rigid
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate
Chrétien
as one could imagine because the colonial order always had
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
precedence over native order and the decision of native judges
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
became gradually legal. The competence of native jurisdictions
was determinedRwandais
by formal law whereas the traditional customary
APROCOMIN:
Association
des
Commerçants
punishments were based on
customary
ethics.Indigènes
A dependent
APROSOMA
: Association
Promotion
de was
la a
system
(customary
system)pour
was la
authorized
toSociale
stay and
supervised pluralistic
Masse legal system.
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
b. ColonialDémocratie
burdens and their consequences
ARDHO
: Association
Rwandaise
pour la
Défense
des
Taxes
(Umusoro)
and forced
labor (Akazi)
were
the major
Droits
de l’Homme
burdens through
which
the Belgian colonizers achieved their
AREDETWA
: Association
pour le Relèvement
goal
of domination
and exploitation.
On the other hand, these
Démocratique des Batwa
265
v
265
two instruments
were used AND
by colonialists
to act as they wished
ACRONYMS
ABBREVIATIONS
on mentalities___________________________________
and life conditions of the masses. Given the
authoritarian and arbitrary environment in which tax payment
and
were made
and given the suffering involved,
A.A. forced labor
: Archives
Africaines
colonial abuses left behind bitter souvenirs among the people
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
who were forced to implement them.
ABAKI
: Alliance des Bakiga
ABESC ¾Fiscal
: Association
system des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
Suppression des Castes
7KH
ZDV WKH PHDQV
XVHG E\ DOO FRORQLDO
SRZHUV WR
ACRÀVFDO V\VWHP
: Association
des Cultivateurs
du Rwanda
compel
natives
to
join
a
cash
economy
and
to
provide
goods
and
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
VHUYLFHVGHPDQGHG7KHREMHFWLYHRIWKHÀVFDOSROLF\RIWKH%HOJLDQ
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
colonial administration aimed to provide provide colonial services
Réconciliation Nationale
WRWKH5ZDQGDQSRSXODWLRQ7KHGLUHFWÀVFDOV\VWHPZDVSULQFLSDOO\
AEC
dominated
by: aAgglomeration
conglomerationExtra-Coutumières
of taxes, namely: capitation tax,
AFDL
:
Alliance
des Forces
Démocratiques
polygamy tax, cattle tax, income
tax, personal
tax166, etc.pour la
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
Capitation
tax
AGOA
: African Growth
and Opportunity Act
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
We have already shown above that capitation tax was introduced
AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
by the Germans. Up to 1917, it was the only tax imposed in
AJER
Association
laZDV
Jeunesse
Estudiantine
5ZDQGD 7KH: UDWH
RI WKLVde
WD[
À[HG DW
)UDQFV LQ DOO
Rwandaise
territories. The differences in the rates of capitation tax in various
ALIR
: Arméestarted
de Libération
du Rwanda
areas and territories
to be noticed
in 1921167. In 1923,
WKHUDWHRIWKLVWD[ZDVÀ[HGDW)UDQFVIRUXUEDQUHVLGHQWV
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
(Kigali).
For
other
localities,des
theMoniteurs
rate remained
the same (3.5
AMR
: Association
du Rwanda
Francs).
payers were
into two
AMUR The :tax
Association
desdivided
Musulmans
aucategorizes,
Rwanda i.e.
those from rural areas and suburbs of Kigali.
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
National
Assembly)
7KH IUDPHZRUN(Transitional
RI WKH FRXQWU\·V
SROLWLFDO
UHRUJDQL]DWLRQ ZKLFK
APADEC
:
Association
du
Parti
Démocrate
came into force from 1926 saw the tax rate revisedChrétien
from 15 to 10
APR for natives
: Armée
Patriotique
Rwandaise
Francs
in urban
and rural
areas respectively168. From
1930, the rate: of
capitation tax
generally compulsory169.
APROBAMI
Association
desbecame
Partis Monarchistes
,W ZDV À[HG DFFRUGLQJ
RwandaisWR WKH UHVRXUFHV LQ WKH UHJLRQ DQG
according
to
the
degree of economic
developmentIndigènes
of the people,
APROCOMIN: Association
des Commerçants
in other words, 15.5 Francs in Kigali territories, Astrida and
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
Nyanza; 17.5 Francs in the territories of Shangugu, Kisenyi and
Masse
5XKHQJHUL)UDQFVIRUWKHWHUULWRULHVIRU*DWVLEXDQG5XNLUD
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
,QWKLVUDWHZDVÀ[HGDW)UDQFVIRUVL[WHUULWRULHV7KHVH
Démocratie
166
Mbonitegeka, D., /D SROLWLTXH ¿VFDOH GDQV OH 5ZDQGD FRORQLDO ,
ARDHO
:
Association
Mémoire de Licence, Butare 2003. Rwandaise pour la Défense des
167
Droits
l’Homme
Ordinance, No.11/13
of 9thde
November
1921.
168
th
Ordinance,
No.55
of
17
February
1926.
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
169
Ordinance, No.1 of 09th March 1930.
Démocratique des Batwa
266
266
v
were: Kigali, Nyanza,
Astrida,
Ruhengeri,
Gatsibu and Kabaya/
ACRONYMS
AND
ABBREVIATIONS
Kisenyi. The territory
of
Shangugu
was
divided
into two, that is
___________________________________
to say 56 Francs for Kamembe and 28 Francs for the remaining
170
SDUWV5XNLUDKDGWKHORZHVWUDWHRI)UDQFV
.
A.A.
: Archives Africaines
A.G.
: Assemblée
Générale
In
extra-customary
areas, the
rate was 24 Francs in 1927; 40.75
ABAKI in 1930;
: Alliance
desinBakiga
Francs
70 Francs
1949 and 80 Francs in 1945. From
1923
up to 1930
the rate quadrupled
whereas
the income
of the
ABESC
: Association
des Bahutu
Evoluant
pour la
population did Suppression
not increase atdes
theCastes
same rate171.
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
)URP WKH ÀVFDO SROLF\ ZDV DQ HIIHFWLYH LQVWUXPHQW RI
ADP
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
PRELOL]LQJÀQDQFLDOUHVRXUFHVHVSHFLDOO\ZLWKLQWKHIUDPHZRUN
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
RIWKH\HDUGHYHORSPHQWSODQ,QWKHUDWHZDVÀ[HGDW
Réconciliation
Nationale
50 Francs for all
territories except
Shangugu which had 2 rates,
AEC is to say: Agglomeration
Extra-Coutumières
that
60 Francs for Kamembe
and 30 Francs for the
rest.
areas
and suburbs,
natives and
people
AFDLIn extra-customary
: Alliance des
Forces
Démocratiques
pour
la
of color paid 80
Francs.
After
the
elaboration
of
the
ten-year
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
GHYHORSPHQW SODQ RI WKH WD[ UDWH ZDV UHYLVHG DQG À[HG
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity Act
at 100 Francs. This was the same in many parts of the country
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
except in the territories of Shangugu, Kigali and Kisenyi which
AIMO
: Affaires
et Francs
Main-d’oeuvre
had
the highest
rate of Indigènes
130 and 180
between 1952 and
AJER In 1969,
: Association
de la
Jeunesse
Estudiantine
1960.
the capitation
tax
was replaced
by a tax called
“minimum personal
contributions”. It was compulsory for all
Rwandaise
adult
18 years
and above. Its
was valued between
ALIR males aged
: Armée
de Libération
durate
Rwanda
DQG)UDQFVIRUWKHÀVFDO\HDU7KHFDSLWDWLRQWD[
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
therefore was considered to be the most crushing of all taxes.
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
AMUR
: Association
des Musulmans
au Rwanda
The
exemption
of the capitation
tax was authorized
by the
ANT
:
Assemblée
Nationale
de
Transition
administrator or his assistant after presenting a medical
FHUWLÀFDWH VKRZLQJ
WKDW WKH National
DSSOLFDQWAssembly)
ZDV ´LQHSWµ 7KH RWKHU
(Transitional
people
who
were
exempted
from
paying
this
tax were
chiefs and
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate
Chrétien
sub-chiefs
who
had been
in service
for 3 months, the soldiers
APR
: Armée
Patriotique
Rwandaise
DQG PHPEHUV RI WKH SROLFH IRUFH WKH VLFN WD[SD\HUV ZKR KDG
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
VXIIHUHGIURPVLFNQHVVIRUVL[FRQVecutive months and church
ministers who Rwandais
belonged to religious denominations and cults
APROCOMIN:
Association desAllCommerçants
recognized
in Ruanda-Urundi.
this was doneIndigènes
to discourage
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
DQGÀJKWDJDLQVWDQ\DWWHPSWWRHYDGHWD[SD\PHQW
The problem ofMasse
exempting adult students who were attending
school
in
the
missions
frequently
though de
thela
government
ARD
: Alliance
pour le occurred
Renforcement
was tolerant on
this matter. From 1915, the government’s
Démocratie
GHFODUHGLQWHQWLRQZDVWRÀ[WKHPD[LPXPDJHRIWD[H[HPSWLRQ
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
to 16 years, i.e. not exceeding P5. Students who were older than
Droits de l’Homme
170
%XOOHWLQRI¿FLHOGX5XDQGD8UXQGLWR
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
171
Ibid.
Démocratique des Batwa
267
v
267
that were expelled
from school.
ACRONYMS
AND ABBREVIATIONS
___________________________________
The tax payer had to be an adult man, a native whose physical and
PRUDOFKDUDFWHUGHSLFWHGD´VRXQGVWDWHµ7KHRIÀFLDOUHIHUHQFH
A.A.
: Archives Africaines
documents were the voting identity card or a document issued
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
by the mission indicating baptism and birth dates.
ABAKI
: Alliance des Bakiga
ABESC
: Association
desthe
Bahutu
Evoluant
The
people were
informed about
rate of the
tax to bepour
paid la
before
st
Suppression
des CastesRI LQIRUPDWLRQ SUHSDUHG
1 -DQXDU\ RI HYHU\
\HDU $ GHSDUWPHQW
ACR
: Association
des Cultivateurs
du Rwanda
OHDÁHWV EURFKXUHV
DQG LQGLFDWHG
GLIIHUHQW FDWHJRULHV
RI WD[HV WR
be paid in chieftaincies
territories. The
most
effective method
ADP
: Allianceand
Démocratique
des
Peuples
consisted
of
assembling
all
the
population
in
a
public
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la place. Taxcollectors disseminated
all theNationale
necessary information on tax
Réconciliation
collection. The time limit for collection of native taxes did not to
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
exceed 15 days. Taxes were paid in one deposit and in cash by
AFDL
:
Alliance
des Forces
Démocratiques
la
special tax-collectors
designated
for that
purpose. The pour
tax payers
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
ZKRGLGQRWSD\WKHLUWD[HVZLWKLQWKHVSHFLÀHGWLPHZHUHIRUFHG
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity Act
WRSDUWLFLSDWHLQSXEOLFZRUNVZKRVHPRGDOLWLHVDQGQDWXUHZHUH
determined by$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
the Governor. These included doing construction
$,'6
ZRUN
PDNLQJ
URDG UHSDLUV
FOHDQLQJ
ULYHUV ZRUNLQJ LQ VWDWH
AIMO
: Affaires
Indigènes
et Main-d’oeuvre
enterprises, carrying
equipment
forJeunesse
government
use, slashing grass
AJER
: Association
de la
Estudiantine
DQGVDQLWDWLRQ7KHVHSXEOLFZRUNVQHYHUH[FHHGHGWZRPRQWKV
Rwandaise
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
Polygamy tax
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
AMR
: Association
des
Moniteurs
dusubjected
Rwanda men to
The Ordinance
No. 56 of 12th
December
1924
AMUR tax:: Association
des Musulmans
Rwanda
polygamy
“all men of color,
non-natives au
or those
residing
in
a conventional
suburb paid
polygamy
tax for each one of his
ANT
: Assemblée
Nationale
de Transition
172
ZLYHVDSDUWIURPWKHÀUVWZLIHµ
. This Assembly)
was done to implement
(Transitional National
th
the
colonial
charter
of
18
October
1908
which recommended
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate
Chrétien to
the colonial administration that natives should be progressively
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
encouraged to withdraw from polygamy. In addition, the powerful
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
Catholic Church considered polygamy as an obstacle to the
Rwandais and was seen as a barbaric custom.
expansion of Christianity
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
7KHLGHDRILQWURGXFLQJWKLVWD[GDWHGDVIDUEDFNDVWKH*HUPDQ
APROSOMA
: Association
Promotion
Sociale de lato it.
period
but the
Germans didpour
not la
attach
much importance
The colonial authorities
Masse considered polygamy as a sign of wealth.
From
1931,
according
Ordinance
No. 2 of 26th December
1930,
ARD
: Alliancetopour
le Renforcement
de la
the tax on polygamy
became
compulsory
for
all
polygamous
men.
Démocratie
This tax was charged on every extra-wife. It was considered in
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
accordance with the wealth and level of development in every
Droits de l’Homme
UHJLRQ,WZDVÀ[HGDW)UDQFVLQWKHWHUULWRULHVRI6KDQJXJX
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
172
%XOOHWLQRI¿FLHOGX5XDQGD8UXQGLS
Démocratique des Batwa
268
268
v
Kisenyi, Musha,
RuhengeriAND
and ABBREVIATIONS
Kabaya. In the territories of
ACRONYMS
.LJDOL1\DQ]DDQG$VWULGDLWZDVSXWDW)UDQFVLQWKHÀVFDO
___________________________________
\HDU ,Q WKH WHUULWRULHV RI *DWVLEX 5XNLUD DQG %\XPED
the
at 6 Francs.
Extra-customary suburbs paid 50
A.A.rate was put
: Archives
Africaines
)UDQFV$WWKHHQGRIWKHPDQGDWHLQWKHUDWHZDVÀ[HGDW
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
33 Francs in most territories except in Kibungo where it was at
ABAKI
: Alliance
destaxed
Bakiga
20
Francs. Shangugu
was
between 22 and 40 Francs and
173 pour la
ABESC
:
Association
des
Bahutu
Evoluant
extra-customary suburbs were taxed 65 Francs.
Suppression des Castes
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
8QGHUWKH7UXVWHHVKLSWKHÀJKWDJDLQVWSRO\JDP\WRRNDQRWKHU
form
No. 21/164
of May 1949 and
ADP after publishing
: AllianceOrdinance
Démocratique
des Peuples
th
the
decree
of
4
$SULO
7KHVH
ODZV
RIÀFLDOO\
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la SURKLELWHG
polygamy and prevented
polygamous
people from going to some
Réconciliation
Nationale
public places174. From 1950, the rate of polygamy tax was almost
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
HTXDO WR WKH FDSLWDWLRQ WD[ ,Q WKLV WD[ ZDV À[HG DW AFDL
:
Alliance
Forces
la in
Francs in 5 territories
asdes
follows:
105Démocratiques
in Shangugu, 80pour
Francs
Libération
du
Congo-Zaïre
Kibungo, and 150
Francs in
AEC.
From 1951, this tax increased
AGOA
Growth and
exorbitantly. :InAfrican
some regions,
someOpportunity
polygamous Act
men had to
chase away their
wives or chose to live with them secretly.
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
AIMO
AJER
: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
Tax de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
:Cattle
Association
Rwandaise
Cattle tax was established in 1923. It was charged at a rate of 1
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
Belgian Franc per cow. It was reformed in 1927175 and its new
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
UDWHZDVÀ[HGDW)UDQFV,QLWURVHWR)UDQFVDQGLQ
AMR to 10 Francs.
: Association
desmandate,
Moniteurs
du
Rwanda
1945
During the
this
tax
rose from 1 to
AMUR
: Association
Musulmans
au Rwanda
10
Francs in all
regions. As ades
result
of cow diseases
of 1939, the
rate
was lowered
but soon
up when the cow
ANT of cattle :tax
Assemblée
Nationale
de went
Transition
disease ended. (Transitional
During the Trusteeship,
the rate increased to 18
National Assembly)
Francs
in
1947
and
to
27.5
Francs
in
1950.
It shotChrétien
to 50 Francs
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate
in 1954 and later to 75 Francs in 1960176
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
7D[FROOHFWLRQZDVGRQHDIWHUPDNLQJFDWWOHDQGKXPDQFHQVXVHV
Rwandais
This exercise was
done by secretaries recruited among students
APROCOMIN:
Association
Commerçants
Indigènes
who graduated from Nyanzades
School
accompanied
by the chief
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
DQGVXEFKLHIVRIWKHDUHDV7KHÀUVWFRZFHQVXVWRRNSODFHLQ
1927 and accordingly,
Masse 500,000 cow-heads were counted. The
PDMRU
GLIÀFXOW\
HQFRXQWHUHG
WKLV H[HUFLVH
ARD
: Alliance
pour GXULQJ
le Renforcement
deZDV
la WKDW WKH
proprietors did Démocratie
not declare their animals faithfully. They had an
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
173
%XOOHWLQRI¿FLHOGX5XDQGD8UXQGLS
174
Droits de l’Homme
Ibid,1951.
175
th
Ordinance
of
6
June 1927.
AREDETWA : Association
pour le Relèvement
176
%XOOHWLQRI¿FLHOGX5XDQGD8UXQGLWR
Démocratique des Batwa
269
v
269
177
intention of evading
tax payment
.
ACRONYMS
AND ABBREVIATIONS
___________________________________
From 1950, the problem of pastures was also felt. In a meeting
KHOGLQ8VXPEXUDRQUG$XJXVWWKH´SUREOHPRIOLYHVWRFN
A.A.
: Archives Africaines
NHHSLQJµ EHFDPH WKH RUGHU RI WKH GD\ ,Q WKDW PHHWLQJ WKH
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
Deputy Governor General hinted on the possibility of eliminating
ABAKI
: Alliance des Bakiga
H[FHVVLYHFDWWOH7KLVSURYRNHGDQRXWFU\IURPFDWWOHNHHSHUV$
ABESC
: Association
des
Bahutu
Evoluant pour
la cow
compromise was
reached and
a tax
was established
on any
Suppression
des Castes
that was described
“undesirable”.
This involved over age cows
ACR
Association
des
Cultivateurs
du Rwanda
RI PRUH WKDQ: \HDUV SOXV
FRZV
GHFODUHG XQÀW
E\ YHWHULQDU\
personnel. This
tax increased
every year
every extra cow.
ADP
: Alliance
Démocratique
desfor
Peuples
Generally,
the
tax
on
cattle
increased
exponentially
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la with aim of
GLVFRXUDJLQJIDUPHUVIURPNHHSLQJPDQ\FRZVDQGLWJUDGXDOO\
Réconciliation Nationale
led to the decrease in the number of cows.
AEC
AFDL
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
:Personal
Alliancetax
des Forces Démocratiques pour la
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
AGOA
African E\
Growth
and Opportunity
Act SODFH LQ
7KLV WD[ ZDV:LQVSLUHG
WKH V\VWHP
WKDW ZDV WDNLQJ
Belgian Congo.
In 1917, the surface area with buildings was
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
subjected
to
taxation.
ordinance
No.71 of 15th November
AIMO
: Affaires The
Indigènes
et Main-d’oeuvre
nd
1925 made it: Association
possible for de
thela decree
of 22
December 1917
AJER
Jeunesse
Estudiantine
to be applicable in Rwanda. The tax rate on buildings (living
Rwandaise
KRXVHVRIÀFHVDQGVKRSV ZDVÀ[HGDFFRUGLQJWRWKHFULWHULRQ
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
of the number of square meters occupied, i.e. 7 Francs in areas
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
NQRZQDV´ÀUVWFODVVµ)UDQFVLQ´VHFRQGFODVVµDUHDVDQG
AMR
: Association
des
Moniteurs
Rwandaused for
3.5
Francs. There
was also a
special
rate fordu
buildings
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
DFFRPPRGDWLQJQDWLYHHPSOR\HHVZRUNVKRSVDQGGU\LQJURRPV
FODVV QHLJKERUKRRGV
)UDQFV LQ VHFRQG
ANT)UDQFV LQ
: ÀUVW
Assemblée
Nationale de Transition
class neighborhoods
and 0.7 National
Francs elsewhere.
The number of
(Transitional
Assembly)
taxable
areas
was
divided
into
5
categories
from
1944. There
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
also existed an annual tax payable by a number of employees,
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
PDLGV DQG ZRUNHUV $ WD[ RQ YHKLFOHV XVHG IRU WUDQVSRUWLQJ
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
people and goods was established from 9132. Lastly, a tax on
Rwandais
mineral concessions
was established in 1937. During the period
APROCOMIN:
Association
Indigènes
of the mandate, the tax base des
was Commerçants
indeed very narrow.
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
The taxable items
owned by government, religious institutions and
Masse
non
lucrative
private
organizations
were not subjected
ARD
: Alliance
pour le Renforcement
de to
la a personal
tax. The same applied
to
buildings,
land
and
vehicles
exclusively
Démocratie
LQWHQGHG IRU DJULFXOWXUH DQG OLYHVWRFN IDUPLQJ FXOWV KRVSLWDOV
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
VFKRROVDVZHOODVUHOLJLRXVVFLHQWLÀFDQGVSRUWVDFWLYLWLHV
Droits de l’Homme
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
177
Nkurikiyimfura, J., 1994, op. cit, p. 214.
Démocratique des Batwa
270
270
v
During the Trusteeship,
theAND
taxable
base did not change a great
ACRONYMS
ABBREVIATIONS
th
deal. According
to
the
decree
of
10
March 1950, personal tax
___________________________________
was based on the following criteria: the surface area occupied by
the
constructions,
the surface area of un-built land
A.A.buildings and
: Archives
Africaines
LQXUEDQDUHDVHPSOR\HUVZRUNHUVDQGPDLGVERDWVYHKLFOHV
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
transporting people, trade items and objects of value, areas
ABAKI
Alliance des In
Bakiga
with
mineral : concessions.
addition, another tax base was
ABESC
:
Association
des
Bahutu
Evoluantbypour
la
added, that is to say a tax on bananas
established
Ordinance
st
Castes
No.332/352 of Suppression
21 Novemberdes
1961.
It should be noted that from
ACR
: Association
Cultivateurs
du Rwanda
this date, cattle
tax was alsodes
integrated
into personal
tax.
ADP
ADR
: Alliance Démocratique des Peuples
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
Réconciliation
It was Ordinance
No. 72 of 5th Nationale
November 1925 that established
income
It was already
in force in Belgian Congo.
AEC tax in:Rwanda.
Agglomeration
Extra-Coutumières
It
consisted of: taxes
on movable
assets.
This tax was introduced
AFDL
Alliance
des Forces
Démocratiques
pour la
once again in countries
where
the
majority
of
the
people
lived on
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
subsistence economy or where salaried civil servants were not
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity Act
many. This explains why its output was low.
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
AIMO1951, this
: Affaires
Main-d’oeuvre
From
tax was Indigènes
channeled et
to construction
sites, forestry
AJER
: Association de la Jeunesse Estudiantine
LQGXVWULHVÀVKLQJDQGKRWHOLQGXVWULHV,WVDLPZDVWRLQFUHDVH
Rwandaise
the tax base. The
decree of 20th-DQXDU\LQWURGXFHGDQRWKHU
reform on income
tax.de
Lastly,
the professional
tax affected the
ALIR
: Armée
Libération
du Rwanda
SURÀW
PDUJLQV
RI
DOO
LQGXVWULDO
FRPPHUFLDO
FUDIWV
DJULFXOWXUDO
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
SURGXFWLRQVDVZHOODVÀ[HGDVVHWV,WUHGXFHGUHPXQHUDWLRQVRI
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
civil servants and employees in private and public sectors.
AMUR
: Association des Musulmans au Rwanda
ANT
: Assemblée
Indirect
tax Nationale de Transition
(Transitional National Assembly)
The income tax
of this category
came
from both
export and
APADEC
: Association
du Parti
Démocrate
Chrétien
import
taxes
and
consumption
taxes.
A
customs
department
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
and
warehouse
were established
in Rwanda
in 1921. By virtue
APROBAMI : Association
des Partis
Monarchistes
of the law of 30th -XQH 5XDQGD8UXQGL ZDV SDUW RI D
Rwandais
customs union that extended to Belgian Congo. The custom tax
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
ZDVFKDUJHGRQHQWU\DW5ZDQGD·VERUGHUVIRUWKHÀUVWWLPHLQ
APROSOMA
: Association
pour
Promotion
de la
1924.
The rate
and modalities
ofla
tax
payment Sociale
were established
by the decree Masse
of 31st December 1923. However, not all goods
ARD taxed. Every
: Alliance
le Renforcement
de laestablished
were
year, pour
the colonial
administration
DOLVWRIJRRGVLPSRUWHGWR5ZDQGDZLWKIUHTXHQWPRGLÀFDWLRQV
Démocratie
Products
consumption,
for example
food
items, des
were
ARDHO of daily
: Association
Rwandaise
pour la
Défense
often exemptedDroits
whereas
luxurious
products
were
taxed
more
de l’Homme
heavily. This tax was reduced on items and equipment useful
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
for social economic development of the county such as vehicles,
Démocratique des Batwa
Income tax
271
v
271
machines tools
and metallicAND
products,
etc.
ACRONYMS
ABBREVIATIONS
___________________________________
([SRUWWD[ZDVHVWDEOLVKHGIRUWKHÀUVWWLPHLQRQVKHHS
VNLQ
WD[HVAfricaines
RQ FRIIHH DQG PLQHUDO SURGXFWV ZHUH
A.A. /DWHU H[SRUW
: Archives
introduced from 1927. A custom surtax was established during
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
the Second World War on exported goods.
ABAKI
: Alliance des Bakiga
ABESC
: Association
des Bahutu
la
Consumption
taxes were levied
on theEvoluant
followingpour
products:
Suppression
CastesZKLFK VHUYHG UHOLJLRXV
DOFRKROLF GULQNV
DSDUW IURP des
PDVVZLQH
ACR DQG IHUPHQWHG
: Association
Cultivateurs
du SHUVRQDO
Rwanda XVH
FXOWV
GULQNVdes
PDGH
E\ QDWLYHV IRU
manufactured
tobacco,Démocratique
imported or des
produced
in Rwanda,
ADP
: Alliance
Peuples
PLQHUDOVHWF$OOIUDXGXOHQWPHDVXUHVZHUHSXQLVKHGE\DÀQH
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
that was equivalent
to 15 times
the amount of the product. In
Réconciliation
Nationale
DGGLWLRQWKHLWHPVLQYROYHGLQIUDXGZHUHFRQÀVFDWHG
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
AFDL
:
Alliance
des Forces
Démocratiques
pour from
la
The Ruanda-Urundi
budget
was supported
by income
Libération
Congo-Zaïre
taxes as well as
non-taxeddu
income
described above. According
AGOA
African
Growth
and
ActDQG FDWWOH
WR
WKH ZRUOG :ÀVFDO
LQFRPH
WUHQG
LWOpportunity
ZDV WKH QDWLYH
taxes
some considerable income to the country,
$,'6which earned
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
i.e.
10,437,244
Francs
1934 (on et
a total
income of 37,636,706
AIMO
: Affaires in
Indigènes
Main-d’oeuvre
Francs).
played
considerable
role in the RuandaAJER This :income
Association
dea la
Jeunesse Estudiantine
Urundi budget. Fiscal income increased considerably. The
Rwandaise
territorial departments played an important role in using the
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
income.
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
AMR
Association
des of
Moniteurs
du Rwanda
According
to : the
Convention
15th August
1952, Belgium
AMUR
: Association
des LQ
Musulmans
au RwandaRI WKH
DQG
%HOJLDQ &RQJR
LQWHUYHQHG
WKH SURÀW GHSDUWPHQW
public
Ruanda-Urundi
by giving
grants which were to
ANT debt of: Assemblée
Nationale
de Transition
be refunded later.
Ruanda-Urundi
continued
to receive these
(Transitional
National
Assembly)
grants
up
to
independence.
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
,W LV XQFRQWHVWDEOH WKDW UHYHQXH IURP ÀVFDO LQFRPH KHOSHG WR
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
build schools, hospitals, administrative buildings, purchase
Rwandais
of equipment, salaries
for colonial and customary staff, etc. A
APROCOMIN:
Association
des
Commerçants
VPDOO DPRXQW RI PRQH\ ZDV
LQYHVWHG
LQ ZRUNVIndigènes
RI VRFLDO DQG
APROSOMA
: Association
pour la
Promotion
Sociale
de la in
economic
interest.
Development
programs
were
determined
accordance with
the income from local resources especially from
Masse
tax
income
and
forced
it is also true tode
say
ARD
: Alliancelabor.
pourBut
le Renforcement
lathat many
negative consequences
of
these
taxes
impacted
on
the
country’s
Démocratie
development. These included migration movements and the food
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
crisis. We shall deal with these later.
Droits de l’Homme
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
Démocratique des Batwa
272
272
v
¾Forced
labor (akazi)
ACRONYMS
AND ABBREVIATIONS
___________________________________
7KH ZRUNV UHIHUUHG WR DV ´ZRUNV RI SXEOLF LQWHUHVWµ LQ )UHQFK
TIG
d’intérêt Africaines
general) also called “akazi” or “forced
A.A. or travaux
: Archives
labor” were authorized by ordinance No.25 of 7th November
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
1924. They consisted of exploiting big agricultural land for
ABAKI
: Allianceand
desnon-seasonal
Bakiga
cultivating
agricultural
crops such as cassava
ABESC
:
Association
des
Bahutu
Evoluant
pour la
DQG VZHHW SRWDWRHV DQG FDVK FURSV OLNH FRIIHH FRQVWUXFWLQJ
Suppression
des Castes
roads, establishing
anti-soil erosion
measures, land exploitation
ACR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
IRUDJULFXOWXUDOSXUSRVHVLQYDOOH\VUHIRUHVWDWLRQHWF¶:RUNVRI
public
were imposed
on the people
without explaining
ADP interest’
: Alliance
Démocratique
des Peuples
to
them
the
rationale
behind
and
this
created
discontent
among
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et
la
the populationRéconciliation
who expressedNationale
passive resistance to them in
different forms178. In a new arrangement, the services rendered
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
according to traditional norms and referred to as “Uburetwa”
AFDL
:
Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
WRRNDQHZGLPHQVLRQ
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
AGOA
: African
Growth and
Opportunity
Actit entered
The
term “akazi”
was borrowed
from
Kiswahili and
into
Rwandan$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
use during German rule. It covered realities of a
$,'6
FRPSOH[QDWXUHVHUYLFHVLQNLQGWKDWSHRSOHRZHGWRDXWKRULWLHV
AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes et Main-d’oeuvre
DOO
QRQUHPXQHUDWHG
ZRUN
RUJeunesse
ZRUN ZKRVH
UHPXQHUDWLRQ
AJER
: Association
de la
Estudiantine
was derisory. The Germans were committed to maintaining
Rwandaise
“traditional” charges as they entirely existed. An oral treaty on
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
this matter between King Musinga and Captain Bethe was put
AM/AP
: Arrêté
ministériel/WKHVH
Arrêté
présidentiel
LQ
IRUFH LQ %\ PDLQWDLQLQJ
SXEOLF
ZRUNV WKH QHZ
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
UHJLPHSURFHHGHGWRLPSRVHDVHULHVRIQHZZRUNV2QO\UHJLRQV
AMURwere located
: Association
Musulmans
Rwandaand to
which
near the des
German
posts andau
missions,
a
certain extent,
regions crossed
by roads
were concerned with
ANT
: Assemblée
Nationale
de Transition
SXEOLFZRUNV(Transitional National Assembly)
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
Among the new imposed demands by the Germans, there were
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
road repairs, supply of food items to colonial authorities and
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
availing supplies for construction material. We have already seen
above that the Rwandais
recruitment of porters played an important role
APROCOMIN:
Association
des Commerçants
Indigènes
in trade. The Germans
also introduced
and popularized
the use
APROSOMA
: Association
pour la Promotion
Sociale de
la by
of
the cane (ikiboko)
in the country.
This was abusively
used
German and Rwandese
Masse authorities to punish those who evaded
or
tied
to
evade
forced labor.
ARD
: Alliance
pour le Renforcement de la
Démocratie
'XULQJWKHFRORQLDOSHULRG&DWKROLFPLVVLRQDULHVEHQHÀWHGIURP
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
forced labor. In the beginning the BatwareJDYHWKHZRUNHUVH[RWLF
Droits de l’Homme
178
Uwizeyimana
L.,
La croissance pour
démographique
et la production agricole au
AREDETWA : Association
le Relèvement
Rwanda : Impossible adéquation, Louvain-la-Neuve, 1989, p. 39.
Démocratique des Batwa
273
v
273
products. When
the missionaries
became more powerful they
ACRONYMS
AND ABBREVIATIONS
JDYHWKHPQRWKLQJLQUHWXUQIRUWKHZRUNGRQH7KHH[RWLFLWHPV
___________________________________
included salt, sugar, cotton fabrics, pearls, and Rupees. The
179
PLVVLRQDULHVXVHGSRUWHUVWRFDUU\EULFNV
. Thus in constructing
A.A.
: Archives Africaines
6DYH&DWKROLF&KXUFKSULHVWVZHQWWRWKHUR\DOFRXUWDQGDVNHG
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
for people to carry and transport construction material. For a
ABAKI
: Alliance
des Bakiga
period for four
months, almost
10,000 people were mobilized to
180des Bahutu Evoluant pour la
ABESC
:
Association
transport 300 logs of trees . In 1922, the Kabgayi missionaries
Suppression des Castes
ORRNHGIRUSRUWHUVWRFDUU\FRQVWUXFWLRQZRRGIURP%XGDKD7KLV
ACR
Association
Cultivateurs
du
Rwanda
H[HUFLVH
ZDV:FRQVLGHUHG
DVdes
ERWK
DEXVLYH DQG
SDLQIXO
,W WRRN
three
to Gishwati
forest and
at Peuples
least eight days to
ADP days to: get
Alliance
Démocratique
des
FRPHEDFNWR.DEJD\LZLWKDKHDY\ORDGRIZRRGRQWKHKHDG
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
The burden of Réconciliation
constructing Kabgayi
Church still looms in the
Nationale
memories of local populations because thousands of people were
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
PRELOL]HG WR VXSSO\ FDUSHQWU\ PDWHULDO DQG ZRRG WR IHHG EULFN
AFDL
:
Forces Démocratiques
la
furnaces.181 AsAlliance
a result,des
missionaries
participated in pour
exploiting
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
DQGLQÁLFWLQJKHDY\EXUGHQVRQ5ZDQGDQSHDVDQWV
AGOA
: African Growth and Opportunity Act
From
Belgians established a system of compulsory
$,'61917, the
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
cultivation
of
cassava.
also introduced
a new reforestation
AIMO
: AffairesThey
Indigènes
et Main-d’oeuvre
182
program
entire country
. The measures
to implement
AJER for the
: Association
de la Jeunesse
Estudiantine
these projects started in 1926. Coffee was cultivated from
Rwandaise
1924 to 1925 but this was just a trial phase. The ordinance
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
which conferred on the Resident the powers to coerce natives to
AM/AP coffee
: Arrêté
ministériel/
Arrêté
présidentiel
establish
plantations
was dated
7th November
1924. Many
AMR
: Association
des Moniteurs
Rwanda
other texts followed
this ordinance
regardingdu
the
establishment
AMUR
Association
des
Musulmans
au Rwanda
of new forms : of
forced labor,
regulating
Uburetwa
or reducing
it. The Belgian
administration
reportde
of Transition
1924 had this to say
ANT
: Assemblée
Nationale
on this point: (Transitional
“(...) it goes without
that governments
Nationalsaying
Assembly)
implementing
their
policies
in
less
advanced
societies
must, in
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate Chrétien
some circumstances, have power to impose strict measures of
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
general interest”183(...).
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
Rwandais
Thus the period
from 1925 to 1959 was generally considered
APROCOMIN:
Association
desItCommerçants
Indigènes
as the period of forced labor.
was characterized
by many
APROSOMA : Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la
DGPLQLVWUDWLYHSURYLVLRQVRQIRUFHGODERULWVLQWHQVLÀFDWLRQDQG
GLYHUVLÀFDWLRQ)URPWKHFDPSDLJQWRJURZIRRGFURSVOLNH
Masse
FDVVDYDDQGVZHHWSRWDWRHVLQWHQVLÀHG2IÀFLDOO\WKHFXOWLYDWLRQ
ARD
: Alliance pour le Renforcement de la
RIWKHVHFURSVZDVNQRZQDV´ZRUNVLPSRVHGE\WKH(XURSHDQ
Démocratie
179
Kabgayi Mission diary of 10th June 1907, p.74.
ARDHO
:
Association
Rwandaise pour la Défense des
180
Ibid., 16th February 1906.
181
Droits
de 1907,
l’Homme
Kabgayi mission Diary
of 9th June
p.74; Read also the memoir on Kabgayi Mission.
182
nd
Letter
no.
791/A/53
of
2
August
1917,
theRelèvement
organization of the Kingdom.
AREDETWA : Association pouronle
183
Ministère des Colonies, Rapport annuel sur l’administration belge, 1924, p.28.
Démocratique des Batwa
274
274
v
DXWKRULW\ LQ WKH
LQWHUHVW RIAND
QDWLYH
ZRUNHUVµ 7KLV PDUNHG WKH
ACRONYMS
ABBREVIATIONS
EHJLQQLQJ RI ___________________________________
WKH ÀUVW PHDVXUHV RI FRHUFLQJ ORFDO SHRSOH WR
implement polices on reforestation and construction of roads.
7KHODWWHUZHUHUHIHUUHGWRDV´ZRUNVGRQHLQWKHLQWHUHVWRIWKH
A.A.
: Archives Africaines
collectivity”. In this regard, Ordinance No. 347/ A.I.M.O of 4th
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
October 1943 on the political organization of Ruanda-Urundi
ABAKI
: Alliance
Bakiga Nevertheless, other texts
was
an important
legaldes
document.
ABESC
: Association
desfollowed
Bahutusuite.
Evoluant
on
implementing
this program
Thesepour
textslagave
Suppression
des Castes
the Resident power
and authority
to impose a series of forced
ACR WDVNV :7KH\
Association
des
Cultivateurs
du Rwanda
ODERU
LQFOXGHG
ODUJH
VFDOH UHIRUHVWDWLRQ
ZRUNV
LQWHQVLÀFDWLRQ
RI IRRG FXOWLYDWLRQ
ZRUNV
ÀJKW VRLO HURVLRQ
ADP
: Alliance
Démocratique
desWRPeuples
HWF
7KH
UXOHV
SURSRVHG
DIWHUZDUGV
E\
WKH
5HVLGHQW
VSHFLÀHG
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
the minimum surface
area that
every coerced laborer (HAV)184
Réconciliation
Nationale
was supposed to cultivate. This entailed 2,500 square meters for
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
sweet potatoes and 3,500 square meters of cassava.
AFDL
: Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
Libération
du arranged
Congo-Zaïre
The forced labor
scheme was
according to the political
AGOA
: African
Growth
and
Opportunity
Act
organization
of
the country.
The
Governor
of Ruanda-Urundi
SUHSDUHGDPDVWHUSODQIRUWKHZRUNVWREHH[HFXWHG+HSUHVHQWHG
$,'6
$FTXLUHG,PPXQR'HÀFLHQF\6\QGURP
the
dossier
before
the Resident
whoetinMain-d’oeuvre
turn transmitted it to the
AIMO
: Affaires
Indigènes
King.
after consulting
the Higher
National Council
AJERFrom 1953,
: Association
de la Jeunesse
Estudiantine
(CSP)185 WKHNLQJGHWHUPLQHGDQQXDOO\DOOVHUYLFHVWREHSURYLGHGE\
Rwandaise
every chieftaincy in implementing the master plan. The territorial
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
administrators were informed about this plan and were supposed
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/
présidentiel
to
ensure its implementation
in theirArrêté
areas of
jurisdiction.
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
AMUR
: Association
des Musulmans
au Rwanda
On
the instructions
of chiefs,
sub-chiefs were
supposed to
GLVWULEXWHHTXLWDEO\WKHVHZRUNVEHWZHHQWKHFRHUFHGODERUHUV,Q
ANT
: Assemblée Nationale de Transition
implementing these
services the
chief ofAssembly)
the minor lineage (inzu)
(Transitional
National
was
the
intermediary
between
the
chiefs
and sub-chiefs
before
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate
Chrétien
1924. Thereafter, new chiefs replaced these intermediaries with the
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
people they favored or with members of their own families. Note
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
that this was contrary to traditional norms. The new intermediaries
Rwandais
were divided into
two categories, i.e. ibirongozi and abamotsi.
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
APROSOMA
Association
pour
lamasters
Promotion
Sociale deinlacase
The
ibirongozi: could
deputize
their
or sub-chiefs
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laborers
(abanyakazi).
theleother
hand, the abamotsi
helped
ARD
: AllianceOn
pour
Renforcement
de la
sub-chiefs to recruit
coerced
laborers
and
to
announce
the
Démocratie
decisions of sub-chiefs to the local populations and they informed
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
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Droits de l’Homme
184
This
was
an
abbreviation
in Frenchpour le Relèvement
AREDETWA : Association
185
This abbreviation in full is : “Conseil Supérieur du Pays”
Démocratique des Batwa
275
v
275
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ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
to identify those
who
were
present
and
absentees.
The
absentees
___________________________________
were punished. All intermediaries were by law not supposed to be
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: Archives Africaines
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: Assemblée Générale
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:
Association
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themselves were exempted from Bahutu
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mean achievement
at all.
ACR
ADP
ADR
: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
¾Works
imposed
in the interests
of individual
: Alliance
Démocratique
des Peuples
homesteads
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
Réconciliation Nationale
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AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
as cassava and sweet potatoes. But also, they included the
AFDL
:
Alliance
Forces
Démocratiques pour la
cultivation of coffee
and des
storage
of beans.
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
AGOA Shiku
: African Growth and Opportunity Act
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The
imposition
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AIMO
: Affaires
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NQRZQ E\ WKH
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coined term which
AJER
: Association
de la Jeunesse
came into use in 1930. Food-crop farming was supposed to be
Rwandaise
done in plots which were not owned by peasants, that is to say in
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
land designated by competent authorities. This forced labor was
AM/AP
Arrêté
Arrêté Itprésidentiel
intended for :the
goodministériel/
of the population.
eventually became
AMR
: Association des Moniteurs du Rwanda
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AMUR
: Association
des Musulmans
Rwanda
which were delivered
were given
the name ofau
“Shiku”
from the
verb “Gushikura”
meaning cultivating
a lot of force using of
ANT
: Assemblée
Nationale with
de Transition
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(Transitional National Assembly)
land
(imishike)
which was generally
and dryChrétien
to cultivate.
APADEC
: Association
du Parti hard
Démocrate
6KLNX ZDV DOVR FDOOHG ´akajagari” to mean land assigned to a
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
group of cultivators each of whom was supposed to cultivate
APROBAMI
: Association des Partis Monarchistes
his own part. The Shiku of cassava was located on hill-tops. The
Rwandais
sweet potato shiku
was located in valleys and marshlands.
APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
APROSOMA
: Association
la Promotion
la not
From the land
tenure pointpour
of view,
the shikuSociale
system de
was
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(private property owned by peasants).
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ARD
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simply referredDémocratie
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ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
have rights of ownership on the plots which were given to them
Droits
desupposed
l’Homme to use it temporarilly. After
to cultivate. They
were
AREDETWA
: Association
pour
le to
Relèvement
harvesting, the
plot belonged
again
the village reserve (colline
Démocratique des Batwa
276
276
v
in French). The
following year,
the ABBREVIATIONS
distribution of these plots was
ACRONYMS
AND
transferred to ___________________________________
other locations. Nobody had a right to claim a plot
they had previously cultivated.
A.A.
: Archives Africaines
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image of the rural areas. Hence in every sub-chieftaincy, there
ABAKI
: Alliance
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Association
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during periods Suppression
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foodCastes
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: Association des Cultivateurs du Rwanda
the
the
agakiza Démocratique
plots measured des
10,000
square meters.
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: Alliance
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gradually encroached
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Réconciliation
Nationale
became agricultural land. Hence, several demonstrations of
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
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AFDL
:
Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la
coerced agriculture.
Libération du Congo-Zaïre
AGOA
: Africanpassed
Growth
and Opportunity
Food
crop agriculture
through
a trial-phase Act
from 1926 to
1930.
by large-scale mobilization of cassava stem
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186
distribution
from
Rubona
plantations
. There were competing
AIMO
: Affaires Indigènes
et Main-d’oeuvre
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AJER
: Association de la JeunesseLHDGXOWPHQFDSDEOH
Estudiantine
o performing forced labor) to carry stems provided by the colonial
Rwandaise
administration. Sweet-potato stems were also distributed on the
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
spot.
AM/AP
: Arrêté ministériel/ Arrêté présidentiel
AMR cultivating,
: Association
des Moniteurs
du Rwanda
Before
it was important
to select the
cultivation area.
AMUR
: Association
des Musulmans
au Rwanda
This
was done
by the competent
authorities and,
in this case,
the
criterion of
area proximity
was priviledged. The
ANTsub-chief.:The
Assemblée
Nationale
de Transition
VXEFKLHIOLYHGDGMDFHQWWRWKHFXOWLYDWHGVXUIDFHDUHD+HULVNHG
(Transitional National Assembly)
loosing
his
job
if there was the
surface in
his domain
APADEC
: Association
du cultivated
Parti Démocrate
Chrétien
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APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
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APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
within a radius of the same locality, preferably near major roads.
Rwandais
The objective was
to enable inspectors to see from a distance,
APROCOMIN:
Association
des Commerçants
Indigènes
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: Association
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de la or
chieftaincy
and
sub-chieftaincy
leavingSociale
their vehicles
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gardens,
the
sub-chief
chieflemade
supervisorsde
tola
believe that
ARD
: Allianceorpour
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the situation was
the
same
everywhere
and
that
the
authorities
Démocratie
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chosen according to the distances covered by the coerced laborers
Droits de l’Homme
186
In
1927,
two
selection
experimental
stations
were established in Rubona and
AREDETWA : Association
pour
le Relèvement
Ntendezi (Cyangugu). The latter was abolished in 1929.
Démocratique des Batwa
277
v
277
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ACRONYMS
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living in marshlands
or
uncultivated
hills going to cultivate in
___________________________________
YHU\GLVWDQWDUHDV7KHVHDEXVHVFRQWULEXWHGWRPDNLQJWKHshiku
system
very unpopular
but also unproductive.
A.A. not only
: Archives
Africaines
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: Assemblée Générale
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After choosing a proper location where shiku was to be performed,
ABAKI
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Peuples
plots
were
smaller
than
cassava
ones.
No
demarcation
polls were
ADR
: Alliance pour la Démocratie et la
needed for potatoes.
And, coerced
cultivation started in earnest.
Réconciliation
Nationale
The average surface area of sweet potatoes plots was 40 square
AEC
: Agglomeration Extra-Coutumières
meters (10 m x 4m). The distribution of plots to households was
AFDL
:
Alliance
des Forces
Démocratiques
one of the major
characteristics
of the
shiku system.pour
The la
aim
was to expandLibération
the size ofdu
theCongo-Zaïre
cultivated area for fear of poor
AGOA in case
: African
Opportunity Act
harvests
of bad Growth
weather and
or pests.
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:KLOOWRS
Association
de laLWJeunesse
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and sweet potatoes were cultivated in valleys. The number of
Rwandaise
plots for a household was proportional to the labor provided by
ALIR
: Armée de Libération du Rwanda
IDPLO\PHPEHUV,WZDVFRPSXOVRU\WRÀQLVKWKHZRUNDVVLJQHG
AM/AP
: Arrêté
ministériel/
présidentiel
on
a given plot
on time.
In achievingArrêté
this objective,
and to avoid
AMR
:WKH
Association
des Moniteurs
duWR
Rwanda
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PRVW SUDFWLFDO
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small
land but tactifully
covered
the other part with
ANT piece of: Assemblée
Nationale
de Transition
some soil obtained
from theNational
cultivated
area. Generally, the
(Transitional
Assembly)
supervisors
aimed
at
demonstrating
a
very
big surface
area of
APADEC
: Association du Parti Démocrate
Chrétien
cultivated land but not the output because this was evidence
APR
: Armée Patriotique Rwandaise
of effective land use by the sub-chieftaincy. Coercing people to
APROBAMI : Association des Partis Monarchistes
go and cultivate in distant places became a big obstacle. It was
Rwandais
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APROCOMIN: Association des Commerçants Indigènes
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la Promotion
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long
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ARD
: Alliance pour le
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crop cultivationDémocratie
in the following way. First of all, cassava and
VZHHWSRWDWRHVZHUHVXSSRVHGWRKHOSWKHSHRSOHWRÀJKWDJDLQVW
ARDHO
: Association Rwandaise pour la Défense des
famine and food scarcity by providing surplus food. Cassava was
Droits de l’Homme
QRWNQRZQLQWKHFRXQWU\EXWVZHHWSRWDWRHVZHUHFXOWLYDWHGLQ
AREDETWA : Association pour le Relèvement
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278
278
Démocratique des Batwa
v
the fact that ACRONYMS
they were lessAND
vulnerable
to climate change. This
ABBREVIATIONS
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developed in the colonial literature that these crops helped
natives
from :being
lazy.Africaines
This was a false argument and was
A.A.
Archives
contradicted by several events. As we shall see later, one of these
A.G.
: Assemblée Générale
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ABAKI forced: labor.
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