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ACTICES OF
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SUPERVISION
CONCEPTS
OF
& PRACTICES
MANAGEMENT
TENTH EDITION
Edwin
C.
Leonard,
Jr.
Emeritus of Management and Marketing, School of Business and Management Sciences
Indiana University* Purdue University Foct \Va^Tle
Raymond
L.
Hilgert
rrs^
«c<^'
XMOIVISOM
^
SOUTH-\A/ESTERIM
AUSTRALIA
BRAZIL
CANADA
MEXICO
SINCAPORE
SPAIN
•
UNITED KINCDOM
UNITED STATES
^
1
TMOIVISOIM
^
SOUTH-WESTERN
and Practices of Management, Tenth Edition
Edwin C. Leonard, Jr. and Raymond L. Hilgert
Supervision: Concepts
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^V;,^
SUPERVISION
CONCEPTS
OF
& PRACTICES
MANAGEMENT
TENTH EDITION
Edwin
C.
Leonard,
Jr.
Emeritus of Management and Marketing, School of Business and Management Sciences
Indiana Universit\' Purdue University' Fort \Va\Tie
Raymond
L.
Hilgert
This text
is
dedicated
to
my friend and colleague, Ray Hilgert. Never a day
not talk about family and the joy they brought
Their children Brenda, Diane
and Jejf,
to us.
their spouses
went by that Ray and
Ray married his childhood sweetheart.
and grandchildren made him proud.
I
did
I'VWlfV
The
I
'ST.!'-
.—'
-'5
first six
most challenging years
years of the twenty-first century were the
professor has encountered during his forty years of teaching. Yes, they were
more
challenging than during the Vietnam
crisis
of the
late
this
much
1960s and early 1970s,
for example. Ever)' segment of America's society was clearly concerned about the
problems and challenges of those years. Yet, during the first quarter of 2006, we
were told by U.S. and Canadian economists that "we should expect competition for
qualified workers to intensify as the population ages and the economy gains steam."
Although I am very encouraged by these and other signs that our nation's economy
is poised for an upswing, I'm not ready to paint a rosy picture just yet. A report by
PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC) has revealed that the number of companies around
the world that have reported incidents of fraud has increased 22 percent in the last
two years. The popular press is filled with reports of misconduct, unethical behavior, harassment, workplace violence, Internet abuse, and drug and alcohol abuse.
Certainly, a lot of hard
A
mentor of mine,
manager!" That notion
life.
The
skills,
work
will
early in
is
be needed to
move
my management
forward.
career said, "Every employee
perhaps more relevant today than
concepts, and principles of
at
any time during
management presented
is
a
my
in this text has
relevance for everyone. Each and every person will be responsible for super\dsing
something and /or someone during his or her lifetime. However, not every student
can or should choose to pursue a supervisor)' position as a lifelong career. But we
can make sure, however, that each of our students is well-informed about the challenges of supervision and give them a solid skill foundation so that he or she can
make an informed decision when necessary.
In keeping with this textbook's previous editions, I have constantly tried to
blend the practical and applied approach to supervisory management. Consistent
\Nith prior editions,
I
have tried to intermingle
and organizational theory,
much
of the current
management
emphasize the skills that supervisors need to
cope in the rapidly changing world. Supervision has provided thousands of students
and practitioners with a solid foundation of management and organizational
theor)',
as well as to
while emphasizing the practical applications of supervisor)' management.
Supervision, lOe, has been thoroughly revised
while retaining
its
supervisory management.
ate
academic
and updated ft^om its predecessor
and leading textbook on
thrust as a comprehensive single source
text in that
it
First, this
was designed
offers materials that are
as
an introductory undergradu-
organized to be taught in a one-
semester or one-term introductory concepts and principles of management course.
I
have also used the text effectively as the basis for our 12- week noncredit continu-
ing education supervisory
and leadership course.
OROANIZATION OF SUPERVISION
Over the
years,
our students have told us that we have helped them become proficommunication, decision-making, and conflict resolution skills.
cient in analytical,
I
Preface
Their awareness of the planning, organizing, staffing, leading, and controlling functions have helped them in their careers.
two editions,
In keeping with the prior
Practices of Management
•
of Supervision: Concepts and
Part 1 introduces the fundamentals of management, the functions of management, and the business environment. Briefly, we discuss social, demographic,
economic, technological, and global challenges to modern-day management.
We
•
this edition
divided into six parts.
is
also introduce students to the managerial functions.
Part 2 deals with four key skills that are requisite for success:
communication,
motivation, decision making, and disciplining.
•
and organizing. An increasing numto no time on the "Labor Unions
Part 3 explores the principles of planning
ber of reviewers told us that they spend
little
and the Supervisor" chapter because of the lack of organized labor in their
\v\\\ continue to have a separate chapter on Labor
localities. However,
Unions and include it in this part because while labor organizations affect all
aspects of management, they have a great impact on how a supervisor plans
and organizes. Emplo)Tnent in local and state government agencies, educational institutions, and the health-care professions are expected to provide job
opportunities for our students, and as such, the potential for labor-organizing
own
1
efforts in these sectors
•
•
Part 4 focuses
on the human resource
and inclusion
activity
of staffing.
managing change, building
Part 5 covers leadership,
diversity'
•
great.
is
effective
work team, and
issues.
Part 6 addresses the controlling function
and
conflict resolution.
APPLICATIONS-ORIENTED TEXT FEATURES
During the past
fort)' years,
organizations, talking to
I
have spent
at least
and working with
one day
a
week walking through
first-line supervisors, soliciting their
thoughts and ideas, listening to their problems, and providing suggestions to help
them. Even in retirement,
Corp.
s
make that journey. As facilitator of Do it Best
member-owned hardware, home center and
Management Course, spend weeks on end interacting
I
still
(the nation's second largest
lumber cooperative)
Retail
I
with owners, store managers, and those
who
have been identified as having the
The experience has been one of
The real benefit is that have been able to incorporate much of this
personal learning and super\isor\' development into this and previous editions of
potential to be department or store managers.
mutual
benefit.
1
Supervision. Like the previous editions, the 10th edition of Supervision presents the
concepts and practices of supervision from the diverse perspective of practicing
supervisors, employees, organizational theorists,
and concepts on our own students.
Professor Hilgert and designed this to be
and by
field-testing the learning
activities
I
have continued to provide the best
Modules,
tunity to
self-tests,
hone
dent learning
•
An
and
set
of
a skills-based text,
a varietv- of exercises that provide
their supervisor)' skills.
and
Skills Applications, Skills
Some
to that end,
your students an oppor-
of the features that best facilitate stu-
are:
Integrated Teaching and Testing System. The text and
are organized
around learning objectives
I
Development
that
form
a
all supplements
comprehensive teaching
.
Preface
and learning system. Each chapter begins with
a series of learning objectives
covering key concepts. The objectives then appear in the text margins, identifying where each objective is fulfilled. The key concepts are reinforced at the
end of the chapter, where they are summarized as related to their learning
based on learning objectives continues into the supplement package, including the integrated lecture outlines in the Instructor's
Manual and the test bank.
objectives. Organization
"You Make the
Call!"
Opening Vignettes. To
stimulate student interest,
begin each chapter with a business scenario, "You
Make
we
the Call!" Each pres-
manage by
ents a real business superv'ison^ situation students will learn to
stud\dng the chapter. These case-like scenarios draw students into a problem
situation
and ask them
to decide
what to do.
At the conclusion of the chapter, a "What Call Did You Make?" resolution
opening scenario appears just before the chapter summar)^ Here we
to approach the problems in the scenario by applying the
concepts they just learned in the chapter. Students can then apply their own
to the
show students how
approaches and decisions to those we, and perhaps you, their instructor, suggest.
By applying chapter concepts
paring their results to those
we
to these
opening problems and then com-
provide, students are prepared to grapple with
the challenging end-of-part cases.
Contemporary Issues. To better comprehend today's business world, students
must recognize and understand the complex issues that supervisors face. The
Contemporary' Issue Boxes highlight
and management
situations.
and real
knowledge about supervisor)'
real people, real organizations,
situations to help your students gain practical
Examples include:
On a Clear Day You Can Almost See General Motors (GM)
Why Is Southwest Airlines Different?
Are We Good Communicators?
.
.
Searching the Web: Friend or Foe?
Every Employee Has a 'tude
Using Appreciative Inquiry (AI) to Bring About Positive Organizational
Change
Electronic
Fun and Games: Employees Beware
—Your Job May Be on
the Line
Mission Impossible?
Risk
Is
a Four-Letter
Word
Streamlining Organizations
Rift within the
AFL-CIO, Can Organized Labor Survive?
Does the Resume, Application Form, or Reference Really Paint the True
Picture?
For Decades,
Still
Obser\'ations
A
Many Have
Criticized Performance Appraisals, but Everyone's
Doing Them
on the Essence of Leadership
Process for Organizational Renewal
Managing
Virtual Teams:
How Different
Is It?
Discrimination Lawsuits Continue to Bring Organizational Headaches and
Costs
I
XI
xii
I
Preface
•
Does Your Dress Code Policy Violate
•
You Need
•
I
a Blueprint to Get
Can't Get
No
Satisfaction
My Rights?
from Average to Outstanding
from
My Boss!
Supervisory Tips. Each chapter contains a "Super\isor\' Tips" box that draws
from our experience, our thorough research of business and academic publications,
and our discussions with practicing supervisors. These
with skill-building
activities, give
tips,
together
students guidelines for addressing complex
issues.
Skills Applications.
Each chapter contains several
Skills Applications,
allow students an opportunity to build their anah'tical and thinking
including those identified in the "Supervisor)' Tips" boxes. The
which
skills,
Skills
Applications include a variety of self- assessment and "thinking outside the
box"
activities.
of those people
relates
how
Many of these were developed to introduce students to some
who make life difficult for others. A supervisor or an employee
the person's behavior
may
create havoc in the organization.
These
mini-cases require students to assess and analyze the situation, learn strategies
and apply solutions. We have classroom
and have found that they help our students develop the
for dealing with these situations,
tested
all
applications
competencies needed
in today's fast-paced societ)'.
Cases. Instructors throughout the country have told us that our case studies
are excellent tools for teaching
this feedback,
we have
and learning
super\isor)'
skills.
In response to
number of cases and varied their lengths.
25 percent of which are new to this edition
increased the
The 48 cases in the text, at least
and several of which have been substantially revised, address a wide range of
supervisor)' management issues. Because the cases involve concepts from more
than one chapter, they appear at the end of each part. Most cases are short
some less than a page each and are challenging without being overwhelming. The cases are based on actual experiences of super\isors in numerous
work environments. End-of-case discussion questions help students to focus
—
their thinking.
INTERNET ACTIVITY
As in previous editions, optional Internet assignments are attached to at
one case for each of the book's six parts. These optional assignments pro-
least
vide opportunities for students to search the Internet for information that
be associated with or included
by an icon
with
skills
in the
margin. For ease of recognition, this
in the
may
concepts of the case. These are identified
is
the
same icon used
applications that use the Internet. Students are urged to further
apply their
critical
thinking and analysis of the case to broader aspects of cur-
rent business information.
You can use the cases
sion, as written
seminar discus-
homework
as examinations.
tice their skills
in several ways: as fuel for class or
assignments, for team analysis and presentation, or
Case assignments are an excellent way for students to prac-
on
real supervisory
problems and
to assess their abilities to
apply what they have learned.
ROLE PLAY
KM
I!
Role-Playing. With this edition, in response to reviewers' requests for
more
role-pla\ing opportunities for students, several cases have been revised so they
are readily adaptable to role-play. Based
on
my
use of these in class,
included guidance in the instructor's manual on
them
Skill
how you might
I
have
incorporate
into your students' learning experience.
Development Modules Video. Because students like visual presentawe offer Skill Development \'ideo Modules through our product
tions,
Preface
support web
Mdeo
site.
A brief discussion
Skill
is
web
site.
my stu-
they could be adapted to a particular chapter.
—
— along with
in the text
\'ideo icon
identified in the
margin by the
access to the organiza-
Unfortunately, in this rapidly changing and dynamic world,
things change. Thus,
that students
how
contained
Development Module
tion's
on how
topics were selected based, in part,
dents reacted to them and
I
have provided an update since the time of the taping so
can better grasp the
The following organizations
realities
of the video segment.
Development
are highlighted in the Skill
Modules:
•
Fallon Worldwide
•
CVS
•
Le Meridien /Starwood
•
Buffalo
•
Caribou Coffee
•
Machado
•
Fannie
•
Cannondale Bicycle Company
Zoo
& Silvetti
Mae
My students
have found that the challenging discussion questions
listed in
Development Module \^ideo reinforce the chapter
concepts and help them think analytically. I hope that your students fmd
them as stimulating.
the text for
each
Skill
NEW AND EXPANDED
TOPICS
The appendix
to Chapter 1, coupled with Skills Application 1-3: "Assessing
Your Toolbox What Do I Need to Get Into Super\'ision?", provides students
an opportunit)' to assess their skills, knowledge, abilities, and prior experience
—
and to match those wath supervisory career opportunities. Students are
encouraged through the Skills Application to outline a plan for securing
super\isor)' position, to develop a resume, to develop a
the interviewer,
and
of questions to ask
list
to outline a self-development plan to
a
add
to their
own
personal toolbox.
Throughout
this edition, there
cessfully with people
is
who make
an expanded coverage of how to work suc-
life difficult.
Recognizing that even' organization wants to hire "winners" and that they are
in short
supply or ven-,
ver\' expensive, this edition
advocates hiring those that
have the "potential to be winners" and then the super\'isor must foster that
individual's gro\\th
— doing everything needed
to help the
employee be the
best he or she can be.
There
is
expanded coverage of discrimination, harassment,
and the role of super^'isors as "change agents."
incivility,
out-
sourcing,
Chapter 5 discusses and
illustrates
various decision-making
styles.
Chapter 7 discusses planning and presents a key group of issues related to
sis
management.
Chapter 9 takes a look
Chapter
11 presents
appraisal.
at
the internal
strife
within the labor union ranks.
expanded coverage of the 360-degree performance
cri-
I
mMl^^V^^'^^^'^
xiii
xiv
I
Preface
•
Many
if
not
all
how a key group of supervisory
communication, problem solving, leadership,
of the chapters recognize
issues (personal responsibility,
conflict resolution, trust,
and
loyalty) can
be turned into
a
coherent treatment
of supervisory responsibilities.
•
Discussions of servant leadership, appreciative inquir\\ quality, and global
issues have
•
is interwoven throughout the text. Many of
contemporary issues, and end-of-part cases help students appreciate the importance of ethical behavior in the workplace.
Recognition of ethical behavior
the
•
been added or received expanded coverage.
skills
applications,
Updated
cases and examples include discussions of General Motors,
Southwest Airlines, and Malcolm Baldrige award winner Baptist Hospital.
TO THE INSTRUCTOR
First and foremost, this is a practitioner text. We help the student identify problems
and challenges by tapping into their life and business experiences. Coupling these
past personal experiences with the concepts presented in the text, they are led to
make recommendations
We
for solution or organizational
improvement.
believe that the greatest gift a professor has to give
is
to prepare students,
them to excel in the classroom, enable them to reach their full potential, and
encourage them to take risk. Ray and I invested wisely in our students, as they are
the ones that make our nation's future even brighter. Students must recognize and
understand the complex issues supervisors face.
inspire
SUPPLEMENTS TO EASE
THE TEACHING LOAD
Instructor's
Manual (ISBN: 0-324-31623-2) by Edwin
C. Leonard
Brewer. Instructors always have more to do than there are hours in
class
preparation easier,
we have developed
Five editions ago, adopters
and reviewers
a
comprehensive
told us that
instructor's
we needed
we
grated and comprehensive instructor's manual. At that time,
and Shelley
To make
a day.
manual.
to have a fully inte-
collaborated, using
our then collective 60 years of classroom teaching, and listening to our adopters, we
in providing an
developed a comprehensive guide to assist you
the instructor
exciting and innovative learning opportunity for your students. While many
authors "farm out" the production of their supplements, Ray and I always took a
—
—
hand in their development.
The instructor's manual includes suggestions for making the course "come
alive" for your students. You will find that the integrated learning system that is
found in the main text applies to the supplementar)' package as well. The
Instructor's Manual is organized by learning objectives so you can easily customize
your lectures and emphasize the concepts your students need the most. The extensive lecture outlines in the manual identify the materials that fulfill each objective
direct
so you can be sure your lectures cover key concepts. In addition to the lecture outlines,
•
the Instructor's
Manual
includes:
"Ice breakers" and other introductory activities to
bench and into the game" at the first class session
•
Summaries of key concepts by learning
•
Chapter lecture outlines
objective
get
your students "off the
Preface
•
Solution guidelines for
•
Commentaries on
all
end-of-chapter discussion questions
applications, including suggested solutions
skills
and
follow-up approaches
•
A
•
Evaluation tools for assessing student presentation and teamwork contributions
•
bibliography of references and video sources
Many
additional classroom-tested, role-play exercises, which provide students
with an opportunity to assume supervisory and employee roles and
decisions through application of the text's concepts
We
Support for Case Content.
We
supply a grid to
facilitate
have
made supporting
make
and principles
the case content a priority.
the selection of cases to correspond to text material
and offer suggestions for integrating case content in your class. Full commentaries
on all cases help guide your classroom discussions or evaluate student written analyses, and answers are supplied for the case discussion questions.
In addition to the traditional cases found within the text, we also offer brief
video cases. You will find commentaries on the Skill Development Module video
cases, including guidance for implementing them and evaluating students' answers
to video case discussion questions.
Test
Bank (ISBN: 0-324-31619-4) by Clare Pennine of Dominican
bank contains
Our
College.
and essay questions.
Questions are linked to chapter learning objectives so that you can tailor your exams
to complement your teaching emphasis. We supply an ample number of questions
so that you can easily create several different versions of exams. Questions are identified as "definition," "conceptual," and "application." We offer approximately 30
comprehensive
percent
new
Exam View
test
true /false, multiple-choice,
questions with this edition.
Testing Software (ISBN: 0-324-31618-6). Computerized testing soft-
ware contains all of the questions in the certified printed test bank. This program is
an easy-to-use test creation software compatible with Microsoft Windows.
Instructors can add or edit questions, instructions, and answers, and select questions by previewing them on the screen, selecting them randomly, or selecting them
by number. Instructors can also create and administer quizzes online, whether over
the Internet, a local area network (LAN), or a wide area network (WAN).
Instructor's Resource
CD
(ISBN: 0-324-31622-4). The Instructor's Resource
CD
includes the instructor's manual, a complete PowerPoint slide presentation, the test
bank
in
both
resource for
Word and ExamView^
all
formats,
and video modules
as a one-stop
your teaching and testing preparation.
Product Support Web Site.
We offer a product support web site at www.thomsonedu.
com /management /leonard where
instructors can download files for the
Manual, Test Bank, PowerPoint®, and video modules. For students, we
provide on-line quizzing as well as the Skill Development Video Modules.
Instructor's
TO THE STUDENT
Over the past
tions: "Right
States?"
fifteen years,
I
have greeted each
now, what do you
and "Five years
feel is
after graduation,
"What
is
class
with the following ques-
what do you think
tant issue facing the United States?" Then,
slight variance:
new
the most important issue facing the United
I
will
asked the same
be the most impor-
tw^o
the greatest challenge you face today?"
questions with a
and "What
is
the
I
xv
xvi
I
Preface
most important challenge you
will face five years after
graduation?" Reaction to
those questions has been intense, extensive, and varied. Not surprisingly, most stu-
dents could not grasp the challenges they might be facing in the future.
—
found these
to be the skills that
The chapter
our students
them on
make
Our
a separate
do
what we expect
completing the assigned readings and assostudents have been encouraged to read the objectives, write
to learn or be able to
as reminders,
the difference in the "real world" of business.
objectives, listed at the beginning of each chapter, are
ciated activities.
page
in their
and then compare
clusion of each chapter.
all
—
we have wanted this book to encourage you the student to
communicate, and make decisions, unpleasant as they may be. We have
Historically,
think,
Our
after
notebook, make notes on that page that
will ser\'e
we have provided at the confound it beneficial to make a list of
their notes with those
students have also
the key concepts and terms prior to reading the chapter.
In addition to the features previously described. Supervision, We, provides a
number of other
•
features to
enhance your learning, including:
Marginal Definitions. In an introductory supervision course, students must
we have placed
learn business language. Therefore,
concise definitions of
all
where they are first introduced. The key
terms and their definitions are also compiled in a glossary at the end of the
book for quick reference. It uill be helpful if you develop a storage bank of
these terms as they may be used repeatedly throughout the text.
key terms in the margins of the
•
Summary Points. Major
text
chapter concepts are summarized
at
the end of each
chapter with reference to the learning objectives. By reviewing these summaries, students can quickly identify areas in which they need further review.
Then, using the learning objective number in the text margins, students can
easily locate the concepts they
want
to review.
•
Questions for Discussion. The end-of-chapter discussion questions are
designed to help students check their understanding of chapter material.
•
Key Terms. All terms are listed
to make their explanations easy
•
at
the
end of the chapter with page numbers
to find.
Appendices. Relevant appendices are found
in the
end of chapter
for easy
referencing.
•
Index.
A combined name
and subject index
at
the
end of the book was
designed to help students in finding key topics, companies, and individuals
referenced throughout the book.
•
Chapter Endnotes and References. take great pride in the fact
our end-of-chapter references and chapter citations are less than
I
that
many of
a year old at
the time of publication.
•
Student Support
Web
Site.
On-line quizzing, found on the product support
ww\v.thomsonedu. com /management /leonard, will help prepare you for
your exams. You will also find the Skill Development Video Modules, discussed at the end of many chapters, on the web site.
site,
ACKNOWLEDCMENTS
I
could not have developed
this edition
without the fond
memory of my best
friend,
and long-time coauthor Ray Hilgert. Ray had been onboard for the first
nine editions, and even though he was in failing health during the production of
colleague,
Preface
my family and friends will testify, the
was the toughest
I did not have Ray to bounce ideas,
concepts, and thoughts off of. I am most grateful for his help and generous encouragement. He was a great strength to me throughout the previous editions of this text.
As most successful authors know, you begin planning the next edition while you
are working on the current one. Questions, skills applications, contemporary issues,
and cases come to light during the production of one edition too late to be included
but are saved for the next one. Even though I am officially retired, I still teach noncredit continuing education courses and conduct supenisory development programs for various organizations. This gives me an opportunity' to classroom-test the
various skills applications. You Make the Calls, and cases before they fmd their way
previous editions,
journey through
we
still
talked even-day. As
this edition
—
my text.
into
First,
I
am
Management
Affairs,
thankful to John \\ ellington,
Sciences; Chancellor
Mike
Dean of the School of Business and
and Mce-Chancellor of Academic
\\artell,
Susan Hannah, and various colleagues at Indiana Universit)' Purdue
(IPFW) who have provided support and encouragement for
Universit)' Fort \\a)Tie
this
and previous
editions.
A long time ago, became cominced that the author is but one spoke in the wheel
I
that drives a successful text.
Simply
stated, this edition
through the support and encouragement of
of Supervision has
many people.
come about
want to thank
the South-Westem / Thomson Learning team for its tremendous support and assistance during the preparation of the 10th edition of Supervision. I want to acknowledge
Mardell Glinski Schultz, Sr. Developmental Editor, who kept me on a tight schedule
and made significant suggestions to content. I also thank Joe Sabatino, Sr.
Acquisitions Editor, and Kimberly Kanakes, Sr. Marketing Manager, for their efforts
on behalf of this text. .Also to Kelly Hoard, Production Project Manager, and Mahine
Litten, at
am
especially
LE.AP Publishing Senices, for their management of the production process
and Tippy Mcintosh
I
I
for her excellent
work on the
grateful for the help with the
internal
and cover
designs.
supplemental package. Shelley Brewer
is
a
work with as we assembled the comprehensive Instructor's Manual. Clare
Pennino, Dominican College, has done a great job ^vith the Test Bank, and Charlie
jewel to
Cook,
Alabama, with the PowerPoint® presentation slides.
the Calls and end-of-part cases resulted from the
consulting acti\ities of Professors Leonard and Hilgert. Several colleagues collaborated with me in the production and presentation of these, including Roy A. Cook of
Fort Lewis College, Karen Moustafa of IPF\V, and Francine Segars of IPFW. Several
skills applications and cases were adapted for inclusion in this edition of Supervision
from Edwin C. Leonard, Jr., and Roy A. Cook, Human Resource Managet7ient: 21st
Universit)' of \Vest
Most of the opening You Make
Century Challenges. Their contributions are appropriately recognized in the
I
particularly want to recognize the follo\\ing students at IPFW^,
text.
whose classroom-
generated case materials were adapted for inclusion in this edition. Rewritten as
"You Make the Calll" opening \ignettes or end-of-part case
oped by materials contributed by:
Lori Fitzwilliam (Case 2-3:
"The
Little
Things
Add
studies, these
were devel-
Up!")
Steven Wyatt (Case 3-2: "Multi-Tasking or Asset Elimination")
Amit Gupta (Case
3-3: "Balancing Production, Qualit)',
Farah Gosnell (Chapter 14 "You
Special thanks also to the
edition:
Make
and Inventory?")
the Call!")
followng for allowing
me
to include their cases in this
I
xvil
xvlii
I
Preface
Inc.
Magazine (Case
Elinor
2-4: "Disgruntled
Rahm, Central Missouri
Workers Can Drive You Crazy")
State University (Case 6-4:
"The Altered
Suggestion")
Claire Kilian, University of Wisconsin
Where
— River
Falls
(Case 6-5: "Frederick,
Art Thou?")
In addition to the 48 cases in the end-of-part sections,
age of cases on the instructor's support
more
me
flexibility in
to
Yale,
web
site that
I
have assembled a pack-
provides the instructor with
course design and conduct. Thanks to the following
adopt and adapt their cases for inclusion with
and John Cave, Fort Lewis College (Case
who
allowed
Roy Cook, Laura
Customer Satisfaction");
this edition:
14, "Total
Robert Crowner, Eastern Michigan University (Case
19,
"Bill
Morel's Ethical
Dilemma"); Peter Goulet and Lynda Goulet, Universit)' of Northern Iowa (Case 5,
"Planning for Employee Delight"); Tammy Bunn Hiller, Bucknell Universit)' (Case 7,
"Dissatisfaction and Declining Morale in SDWTs") and (Case 15, "Staffing for Team
Effectiveness"); Claire M. Kilian, University of Wisconsin
River Falls (Case 4,
"What Motivates Callie?") and (Case 28, "Who's Baby Is It?"); Dennis Krumwiede,
Idaho State University, Ronnie Stephens, Central Missouri State University, and
Elinor Rahm, Central Missouri State University' (Case 18, "Did You Write It In Your
—
Journal?"); Cheryl Noll, Eastern Illinois University (Case 21, "Technical Redesign");
Ronnie Stephens and Elinor Rahm, Central Missouri State University (Case 26,
"Romance in the Office"); Joe G. Thomas and Jeanne Craig, Middle Tennessee State
Universit)' (Case 2, "Carol Is Offered a Promotion"); and Thomas L. Wheelen,
University of South Florida, and J. David Hunger, Iowa State University (Case 6, "A
Question of Fairness").
In developing Supervision: Concepts
and
its
supplementar)' materials,
I
am
and Practices of Management, 10th edition,
indebted to so many individuals that it is
all of them credit. Special thanks go to those organizations,
and managers who provided information, company documents, and
other materials that led to the development of the You Make the Calls!, the skills
applications, various contemporar)' issues, and end-of-part cases.
Finally, I would like to acknowledge the contributions of the following professors who reviewed the previous edition and who offered timely, constructive feedback and numerous helpful suggestions and comments:
impossible to give
super\'isors,
Vondra Armstrong, Pulaski Technical
College,
North
Little
Lynda Clark, Maple Woods Community College, Kansas
Leroy Drew, Central Main Technical College, Auburn,
Michael
T. Kevin
L.
City,
MO
ME
Hoots, Colorado State Universit)'-Pueblo
McNamara,
Suffolk
Community
Clare Pennino, Dominican College,
Scottie
Rock, Arkansas
College
New York
Putman, Lansing Community College
Tony Urbaniak, Northern State University, Aberdeen,
Appreciation also goes to those
on the previous
who
SD
offered worthwhile suggestions
edition.
Vondra Armstrong, Pulaski Technical College
Jacquelyn Blakley, Tri County Technical College
Charles O. Blalock, Kilgore College
and guidance
Preface
Bruce
Pam
Connors, Kaskaskia College
L.
Jones DeLotell,
Timothy
A. Elliott, San Jacinto College Central
Enders,
,
Lower Columbia College
Patrick G. Ellsberg,
Amy A.
Lindenwood University
Northampton Community College
Richard W. Foltz, Roane State
Community
Janie R. Gregg, Mississippi University for
College
Women
Helen T. Hebert, EAI-Remington College, Cleveland
James
P.
Hess,
Iv)^
Tech State College
Karen Heuer, Des Moines Area Communit)^ College
Charles R. Jones, Oregon Institute of Technology
George
Kelley, Erie
Communit)' College
James R. Mulvihill,
S.
—
Cit\'
Central Tech. College,
Campus
Mankato
Michael O'Toole, Purdue University, Calumet
Kris Sperstad,
Chippewa Valley Technical College
Jane George Surges,
SPHR, Indiana Wesleyan University
Susan Verhulst, Des Moines Area
John D.
\Vatt, University^
Community
of Central Arkansas
College
I
xix
AB
Edwin C. Leonard, Jr.
Edwin C. Leonard, Jr., is Emeritus Professor of Management and Marketing at
Indiana University Purdue Universit}' Fort \Va\Tie (IPFW). He received his bachelor, master, and doctor degrees from Purdue University. Since joining IPFW more
than 40 years ago, Dr. Leonard has held various faculty' and administrative positions, including chair of the Management and Marketing Department in the School
of Business and Management Sciences.
Dr. Leonard has designed and conducted workshops and seminars for thousands of super\isors and managers. He currently senes as academic ad\isor and
coordinator of Do-it-Best Corp. s Retail Management Training Course; this comprehensive program is for store owners, managers, and those who have potential
for management. A member-owned cooperative. Do it Best, Corp. is one of the
nations largest hardware and building materials retailers. From 1970 through 2001,
Dr. Leonard was affiliated with a full-service management consulting firm. He continues to provide leadership and board member training for a consortium of 28
Dr.
Dr.
not-for-profit agencies.
Dr. Leonard's priman' research interests are in the areas of management development, organizational climate and leadership, human resource management
interx'entions, and case development. He has published in varied academic and
professional journals, instructional supplement manuals, and proceedings.
Dr. Leonard has received several "best paper" and "distinguished case" awards from
various organizations.
He has served
Case Journal since 2001. Dr. Leonard has
books dealing with management, three of which are
in their third, seventh, and tenth editions. His professional memberships include
the Society for Case Research, the Society for Human Resource Management,
the Midwest Business Administration Association, and the North American Case
as editor of the Business
authored or coauthored
five
Research Association.
He
has served as president of Society for Case Research, the Midwest Society of
Human
Resources/Industrial Relations, and the Fort
Societ)' for Training
and Development. He has served
ous not-for-profits but since retirement
community'
in
Wayne Area Chapter of the
board member of numer-
as a
2004 has taken
a
broader approach to
ser\ice.
Dr. Leonard received the National Universit)' Continuing Education Associations
Continuing Education for the Professions, and he received the
Award of Teaching E.xcellence from the Indiana University- School of Continuing
Studies. Over the years, he has received special recognition form Ser\ices lor
SerNice
Award
for
Students with Disabilities (Dasel), the International Students Organization (ISO),
and the Honors Program
for his outstanding ser\ice to students.
In addition to election in various
Ordo Honorium of the Kappa
Delta
"Who's Who?", Dr. Leonard was
Rho
Fraternit)- for his
elected into
outstanding ser\ice to the
About the Author
fraternity, his
community, and
This
his profession.
is
the highest award the fraternity
bestows on an alumnus. \n 2004, Dr. Leonard received a Distinguished Alumnus
Award from
his
alma mater Purdue University; and
high school Hall of Fame.
home, which provides
Dedicated to Dr.
My best
friend
in 2005,
he was inducted into
his
resides part of the year at his Jekyll Island, Georgia
a sanctuary for
doing research and developing
cases.
Raymond L. Hilgert
and coauthor RavTnond
August 23, 2003,
some
He
after battling
our
forty years ago,
L.
Hilgert
went home
cancer for several years.
interests dovetailed
to be with the
From
the
first
— we were committed
time
Lord on
we met
to devoting our
and enthusiasm to teaching and to do it well. Student learning was at the top
of priorities. Working with Ray on prior editions of Supervision and numerall aimed at enhancing learning opportuous other textbooks and research papers
was a journey that I loved. We talked every day. We attended
nities for students
conferences and workshops together, and our spouses, Bernice and Ginger, became
good friends. We vacationed together and constantly looked for ways to provide the
blending theor\^ and practice
that would distinguish
pedagogical balance
Supervision from other texts and make learning "fun" for students.
Ray grew up in St. Louis, spent four years in the Air Force, earned a bachelor's
degree from Westminister College in Fulton, MO, and a master's and doctorate in
business from \Vashington Universit)'. He married his high school sweetheart, and
interests
of the
list
—
—
—
—
they raised three children. After serving in various
Southwestern
Bell
Telephone
Company and
a
management
positions at
market research position with an
company, Ray began teaching in the John M. Olin School of Business in
Ray taught at Washington University for 40 years, including serving as assistant dean and director of management development programs. He published over
90 articles and authored or coauthored six books on human resource management,
collective bargaining, industrial relations, and business ethics, three of which are in
the sixth, eighth, and tenth editions.
He always tried to be, first and foremost, a teacher. Four times Ray was selected
as Olin's teacher of the year. Ray served his students, university, church, and communit)^ in many ways. He was the St. Louis area's most viable and visible analyst on
advertising
1961.
workplace
issues.
He was
a
member
of the
Academy of Management,
the Industrial Relations
Human Resource Management, the American
Compensation Association, and the American Management Association. He participated in or directed numerous management, supervisory, and business ethics
programs and seminars. As an arbitrator certified by the Federal Mediation and
Conciliation Service, Dr. Hilgert heard and decided hundreds of union /management
Research Association, the Societ)^ for
grievance-arbitration cases.
(SPHR)
accreditation
He
held the Senior Professional in
from the Personnel Accreditation
Human
At the time of Ray's retirement, Olin Dean Stuart Greenbaum
a prolific scholar, published
and
many
Resources
Institute.
said, "He's
been
textbooks, and he's a controversial, provocative,
commentator in the labor relations area. He was a giant among
We've never had anyone like him!" I concur wholeheartedly. I am proud
insightful
teachers.
to dedicate the 10th edition of Supervision to him.
Ed/
Leonard/
I
xxi
c
BRIEF
PART
1
2
1:
CONTENTS
SUPERVISORY
MANAGEMENT OVERVIEW
SUPERVISING IN UNCERTAIN TIMES
THE MANAGERIAL FUNCTIONS 40
1
1
PARTI: CASES 66
PART
2:
SUPERVISORY ESSENTIALS
79
COMMUNICATION: THE VITAL LINK IN SUPERVISORY MANAGEMENT 80
4 MOTIVATIONAL PRINCIPLES AS APPLIED TO SUPERVISION 116
5 SOLVING PROBLEMS: DECISION MAKING AND THE SUPERVISOR 154
3
POSITIVE DISCIPLINE
6
PART 2: CASES
PART
3:
184
217
PLANNING AND OROANIZINC 227
7
SUPERVISORY PLANNING
8
SUPERVISORY ORGANIZING ATTHE DEPARTMENTAL LEVEL
9
LABOR UNIONS
PART
PART
3:
4:
CASES
AND THE
218
SUPERVISOR
168
298
320
STAFFING
333
10THE SUPERVISOR AND EMPLOYEE RECRUITMENT, SELECTION,
ORIENTATION, AND TRAINING 334
11 PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT: APPRAISING, COACHING,
PROMOTING, AND COMPENSATING 372
PART 4: CASES 411
PART
5:
LEADING 421
AND THE MANAGEMENT OF CHANGE
12
SUPERVISORY LEADERSHIP
13
MANAGING WORK GROUPS: TEAMWORK, MORALE,
AND COUNSELING 458
14 SUPERVISING
PART
PART
15
16
5:
6:
CASES
A DIVERSE WORKFORCE
492
528
CONTROLLING
539
FUNDAMENTALS OF CONTROLLING 540
RESOLVING CONFLICTS IN THE WORKPLACE
PART
6:
CASES
422
570
597
GLOSSARY 609
INDEX
617
i
1
CONTENTS
PART
1:
CHAPTER
SUPERVISORY
1:
MANACEMENT OVERVIEW
SUPERVISINC IN UNCERTAIN TIMES
What Does
Mean
It
Be a Supervisor
to
Schools of Management Thought
1
Uncertain Times?
in
A
Professional Perspective
27
APPENDIX: GETTING INTO SUPERVISION
33
CHAPTER
2:
in the
Managerial
Skills
Middle
Make
42
as
42
the Difference
Functions of Management
The Super\dsor
46
Team Leader 50
Managers and Leaders: Are They Different?
Managerial Authority'
— The
1:
CASES
54
55
66
Should Glen
Go from
Here?
^^^lere
1-2
The Opportunit)' of a
1-3
Up to Your Neck in .Alligators?
A lob Made Just for Me 70
66
68
Lifetime?
69
1-5
Fear of Being Passed on the Corporate Ladder
1-6
The
1-7
Coping with the
1-8
Losing Your Cool!
PART
2:
CHAPTER
IN
Influence Others
1-1
1-4
5
52
Abilit)' to
Coordination
PART
Socializing Super^-isor
New Manager
74
76
79
COMMUNICATION: THE VITAL LINK
SUPERVISORY
Need
72
73
SUPERVISORY ESSENTIALS
3:
10
THE MANAGERIAL FUNCTIONS 40
The Person
Power
4
8
Factors and Trends Affecting the Role of the Super\isor
Super\'ision:
1
MANACEMENT 80
for Effective
Communication
82
Channels of the Communication Xetvsork
85
Methods of Communication 91
Barriers to Effective
Communication
93
i
xxvi
I
Contents
Overcoming
Communication
Barriers to Effective
Managing Meetings with the Boss
100
105
MOTIVATIONAL PRINCIPLES AS APPLIED TO SUPERVISION
Human Behavior 118
Understanding Motivation and Human Beha\ior 122
CHAPTER
4:
Determinants of
Coping with
Using the
Difficult People
ABCs
to
Comparing Theory
133
Shape Employee Behavior
X and Theon' Y
134
137
Supervisory Approaches for Attaining Positive Employee Motivation
CHAPTER
5:
SOLVING PROBLEMS: DECISION MAKING
AND THE SUPERVISOR
154
The Importance of Decision-Making
T)'pes of Decisions
Decision-Making
Time Impacts
Styles
1
The
Basis
156
160
72
the Decision-Making Process
APPENDIX: THE FISHBONE PROCESS
6:
Skills
159
The Decision-Making Process
CHAPTER
180
POSITIVE DISCIPLINE
and Importance of
173
184
Positive Discipline
186
Identifying and Confronting Disciplinan- Situations
The
and
Disciplinary' Process
Cause
Just
203
Documentation and the Right
to
CASES
217
Automotive
Glendale Plant: The Picnic Conversation
Barrx'
2-2
Abusive Rumors
2-3
The
2-4
Disgruntled Workers
2-5
To Accept or Not to Accept
222
2-6
The Aggressive
222
2-7
Fear or Exaggeration?
2-8
Community Medical
3:
CHAPTER
208
209
2-1
PART
192
Appeal
Discipline Without Punishment
2:
189
197
Practicing Progressive Discipline
Applying the Hot Stove Rule
PART
140
Little
Things
s
217
217
Add Up!
218
Can Drive You Crazy 219
Perfectionist
223
Center: Preferential Treatment
224
PLANNING AND ORCANIZINO 227
7:
SUPERVISORY PLANNING
228
Management Functions Begin with Planning 230
The Strategic-Planning Process 230
All
Managerial Levels Perform the Planning Function
Organizational Goals and Objectives
Management by
Objectives
232
236
— A System
for Participative
Management 237
116
Contents
Supervisory Planning for Resource Use
245
Planning for Quality Improvement and Knowledge Management
Management: Planning Required
HOW TO
APPENDIX:
xxvii
238
Types of Plans
Crisis
I
USE TIME
MORE
254
255
EFFECTIVELY
264
CHAPTER 8: SUPERVISORY ORCANIZINO
AT THE DEPARTMENTAL LEVEL 268
269
Organizing as an Essential Managerial Function
270
Informal Organization
Unit)' of
Command
and Authority Relationships
The Span-of-Management
Project
272
273
277
Departmentalization
The
Principle
Management-T)'pe Organizational Structure
Planning the "Ideal" Departmental Structure
Organizational Tools and Their AppUcations
279
282
283
Organizational Principles in an Era of Organizational Downsizings
Organizing for Effective Meeting Management
CHAPTER
9:
288
LABOR UNIONS AND THE SUPERVISOR 298
Labor Unions Are
Still
Part of Super\isor\' Organizational Concerns
Understanding Employee Efforts to Unionize
304
Union-Organizing Efforts and the Super\isor
305
The
Super\'isor's
Involvement in Union -Management Relationships
The
Super\'isor's
Limited Role in Labor Agreement Negotiations
The Supervisor s Major Role
The Steward and
PART
3:
3-1
285
CASES
in
Labor Agreement Apphcation
299
307
307
308
312
the Superxisor
320
Sanders Supermarkets Store
and Control?
16:
WTiatever
Happened
to Planning
320
3-2
Multi-Tasking or Asset Elimination?
3-3
Barry Automotive s AlHsonville Plant: Balancing Production, Quality,
321
and Inventor}' 324
3-4
Who Made the
3-5
Romance on
3-6
Just
3-7
Stop the Union!
3-8
It
Another
Takes
Two
Coffee?
Crisis?
to
PART4: STAFFINC
CHAPTER
10:
325
the Assembly Line
327
328
330
Tango
330
333
THE SUPERVISOR AND EMPLOYEE RECRUITMENT, SELECTION.
AND TRAINING 334
ORIENTATION,
The
Staffing Function
and the
Human
Preparing to Meet Staffing Needs
Interviewing and Choosing from
Resources Department
335
Among Qualified Applicants
341
338
i
xxviii
I
Contents
344
Preparing for a Selection Inter\iew
Making the Hiring Decision
Orienting
New Employees
354
356
Training and Developing Employees
360
CHAPTER 11: PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT: APPRAISING, COACHING,
PROMOTING, AND COMPENSATING 372
The Performance Management Process 373
The Employee Performance Appraisal 375
Timing Performance Appraisals
379
Advantages of a Formal Appraisal System
381
The Performance Appraisal Process 383
The Appraisal Meeting 386
Managing Performance Appraisal
Results:
Coaching Employees
Managing Performance Appraisal
Results:
Promoting Employees
Managing Performance Appraisal
Results:
Compensating Employees
PART
4:
CASES
Someone
4-2
Harn.'
Brouns
4-3
From
Part
4-4
The
4-5
Sanders Supermarkets Store 21: Orientation of a
4-6
I
4-7
Can Evenone Be
4-8
It's
PART
5:
395
398
411
4-
Failed to Check!
411
Delicate Choice
Time
to Full
Stress Inter\'iew
Time?
412
413
Approach
414
Hate Performance Appraisals!
Not
392
Fair!
Excellent?
New Employee
415
416
417
418
LEADING 421
CHAPTER 12: SUPERVISORY LEADERSHIP AND THE MANAGEMENT
OF CHANGE 422
Leadership:
The Core of Super\isory Management 423
Contemporary- Thoughts on Leadership
426
The Process of Delegation 428
Delegation by the Super\isor
Approaches
433
to Supenison.' Leadership
Introducing Change
435
441
CHAPTER 13: MANAGING WORK GROUPS: TEAMWORK. MORALE,
AND COUNSELING 458
Understanding Work Groups and Their Importance
Classifications of
460
Work Groups 46
Research Insights for Managing
Work Groups 463
Understanding and Maintaining Employee Morale
Factors Influencing Morale
468
470
,
7
3
1
Contents
Assessing Employee Morale
I
xxlx
473
The Supervisor s Counseling Role 476
Programs
CHAPTER
for
SUPERVISING A DIVERSE WORKFORCE
14:
Managing
Employees with Personal and Work-Related Problems
Diversity
Is
the Bottom-Line Concern
Protected-Group Employees and Supervising
Supervising Racial and Ethnic Minorities
Women
Super\'ising
478
492
493
495
Diversity'
499
502
Super\asing Employees with Disabilities
510
Supervising Older Workers and Employees with Differing Religious Beliefs
Protected-Group Supervisors
516
Supervising Well: The Overriding Consideration
5:
5-1
CASES
The
5-3
Who
5-4
No
5-5
Is
5
1
528
Micro Mike
5-2
528
Interfering Administrative Assistant
Needs Six Sigma?
Place for
Women
in the
She on Our Team or
529
530
Maintenance Department
Isn't
She?
53
533
5-6
Sanders Supermarkets: Sexual Harassment in the Accounting Office
5-7
You're
5-8
Cubicle Terror
PART
6:
CHAPTER
The
What?
536
539
FUNDAMENTALS OF CONTROLLING 540
Supervisor's Role in Controlling
Time Factor Control Mechanisms
Steps in the Control Process
Budgetary' Control
16:
547
549
556
Cost Control and the Supenisor
Other Control Areas
541
545
Characteristics of Effective Controls
CHAPTER
534
535
CONTROLLING
15:
1
516
Understanding Reverse Discrimination
PART
5
559
561
RESOLVING CONFLICTS IN THE WORKPLACE
Disagreements and Conflicts Are Part of the Workplace
570
571
Resolving Conflicts Successfully Requires Effective Communication
Complaints and Grievances
in Super\'ision
577
Procedures for Resolving Grievances and Complaints
The Super\'isor and the
and Grievances 583
574
579
Significant First Step in Resolving
Supervisor)' Guidelines for Resolving Complaints
Complaints
and Grievances
585
4
I
XXX
I
Contents
PART
6:
CASES
597
6-1
Micheles
6-2
Resistance to a
First Job
597
Work-Sampling Program
599
6-3
Sanders Supermarkets Store: Locker-Room Theft
6-4
The Altered Suggestion
6-5
Frederick,
6-6
Resentment Toward the African-American Supervisor
6-7
AIDS Phobia 605
6-8
Could You Have Prevented the
Where
600
602
Art Thou?
603
Crisis?
604
606
GLOSSARY 609
INDEX
617
J
^yl
SUPERVISION
CONCEPTS
OF
& PRACTICES
MANAGEMENT
TENTH EDITION
Edwin
C.
Leonard,
Jr.
Emeritus of Management and Marketing, School of Business and Management Sciences
Indiana Universitv Purdue University' Fort Wa\Tie
Raymond
L.
Hilgert
a.
L
V
ft^!l£
fcfltf^'#
A
P
T
E
SUPERVISING IN
UNCERTAIN TIMES
•^a:.
^^.v
YOU MAKE THE
r-
CALL!
Every chapter in this book begins with a short case
section
titled,
"You
Make
the Call!
"
After read-
ing each case, decide which decision(s) or course(s)
of action the person described
in
the case should
make or take. As you read each chapter, think about
how the concepts apply to the opening problem.
Then, after you
each chapter, check the "calls"
you made by reading the suggestions in the section
called, "What Call Did You Make?" This section
appears just before the summary for each chapter
finish
The holiday season was approaching and
Wichlacz, a 21 -year-old junior
was excited
management
Chris
major,
as he walked out of his last final for the
good about his performance this term, he expected to make the Dean's
list
quite an accomplishment for someone who's
fall
term. Feeling really
—
journey to Mid-South College has been one of
twists
and sharp
when
position
Chris graduates. Hunter
Chris to continue to
his
degree and said that something would probably be
available when he graduated in a year and a half.
The first week in September, the Middletown
plant of Regal Corporation set a record for produc-
The 280 employees at the facility that produces casings for hot dogs, bologna, sausage, and
other meats were elated when the record was
achieved. Lynn Weaver, the plant manager, and
other members of top management treated all
employees and their guests to a catfish and fried
tivity.
chicken dinner to recognize their achievements.
Weaver
we've been aiming
We're now the most productive plant in the company."
Friday, December 16, was a day that Chris and
his fellow employees are not likely to forget. Top
said, "That's the record
for the past several years.
management announced
turns.
encouraged
make progress toward
plans to close the fac-
immigrated to the United States
when he was eight years old, and he did not speak
a word of English. Thanks to help from Catholic
Social Services, he and his family were assimilated
into the U.S. culture. Upon graduation from high
The phased-in shutdown of Barton County's
largest employer was to begin in early April and run
through May, with the work being shifted to
Mexico. The move was expected to cut operating
decided to enroll at Mid-South
because it offered him a volleyball scholarship and
it was close to home. During his freshman year, an
ACL-tear ended his collegiate athletic career and
labor costs,"
Chris's family
school,
Chris
tory.
costs by $8 million annually.
the
facility,
which opened
productive plant
so
much by
"It's strictly
moaned Weaver,
in
in
plant
an issue of
manager
1976. "This
is
for
the most
the company, but they can save
shutting us down." According to a cor-
the free-ride that the athletic scholarship provided.
porate spokesperson, "Industry trends are forcing
One
us to take this action because labor costs
Chris
of the athletic department boosters found
a
part-time job
Regal
at
Corporation's
Middletown plant. His immediate supen/isor in the
customer service department (shipping and receiving),
Stuart Hunter, did a
good job
of orienting
are a fraction of
what employees
at
in Mexico
Middletown
earn."
At the employees' meeting, Donald
human
Carter,
manager for the facility, said, "We
two months early so that the employ-
resources
Chris to the organization. Chris looked at the job as
announced
an opportunity to hone
lots of time. We will be working with
you and connecting you to employers who might
interpersonal
skills.
his
communication and
Hunter had an understanding of
needs and helped him balance his
and personal life. Hunter was great at
providing instruction, support, and encouragement, and Chris found the work situation enjoyable.
Working part time during the school year and
full time during break periods, Chris was making
$12 per hour with medical and dental benefits,
much more than he could make anywhere else.
Recently, he and Hunter had talked about the
vacant second-shift shipping and receiving coordinator position and prospects for a supervisory-type
Chris's personal
it
ees would have
be
hiring."
them sixty days as required by
(Worker Adjustment and Retraining Act), the
Instead of giving
school, work,
WARN
closing
will
take place over several months, begin-
week of March and lasting through
mid-May. Carter noted that legally the Middletown
plant closing could have been completed at the
ning the
last
60-day point, meaning that all 280 employees
would have been let go as early as February 14. "It's
not going to be a sudden closure. It will be done
in
phases," he said, "so
some
of the workers are
I
PART
1
Management Overview
Supervisory
getting a seven-month notice. We're trying to give
other employees found themselves
people as much notice as we can."
Weaver promised employees that no equipment
would be moved until April. Carter said that between
30 and 40 employees may remain until the plant is
closed. Workers who stay will be paid bonuses for
remaining until the final day. Most production workers average between $11 and $18 per hour. "We
have a good, dedicated workforce here, and we
wanted to give them as much notice as possible. We
treat our people as well as we can," Weaver said,
"That's the reason we've grown here and continued
to get bigger. Obviously, all that we've accom-
to
plished here
is
a credit to the
Weaver came
to
"Many of the folks have worked here for 15 or
20 years and have never had to write a resume. This
said,
major challenge for them."
Mathews, a member of the National Guard,
could be sent to help fight the war in Iraq shortly
after the first of the year "My unit is going to be
deployed in mid-winter I'll be gone for 14 months,"
said Mathews, who is married and the father of
three school-age children. "It's tough. After being
here that long,
thought would be here until
retired. It was probably the best place to work with
the highest wages. It's going to be tough."
On the drive home, Chris thought about the
is
a project engi-
1976 to help get the facility off the ground.
He rose through the ranks, eventually becoming
manager of the facility. "I believe we've been a
neer
in
good corporate
here,
and
here,"
continue to be as
said.
Chris listened patiently as Marita Sizemore, an
1
1-year employee, explained,
wage earner. looked at the want
and there is nothing available. The job market
outlook makes me feel hopeless." At the end of the
day, Chris pondered several of the situations that
and
I'm the sole
it
hit
him.
He had
I
How
they survive?
will
seriously considered work-
full time when he graduhopes were dashed. "What should
ing for Regal Corporation
I
Now those
ated.
ads,
do now?" Chris asked himself. What
make? YOU MAKE THE CALL!
I
call
should he
WHAT
DOES IT MEAN TO BE A
SUPERVISOR IN UNCERTAIN TIMES?
O
Explain the
I
plight of the other workers.
Then
have two teenagers,
"I
a
I
we have been
long as we are
citizen for the years
we'll
Weaver
"I'm going
a special set of circumstances to the plant closing,
people."
Middletown as
in.
be out of work through no fault of my own,"
lamented Wilfredo Lopez. "A lot of the services
they talk about bringing to help us won't find me a
comparable job. No one needs a meat processor,
and no one is paying nearly what I've been making."
Geoff Mathews, a 21 -year veteran who will present
demands and
rewards of being a
supervisor.
Virtually every aspect of contemporary
the past several decades. Think back to
No doubt
life
has undergone major changes during
when you were
in the fifth grade.
What
from your parents' world.
Today, with the technology available, it is easy to look up various employment,
cost of living, and other demographic statistics to compare our lot in life with
that of others and to see how we are progressing from one year to the next. But
what else is new? Look at Figure 1.1 to get a glimpse of how things were a cenwas your world
like?
it
was
a little different
tury ago.
The
who
early days of the twents'-first centur)' will be noted in the future
experienced them as "another day of infamy"
— except
that the
by those
day turned
and years. The stock market decline, September 11, 2001, the
Hurricane Katrina, earthquakes and tsunami, terrorist attacks
throughout the world, elevated terrorism alerts in the United States, uncertain economic conditions, accounting frauds, bankruptcy filings by major airlines, and
political scandals have dominated the headlines. But for many employees, it has
been a time of employers imposing work-rule concessions, wage freezes or pay cuts,
and asking them to pay for a larger percentage of their healthcare costs, if they even
into weeks, months,
war
in
Iraq,
have healthcare.
CHAPTER
1
Supervising
in
Uncertain Times
FIGURE
A
earthquake devastated much of the U.S. West Coast, whose industrial and trading hub, San Francisco, was literally reduced to rubble by a series
of tremors and fires.
terrible
The average
expectancy
life
Fewer than 10 percent of
I
1.1
TheYear 1906—What
Century
a Difference a
Makes
the United States was 47 years.
in
Americans had graduated from high school.
all
Only 14 percent of the homes
the United States had a bathtub.
in
Marijuana, heroin, and morphine were available over the counter at the local
corner drugstore.
Only 8 percent of the homes had
There were only 8,000 cars
in
a
the United States.
The Wright brothers were granted
— by the
airplane
Alabama,
telephone.
a
patent covering their invention
—the
U.S. Patent Office.
and Tennessee were each more heavily populated
Mississippi, Iowa,
than California.
California
The
was the
twenty-first
tallest structure
Upton
ditions
Sinclair
in
in
most populous
the world was the
published
state
Eiffel
in
the United States.
Tower.
novel The Jungle about the terrible working con-
his
Chicago's meatpacking industry, prompting a series of federal regu-
lations including the Pure
Food and Drug
Act,
and leading to the creation of
the Food and Drug Administration.
The average wage
in
the United States was 22 cents per hour.
More than 95 percent
Reginald Fessenden
of
all
made
births in the United States
took place at home.
the first-ever voice broadcast over radio waves
from his transmitting station in Brant Rock, Massachusetts, surprising wireless
telegraph operators as far away as Virginia.
Most
women
yolks for
only washed
shampoo.
American football came
their hair
into
its
own
once
a
month and used borax or egg
as rule changes legalized the forward
pass!
The news
in their
doubt
is filled
with the stories of middle-aged employees
peak earning years but
now
in a service industry' that pays substantially less than
previous employment.
Human
expected to be
work
what they made
— no
at their
and disillusioned. A recent study by
Resource Management (SHRM),
Resource (HR) professionals, found that 79 percent of
Many workers
are angry
CareerJournal.com and the Society for
the organization for
who
face the stark reahty of looking for
Human
employee respondents were either actively or passively searching for a new job with
a new employer. Employees age 55 and older were much less likely than other
employees to begin or increase a job search. The potential loss of talent has many
SHRM
The Society
for
Human
Resource Management
a professional
for
HR
is
organization
professionals.
them negative.^
American workers believe that their bosses
managers do not treat them fairly. Across the
implications for an organization, most of
Unfortunately,
more than
half of
lack integrity and say that their
American workforce, only 45 percent of workers say they are satisfied with their
jobs.- The list of fallen CEOs grows longer and longer. When Philip Purcell stepped
down as CEO of Morgan Stanley, he walked away with a going away gift of $62.3
million. Who can blame the rank-and-file employee from feeling abused?
Corporate insiders seemed to have made out like bandits. Not surprisingly, one poll
4
I
PART
Supervisory
1
Management Overview
reported that 81 percent of investors had
little
confidence
in those
—
Business." Americans wanted business to clean
running "Big
—
up its act
legally and ethically
and
regulators to beef up policing/' There is little doubt that major changes will continue to take place in our society during coming years, and continuing change will
challenge every organization.
If
they and their organizations are to survive, managers
be
at all levels will
at
the
and coping with trends, factors, and problems requiring
attention and more effective management. This book focuses primarily on the first
tier of management, which is generally called the supervisory level, or super^isory
management. Supervisors are first-level managers who are in charge of entr)'-level
and other departmental employees. In The Effective Executive, noted management
authority Peter F. Drucker defined an executive as any member of the organization
who makes decisions that materially affect the capacity^ of the organization to perform and obtain results. Drucker, revered as the father of modern management, died
on November 11, 2005. Figure 1.2 presents an overview of some of his thoughts and
forefront of planning
Supervisors
First-level managers
in
charge of entry-level and
other departmental
employees.
ideas.
Today's managers and supervisors, whether they are in factories, nursing care
units, business offices, retail stores, or
ian direction
and
Managers everywhere
ance fi-om their
Working supervisors
First-level individuals who
perform supervisory
functions but who may
not legally or
part of
officially
be
management.
human
resources and to do so in an environment that
many organizations, much of the supervisory work is performed by individwho may not officially or legally be considered part of management. While
these individuals perform many of the supervisor)' functions discussed in this book,
In
they usually have limited authority' and are typically called working supervisors.
for these individuals include
"the father of modern
management,"
identify
theory and
relevant todav.
all first-level
and facilitator. For
individuals
and principles discussed
foreman /forewoman, group/team
we use the term supen'isor to
brevity,
who carry out
supervisory functions. The concepts
apply to such individuals,
in this text generally
whom we
consider to be "managers," even though officially or legally they are not part of the
important ideas about
practices that are
constantly
uals
leader, lead person, coach,
management
is
changing.
Other designations
many
continue to expect supervisors to obtain better perform-
will
Peter Drucker, considered
contributed
government agencies, realize that authoritardo not bring about the desired results.
close control usually
still
management structure.
Most people obtain their first management experience in supervisory
management positions. Supervisory work has become more complex,
recognized
sophisticated,
sonal
and demanding, and
it
requires professional and interper-
skills.^
Although the systematic study of management has
twentieth-century
phenomenon
largely
been
a
thanks, in part, to the contributions of
Drucker, some knowledge of the past
is
helpful
when looking
to the future.
Further, a brief overview of the major schools, or approaches, to
manage-
and practices can provide some foundation and perspective
and practices presented in this book.
This book is intended for both practicing and potential supervisors,
especially students who are studying the field of management as one of
ment
theories
for the supervisory concepts
their career choices. At the
section that helps those
positions to identify
ing.
end of
who
this
chapter
and discuss some important
This section includes a
is
a
"Supervisory Tips"
management
when job hunt-
are seeking supervisory or
number of
for those aspiring to be supervisors
and
factors
career tips that are essential
that
probably are
vital to
almost
any type of career planning, regardless of one's choice of position or
organization.
CHAPTER
1
Supervising
in
Uncertain Times
FIGURE
A TRIBUTE TO PETER
OF
DRUCKER, FATHER
F.
He wrote
Management
in
strategy and
most of the
contemporary business publications and authored books that set the foundation
for this and other texts.
Drucker was born in 1909 in Vienna and was educated there and in England.
After working as an economist for an international bank, Drucker came to the United
States in 1937. He began his teaching career at Bennington College, taught for
more than 20 years at the Graduate Business School of New York University, and was
Clarke Professor of Social Studies at Claremont Graduate University. Its Graduate
Management School was named after him in 1984. To say that he revolutionized
business by systematizing the study of management would be an understatement.
USA Today perhaps said it best: "Peter Drucker, who died Friday, 1 1 days short
of his 96**" birthday, was his own best advertisement for the concept of the knowledge worker, which he identified more than 40 years ago; those who work with their
minds, and thus own their means of production."'' In 1997, Drucker was featured on
the cover of Forbes magazine under the headline, "Still the Youngest Mind," and
Business Week called him "the most enduring management thinker of our time." In
2002, President Bush honored him with the Presidential Medal of Freedom.
In the early 1940s, General Motors invited Drucker to study its inner workings. That experience led to his 1946 book Concept of the Corporation. He went
on to write more than 30 books. His books and thoughts are available at
http://www.peter-drucker.com/. A few of Drucker's comments are included below:
A manager
Company
In
not-for-profit organizations.
for
responsible for the application and performance of knowledge.
Never
cultures are like country cultures.
instead, to
Efficiency
is
and
change one.
try to
Try,
work with what you've got.
is
doing things
right; effectiveness
a period of upheaval, such as the
Making good decisions
is
The most important thing
a crucial
in
is
doing the right things.
one we are
skill
living in,
change
is
the norm.
at every level.
communication
is
hearing what
isn't
being
said.
The most efficient way to produce anything is to bring together under one management as many as possible of the activities needed to turn out the product.
Most of what we
call
management
consists of
making
it
difficult for
people to
get their work done.
There
is
an enormous number of managers
Time is the scarcest resource, and unless
managed.
We now
accept the fact that learning
of change.
The most pressing
task
is
is
it
who have
is
retired
on the
managed, nothing
a lifelong
job.
else can
be
process of keeping abreast
to teach people
how
to learn.
USA Today (November 1 1 2005), p. B3. Also
Modern Management, Dies at 95," The Associated Press as reported
in the Lafayette,
IN Journal and Courier (November 12, 2005), p. 85; http://www.peter-drucker.com;
http://ww/w.leadertoleader.org. It is hard to select from among Drucker's books, but we recommend the following: The Practice of Management (New York: Harper Collins Publishing, 1954); The Effective Executive (New
York: Harper & Row, 1964, 1986J; The Effective Executive (New York: Harper Collins, 1967, 2005); Management
Challenges for the 2P' Century (New York: Harper Collins, 1999); The Daily Drucker: 366 Days of Insight &
Motivation for Getting the Right Things Done (New York: Harper Collins, 2004).
Sources:
(1)
Bruce Rosenstein, "Visionary Writer Mined the Mine,"
see, Alex Veiga, "Peter Drucker, Father of
1.2
Drucker's Thoughts on
MODERN MANAGEMENT
Peter Drucker was a writer, teacher, and consultant specializing
policy for businesses
,
I
r
PART
1
Management Overview
Supervisory
SCHOOLS OF MANAOEMENT THOUGHT
Describe the contributions
of four schools of
management thought.
Management
practices can be traced throughout history.
the Pyramids of Egx^pt, the
Roman
The Great Wall of China,
Tower, and the Statue of
from the application of management principles. Many early
schools of thought still influence the way people approach the supervisory task.
While there is no universally accepted theory' of management, there is a common
thread among the theories. Each theory attempts to answer the question, "What is the
best way to manage the task at hand?" While there is little agreement on the number
and nomenclature of the various management theories, four deserve mention: ( 1 ) the
Liberty
all
Eiffel
resulted
management approach,
scientific
Coliseum, the
(2) the functional
approach, (3) the
human
rela-
tions/behavioral approach, and (4) the quantitative /systems approaches.''
SCIENTIFIC
One
Scientific
management
approach
School of management
thought that focuses on
determining the most
efficient ways to increase
output and productivity.
MANAGEMENT
first approaches in the twentieth-century study of management was the
management approach, which focused on determining the most efficient
of the
scientific
output and productivity'. Frederick Winslow Taylor, the father of
management, believed that managers should plan what, when, where, and
how employees should produce the product. He felt a manager's job was to perform
mental tasks, such as determining the "one best way" to do a job. The employees'
jobs, then, would be to perform the physical tasks of their job. To this end, Taylor
ways
to increase
scientific
developed certain principles to increase productivity.
Taylor believed that
many workers
a result, production often suffered.
did not put forth their best effort and that, as
While obser\ing workers
in a steel plant, Taylor
was shocked at the lack of systematic procedures, output restrictions among groups
of workers, and the fact that ill-equipped and poorly trained workers typically were
left on their own to determine how to do their jobs. Taylor believed that engineering
principles could be applied to make people perform somewhat like machines
efficiently, mindlessly, and repetitively. By eliminating choice, operations could be
standardized. In brief, Taylor's principles of scientific
1.
include:
Analyze the tasks associated with each job. Use the principles of science to find
the one best
2.
management
way
to
perform the work.
Recruit the employee best suited to perform the job; that
who
has the
skills,
aptitude,
and other
attributes to
one best way
is,
do the
perform the
choose the person
job.
3.
Instruct the worker in the
4.
Reward the accomplishment of the worker. Taylor believed that workers were
economically motivated and would, therefore, do th?job the way they were
instructed
5.
6.
if
to
job.
rewarded with money.
Cooperate with workers to ensure that the job matches plans and principles.
Ensure an equal division of work and
responsibilit)'
between managers and
workers.
Similarly, other leaders of the early twentieth-century scientific
movement focused on determining ways
management
improve productivity through the systematic study and application of engineering principles. In particular, Frank and
Lillian Gilbreth pioneered the use of time and motion studies of job operations
through which efficient ways to perform a job could be determined and time standards
to
CHAPTER
1
Supervising
in
Uncertain Times
could be developed. These standards would then be used to improve productivity
and
to
compensate employees appropriately.^
THE FUNCTIONAL APPROACH
In the early 1900s, Henri Fayol, a French industrialist, identified fourteen principles
of
management
that
he believed could be applied universally.
and
their applications in
writers have
which suggests
referred to this concept as the universality of management,
functions, principles,
Some
management
that basic
are similar, regardless
of an organization's nature. In general, Fayol believed that a manager's authority
should equal that manager's responsibilit)' and that the direction and flow of
authority through an organization should be unified.
Fayol introduced the functional approach to the study of management. This
approach defined the manager's role and proposed that managers do their jobs by
performing various functions. Fayol identified five functions as critical to manage-
Functional approach
School of management
tinought that asserts that
all
rial effectiveness:
managers perform
various functions
down
in
doing their jobs, such as
a course of action.
1.
Planning: Setting
2.
Organizing: Designing a structure, with tasks and authority clearly defined.
staffing, leading,
Commanding: Directing subordinates'
controlling.
3.
4.
Coordinating: Pulling organizational elements toward
5.
Controlling: Ensuring that plans are carried out.
planning, organizing,
Other writers
built
on these
ideas. This
actions.
textbook
is
common
HUMAN
and
objectives.
organized around the more cur-
rent version of the functional approach to the study of
organizing, staffing, leading,
and
management: planning,
controlling.
RELATIONS/BEHAVIORAL APPROACH
The contributions of Taylor and others gave rise to the notions that (1) if managers
used the principles of scientific management, worker efficiency would increase and
productivity increases would follow, and (2) if managers strove to improve working
conditions, productivit}' would increase. The studies at the Hawthorne plant of
Western Electric provided some of the most interesting and controversial results in
the study of management.
Elton Mayo and Fritz Roethlisberger, leaders of a Harv^ard research team, conducted a
series of illumination
Mayo and
ments.
experiments fi-om 1924 to 1932. In these experi-
Roethlisberger h^'pothesized that
if
lighting improved, then
productivitsMvould increase. Contrary' to expectations, productivit)' rose in both the
control group (no change in working conditions) and the experimental group
(working conditions varied). Numerous variations in w^orking conditions were
introduced, and no matter what change was introduced, productivity continued to
rise until
The
it
stabilized at a relatively high level.
researchers concluded that the workers performed differently than they
normally did because the researchers were observing them. This reaction
as the
Hawthorne
effect.
is
known
Other phases of the Hawthorne studies are discussed on
our student support web
(http://www.thomsonedu.com/management/
leonard) particularly those phases that emphasized the attitudes and behaviors of
workers in small, informal groups and how those aspects can significantly influence
performance and productivit)' in positive or negative directions.
site
Hawthorne
The
effect
fact that special
interest
shown
in
people
may cause those people
to
behave
differently.
4
10
PART
I
1
Supervisory
Management Overview
The experiments
Human
human
relations
movement/behavioral
science approach
Approach
to
management
on the
behavior of people in
the work environment.
that focuses
at
the
Hawthorne plant gave
movement and
relations
later as the
rise to
what was known
as the
behavioral science approach. This
approach focuses on the behavior of people in organizations. Contributions from
psychologists, sociologists, and other behavioral disciplines have proxided numerous
insights into indi\idual and group behavior in work settings and the impact of supervisor)' practices and procedures on employee motivation and work performance.
Chapter 4, which discusses employee motivation in relation to super\'isor)- approaches,
mentions various
social
standing and managing
and beha\ioral
human
scientists
and
their contributions to
under-
behavior in organizations.
QUANTITATIVE/SYSTEMS APPROACHES
Quantitative/systems
While somewhat beyond the scope of this
approaches
Field of management
management have their origins in operations research approaches developed by the
British during World War II. Quantitative approaches to management rely heavily
on mathematical modeling. Through such models, which attempt to quantitatively
study
that uses mathematical
modeling as
a foundation.
text,
quantitative /systems approaches to
describe the interrelationships of variables through data, data can be manipulated
and outcomes predicted. Quantitative approaches have increased uith the development of computers that can process large quantities of data and with probability'
models that quantify various aspects of problems. Quantitative approaches are
often closely connected with systems approaches, in which mathematical models
are developed as series or collections of interrelated variables or parts that can be
analyzed and used in decision making.
Quantitative /systems approaches are frequently found in large organizations
where
sales, costs,
and production data
Mathematical modeling
would be the
effect
on
r\-pically
is
are analyzed using
used to build "what
sales if the price rose 10 percent?
computer
technolog)'.
if" situations (e.g.,
20 percent?).
what
A number
of
planning concepts introduced in Chapter 7 rely on these types of approaches.
and discuss the
major demographic and
Identify
societal trends that will
affect supervisors.
FACTORS AND TRENDS AFFECTINO THE
ROLE OF THE SUPERVISOR
Into the foreseeable future, supervisors will have to understand and address many
complex environmental factors and trends. Therefore, we examine here some major
demographic and societal factors and trends that are likely to affect the superxison^
management
faces.
While
position. Figure 1.3 illustrates
even.' superxisor
is
many
of the challenges a supenisor
responsible for managing
numerous
unquestionably the most important, overriding aspect of superxision
ment of people. Therefore,
the supervisor
who
have always been
is
resources,
the manage-
the nature of the workforce should be of \ital concern to
plans for the future. Finding and developing qualified people
among
the
most important
super\isor\- responsibilities.
SHRiVI 2004-2005 Workplace Forecast projects the top ten overall trends that
The
human
resource professionals believe will have the biggest impact on the workplace (see
Figure
Diversity
The
cultural, ethnic,
gender, age, educational
level, racial,
and
lifestyle
differences of employees.
1.4).
However, the traditional challenges of attracting and retaining the most qualified employees may be superseded by the more acute challenge of leading and motivating an increasingly changing workforce. The most significant characteristic of
this changing workforce will be its diversity. Work groups will be composed of
employees with different cultural, ethnic, gender, age, educational level, racial, and
.
CHAPTER
1
Supervising
in
Uncertain Times
FIGURE
11
1.3
Effective supervisors
must be adaptable and
be able to maintain their
perspective
in
the face
of rapidly changing
conditions.
FIGURE
HR professionals believe
and the HR profession.
Trends that
place
1
Rise
in
will
have the biggest impact on the work-
Focus on domestic safety and
3.
Use of technology to communicate with employees.
4.
Growing complexity of
5.
Use of technology to perform transactional
6.
Focus on global
7.
Preparing for the next
8.
Use and development of e-learning.
9.
Workplace Trends
healthcare costs.
2.
10.
1.4
legal
security.
compliance.
HR
functions.
security.
wave
of retirement/labor shortage.
Exporting U.S. manufacturing jobs to developing countries.
Changing definition of family (i.e., children
gender couples, unmarried cohabitation).
living with
grandparents, same-
HR professionals believe will have the biggest impact on the workplace and the
HR profession." SHRM 2004-2005 Workplace Forecast: A Strategic Outlook. This report is available to SHRM mem-
Source: Adapted from "Trends that
bers free of charge. Others can log on to http://www.shrm.org/shrmstore to order a copy of the complete report.
i
PART
12
1
Supervisory
Management Overview
lifestyle characteristics.
cultures to
work
The supervisor
will
need to get people from many
different
together.
POPULATION AND WORKFORCE GROWTH
Despite the rather low birthrate of recent decades, both the population and the
will continue to grow. Figure 1.5 provides employment projections.
Immigration has accounted for, and will continue to account for, a considerable
share of the nation's population and workforce growth. In particular, there has
workforce
been a major increase
in
Asian and Pacific Island immigrants,
many
of
whom
highly skilled professionals and information technology (IT) workers.
are
Some
emplo\Tnent analysts advocate granting an increased number of immigration visas
to meet the growing demand for IT workers, professionals, and related highly
skilled workers.' The growth in the number of new immigrants may expand certain interracial and intercultural problems that have faced supervisors managing
diverse workforces.
While managing a diverse workforce presents some difficulties, it also presents
numerous opportunities for supervisors to build on the strengths of indi\iduals
FIGURE
1.5
Workforce Projections
Employment:
2000-2010
less
Total
employment
is
projected to increase by 15 percent, slightly
than the 17 percent growth rate during the previous decade, 1990-2000.
•
The service-producing section will continue
ment generator in the economy.
•
Manufacturing is expected to return to its 1990 employment level, but the
percentage share of total jobs is expected to decline substantially.
•
to
be the dominant employ-
Health services, business services, social services, and engineering manage-
ment
and
are expected to account for almost
salary jobs
added
to the
one
of every
two nonfarm wage
economy.
•
Professional occupations are projected to increase the fastest.
•
Office
and administrative support occupations are projected to grow more
slowly than average, reflecting long-term trends
•
average because of advances
Education: Employment
in
in
office
in
automation.
much more
Production occupations should continue to grow
slowly than
manufacturing technology.
occupations that require a college degree
all occupations.
is
pro-
jected to grow faster than average across
Labor Force: The
civilian
labor force
is
projected to increase slightly over the
previous decade.
•
The Asian and Hispanic labor forces are projected
to increase faster than
other groups.
•
The
African -Am eh can labor force
fast as the
•
The labor
is
expected to grow more than twice as
Caucasian labor force.
force participation rates for
women
in
nearly
all
age groups are
projected to increase.
Source: See updated estimates and projections due out
May 2006
{http://www.census.gov/Press-Release.html).
FirstGov, at http://www.firstgov.gov, provides a one-stop access point for
all
U.S.
government resources. Central
which you can enter keywords or phrases to help find the specific employment
information you want. Much of the material contained in this figure was adapted from "BLS Releases 2000-2010
to this site
is
Employment
a search
engine
Projections,"
into
Decembers, 2001. http://www.bls.gov/news.release/ecopro.nrO.htm.
CHAPTER
1
Supervising
in
Uncertain Times
I
13
Despite low birthrates in
recent decades, both the
population and the
workforce are growing.
and groups of
individuals. In the following sections,
we intend not only
to create
an awareness of the expected differences but also to "raise consciousness." Supervisors
must understand the
rights of
both their employees and their employers,
regardless of workforce differences. Supervisors must recognize the value of a
diverse workforce
and
their
own need
to
become more adaptable
to change.
Perhaps more than ever before, supervisors will have to be scrupulously
fair in
super\ising diverse groups of employees through nondiscriminator)' and progressive actions.
CHANGINO ACE PATTERNS
Both the population and the labor force are getting older. The percentage of older
Americans in the workforce increased dramatically between 1994 and 2004. The
number of women over age 60 in the workforce has risen most dramatically. By
2010, the median age of the population is expected to rise, even though the youth
labor force (aged 16 to 24)
force for the
first
The growth
is
expected to grow
in the
number of people
in these
an ample supply of experienced individuals
other
management
workers, there
more
rapidly than the overall labor
time in 25 years.*
positions. At the
may be
who
mature age categories will provide
promotable to super\isor)^ and
are
same time, because there
are so
many
older
"a glut" of younger employees waiting for opportunities. This
many firms between the number of employees desiring
advancement and the number of opportunities available may lead to dissatisfaction,
causing younger workers to leave and seek positions elsewhere.
\^arious descriptions of worker categories have been provided by placing
workers in several major groups. Ann Clurman and J. \Valker Smith define the
population in three major categories: (1) "generation Xers," those born between
1964 and 1981; (2) "boomers," those bom beUveen 1946 and 1963; and (3) "matures,"
possible "mismatch" in
14
I
PART
1
Management Overview
Supervisory
those born before 1945.
Members of
the generation
X group
be replacing
will
those in the matures, but generation Xers have fundamentally different ideas
about work, loyalty, and commitment. In general, generation Xers have far less
concern about staying with companies for long periods. They tend to want more
personal and leisure time and have considerable skepticism about management s
values and management's concerns for employees. Your authors fall into the last
'^
category and are described by their grandchildren as being "nostalgics"
who
long for the "good old days," want to
feel
— those
prepared for the unexpected, and
the frivolous. We have found that safety and security is increasing important
our age group. Others prognosticators have drawn their inferences about the
characteristics of each group. We strongly urge you to not judge a book by its
cover but to look at each individual as an individual and to view them from the
resist
to
"inside out."
What about
those born since 1982? Neil
Howe and
William Strauss, authors of
the book Millennials Rising, state that these young people prefer group activities and
want clear rules set for them
a combination that is distinctly different from their
mostly baby-boomer parents. Howe and Strauss believe that this group of new
entrants to the workforce, called by some as "Yers" or "millennials," are more spir'°
itual and less individualistic than their parents.
Some have described this group as having a short attention span "flippers" on
remote control. Supervisors should be aware of a noticeable cultural phenomenon:
Each generation of young people goes through a period in which it questions and
even rejects the beliefs and values of its parent generation. There is little question that
the success of super\isors will depend to a considerable extent on those superxisors'
abilities to tap into the interests and motivations of all members of the workforce.
—
—
WOMEN
IN
THE WORKFORCE
AND RELATED
Perhaps the most dramatic change in the
in
both the number and percentage of
some 60 percent of adult women
Women now
last several
women
are employed,
the U.S. labor force. In recent years,
dominated by men.
ISSUES
women
decades has been the increase
in the U.S.
workforce. Currently,
women
constitute almost half
and
have assumed
many
jobs formerly
hold 48 percent of the nation's managerial posi-
number of women with college degrees has increased 7 pernumber of men with college degrees has increased only 2 percent. If
college degrees are a prerequisite for managerial positions, we project that an
increasing number of women will contend for those jobs.
The movement of women into the workforce has affected employers with respect
tions. Since 1998, the
cent while the
both employees and mothers. Nearly 60 percent of employed
women are married, and many are raising children. Further, the number of families
headed by women has steadily increased to the point that almost 20 percent of U.S.
families are headed by women. Substantially higher percentages of Africanto
women's
roles as
American and Hispanic families are headed by women, and many of them are single
working mothers."
Employees may bring their family problems to work. Supervisors must understand that their employees' work performance may be impeded by conflicts between
job and family obligations. To attract and retain qualified employees, more employers will
be providing quality child-care
facilities
or helping employees
make suitable
child-care arrangements. Employees will continue to experiment with different
I
CHAPTER
1
Supervising
in
and work weeks, such as flextime, in which employees choose
work schedules within certain Hmits; job sharing, in which two or more
employees share a job; telecommuting, in which the employee works at home and is
linked to the office by computer and modem; and 4-dayi 10-hour-a-day work weeks.
Given the increasing numbers of single working parents and the concern over the
qualit)' of child-care ser\'ices, many large firms are likely to implement these types
of working arrangements.
A recent study indicates that working mothers go to great lengths to keep
types of workdays
their
family matters out of the workplace, but
will intrude
on
home
their
lives.
it
more
is
likely that work-related issues
A demanding job leaves almost half of parents too
do things with their children. Sixty percent of working mothers say they
have to put work ahead of family at least some of the time and feel less successful
in their relationships with spouses, children, and friends. Efforts to help employees balance the responsibilities of home and job will require better supervisory
coordination, planning skills, and training to help managers handle work /life
15
Uncertain Times
Flextime
Policy that allows
employees to choose
their work hours within
stated
limits.
Job sharing
Policy that allows
or
two
more employees to
perform
a
job normally
done by one
full-time
employee.
tired to
issues.
Another major challenge
trated against
for supervisors will
be to ensure that sexual harass-
work environment. Sexual harassment has been perpeboth men and women, but more attention has focused on the latter.
ment does not occur
in the
Recent court decisions have reiterated the implications for supervisors,
who
are
remedy reported
incidents of harassment. Recently, Boeing Company, while admitting no wrong
doing, agreed to pay thousands of female employees $72.5 billion and to change its
hiring, pay, promotion, and complaint-investigation procedure.'-^ The topic of
obligated to take action to prevent harassment
sexual harassment
is
and
to take steps to
explored in greater detail in Chapter
14.
RACIAL MINORITIES IN THE WORKFORCE
To what extent
racial minorities wdll enter the
workforce
is
an educated guess,
at best.
Figure 1.5 provides projections for the major racial classes of the U.S. population.
Census data reveal
English
at
that 17.6 percent of U.S. residents speak a language other than
home. This
probably be
common
figure has risen
from
13.8 percent in 1990. In the future,
for supervisors to find that
many of their employees
it
will
are natives
of different countries and that English has been replaced by other languages. The challenge for supervisors will be to learn cultural, racial,
develop strategies for promoting cooperation
and language
racially and
among
differences
and
to
ethnically diverse
dominant language of technology, although there will be many
and dialects spoken in the workplace. A recent report published by
the U.S. Defense Department recommends "immediate
engagement by pubUc, private, and government agencies to improve the nation's foreign language and cultural
groups. English
is
the
different languages
.
competenq'."
haven't
had
Many
to be
—
.
.
U.S. citizens are not proficient in another language because they
the rest of the world
OPPORTUNITIES FOR
is
learning English.'^
WOMEN AND
MINORITIES
women and minorities has been mixed. Some
women and minorities to lower-skilled and lower-paying
jobs and have not fully realized the contributions many have to offer. While strides
have been made, women and minorities remain concentrated in lower-level jobs.
Progress in upgrading the status of
firms
still
seem
to relegate
Telecommuting
Receiving work from and
sending work to the office
from home via a computer
and modem.
16
PART
1
Supervisory
—
Glass ceiling
Invisible barrier that limits
the advancement of
women and
minorities.
Glass walls
Invisible barriers that
compartmentalize
and minorities
Management Overview
women
into certain
occupational classes.
—
There appears to be an invisible barrier
a glass ceiling
that limits advancement.
To compound the problem, many organizations have placed women and minorit}'
employees in certain specialized occupations, such as human resources and accounting. These glass wails that segment employees can deny them the opportunit)- to
develop the variety of skills needed to advance.
A recent study reported what most males have long suspected, that women
employ a different leadership st\'le than men. Even though women make up less
than 5 percent of the senior executives at Fortune 1000 corporations, their leadership st)'le might actually be more effective than men's. The study purports that
women executives "demonstrate more empathy, better listening skills, and a more
inclusive style of leadership. And successful female leaders tend to be more
assertive, more persuasive, and more willing to take risks than their male counterparts."'" If
women
are actually better at leadership,
executive positions?
Is it
ter the glass ceiling?
Or
women and
that
is it
why
are so few
women
in
key
minorities are unwilling to fight to shat-
that the "old boys'
network"
still
controls the path to
You can draw your own conclusions.
Two studies found that minority professionals left their jobs at rates two to
three times higher than did Caucasian men and women. The primar)- reason
the top?
cited for high turnover rates
feel
among
minorits' professionals
is
that they did not
recognized as valuable resources. According to these studies,
many
minorit)'
professionals asserted that their organizations were publicly claiming support for
promoting diversity, but in reality, the minority professionals were excluded
from many relationships, mentoring assignments, and other situations, which
impeded their progress. Minorit)' professionals usually resent the notion that
they were hired because of affirmative action and that many of their companies
do not really concern themselves with enhancing a minorin- employee's career.
Interestingly, a number of minority professionals candidly acknowledged that
they moved from their current positions to other positions because companies
looking for qualified minorities were willing to pay higher salaries to obtain their
services.
'^
Minority' and
women
employees
will
continue to need an effective combination
of educational and job-related experiences to provide them with opportunities to
develop their
and develop
the
full
talents.
Organizations will be expected to design programs to attract
women and
minorit)' employees
and to provide these employees with
range of opportunities open to ever\'one
else.
EDUCATIONAL PREPARATION
Accompanying
the changes in the racial
and ethnic composition of the workforce
are educational-preparation factors that also will challenge super\isors in the future.
Of people 25
years of age and older, 51.1 percent had either attended college with-
out receiving degrees or had received associate, bachelor, graduate, or professional
degrees. This figure
Some
is
up from 45.2 percent
in 1990.
we may soon encounter problems with an overmore and more college-trained employees will compete
forecasters believe that
educated workforce. That
is,
do not necessarily require a college education. For example, according
to government data, about 70 percent of the occupations expected to have the most
job openings in the first decade of the twenty-first centur)- will involve skills that do
not require a college education.'" Nevertheless, every study shows the value of a colfor jobs that
lege education. Clearly, college graduates'
pay has increased
(in
constant dollars)
substantially in the last 25 years while wages for less-educated workers has
remained
CHAPTER
stagnant.
New
Supervising
1
in
Uncertain Times
17
information released by the U.S. Census Bureau confirms that a col-
lege degree pays big dividends.
The Bureau found
that workers with a bachelors
degree earned an average of $51,206 a year during 2003 while workers with only a
high school diploma earned an average of $27,915, aiid wages for people
who
did
not have a high school diploma averaged $18,734 per year.'^
The competition for jobs and the increase in low-level service-industry' jobs will
probably create underemployment. Underemployment occurs when employees
bring a certain amount of skills, knowledge, and abilities (SKAs) to the workplace
and find that their jobs lack meaning and /or the opportunities to fully use their
SKAs.
A challenge for many supervisors will be to enhance workplace environments
underemployed. The current abundance of college graduates gives
to satisfy the
corporate recruiters a distinct challenge to select the best candidates available.
We
I*
must keep
in
mind
workers in the workforce
the other side of the picture,
their schools
addition,
do not
many
that millions of
are
in
in
which people
jobs that do not use
their SKAs.
SKAs
A person's
skills,
knowledge, and
abilities.
not have completed a secondan.' school education. In
will
2003, fifteen percent of workers over age 25 had
Of those who complete high
namely
Underemployment
Situations
many will
school,
less
than a twelfth grade education.
receive an inferior education because
offer the varietv' or qualit)' of classes that other schools offer. In
indi\iduals entering the workforce will have
had considerable
formal education, but this education will not have prepared them with the specific
skills that
An
apply directly to the job market.
organization seeking to obtain a competitive advantage can do so by hiring
quahfied and adaptable people, training those people thoroughly, and then appropriately using those people's skills. Unfortunately,
workplace attitudes and
more time and
many job
applicants lack proper
Competitive advantage
The ability to outperform
competitors by increasing
efficiency, quality, creativity,
To
skills.
this end,
companies
will
employees, particularly those
effort training
be required to spend
who
are
unprepared
and unskilled and who need to have their latent talents developed if they are to be
successful and motivated to work. Supervisors will be required to allocate more time
for on-the-job employee training and to ensure that employees are encouraged to
capitalize on all opportunities for continuing education.
and responsiveness to
customers and effectively
using employee talents.
OCCUPATIONAL AND INDUSTRY TRENDS
Occupational and industry- projections are that there
need for people in business-related
healthcare, transportation,
Labor
will
Statistics
be
many
ser\dces,
and banking and
(BLS) forecasts
will
continue to be a steady
such as computer sendees,
financial services.
that, in the early part
The
retail trade,
U.S.
Bureau of
of the twent)'- first century^ there
opportunities for those with managerial and supervisory
demands
skills.
and experienced people with technology backgrounds and professional specialties. The Bureau of Labor Statistics
Further, there will be strong
for skilled
reported that eight of the ten fastest-growing occupations are computer-related.^^
Employees with technological backgrounds who can manage and supervise products, relationships, and people will find themselves of particular value to their
organizations. At the same time, low-pa\ing jobs will be on the rise. Millions of new
service workers, such as cashiers at campus bookstores, servers and washers at local
restaurants, and home healthcare workers, will be needed. Unfortunately, many of
these service workers will find themselves in low-paying jobs.
Deja vu
thing that
—
is,
a sense that
in fact,
you have previously
new to you
—
is
seen, heard, or experienced
some-
presented in the next few paragraphs. The BLS
estimates that the construction industry will need to add 100,000 jobs annually
through 2012 while also
filling
an additional 90,000 openings annually for positions
vacated by retiring baby boomers and those leaving the industry for other reasons.
i
18
I
PART
1
Supervisory
Management Overview
When
was the
last
time you heard someone encourage someone to explore an
apprentice program, such as sheet metal, plumbing, or electrical? These are well-
paying skilled jobs, but fewer and fewer people want to be "Bob the Builder." The
construction
"sunshine"
boom
of the past few years
is
expected to continue particularly in the
states.*"
At the same time,
many of the
nation's largest industrial corporations have elim-
inated thousands of jobs, a trend that probably will continue.
Many companies
are outsourcing certain functions or major departments to trim their budgets.
Departments or services such as data processing, human resources, public relations,
and accounting are especially vulnerable to outsourcing or downsizing.
Interestingly, a rather high percentage of people
who
are displaced
tend to be absorbed by the companies providing the outsourced
by outsourcing
services.-'
While the media and popular press tend to focus on large-scale businesses such
this chapter's "Contemporary Issue" box), small and midsize firms are expected to create most of the job growth in the coming decade.
Currently, only about 15 percent of the workforce is employed in firms that have
1,000 or more employees, and statistically more than half the workforce is employed
in enterprises with fewer than 100 employees. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics projections suggest that the largest growth in super\'isor\' and management positions
and jobs in general
will be in small and rapidly growing organizations, especially
technology-based companies. Many small businesses can provide unique opportunities for new college graduates, and many supervisors have found that they can
gain broader and more diverse experiences in smaller firms than in large companies
where they may be assigned to specialized areas.
as
General Motors (see
—
CHANCING TECHNOLOCY AND
BUSINESS CONDITIONS
The year was 1940. Nylon stockings had hit the store shelves, gas sold for 18 cents a
gallon, and the 40-hour work week went into effect. Now consider the events of the
first six years of the rvvent)^-first centur\': A volatile stock market, 9/11 /2001, war in
Iraq, gasoline prices rising to $3.00 per gallon in most of the countr\', and Hurricane
Katrina, just to
name
a few. Collectively, these events, along with technological
advances, changing markets, and other competitive influences, have forced busi-
way of doing
Most consumers have felt the pain in
and raw material costs on to
consumers in the form of higher prices for goods and services.
As implied in the previous section, computer skills are a must for those seeking
careers in management. Computers now give managers access to a tremendous
amount of information that is necessary for making effective decisions. IT allows
people to be no more than a few seconds away from anybody else in communication terms. This may alter the traditional mode of face-to-face communication and
the way things are done. The "computer revolution" will continue to be apparent
throughout most organizations. Supervisors will have high-powered, notebookstyle computers and PDAs. Advances in hardware, software, and communication
nesses to adjust their
business.
their wallets as organizations have passed higher energy
technology require supervisors to learn
how
to operate
computers
as part of their
day-to-day responsibilities.
A
major problem that is likely to worsen is that of too much information. With
the growth of communication capabilities, including e-mail, voice mail, fax, telephone, and other devices, supervisors are being inundated by an estimated 200 or
more messages sent and received ever\' day. Many individuals have difficult)' with
CHAPTER
CONTEMPORARY
A
its
infancy. Fifty years later, the
auto industry
the principal driver of the U.S. economy. "As
in
was
GM
goes, so goes the nation" was the slogan used to
describe the U.S. economy.
No one
recognized the
Nissan, Mitsubishi, Suzuki, Acura,
As students returned to
Kia, Isuzu,
and Mazda.
the Fall 2006
Infiniti,
classes for
term, the U.S. auto industry was on a collision
course.
Many
industry watchers, politicians, regula-
and news commentators were predicting bankruptcy or, at a minimum, the need for major
organizational renewal strategies for both Ford and
GM. Ford and GM stock market prices were at
record lows (adjusted for inflation), and despite
deeply discounted prices, their production capacities
greatly exceeded demand. GM lost $3.8 billion in
the first nine months of 2005. Let's take a took at
tors,
GM
will cut 30,000
Dateline November 21, 2005:
jobs and cease operations at nine plants and two
other
the United States and
facilities in
end of 2008. "These
Canada by
actions are necessary for
GM
to get its costs in line with our major global
competitors." - CEO Rick Wagoner
These moves
will
pare GM's North American
operations by 40 percent compared with ten years
earlier.
had
During that same period, GM's market share
percentage points to 26.4 percent.
fallen six
Wagoner
said the "job cuts
will
come
primarily
through attrition and early-retirement packages. The
average hourly worker is around 49 years old." UAW
president Ron Gettelfinger responded to
Wagoner by
in
saying, "While
market share
communities,
is
it is
CEO
GM's continuing decline
not the fault of workers or our
these groups that
will
suffer
because of the actions announced today."
Technically,
GM
union's permission.
expires on
plant
can't close a plant without the
Once
September
the current contract
14, 2007,
and terminate any worker
GM
it
can close any
wants. However,
suspect the UAW will strongly resist efforts to
reduce workers' wages, benefits, and previously
negotiated entitlements.
GM's tens of thousands retirees are entitled to
generous benefits negotiated over the years by the
UAM. It is estimated that between $1,500 and
$2,000 of the purchase price of every new car and
truck GM sells goes to pay for previously negotiated
healthcare costs of GM workers and retirees. Closed
plants save nothing in the short run because workers
we
in
Uncertain Times
19
i
at idled factories
get nearly
all
their pay,
and no
cars
or trucks are being built that can be sold to offset
the costs of that pay.
Dateline
November
1
GM /esses.
2005: Price cuts planned
"The new round of incentives
5,
combines the best features of the recent 'GM
Employee Discount for Everyone' program and last
December's 'Red Tag' program." - GM statement.
The announcement came as the world's largest
automaker has been running up billion-dollar losses
and its stock fell to the lowest level since 1987.
Dateline June 2005:
GM says
it
will
cut 25,000 jobs
and close seven factories. "I'm confident we have
the right plan, and there's no question that we have
the right
management team." - CEO
Dateline
December 1991:
GM says
Rick
it
will
Wagoner
close 21
and lay off nearly 75,000 employees. "A
leaner, more productive, more efficient General
Motors will be ready to face the mid-1990s." - CEO
plants
the past.
the
-
to counter
names Toyota, Honda, Subaru, Hyundai,
Supervising
ON A CLEAR DAY YOU CAN ALMOST SEE
GENERAL MOTORS (CM)
ISSUE
century ago, the American auto industry was
1
Robert Stempel
Dateline
December 1986:
and
GM says
it
will
close 11
about 29,000 people. "The darkest days are behind us." - CEO Roger Smith
Employees throughout the United States have
been experiencing events and situations in their personal lives that, for many, had been previously
unthinkable. Employees like Chris Wichlacz and his
colleagues, Geoff, Marita, and Wilfredo, never
thought that their jobs at Regal Corporation's
Middletown plant would end. But for most organiplants
lay off
zations, increased productivity has
made
it
possible
and
companies are expected to continue to search for
ways to increase productivity. Unemployment has
hovered between five and six percent for the past
few years.
It seems like a vicious cycle with fewer people
working at higher paying jobs, more people having
to maintain output with far fewer employees,
less to
spend, creating less demand for other prodexpectation of investors to meet or
ucts, increased
exceed
profit projections, greater
demand
for pro-
improvements and reduction of per-unit
production cost, and fewer and fewer employees.
Historically, U.S. executives have looked to the
government for assistance the "I got myself into
this mess, now you get me out" mentality. We contend that a government bailout of the auto, airline,
and other industries that are in perilous waters is not
conceivable in the foreseeable future. The Bush
administration has been saddled with unexpected
ductivity
—
PART
20
1
Supervisory
expenditures, such as the war
Management Overview
in Iraq,
No one
Hurricane
we
and burgeoning Medicare and Social
Security costs, so it does not have the money to
help bail out these industries. As USA Today
reported, the average household owed $84,454 on
mortgages, car loans, credit cards, and other personal debt, but that the nation's hidden debt
Americans' obligation as taxpayers averaged
$473,456 per household. We suspect that those
numbers will have gone up appreciably since the
data was reported. In short, where would government get the money to subsidize the mismanageKatrina,
certain
what the future
—
will
When
bring, but
the time
—
comes, will you our students of today be prepared so that you can achieve your dreams? At the
beginning of each term, we ask students to look
back, to take time to reflect on the past and learn
from the mistakes that others have made; to look
up, to contemplate what meaning they want from
life; and to look ahead, to develop strategies for
getting to where they want to be. We issue the
—
ment
is
see reasons to be optimistic.
same challenge
to you!
of these organizations?
Andy Serwer, "The Face of Change at GM," Fortune (March 6, 2006), p. 58, and Carol J. Loomis, "The Tragedy of General Motors,"
Fortune (February 20, 2006), pp. 59-75. The GM time lines were adapted from the following news articles; Dee-Ann Durbin, "General Motors to
Eliminate 30,000 Jobs," Associated Press as refxjrted in the Jacksonville, FL The Times Union (November 22, 2005. pp. A-1, A-9; Sharon Silke Carty
Sources: See
& James R. Healey, "Chief of GM Says He Won't 'Run and Hide'" USA Today (November 21 2005), pp. 1 B-2B; Carty, "Union: Job Cuts at GM Unfair,'
USA Today (November 22, 2(X)5), p. 1A; David Goodman, "Price Cuts Planned to Counter GM Losses," Associated Press as reported in Jacksonville,
FL The Times Union (November 15, 2005), p. F-6. See Dennis Cauchon & John Waggoner, "The Government Isn't Asking You to Pay It. Yet," USA
Today (October 4, 2004), pp. 1 A, 4A. Our apologies to the late John Z. DeLorean, w/ho wrote the insider book. On a Clear Day You Can See General
,
Motors.
Visit
http://www.GM.org to gather current information on the company.
work generated by these messages, many of which waste time. The abiht}'
manage information will be another of the many demanding responsibilities of super\'isors both now and in the future.
Because it is difficult to forecast specifically when and how technological change
the extra
to properly
\vi\\
impact a supervisor's position, even' supenisor
cated. Supervisors will have to prepare themselves
nologically
and psychologicaUy,
changes unquestionably
will
will
and
have to be broadly edu-
their employees,
for changes. Supervisors
who keep up
both tech-
to date with
be more valuable to their organizations.
GLOBAL CHALLENGES
Global challenges
will
continue to impact the supervisor. The British, Germans,
Swiss, Canadians, Japanese,
and others have
substantially invested in U.S. firms.
phenomenon is beyond the scope of this text. However, the supervisor must recognize that
management practices differ culturally and structurally in these firms compared to
U.S.-owned and -operated firms.
The production facilities of U.S. firms may be drawn to China, India, South Korea,
Identifying the cultural /value systems and work-ethic differences of this
Eastern Europe, South America,
Afi-ica,
Mexico, or other locations
other factors that help create a competitive advantage.
It is
bv-
low wages and
estimated that workers in
China earn an average of SI. 96 per hour compared to S36.55 for the average American
auto worker. South Korea, which until the 1 960s ranked among the poorest countries
in the world, now has the world s eleventh largest economy.-'' WTien asked why Group
Dekko, headquartered in Kendallville, Indiana, had plants in Mexico, Brazil,
Argentina, and Ireland, the chief executive officer (CEO) replied, "The customers we
supply have plants in those countries. Even though we have a high turnover rate among
employees, we still enjoy a tremendous cost advantage."-^
CHAPTER
1
Supervising
in
Uncertain Times
21
Access to and timely
nnanagement of
information has
become
a key supervisory
responsibility.
In The Pursuit of WOW!,
important unless
it
management consultant Tom
happens here
[in
Peters said the
problem. To be successful in foreign countries, U.S. firms must make
"it's
not
become
the United States]" attitude has
a
a strong effort
customs in these environments. Over half the world s
and a majorit)' of that population is under the age of 25,
dramatically different from the rest of the world. As new entrants to the
to understand the cultural
population
which
is
lives in Asia,
Asian labor force become more
literate,
everything will change.-" International
opportunities for technically competent U.S. supervisors will increase. However,
transplanted U.S. supenisors
\s'ill
need to learn about cultural differences and to
find ways to adapt to nontraditional
management
styles.
Outsourcing of high-end manufacturing and information technology' jobs to
low-cost countries
is
expected to continue. Outsourcing
is
not
new
as
companies
have long sought to reduce operating costs and capital expenditures.-^ The next
time you have to
call to
complain about
a
product not working properly or to
inquire about a warrant)', ask where the employee you are talking to
Chances are
it
isn't in
is
located.
the United States.
WORK SCHEDULING AND
EMPLOYMENT CONDITIONS
General working conditions have changed and
\\tI1
one-third of employed Americans over age 18
continue to evolve. Only about
still
work
a traditional
through-Frida)' \\'ork week. In the fiiture, even fewer Americans
standard 9-to-5 day
night,
shift
Monday-
be working a
because of the projected growth in jobs with evening,
phenomenon
Contingent workforce
Part-time, temporary,
and weekend requirements.
.Another
or contract
that
is
likely to
The contingent workforce primarily
tract
\vi\\
continue
is
the contingent workforce.
consists of part-time
and temporan' or con-
employees. These employees are roughly 25 percent of the total emplo)TTient
employees
who work schedules
dependent primarily
on employer needs.
i
22
I
PART
1
Management Overview
Supervisory
The increase in tennporary
and contract ennployees
in
the workplace
challenges supervisors
who must
motivate a
transient workforce.
base in the United
who
States.
This
can be called in and sent
a type
is
of "interim" workforce consisting of people
home depending on
the employer s needs. Employers
have used these types of workers in an effort to reduce the wage and benefit costs
Temporary or contract employees
The number of temporary
workers who are registered with temporary agencies grew from about one million
in 1990 to over four million a decade later. It is likely that temporary and contract
employment will continue because of the economic advantages to employers who
use such services. Recruitment, training, and other associated costs are minimal,
even though the per-hour cost of contract labor may be higher than that for reguthat usually are paid to full-time employees.
often are supplied to employers by temporary agencies.
FIGURE
It
is
1.6
employees.
lar
easier to find a job
when you have one.
When
a project
temporary employees can
cult situations
when
is
easily
finished or business necessity dictates, contract or
be dismissed.'' Supervisors often encounter
diffi-
temporary employees who consider themselves transients. These employees work at firms only
until something better comes along. Further, a number
of studies have indicated that lower productivity and
increased accidents can occur when employees are not
trying to motivate
committed to their jobs, which, of course, is comby the contingent workforce situation.
Other employment factors are likely to complicate
the supervisor s job in the future. The rapid turnover of
employees is statistically documented by the fact that,
on average, employees stay at their jobs only about 3.6
years.-^ Figure 1.6 shows the plight of one employee
fully
plicated
who
left his
Work
job prematurely.
scheduling problems, caused by employees
demanding
greater
flexibilit)'
to attend to family needs,
are likely to accelerate during the foreseeable future.-'^ Still
I'M
BETWEEN JOBS
THE ONE DIDN'T WANT AND THE
ONE COULDN'T GET"
.
.
.
I
L
another thorny issue
is
the growing disparity in executive
I
compensation
as
compared
to
the
income of most
I
CHAPTER
employees. In the United
CEOs
major corporate
States, recent surveys
1
Supervising
in
23
Uncertain Times
have indicated that compensation for
has been several hundred times the income earned by aver-
age workers. Robert Reich, former U.S. Secretary of Labor, claims that this disparity
of income between executives and employees
is
creating a "two-tier workforce" in
companies that can erode morale and performance. Reich believes that new types of
compensation systems are needed to adequately reward employees for their contributions and that these systems will be more widely adopted in the future.^"
Two-tier workforce
new employees
more
Paying
at
a lower rate than
senior employees. Also
used to
refer to disparities
associated with high
CORPORATE CULTURE AND ETHICAL CONDUCT
Corporate culture is the set of shared purposes, values, and beliefs that employees
have about their organization. Top-level management creates the overall vision and
philosophy for the firm. To provide a foundation for the type of corporate culture
that is desired, many companies develop mission statements and ethical conduct
executive compensation.
Corporate culture
Set of shared purposes,
and beliefs that
employees hold about
values,
their organization.
statements.
Figure 1.7
an example of a values-and-beliefs statement that was developed by
is
management of Community Medical Center (CMC). Throughout the text,
are several CMC "You Make the Calls" and end-of-part cases. You can use this
the top
there
statement as a reference point for
Super\'isors are
major influencers
many
in
of the decisions that will confront you.
determining the direction of the corporate cul-
ture in their departments. Supervisors play significant roles in informing, educat-
and
ing,
examples for ethical behavior. Although ethical behavior and
setting
dealing have always been foundations for
good management,
it is
fair
clear that ethical
conduct has become one of the most challenging issues confronting U.S. business.
The
and
daily
news
with information regarding the misuse of business power
is filled
the contention that corrupt business practices are the primary
profits.
way
to
make
Almost twenty years ago. University of Georgia professor Archie Carroll
wrote:
Ethics
and morality
are back on the front page as a result of the Ivan Boesky,
General Dynamics, General
A June
1985
repeatedly
—
Hutton, and Bank of Boston scandals.
survey confirmed what earlier studies have shown
Electric, E.F.
New York Times
the public gives business
managers low marks for honesty.
Community Medical Center (CMC) employee is important.
With mutual respect, trust, and open communication, we will work together to
Every Pine Village
FIGURE 1.7
A Sample Values
Belief
and
Statement
create an organization that consistently meets or exceeds the expectations of
patients, visitors, physicians,
employees, and other stakeholders.
CMC dedicated to providing consistently superior services to our customers. We believe in fostering an environment that encourages superior service
all
is
and performance.
We
believe that superior service and performance result from:
•
A
•
Effective
•
Proper application of
•
Wise use of resources
•
High standards of conduct
•
A
•
Shared involvement
clear understanding of goals
safe
communication
and
skills,
knowledge, and
aesthetically pleasing
in
ability
work environment
attaining goals
i
24
I
PART
1
Supervisory
Management Overview
If management
is
actively
opposed
to
what
is
regarded as ethical (substitute
word legal j, the clear implication is that management knows right from
\\rong and chooses to do wrong. Thus, it is motivated by greed. Its goals are profitability and organizational success (substitute the words ego enhancement and
personal success here) at almost any price. Immoral management does not care
the
about others' claims
to
be treated fairly or justly.^'
In the future, as never before,
dealing are
at
visor)' level.
the forefront of
A
will
be important that ethical beha\ior and
fair
practices, beginning at the super-
super\isor's personal ethics also are an important guide for
when
decisions
it
good management
making
facing ethical problems in the workplace. Chapter 5 further dis-
cusses the importance of the ethical standards that can ser\e as guides for decision
making.
COVERNMENTAL AND SOCIETAL
Other emerging governmental and
super\isor)'
management
societal issues will
position. For example,
ISSUES
continue to complicate the
numerous en\ironmental con-
cerns remain serious long-term problems for business, government, and the general
and costs may be determined by international and
and economic changes. These rspes of issues and societal pressures often become part of business planning and operations.
Figure 1.8 reviews the federal legislation affecting the super%isor s job. State and
local governments also have laws and regulations that impact businesses. The effect
of such legislation can be quite costly, and organizations may be required to change
their methods of operation to comply.
Super\isors are influenced both directly and indirectly by such governmental
requirements, and they must continue to stay abreast of any legislation that may
influence their operations. Furthermore, supervisors must be sensitive to pressures
exerted by special-interest groups. Consumer groups, in particular, have demanded
better products and senices from business, labor, and government. En%ironmentalists
seek to influence business decisions that may adversely impact the emironment.
Some employees, especially the parents of young children or employees who have
public. Energ)' availability'
domestic
political
elderly parents, will expect that their employers provide day-care facilities so that
they can better combine their family and job responsibilities.
It
seems
likely that
numerous other permanent and temporary- special-interest groups will continue to
place communit)' and political demands on firms in ways that will affect how supervisors will operate in the future.
.\11
indications are that these pressures will remain intense.
super^isor
said recently, "1
political scientist,
contemporar)'
utilit)'
company
have to be more of a lawyer, cop, teacher, accountant,
and psychologist these days than
overstated, this supenisor's
A
comment
a manager!" .Although a bit
reflects a realistic aspect
of ever)' superxisor's
role.
WORKPLACE INCIVILITY AND PEOPLE
THAT MAKE LIFE DIFFICULT
The t^-pical employee will spend most of his or her waking hours going to, being at,
or coming home from work. It is logical to expect that whenever people convene in
one place for so long, their different personalities, expectations, values, and needs
may
clash
from time to time.
Many
students can relate to the playground bully of
CHAPTER
1
Supervising
in
Uncertain Times
FIGURE
Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA) (1992). Provides for up to 12 weeks of
unpaid leave for certain personal and family health-related circumstances.
http://www.dol.gov/esa/whd/fmla/
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) (1990). Prohibits discrimination based on
physical and mental disabilities in places of employment and public accommodation.
http://www.usdoj.gov/crt/ada/adahom1.htm
Worker Adjustment and Retraining Act (WARN) (1988). Requires firms employing 100 or more workers to provide 60 days' advance notice to employees
before shutting down or conducting substantial layoffs.
http://www. doleta.gov/layoff/warn.cfm.
Pregnancy Discrimination Act (1978). Requires employers to
if
treat pregnancy,
medical conditions the same as any other medical disability
childbirth, or related
the employers have medical/hospitalization benefit programs for employees.
http://www. eeoc.gov/facts/fs-preg. html
Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA) (1970). Designed to protect the
and health of employees; holds employers responsible for providing workplaces free of safety and health hazards. Created the Occupational Safety and
Health Administration to carry out the Act's provisions, http://www.osha.gov/
safety
Title VII
hiring,
of the
Civil
Rights Act, as
amended
(1964). Prohibits discrimination
in
promotion, discharge, pay, benefits, and other aspects of employment on
the basis of race, color, religion, gender, or national origin. The Equal
Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) has the
against employers
in
authority to bring lawsuits
federal courts, http://www.eeoc.gov/policy/vii.html
Labor Management Relations Act (Taft-Hartley) (1947). Amended the Wagner
Act; specified unfair labor practices for unions, provided for Federal Mediation
and Conciliation Service (FMCS) to assist in resolving labor-management disputes, and more clearly identified requirements for bargaining in good faith.
http://www.nlrb.gov (On the NLRB home page, either click on National Labor
Relations Act or search nlrb.gov by entering
Wagner
Act.)
Labor Standards Act (FLSA) (1938). Established that employers covered by
the Act must pay an employee (1) at least a minimum wage and (2) time and a
half for all hours worked in excess of 40 in a given week. Classified a person
working in a job that is not subject to the provisions of the Act as "exempt" from
the overtime pay provisions. The change effective August 2004 set forth new criFair
teria for
determining overtime, http://www.dol.gov/elaws/flsa.htm
National Labor Relations Act (Wagner Act) (1935). Gave workers the right to
unionize and bargain collectively over hours, wages, and other terms and conditions of
employment.
Specified five unfair labor practices for employers. Created the National Labor
Relations Board (NLRB) to
tatives of
employees and
(1) certify
(2)
labor unions as the sole bargaining represen-
investigate unfair labor practices, http://www.nlrb.gov
(On the NLRB home page, either click on National Labor Relations Act or search
nlrb.gov by entering Wagner Act.)
their childhood. In
works alongside
us.
some instances, the playground bully has grown up and now
The dilemma for many employees is, "How can you expect me
to get along with that troublemaker?"
Two
recent studies report that "rude behavior
on the rise in the workplace and can undermine an organization's effectiveness."^^
Almost everyone has been on the receiving end of a rude person's temper or a
bully's wrath. Whether crude or impolite behavior takes place behind closed doors
is
i
25
1.8
Overview of Federal
Employment
Legislation
Affecting Supervisors
r
L
26
I
PART
1
Supervisory
Management Overview
or out in the open,
it
and lowers group morale. Who
M. Bramson
directly affects the recipients
are these people? In his book. Coping with Dijficult People, Robert
writes:
They' are the hostile customers or coworkers, the indecisive, vacillating bosses,
the overagreeahle subordinates of the world
with.
who
Although their numbers are small, their impact
is
They are responsi-
large.
ble for absenteeism, significant losses in productivity',
and
They frustrate and demoralize those unlucky enough
to
and
customers or
lost
have
to
they are difficidt to understand. Worst of all, they appear
usual methods of communication
help them to change their
and
are constant headaches to work
and persuasion designed
to
clients.
work with them,
immune
to all the
convince them or
ways.-^-^
Throughout this text, we have given various names to help identify those people who
might make life difficult for you. Topically, emplo)'ees arri\e in an organization with
little or no foundation for how to handle these t^-pes of people. Because we believe
that it is crucial that you understand how to deal with incivilit)' and difficult people,
this topic is discussed in greater detail in Chapters 4 and 13. So that you may better
understand
Skills
strategies for dealing
with people that
Application 3-1 in Chapter
3,
we
make
Hfe difficult, beginning with
introduce you to
associates, or supervisors. Unfortunately,
some of these coworkers,
you may find one or
tvvo that
you know
fairlv well.
EMPOWERMENT AND EMPLOYEE
PARTICIPATION IN DECISION MAKINC
Employees
will
continue to expect to have a greater voice in workplace decision
making. Whether or not a labor union or an employee association represents
employees
will
in
demand
an organization,
many employees
a voice in decisions
will
want more from
their jobs
and
concerning their employment. This does not have
be objectionable to a supervisor. In fact, once super\isors realize that their
employees have something to contribute, they will welcome employee participation
in decisions rather than fear it.
to
Empowerment
Giving employees the
authority
and
responsibility
to accomplish their
individual
and the
organization's objectives.
Empowerment means
giving employees the authority'
achieve objectives. Opportunities to
make
and
responsibilir\' to
suggestions and participate in decisions
and should be supported. However, some super\isors
challenge what have traditionally been management
rights, and they prefer to think that certain areas should be beyond employee challenge. Many qualin- circles and other participator)- management approaches of the
last decade failed, in part, because managers failed to listen to the suggestions of
employees, did not act on those suggestions in a timely fashion, or felt threatened
by those suggestions. Nevertheless, there will continue to be pressure from employees, labor unions, minorities, and other groups for more influence in decisions peraffecting their jobs can
become worried when workers
taining to the workplace.
Participative
Many
supervisors have
become accustomed to
means a willingness
management
management, which
Allowing employees to
influence and share in
ence or share in managerial decisions.
organizational decision
making.
in a positive way,
it
Although forecasts
essentially
If
should improve their
own and
4, 5, 7, 8,
their
and
12.
participative
influ-
company's performance.^"*
are, at best, precarious, ex-perienced supervisors will
Empowerment and
Chapters
employees to
super\isors learn to react to this practice
that these trends have already begun. Super\isors
them.
the practice of participative
to permit
recognize
must understand and plan
management
are discussed
for
further in
CHAPTER
Supervising
1
in
Uncertain Times
Explain
PERSPEt^TIVE
'^^'^^'^^^'
iTt^
most supervisors
responsibility of
important resources
— human
resources.
organization ultimately depends.
ing individuals to
is
it
to
is
manage
their firms'
most
resources on which any
starts
with selecting and train-
continues with ongoing development,
motivation, and leadership and with preparing employees for promotion.
Thus, supervisors
They must look
human
ing
have to become true professionals with a growing profes-
will
and they
sional perspective,
will
have to develop as innovators and idea people.
to the future with a professional awareness of the trends influenc-
how
behavior and observe
those trends impact the
management of
people in a complex society.
In
all
of
this,
there
an imperative to take the professional perspective, which
is
recognizes the need for constant self-improvement and self-renewal.
formal or informal education can ever be enough to
fulfill
No amount
of
a supervisor's personal
program of self-improvement. Supervisors must recognize that they, too, can
become obsolete unless they constantly take measures to update their own skills and
knowledge through a program of continuous self-development.
Students as well as practicing managers need to understand that "as long as you
keep learning to
live,
live."^"'
Peter Senge, author of The Fifth Discipline, provides
further insight:
Real learning gets
we
heart of what it means to he human. Through learning
Through learning we become able to do something we
to the
re-create ourselves.
never were able to do. Through learning we extend our capacity to create,
part of the generative process of life. There
this type
to
he
within each of us a deep hunger for
is
of learning?^
Stephen Covey, author of The Seven Habits of Highly
Effective People,
presented
the follo\ving illustration:
Suppose you were
down a tree.
"What are you
"Can t you
come upon someone
to
doing?''
see?"
you
"You look exhausted!" you exclaim.
"Well,
returns,
why don t you
inquire. "I'm sure
"Idon't have time
sawing.
it
"and
reply,
"How
fm
feverishly to
saw
"fm sawing down
the tree."
long have you been at it?"
beat! This
take a break for a
would go a
to
woods working
ask.
comes the impatient
"Over 5 hours," he
in the
is
hard work."
few minutes and sharpen
you
the saw?"
lot faster."
sharpen the saw," the
man
said emphatically,
"fm
too busy
"^'
Both newly appointed and experienced super\dsors should begin each day by
"What can I do to sharpen my saw?" Covey suggests renewing the four dimen-
asking,
sions of your nature
and meditation),
emotional
(service,
nutrition, stress
who
(2)
—
(
1 )
spiritual (value clarification
and commitment, study
mental (reading, visualizing, planning, writing),
empathy,
management)
synerg\', intrinsic securit)0,
—
to
improve your personal
master the managerial concepts and
skills
why
supervisors
s
grow and
develop as professionals
i^^g^
"nust continually
continuall
human
Managing people
job openings, and
fill
It
and
(3)
social/
(4) physical (exercise,
effectiveness.-^**
Supervisors
discussed in this textbook should
considerable progress in terms of personal development, but just
27
O
SUPERVISION: A PROFESSIONAL
The primary
I
make
knowing concepts
and approaches is not enough. Supervisors must constantly seek new ways to apply this
knowledge in the challenging, complex, and dynamic situations they will encounter.
28
r
PART
Management Overview
Supervisory
1
WHAT CALL
Every
book concludes with a secDid You Make?" This secthe case problem posed in the section
chapter
tion titled,
tion refers to
DID YOU MAKE?
in this
"What
Call
"You Make the Call!" that appears at the
beginning of each chapter In this and other concluding sections, we will provide our analysis and
recommendations. You should first compare our
recommendations with your own, and then contitled
and
sider
discuss relevant areas of
agreement and
differences.
will probably have the experience
employers are looking for, but he may not know it.
He had a responsible position in a meat processing
plant
not exactly a glamourous job, but one
where he learned under a caring supervisor Think
about the things that Chris learned and make a list
of his SKAs. The shower of pink slips in manufacturing during the past couple of years has obscured
Chris Wichlacz
—
the fact that certain
fields,
such as healthcare,
retail
should get a head
start by using the Web, local/
employment agencies, and the want ads to
research job opportunities. He should review vari-
state
web sites to get a
company and its needs.
ous
preliminary overview of a
Chris should use this as a learning experience.
People cannot expect to spend a lifetime in one
particular organization.
He should make
a
list
of
all
the things that he has learned. After reviewing the
want ads, he then should make a list of the SKAs
they are looking for and compare those to his own
SKAs. He has almost a year and half before graduation. He used the job at Regal to hone his interpersonal and communication skills. He should look
around for another job or volunteer activity that will
help add to his toolbox.
Chris has an advantage because he is single,
young, and still attending college, unlike most of
his
colleagues. While
it
may seem
leagues should have seen
it
harsh, Chris's col-
coming.
In
our obser-
and transportation, actually are adding jobs.
The harsh reality of the "New Economy" is that
when you lose your job on Friday it may take quite
a while to find one just as good. This fact is particularly true at Regal's Middletown plant, where the
vation,
average hourly wage
needs of Regal to become more cost competitive, particularly when the Middletown plant
was the most productive of the Regal North
American operations.
At this time, Chris must ask himself the following
trade,
is
greater than $1 5 per hour
more than other jobs
significantly
in
the immediate
area are paying. For those workers without college
degrees, where have
Many
jobs gone?
all
the $15-to-$20-per-hour
traditional manufacturing, infor-
mation technology
and service jobs have been
(IT),
exported or outsourced to other parts of the world.
A major problem will be how Chris and the other
employees adapt
to the change.
Most employees
and it is now raining.
As soon as possible, Chris needs to have a family discussion regarding his situation, and he needs to visit
his college financial aid office to see what financial
aid might be available. Many schools want to retain
qualified students, and since Chris is now on the
have not saved
Dean's
List,
for a rainy day,
he should pursue scholarships options.
A common
made by others, like Chris's
who find themselves without
mistake
colleagues at Regal,
meaningful and rewarding work for the first time is
become angry and disillusioned. All is not lost.
They need to do their homework. Since Chris has
acquired computer skills, he might search the
to
Web
and
this chapter,
his
like
their jobs
that might be helpful to both him and
develop the
row.
resist
skills
Hindsight
is
in
the opportunity to grow and
that
may be needed
tomor-
for
wonderful, but the employees
should not beat themselves up for
recog-
failing to
nize the
questions:
•
"What do
•
"What can
•
"Where do
•
"What sacrifices am
make?"
•
want to do?"
I
do?"
I
want to do
I
I
it?"
and my family
willing to
"Who do know who might open some
I
for
doors
me?"
Chris should take advantage of the outplacement
services Regal
will
provide.
He and
his
colleagues
might learn something about the job-search process.
Unfortunately, Marita Sizemore, Geoff Mathews,
and Wilfredo Lopez are typical of many mid-career
do
They need to
students. They lack a degree, but they can
many jobs
that require a degree.
think realistically about the following questions:
•
"Why should someone
•
"What does my application have
tiates
colleagues.
Even though Regal may provide outplacement
its employees find employment, we
suggest that Chris not wait for the company. He
services to help
and
locate various sites that
deal with job postings, job search, resume writing,
and the
many employees become complacent
it
company
"What have
7"
saw.'
me?"
that differen-
from the other hundreds of applica-
tions the
•
hire
I
done
receives?"
to continually sharpen
my
CHAPTER
and
no one can take
knowledge. Regardless of what the
Employees can
program
lose their job, their dwelling,
away
their
He should
29
Uncertain Times
of continuing education through readings,
and other such oppordevelop his professional perspecand increase his chances of future success.
tunities that will
future holds, Chris Wichlacz should learn from this
experience.
in
classes, seminars, meetings,
their nnaterial possessions, but
all
Supervising
1
tive
plan for an ongoing personal
SUMMARY
A
of management. They
Supervisors are the
first tier
manage
and other departmental
entry-level
employees.
New ways
temporary mindset and an environment
a
that
con-
balance the requirements for
Hawthorne studies
Company. The quantitative/
do. This approach began with the
at
Western
Electric
help solve organizational problems.
An
under-
standing of the various schools of management
high work performance with the diverse needs of
thought gives supervisors a foundation on which to
the workforce.
build their
management focuses primarily on
management of people. For many people,
Super\isory
the
Many
own
and trends
factors
impact
supervisory philosophies.
how most
in the
workforce
will
The work-
organizations operate.
being a supervisor provides a variety of satisfying
force will
experiences. However, what one person sees as an
population, and the age composition of the work-
opportunity and a reason for accepting the super-
force will change drastically.
visory challenge, others see as a negative.
Among
these are the challenge of getting diverse people to
work together, the increased responsibility that
comes with climbing the management hierarchy,
the unpredictable nature of the job, and the
sense of accomplishment from doing a job well.
Conversely, there are reasons people avoid supervisory responsibility. Being a supervisor
is
a
demand-
ing position that often places the supervisor in the
middle of organizational pressures and
conflict.
A
supervisor must endeavor to reconcile the needs of
the organization and the needs of employees,
which often
is
an elusive
The whole world is changing rapidly, and
some people do not want to deal with change.
static.
There
is
no one universal school of management
thought. The scientific
management approach
way." In this approach, the manager's primary
is
to plan the work.
Time and motion
study and other industrial-engineering principles
are used to analyze the
tional
work
to be done.
The func-
approach assumes that there are essential
functions that
human
all
relations
managers should perform. The
movement /behavioral
faster
than the overall
Women
and minori-
continue to enter the workforce in
increasing numbers, and they will be used
fully
more
than they have been in the past, including in
supervisory and
management
positions. Substantial
numbers of part-time and contract employees
be found in the workplace. The more diverse
workforce will create numerous problems (e.g.,
multicultural and multilingual problems, family
obligations versus job obligations). The workforce
generally will consist of more college graduates, but
will
millions of people will not be prepared educationally
to
quaUfy for
many employonent
opportunities.
technology and business conditions, and the competition
science
from the global marketplace
will
be
signif-
on supervisory management.
Governmental laws and regulations will continue
to have a major impact on the policies and activities of most organizations.
icant influences
attempts to find the most efficient or "one best
function
grow somewhat
Occupational and industry^ trends, changing
In addition, major environmental factors impact
not
ties will
target.
everything the organization does. These factors are
A
managers must under-
systems approach applies mathematical models to
is
rapidly changing, the success of the supervisor will
rest in the ability to
that
stand what causes employees to behave the ways they
of managing employees will
be the supervisor's challenge. In the face of
approach emphasizes
Because of increased
lence,
lish
and the
incivility,
programs and procedures
recognize the
workplace vio-
threat of terrorism, firms will estabto help supervisors
symptoms of troubled employees.
Supervisors will have to be sensitive to existing and expected employee trends. For example,
more employees than
ever before will expect their
jobs to have greater personal
meaning
to
them
as
PART
30
individuals.
It is
be somewhat
likely that supervisors will
will
have to
can practice those techniques. Finally, supervisors
who
continue to expect a greater
voice in workplace decision making. Employees
will expect to
^ The
need for a
development.
habits of highly effective people can be devel-
who want
to be
more
become more effective leaders need
outlook and must recognize the
personal program of continuous self-
aspire to
a professional
be empowered.
oped. Supervisors
put themselves in situations in which they
will
approaches to man-
flexible in their
Employees
aging.
Management Overview
Supervisory
1
effective
KEY TERMS
Competitive advantage
Contingent workforce
Corporate culture
Human
(p. 17)
Flextime
SKAs(p.
(p. 23)
(p. 15)
Functional approach
(p.
26)
Telecommuting
(p. 10)
(p. 9)
Scientific
Resource
(p. 5)
Supervisors (p. 6)
management
Quantitative /systems approaches
(p. 15)
Human
Management (SHRM)
Participative
26)
17)
Society for
(p. 10)
Job sharing
(p.
movement/
behavioral science approach
(p. 21)
Diversity (p. 10)
Empowerment
relations
management approach
(p. 15)
Two-tier workforce
(p.
Underemployment
(p. 17)
Working supervisors
Glass ceiling (p. 16)
23)
(p. 6)
(p. 8)
Glass walls (p. 16)
Hawthorne
effect (p. 9)
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
What
What
are
are
From
what
some advantages to being
some disadvantages?
a supervisor?
the standpoint of the prospective supervisor,
is
the significance of the following:
management
•
Taylor's scientific
•
Fayol's functions of
Of those
factors or trends projected to reshape the
workplace,
how might
lifestv'le,
and the work of
your organization? Which
will create the greatest
challenge for supervisors?
Why?
At the end of the day,
management
the changes over the next
ten years affect you, your
how do you measure
whether vou have been successful?
•
The Hawthorne
•
Behavioral science
•
The
studies
quantitative /systems approaches
SKILLS APPLICATIONS
SKILLS
APPLICATION
1-1:
The "Pluses and Minuses" of Supervision
Arrange to interview two to four supervisors/
What do you
managers, preferably from different organizations
rewards of being a supervisor or manager?
or companies. They
may be
classmates
if
they are
What do you
see as the
primary satisfactions/
see as the
downside (negative
already practicing supervisors. In your interview,
aspects) of being a supervisor or
pose the following questions:
What do you
a.
How did
you become
a superv^isor? For example,
were you promoted from
position, or did
you come
a
nonsupervisory
to the position directly
from your academic preparation?
in
being
a
manager?
consider the primary differences
supervisor/manager as compared to
being an employee /subordinate?
Feel free to
probe the responses given by
the supervisors /managers
whom you
interview
CHAPTER
to see
whether they have any unique insights
for
Uncertain Times
compare the
As
3.
a result
more or
chapter. To what degree were the interviewee
supervisor/manager? Explain.
APPLICATION
1-2: Thinking Outside the
Two women apply for
Community Medical Center (CMC). They look
Consider the following situation:
On
exactly alike.
their applications, they
list
the
same
name, address, and phone number. They were born
to the
same
parents,
on the same
day,
Peter
2.
Box— How
aspire less to
Drucker
said,
women
That Possible?
Is
is
a crucial skill at every level."
APPLICATION
1-3:
practical
wisdoms
experiences. Below,
we have
jobs. Carefully analyze each
knowledge,
listed
day.
abilities,
and
seven supervisory
one that you might be
a
ability,
1.
Make
list
of the requirements
(skills,
knowledge,
a
list
of your strengths (SKAs) and compare
for each job.
5.
6.
Need
to Get into Supervision?
associate degree with a
minimum
of
manufacturing environment
years' experience in a
required for this position. Experience in the plastics
industry would be a plus.
We offer a
competitive wage
benefits package. Interested candidates should
send their resumes and
salar)'
history to:
ABC.
Opening
#2: Call Center Supervisor
A financial
services
to
add to your
and coordinate
all
second-shift collections and call
ment
Outline a plan for adding those essential ingredi-
Qualifications include a
ents to your "toolbox."
agement experience,
how you
will
put the plan into action.
Refer to your plan once a
progress,
week
and make changes
Shift
center activities. This position will supervise depart-
ting the job.
Explain
- Second
company has an immediate need
for a second-shift Call Center Supervisor to supervise
Determine what you need to do
"toolbox" in order to improve your chances of get-
4.
is
An
I
application.
skills
experience) needed for each job.
them with the requirements
3.
two
and
interested in, then:
Make
techniques.
Then
that relate to this skills application.
Do
Assessing Your Toolbox—What
Each employee brings a "toolbox" to work each
skills,
you
Review either the Daily Drucker or http://www.peter-drucker.com / to find another
3.
consists of
Do
Why or why not?
write a one-page paper detailing what you learned from this
The toolbox
a
are not twins? Explain your rationale.
"Making decisions
one or two of Drucker s
SKILLS
become
same year. They attended the same schools, and listed
the same people as personal references. Everything is
identical. The receptionist says, "You must be twins."
They say, "No."
possible that the two
it
agree with Drucker?
INTERNET ACTIVITY
aspire
same month, and
How is
1.
account
of completing this application project,
do you
jobs at
1.
How do you
31
I
any differences?
responses you receive with the concepts in this
SKILLS
last
in
responses similar /different?
to offer.
After completing your interviews,
Supervising
1
to assess your
as required.
staff
and ensure
that
workflow deadlines are met.
of two years' man-
minimum
call
center experience, strong
communication and decision-making skills, and the
ability to effectively train and motivate staff. Must be
willing to work 2 P.M. to 1 1 P.M. and some Saturdays.
This
company offers an
excellent benefits package that
Opening #1: Production Supervisor Wanted
includes medical, dental, vision, and 401 (k). Qualified
A manufacturer of plastic
candidates
containers for the food indus-
may
apply by sending a resume
to:
DEE.
try has a third-shift Production Supervisor position to
fill.
This position will direct the daily activities of hourly
Opening
#3: Inventory Control Supervisor
production personnel to accomplish production, safety
Responsibilities include coordinating cycle counts, ana-
The successful candidate will possess
strong people skills and good communication skills
and will demonstrate leadership and problem-solving
lyzing
and quality
goals.
and validating
results,
preparing and entering
inventory adjustments, reviewing inventory obsolescence, ensuring accuracy of procedures manual.
32
PART
I
Management Overview
Supervisory
1
Opening #6: Management
maintaining necessary records for regulatory compliance, and supervising, counseling,
mately
five
Microsoft
Word and
ence, excellent
tional skills,
AAA
and leading approxi-
hourly associates on two
shifts.
AS400 experiwritten communication and organizaExcel knowledge,
development /management com-
large property
pany searching
Intermediate
who
for candidates
possess excellent
are professional
communication and leadership
Qualified individuals will enter a formal training pro-
gram leading
and deductive reasoning required. Associate
degree or equivalent work experience required as
management of large apartment com-
to
munities. College degree and experience helpful, but
and supervisorydocument control
The company offers
well as at least rvvo years of inventory
willing to train the right individual. Competitive
experience. Previous experience in
pensation package and housing provided.
and procedures writing desired.
an excellent compensation and benefits package.
qualified
Please forward
to:
resume and
and
salary requirements
Opening #7: Patient Financial Services Manager
see why we have high physician, employee,
Come and
CMC has an opening for a
and patient
A
full-time Patient Financial Services
leader in the arts
in the tri-state area.
retail store
and
crafts industry'
with eight stores
Candidates must have previous
management experience
in
one of the
who
recent
in,
The Team Leader is responsible for planning, leading,
organizing, and controlhng the various production
processes. The Team Leader will work closely with the
share
it
cover
http://www.pqr.com.
case,
one
that
you are most interested
your interest
Your instructor may want
to see
graded assignment or have you
with a classmate
make
we
than the actual organization
a cover letter expressing
letter as a
letter
as
— you
critique his or her
while they critique yours. In the
constructive
latter
and cogent suggestions.
safety' activities,
8. If
Locating Information
(4),
Teamwork
(4),
Observation (4) required. Workkeys testing
and
will
Develop a
9.
services
now
plus overtime. For consideration, please register with
Department of Workforce Development.
a
is
the
develop a resume. See the
for suggestions
of questions you would ask
it
on
if
you
a job interview.
now
to see
what
provides students. Start your journey
— work
to develop the skills
and expertise
desired by employers.
DEVELOPMENT
DEVELOPMENT MODULE
This
so,
10. Visit your college placement office
Pay range: $12.41 to $13.66 per hour
DEVELOPMENT VI DEO
list
were selected for
be
required for selected candidates without prior
SKILLS
you have not done
Appendix to this chapter
resume development.
scores consisting of Reading for Information
SKILL
and wTite
your cover
motivate employees, schedule daily production,
SKILL
at
letters rather
in the position.
Production Supervisor to coordinate job assignments,
the
all
benefits
ads. For the sake of this exercise,
contact. Select the
and complete
daily reports and data entry. High school diploma or
GED, 3-6 months related experience and Workkeys
wage and
offer a competitive
want
have used
and second-shift Manufacturing Team Leaders.
scores.
and
billing
These were actual advertisements appearing
7.
Area automotive supplier currently has openings for
Workkeys
We
package. Apply online
and top
at http://w%v^v.ikl.com.
Opening #5: Manufacturing Team Leader
encourage health and
all
responsible for
staff.
receivable.
spending plan.
are self-motivated
performers must apply online
is
healthcare-related environment working with accounts
401k plan, medical /dental /life insurance,
Qualified candidates
and
The ideal candidate will possess a bachelor s
degree and a minimum of two years' experience in a
management position within an insurance company or
PFS
to relocate. Benefits include competitive salaries, paid
flexible
Manager. This posi-
and coordinates
collection follow-up activities
fol-
drug chain, or building supply chain. Must be willing
merchandise discount,
satisfaction.
tion supervises, directs,
lowing: supermarket chain, craft chain, mass merchant,
(3),
com-
you are
MNO.
letter to:
Opening #4: Store Management Opportunity
first-
If
willing to relocate, mail or fax your
resume and cover
GHI.
vacations,
and
skills.
1-1: Fallon
first in a series
few minutes long and
is
of
Skills
Worldwide— Its Name
Spells Global
Development Modules. Each video
contained on the student support web
http:// w\N^v.thomsonedu. com
/management /leonard, and
click
clip
is
only
site. Visit
on
Skills
Development
—
CHAPTER
Module
viewing the video
1-1. Prior to
clips,
you may want
Supervising
1
to read Christine Carabou's article "Free to Innovate"
found on page 60 o( Fast Company (November 2001) and view the company's web
Answering the questions provided will stimulate your analysis and thinking skills.
Chairman and co-founder of Fallon Worldwide, Pat
spirit
site at
http://www.fallon.com.
Fallon, never rests on his laurels. Inspired by the relentless
of the credo, "no pain, no gain," he challenges his company
expanding the palette and definition of advertising.
The once-little Minneapolis company, with U.S.
33
Uncertain Tinnes
in
to reinvent itself every five years, endlessly
of more than $1 billion and ownership in the hands
a leading creative ad agency operating through a network of
billings
of the French holding company Publicis Croupe, is
offices in the United States, Asia, and Europe. The company prides
itself on
branding services for those brands that
have fallen on hard times.
We encourage you to \iew Fallon
Worldwide
—
Name
Its
Spells Clobal.
Enjoy the journey!
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
As American businesspeople
What
travel the globe, they
encounter a variety of cultural norms that are
quite different
from those found,
in Minneapolis.
What
for example,
do you think
ity centers) will
some of the personal
are
effect
global expansion
success?
(i.e.,
Fallon's
approach to
establishing regional creativ-
have on the organization's future
Why?
challenges that Fallon's managers might face in, say.
How might
South America or Asia? What suggestions do you
how they might
have for
and
cal,
adapt to situations
the current Asian economic, sociologi-
political situation affect Fallon's business
in Asia?
encountered in South America or Asia?
APPENDIX: CETTINO INTO SUPERVISION
lob hunting
not usually easy. For some people,
is
opportunities appear
when
they least expect them. For
others, the road appears to be steep.
are
promoted
Many
individuals
to their first supervisory positions
nonsupervasory jobs in the same organization.
be in the same department or
may have
in
zation
made
within.
It
may
another area. They
The authors
aged managers
who
by being
promote from
are familiar with
many
middle-
did not continually find ways to
sharpen their saws. Often, they
their dues"
either case, the organi-
a conscious effort to
felt
to
do
from
formally applied for the position or had a
manager recommend them. In
work or on your days
job until you have a
they had "paid
loyal to a particular firm for a
long period of time.
Most of all, do not
one, which
is
leave
your
sometimes tough
economy.
Consider the situation of one former student
who
stated that she
had sent her resume
— neither the firm nor
to a blind
address was
Her immediate supervisor informed her that he
had received her resume and was wondering why she
was unhappy with her current position. She had
applied for a job similar to the one she currently had,
advertisement
its
listed.
but the advertisement
listed
broader responsibilities and
sounded challenging. She was
later left
she
you are employed while going to school, it can
be tough to find the time to do an effective job search
in the present
off.
new
felt
at a loss for
words. She
the organization, not for a better job but because
the supendsor never gave her a chance after that.
If
for a position outside your current firm. In addition,
you
will
have the added burden of being discreet
many employers
take a
dim view of employees who
are seeking emploATnent elsewhere; their loyalt)'
commitment
are questioned.
Do
not
make
and
or receive
job-search-related calls at work. Advise prospective
employers to contact you
placement
office.
at
home
or through the college
Schedule inter\dews before or after
WHERE TO LOOK FOR
INFORMATION
Students in need of
more
detailed information, addi-
tional career opportunities,
can refer to the
latest
and
salary information
Occupational Outlook Handbook
pubHshed by the U.S. Department of Labor. The most
recent Planning Job Choices: A Guide to Career Planning, the Job Search,
Graduate School, and Work-Related
34
PART
I
1
Supervisory
Management Overview
Education, published by the College Placement Council,
articles.
contains information on successful job-search strate-
of the company's financial position, management
gies,
how
to research
companies, what employers
really
This information will give you a good picture
and
st)'le,
future. Increasingly,
want from applicants, inter\iewing techniques, net-
and describe
working, and finding additional employer information.
web
Check with your
college placement office
and review
these publications before beginning your job search.
Many students find that nenvorking is a useful
One study found that employee referrals were
the single largest source
That
is at
through job
least
listings.
— 30
to
40 percent
you
— of new
people you
know through
my degree
June and
about making a change," you might
am
say.
cover
Talk to
know
saves
A Wsit
good networking
Many
up
such as annual reports, trade magazines, and newspaper
FIGURE
them
tell
time.
\s'hether the
sources of information about an organization,
suggest that you
make
sites prefer e-recruiting.
and e-mail your
and resume. Make sure you have correctly
the name and title of the person who is to
your letter. Most recruiters and corporate HR
tions. Usually
start.
to the librar\' or the Internet uill turn
web
us that a well-wTitten cover letter
The cover
quick overview of you, your
of any opportunities there?" Such an approach
could be a
many
receive
Do you
We
their online application
professionals
"Your company
in the
the vast majority of posi-
sites,
letter
spelled
thinking
has a reputation for being a good place to work.
to databases that
of organizations for which you would like to
Complete
school, church, family, or
in
list
work. Most firms with
other associations to gather information and referrals.
"I'm finishing
and on web
tions never get advertised.
a
This means meeting and talking
identif)' potential opportunities.
jobs online
While many job opportunities can be found
with personal and professional colleagues and friends
to help
list
on company
Figure 1.9 contains a partial listing of online
You can submit your resume
classifieds
double the number of people hired
-^"^
ser\ices
feed search engines used by employers to find candidates.
strategy.
hires.
sites.
ser\'ices.
employers
and
their products
it is
letter gives the
histon.',
reader a
and your expecta-
the only factor that determines
resume
gets read or not.
colleges have an Office of Career Ser\ices to
assist
students and alumni in the job-search process.
Some
colleges coach students in
resume writing, the
art
1.9
Sources for Online Job
Searches
from complete. There are always new bulletin
Once you
become familiar with the Internet job-search process, you can access information
quickly. If you need help with your Internet search, speak with the staff at the col-
This
list
of online sources
is
far
boards, databases, and job-search information on the Internet.
lege or local public
library.
Enjoy the journey!
AARP (http://www.aarp.org/money/careers) offers tips to assist with career
transitions. This site includes information on starting your own business, charting
a career change, reentering the job market, and coping with work-life issues. This
site also links with thousands of job listings at Monster.com.
America's Job Bank (http://www.ajb.dni.us) provides job-market information for
employers and job seekers and enables employers to register job openings.
Bureau of Labor
Statistics (http://stats.bls.gov) offers data
and economic
infor-
mation, including wage/salary surveys for various job classifications.
CareerBuilder.com (http://www.careerbuilder.com) allows you to search for
jobs or careers using 13 different criteria, or lets you post resumes so that
employers with job openings can find you. It also provides salary information
and tips on job-hunting and resume writing.
CareerJournal.com (http://www.careerjournal.com) is maintained by the Wall
Street Journal, and you can browse sections on salary and hiring information, job
hiring advice, and managing your career.
HoUobs
(http://www.hotjobs.com) receives thousands of
hits
each month from
job seekers and recruiters.
Monster.Com (http://www.monster.com)
is
one of the
largest online recruiting sites.
CHAPTER
Supervising
1
in
Uncertain Times
35
I
The best way to get
or keep a supervisory
is to make
more valuable.
One way to do this is to
increase your knowledge
and skills.
position
yourself
of inteme\ving (particularly telephone inter\iew4ng),
and amthing
else that their students
pass the recruiting process.
You need
need to know to
a professional
resume. Today's word-processing programs have
it
easier to develop a
resume by offering
made
fill-in-the-
co-ops, or perhaps volunteer for
ful acti\it\'.
some
t)'pe
of meaning-
Volunteer experiences in communit)' groups
can increase your networking opportunities, give you
ideas
and
practical experiences,
and help you become
more comfortable working with and
leading groups of
one or more student
blank templates. Check out the Microsoft Office
diverse people. Get involved in
Template
on your campus. The benefits of apphing
your expertise and using opportunities to enhance your
communication and leadership skills are invaluable.
Remember, too, that continuing your educational
Galler\^ at http://officeupdate.microsoft.
com /templategallen.'. At our
more than 90 templates
caution: E-mail
is
now the
ing resumes and cover
cover
letter as a
even^one uses
ments
to
last
A word
Send your resume and
Word document.
Check the organizations requirebecause some companies will not
accept resumes submitted as attachments.
letter
copy
Practically
\\'ord.
carefully
have found
of
preferred format for receiv-
letters.
Microsoft
check, there were
choose from.
effective to
it
Our
students
copy the resume and cover
from \Vord and paste it to Notepad. Save and
from Notepad to your e-mail program. Before
it
you send
it,
e-mail
it
to yourself so
you can dou-
blecheck the formatting and appearance.
organizations
preparation
is
demic degree
an ongoing challenge. Finishing an acais
only a
start;
consider going further by
enrolling in graduate study degree
grams
that
and nondegree pro-
may enhance your technical /managerial /
supervisor)' kno\\iedge. Increasingly, colleges
versities are offering online
programs
and uni-
that can be taken
home via computer.'*'^ Refer to Case 1-1 on page 66
and consider the saga of Glen Rogers. Rogers became a
supervisor and prospered in that role until that dreadful pink slip arrived on December 26. Rogers needs to
at
at himself in the mirror and determine what SKAs
and experience he has that might be matched to opportunities. He must remember that when apphing for
look
MAKE YOURSELF MORE
VALUABLE
In general,
we
sor\'
position
tion
is
to find
.Always try to
a student,
believe that the best
and /or
way
any position, particularly
to get a super\'i-
to prosper in your current posi-
ways to make yourself more valuable.
improve
yourself.
For example,
make yourself available
if
you are
and
for internships
a supervisor)' position,
he
must discover the specific needs of the hiring organization and sho\N' how his SICA.S can add value to the
firm. The message? Be assertive enough, bold enough,
and knock on enough doors (see the accompanxing
"Supervisor)' Tips" box)."*'
36
PART
I
Management Overview
Supervisory
1
Career Tips: Keep on Knocking!
Look for a job
in
the right places.
•
Networks
•
Bulletin
•
•
Newspaper
Job fairs
•
Recruiting firms
•
Temporary-help agencies
•
Individual
Think
3.
•
boards or
web
•
sites
4.
•
employers
touch with those doing the
who may
hiring.
Ask questions about the job or the company
(e.g., Which qualifications are most important
What
are the expectations of
the ideal person for this job?)
Who
•
What do you know?
What have you done?
What have you accomplished?
Who can give you a good recommendation?
•
in
for this position?
•
•
Find the gatekeepers, those people
Be proactive.
an employer.
like
Research the company.
be
classifieds
Ask yourself the following question: "If you were
the one hiring for a position, what would you
want to see in a resume?"
•
Prepare for the interview.
•
5.
Sell yourself.
After the interview
•
Write a thank-you note to the interviewer.
are you?
6.
Continuously seek ways to "sharpen your saw.'
ENDNOTES
Steve Bates,
"Many Employees
SHRM Home (September
released
November
16,
was SI 7.9 million
Itching to Leave,"
16, 2005).
2005 by the
The survey
SHRM
report
and
CareerJournal.com showed that
44%
— they were going
of respondents
4.
for
Also
employer
to
if
see
offered a position elsewhere. Thirty- five per-
— taking
steps to
resumes online and browsing
classified ads
whether they wanted to
p.
but not yet
com)
(Januar)' 25, 2005).
The
Wave, found
that only
workers
feel
that
Inc., for
Business
management
Week (February
Hill, "Strategies
4,
1997),
of Successful Managers,"
25, 2002), p. 108.
Poll, see
Median pay
of the nations 100 largest companies
M.
Superx'ision (June 2005), pp.
Buhler,
"Managing
in the
New
8-10;
Millennium,"
on
management approaches, see the classic article by
Harold Koontz, "The Management Theor\' Jungle
Revisited," Acadeniy ofManagement Review (Volume
cares
they have reached a dead-end with their jobs.
CEOs
Al; Joe B.
the problems of developing universal agreement
Age
5,
1980), pp. 175-88.
while one-third of all
For detailed findings from the IPSOS-Reid
for the
55-86.
Timothy D. Schellhardt, "Ofi^the Ladder: Want
Manager? Many People Say No, Calling Job
Supen'ision (July 2005), pp. 20-22. For a discussion of
representative nationwide
skills
a
Patricia
believed top managers acted with honesty and integrity.
about advancing employee
Worst Managers of the
see,
Employer Loves,"
36 percent of workers said they
Twenty-nine percent believe
&
(]anuar)' 10, 2005), pp.
Cottringer, "Being the Kind of Supervisor Every
AccoimtingWeb (http://www.accountingweb.
survey conducted by Harris Interactive,
Be
Week
Supervision (Februar)' 2005), pp. 10-13; Joseph
leave.
"Majority of Workers Believe Their Bosses Lack Integrity,
Fairness,"
2006),
10,
Miserable," The Wall Street Journal (April
what opportunities were available by posting their
certain
USA Today {April
See "Special Report: The Best
Year," Business
interviews and were prepared to leave their current
cent said they were passive job seekers
in 2005. See "Special Report: E.xecu-
Compensation,"
pp. 1B-3B.
were actively searching for
a job
tive
5.
An overview
of the evolution of management thought
American
J. Baughman, The History of
Management (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall,
1969); C. George, The History of Management Thought
is
provided
in
CHAPTER
NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1972); and Allen C.
"A Special Book Review Section on the
Classics of Management," Academy of Management
Review (Volume 1 1, April 1986).
The principles of scientific management are
described in Frederick W. Taylor, Shop Management
(Englewood
Bluedorn,
(New
and
Cliffs,
J.
Lillian
M.
York: Sturgis
&
Gilbreth, Applied
1917);
10. Neil
Motion Study (New
11.
370-96; D. McGregor, The
Facts
is
1960);
and
on the Hawthorne
(Volume
12.
management,
see
and procedures
From
to
accommodate
(November
5D; Stacey Hirsh, "Flex-Time
14, 2005), p.
the Fort Wayne,
p. 7B;
DuBrin,
IN Journal
Gazette
(November
2004),
2,
Joanne Gordon, "Family Champion," Working
Mother {Oaoher 2001), pp. 84-87; and the "100 Best
Companies for Working Mothers" (www.WorkingMother.
(Mason, OH:
7.
com)
for information
on the
strategies
and programs
companies use to help employees balance work and
many laughs
13.
As reported by Associated
as the
Edward Iwata, "Immigrant Business Can Have Wide
Economic Impact," USA Today (November 16, 2005), p.
IB. Iwata's article reports on the study by noted Harv'ard
Million to
Women
in
14.
See "Review
& Outlook:
Edition), pp.
15.
life.
and projections included
(December
2001),
Jones,
http://w^vw/bls.gov/emp, and Nicholas Kulish,
From Andrea Healey, "Figuring Out Generation X," ACA
News (Februar)' 1998), pp. 10-15. Workforce classifications described in this article were from Ann S. Clurman &
HR Magazine (1998 50th Anniversary
86-87.
Ann Pomeroy,
HR Magazine (June
2005), p. 24. Also see
"Women vs. Men: Which Make Better
SHRM Home (November 1, 2005).; and Del
"What
1
Glass Ceiling?"
USA Today {]u\y
20, 1999),
p. 18.
"Snapshot of America 2000," The Wall Street Journal
2001), pp. Bl, B4.
Street
W13; and Maureen Minehan,
Steve Bates,
Leaders?"
3,
A14.
Herb Greenberg, CEO of Caliper Corp., a Princeton,
NJ-based consulting firm, has undertaken a multi-year
global study of leadership qualities in men and women.
From Men,"
and other
drawn from "BLS Releases 2000-2010
Projections"
11, 2005), p.
Tongue Tied," The Wall
"Executive Briefing: Female Executives Lead Differently
1999), p. 16.
5,
in this
"Boeing to Pay $72.5
Preliminary results were reported by
Laura D'Andrea Tyson, "Open the Gates Wide to HighImmigrants," Business Week (July
Press,
Sex Bias Suit," Jacksonville, FL The
Times-Union (November
Business School Professor Michael Porter. Also see,
6,
"New
Babies," L^SA Today
'No-Brainer' for Firms," Baltimore Sun as reported in
"Future Focus,"
(August
these worker needs.
Sharon Jayson,
Moms Taking Less Time Off with
of Taylor's.
Employment
it
Work Institute as reported by
"When It's Work vs. Family, Work
band, Frank, were both college professors and disciples
sections are
believe that
the Families and
Journal (July 29, 2005), p.
Skill
The authors
6,
management into
practice. The movies are based on the book by the same
name by Professor Lillian Gilbreth. Lillian and her hus-
9.
14, 2006).
Januar)' 2002), p. 10. Also see,
J.
family puts the principles of scientific
8. Statistics
Census Bureau
were prepared to commemorate
that
Cheaper by the Dozen. Either of
the versions will provide you with
7.
living with children
Usually Wins," Working Mother (December 2001/
For a most interesting insight into the principles of scientific
and Figures
Alison Ashton,
For an overview of the quantitative /systems
Southwestern / Thomson 2006), chapter
HR
imperative that employers adopt family- friendly poli-
cies
1985), pp. 111-30.
6.
mothers
single
Mother's Day (May
Human
Studies," Journal of Occupational Behavior
J.
Over 10 million
tional workforce data. Also review the
(New York: Macmillan, 1933); Fritz J. Roethlisberger and
W. J. Dickson, Management and the Worker (Boston:
Harvard University Press, 1939); A. Maslow, "A Theor>'
of Human Motivation," Psychological Review (Volume
Essentials of Management, 7th Ed.
Brings to the Workplace,"
population /socdemo/hh-fam /tabFM-2.pdf for addi-
Problems of Industrial Civilization
approaches to management, see Andrew
Y
children are in the labor force. See http://www.census.gov/
behavioral science school of thought can be found in E.
A. Sonnenfeld, "Shedding Light
William Strauss, Millennials Rising: The
under 18 years old and 55 percent of women with infant
Constance Storrs (London: Pitman
(New York: McGraw-Hill,
Eocus (November
Magazine (May 2006), pp. 113-119.
management principles.
Additional information on the human relations/
Side of Enterprise
Howe and
Challenges Generation
describing and analyzing
50, July 1943), pp.
HR
Generation Y: Stop Resisting and Start Embracing the
Publishing Corp., 1949), for the functional approach to
Human
York:
Next Generation (New York: Vintage Books, 2000),
p. 45. See Sommer Kehrli and Trudy Sopp, "Managing
See Henri Fayol, General and Industrial
Mayo, The
(New
1995), pp. 22-23.
and Edwin A. Locke,
1982), pp. 22-23.
trans.
37
Walker Smith, Rocking the Ages: The Yankelovich
"Managing Generation X,"
"The Ideas of Frederick W. Taylor: An Evaluation,"
Academy of Management Review (Volume 7, January
Management,
Uncertain Times
in
HarperBusiness, 1997). See also Bruce Tulgan,
Brothers, 1911); Frank G. Gilbreth
& Walton,
Supervising
Report on Generational Marketing
ed.,
York: Harper
1
16.
Diane Stafford, "Minorities Are Leaving Their Jobs
Faster," article originally published in
Sfflr
and reprinted
1999), p. BP4.
The Kansas City
in the St. Louis Post-Dispatch
(June
7,
38
17.
PART
I
Supervisory
1
Management Overview
Bob Fernandez, "Underemployment Stems Economic
See
Growth," The Philadelphia Inquirer as reported
29. See Stacey Hirsh, op.cit.;
Fort WavTie, IN Ne^vs-Sentinel (September 6, 2004), p. 12.
Census Bureau information reported by
18. U.S.
(June 1999),
SHRM Home (March
19.
20.
Op.
.\s
cit.
News (May
31, 2005).
for
Hal Lancaster, "Saving Your Career
Has Been Outsourced," The Wall
(December
22.
Week
When Your Position
Street Journal
highest-paid
Clark,
Special Report
A
on What America Must Do To Keep
"Made
ToWay (November
15, 2005), p.
in Asia,"
Inc.
How
the Rise of the
USA
Scribner/Simon
&
(Februar)' 14, 2002). Also see,
25.
Digest
(November
CEO
New
26. For information
Tom
at
IPFW
1-1
32. See
15.
York Times bestseller
2005),
p. .^14;
L.
and Prahalad, The Fortune at
the
Wharton, 2004). Also
see,
p. 12;
Than You Think," Quality
"The
8,
Bottom
33.
Offshoring,"
SHRM Research,
H. James
34.
Dj^esr (July 2005),
Tribune {]u\y
1,
in St. Louis Post-
1999), p. Al.
A
York:
Cook,
RSF
(July 2005), pp. 27-32;
M. .Andersson,
& Christine
Organizational Dytiamics, 29, 2 (2000),
mth
Company,
Dijficidt People
(New
1989).
1994 sur\ey indicated that 75 percent of employers
empower employees. For another
on the employee
and Howard Z.
twist
issue, see Mar)' E. Pivec
The statement "As long
is
Aaron Bernstein,
21,
from Seneca
as
(June
8,
1996), pp. 145-50.
as
quoted
you
in
live,
Burton
keep learning to
E.
live"
Stevenson, The
Home Book of Quotations, Classical and Modern
New York: Dodd, Mead, 1967), p. 131.
ed.;
36. See Peter Senge,
Street Journal
(New
24,
S.
and Attacking Workplace
HR Magazine (November
35.
Lowly Temp," Business Week (June
From "Workweek," The Wall
8c
Robbins, "Employee Involvement Remains Controversial,"
1999), pp. 102-3.
28.
Magazine
Pearson, L\Tin
Porath, ".Assessing
involvement
no. 2 (2004).
1999), p. C7. Also see
for the
Karen
Robert M. Bramson, Coping
to
Dispatch that originally was published in the Chicago
"A Leg Up
(March
M. Kramer
had incorporated some means of employee involvement
Goozner, "Longtime Temporar)' Employees
Are Rebelling," reprint of article
"How and WTiy We
Street Journal
Distrust in Organizations
York: Dell Publishing
and "Exploring the Future of the Workplace:
27. See Merrill
The Wall
McCune, "Civilin- Counts,"
Management Rei'ie^v (March 2000), pp. 6-8; and
Michael A. Verespej, "A Call for Ci\ility," Industry
Week (February 12, 2001), p. 17.
Harrington, "Rightsizing, Not Downsizing: Layoffs are
Costlier
6.
HR
the Right Thing,"
pp. 123-37; Jenny
list.
see C,K. Prahalad,
HR
M.
Inci\Tlity,"
of the Pyramid: Eradicating Poverty Through Profits
(Philadelphia:
"Do
Kathy Gurchiek, "Workplace Molence on the
Christine
or near the
Art of Outsourcing," The Wall Street Journal (June
and
Upswing,"
books In
at
Ed.
Publications, 2004).
Peters," Quality
Management ranked
on outsourcing,
and Stakeholder Management, 6th
Southwestern / Thomson 2006), chapter
see, Kathr>Ti Taylor,
eds. Trust
Search of Excellence, Passion for Excellence, Thriving on
top of The
Ethics
OH:
Lie at the Office,"
1 1
1996), pp. 37-38. Peters'
Chaos, and Liberation
—
1987), pp. 7-15. Also see
.Ann K. Buchholtz, Business and
2005), pp. 53-57; Sue Shellenbarger,
Dianne Nilsen, "Managing
HR Magazine (August 2005), pp.
Adapted from "Conversations with
(
8c
2005), p. Dl; and Roderick
of Group Dekko, in a classroom presentation
Globally,"
Honzoni March /April
Magazine (February 2005), pp. 99-102; Linda Wasmer
HR Magazine (August
York;
Chairman of the Board and
by him-
all
Andrews, "The Nexus of Ethics,"
Schuster, 2005).
24. Charles R. Schrimper,
Pay Heist,"
Computer did
Archie B. Carroll, "In Search of the Moral Manager,"
Also
Next Superpower
(New
—
(Mason,
13A; "China Changes
Challenges America and the World
2000
CEO
Society
Everything," Inc. Magazine (March 2005), pp. 70-84;
and China,
1
than
in
Archie B. Carroll
& World Report (March 27,
2006), pp. 48-56; Ted Fishman,
The
less
See Geoffrey Colvin, "The Great
Business
Up
with Roaring Economies Like Those of China, India, and
South Korea," U.S. News
earned
in 1991 together
way
treat stock
Fortune {]une 25, 2001), pp. 64-70.
31.
Newnnan, "Can America Keep Up?
CEOs
Steve Jobs of Apple
self.
p. R4.
J.
(April 19, 1999), pp. 72-90. Because of the
options, executive compensation has escalated.
12, 1995), p. Bl.
Richard
of major corporations in the United States was
accounting regulations allow companies to
Information
23. See
CEOs
ACA
1998), pp. 11-14. In 1998, the compensation
Reingold and Ronald Grover, "Executive Pay," Business
"Managing the Mountain: For Many People,
is Proving to be More of a Burden than a
Resource," The Wall Street Journal i]une 21, 1999),
Don
Interview With Robert B.
that of the average blue-collar worker. See Jennifer
FL The
Times Union (November 25, 2005), pp. A22-A23.
21.
HR Magazine
reported by the Department of Labor to be 419 times
reported in Martha Irvine, "Construction Workers
in the Jacksonville,
Leonard, "Employees
Families,"
Reich," in an article written by Maggie A. Coil,
BLS, http://\vw\v.bls.gov/emp
Wanted," Associated Press
Bill
p. 28.
New Workplace: An
30. "The
Bill
Leonard, "College Education Pays Off Big Time for
Workers,"
and
Want More Quality Time with
in the
(
10th
1
The
Fifth Discipline:
of the Learning Organization
The Art and
Practice
(New York: Doubleday,
CHAPTER
1990), p. 14. Also see Senge et
and
Fieldbook: Strategies
Organization
37.
(New
al.,
The
Fifth Discipline
Se\'en
(New
40. See \lck\'
York:
Simon
in
Uncertain Times
Only 41 percent of the people believed
that
Phillips,
"Online Universities Teach Knowledge
Beyond the Books,"
&
HR Magazine (]\Ay
1998), pp. 121-26,
or Kathleen Morris, "Wiring the Ivor)' Tower:
WIU Online
Schuster, 1989), p. 287. Also see Covey's Principle-
Courses Lower Standards?" Business Week (August
Centered Leadership: Strategies for Personal and
1999), pp.
Professional Effectiveness (BelleNue:
1992) and First Things
to
Leave a Legacy
First:
(New
Simon
To Live,
York:
Simon
& Schuster,
to Love, to Learn,
&
39
I
focusing on strengths was the key to success.
Habits of Highly Effective
People: Restoring the Character Ethic
Supervising
success?"
Tools for Building a Learning
York: Doubleday, 1994).
Stephen R. Covey, The
1
Schuster, 1994).
41. See
9,
90-92.
Robert D. Ramsey, "Should You
Supen'ision
(]\x\\
Go Back to
School,"
2005), pp. 3-4; and "Ten Career-
Boosting Additions for your Professional Bookshelf,"
38. Ibid., p. 288.
Supen'ision (August 2005), pp. 8-9. For a discussion of
39. .\s reported in
what some laid-off workers have done to increase their
Ann
Fortune (Februan.'
Harrington,
4,
Buckingham, "The Strong
Company (August
"Make That
2002), p. 162. .Also see,
Swritch,"
Marcus
Shall Inherit the Earth," Fast
2005), p. 89. Gallup Leadership poll
asked "what internal strengths
nn^II
chances of success, see Kris Maher, "Laid-Off Workers
Turn
to \Veb
Street Journal
For Job Search Advice, Support," The Wall
(November
5,
2002), p. B8.
help you achieve
I
WbtM/da
C H
A
P
T
>si
E
THE MANAGERIAL FUNCTIONS
AFTER STUDYING THI
YOU WILL BE ABLE TG
A
Summarize the
difficulties
supervisors face
in fulfilling
managerial roles.
^%
Explain
why
effective
supervisors should have
a variety of skills.
^%
Define
discuss
management and
how the primary
managerial functions are
interrelated.
^J
Discuss the important
characteristics of the
A
supervisor as
team
leader.
Explain the difference
between management and
A
leadership.
Discuss the concept of
authority as a requirement of
A
any managerial position.
Describe the types of power
potentially available to the
supervisor.
^%
Explain the need for
coordination and cooperation
and how they depend on the
proper performance of the
managerial functions.
I
YOU MAKE THE
Charlotte
service
Kelly
CALL!
the evening shift admitting
is
team leader for Pine
Village
Community
administration,
was
done
we
the job you've
When
things necessary to enable
Charlotte graduated from nursing school 30
years ago, nursing jobs were plentiful, and she did
not need a B.S. degree to
Registered Nurse
(R.N.).
care nurse at a hospital
become
Charlotte
in
certified as a
began
as a cardiac
Greenville, South Carolina,
where she met her future husband and began a
family. Shortly after her youngest child graduated
from high school, Charlotte's husband was tragically
killed in an automobile accident. She moved to Pine
Village to be near her sister and her family. At that
time, nursing jobs were scarce, but CMC was looking for someone to be the admitting department's
evening shift team leader, and Charlotte accepted
the position. As her children were growing up,
Charlotte served
in
various volunteer-type positions,
which gave her a chance to hone her clerical and
record-keeping skills. As a shift team leader, she
assumed some supervisory responsibilities, but she
had limited authority and was not part of the medical
center's management team. The admitting department's supervisor was Patricia Graham.
Shortly after arriving at CMC, Charlotte began
attending classes at the local community college.
She received a certificate in medical records technology and decided to pursue an associate's degree
in supervision and organizational leadership. With
work requirements, she was able to attend only on
a part-time basis. The supervision classes were
taught by instructors with relevant work experience.
Charlotte's favorite instructor was Fred Edwards, a
middle-aged supervisor at a local company who
incorporated
many personal
"real-world"
stories
Edwards usually started each
class with a current problem or issue that required
students to interact and develop their own supervisory perspective. Charlotte liked this "team" or
"collaborative approach" to learning because her
fellow-classmates brought a variety of experiences
to the class, and they learned from each other.
into his classes. Mr.
Late
Wednesday
afternoon, her boss, Patricia
Graham, summoned Charlotte to her office. To
her surprise. Bob Murphy, vice-president of
he
said.
as a
are very pleased with
team leader on the evening
Medical Center (CMC). Pine Village is a 180-bed
facility located in a small southem city approximately 70 miles from its nearest competitor
shift,"
Murphy began the
also present.
conversation. "Charlotte,
"You are an excellent role model and
a good listener. You have a reputation as someone
who expects the best out of people and does the
can be. Effective
them
to
be the best they
Monday morning, we want you
become the ER (emergency room)
to
supervisor. You've
earned a promotion to management, and this is a
big step, but we know that you will be able to handle
this assignment, even though you haven't worked in
ER previously. This position reports to me, and
be
available to help if any problems arise." Graham
added, "Charlotte, you've done such a good job of
cross-training your people and delegating, we'd like
you to recommend your replacement."
I'll
When Charlotte returned to her department,
she was both exhilarated and a bit sobered by this
event. "Wow!" she thought to herself. "This is the
It's been hard, but
knew after having Mr. Edwards' class that wanted
to be a supervisor someday. Patricia Graham has
been a great mentor. She shows interest in each
employee and in increasing their skills, knowledge,
and abilities."
culmination of a six-year odyssey.
I
I
On
Friday afternoon. Charlotte reflected on the
events of the past two days. She had learned that
Amy Talmadge was
fired as ER supervisor. The
ER department had become the butt of many
employee jokes, and turnover has been extremely
high. She also learned that Amy Talmadge had the
reputation of being an autocratic, demanding, and
insensitive person. She expected her employees to
do as she demanded, and at times, she was known
to have criticized and embarrassed people in public.
The ER department consists of a very diverse group
of employees, which apparently added to Amy's
difficulties.
contemplated the
Graham and
my instructors, but wonder if I've got the right stuff
to be in this position. Do
really want all of the
headaches, responsibilities, and pressures that a
Sitting at her desk, Charlotte
situation.
"I
learned a
lot
from
Patricia
I
I
know some things not
can make the move
supervisor. What should
do
supervisor has to deal with?
I
to do, but I'm not certain that
from team leader to
and where should begin?"
I
I
I
YOU MAKE THE CALL!
PART
42
1
Supervisory
Management Overview
THE PERSON
Summarize the
IN
THE MIDDLE
difficulties
supervisors face
managerial
in fulfilling
roles.
The
supervisor)' position
middle"
— the
is
a difficult
and demanding
role.
Supervisors are "people
principal link between higher-level managers
and employees.
by
super\isors. A supervisor is a first-level manager, that is, a manager in charge of
entry-level and other departmental employees. Every organization, whether a retail
store, a manufacturing firm, a hospital, or a government agency, has someone who
in the
See Figure
fills
Chapter
1.2 in
for an over\'iew of the difficult challenges faced
1
this role.
Throughout this textbook, we use the terms worker, employee., associate, team
member, and subordinate interchangeably to refer to individuals who report to
superv'isors or managers. Regardless of the
supervisors as the
management of the
term used, employees may view their
organization, since the supervisor
is
their pri-
management. Employees expect a supervisor to be technically
competent and to be a good leader who can show them how to get the job done.
The supervisor must also be a competent subordinate to higher-level managers.
In this role, the supervisor must be a good follower. Moreover, the super\'isor is
mary' contact with
expected to maintain
satisfactorv' relationships
with super\isors in other depart-
ments. Therefore, a supervisor's relationship to other supervisors
league
who must
is
that of a col-
cooperate and must coordinate his or her department's efforts
with those of others in order to reach the overall goals of the organization.
In general, the position of
any supervisor has two main requirements.
First,
the
supervisor must have a good working knowledge of the jobs to be performed.
Second, and more significant, the supervisor must be able to manage the depart-
ment.
It
is
the supervisor's managerial competence that usually determines the
effectiveness of his or her performance.
MANAGERIAL
Explain
why
supervisors should have a
variety of
skills.
SKILLS
MAKE
THE DIFFERENCE
effective
Most organizations have some super\isors who appear to be under constant pressure and continuously do the same work as their subordinates. They are getting by,
although they
feel
overburdened. These supervisors endure long hours,
may be
devoted to their jobs, and are willing to do ever)1:hing themselves. They want to be
effective,
to be
but they seldom have enough time to supervise. Other super\'isors appear
on top of their
jobs,
supervisors find time to
paperwork up to
Of
course,
date.
some
departments run smoothly and orderly. These
their desks at least part of the day, and they keep their
and
sit at
What
is
their
the difference?
more capable than others, just as some
we compare two maintenance supervisors who
supervisors are
mechanics are better than others.
If
good mechanics, have similar equipment under their care, and operate
under approximately the same conditions, why might one be more effective than
the other? The answer is that effective supervisors manage their departments in a
manner that gets the job done through their people instead of doing the work themselves. The difference between a good supervisor and a poor one, assuming that
are equally
their technical skills are similar,
The
is
the difference in their managerial
skills.
managerial aspects of the supervisor's position too often have been
neglected in the selection and development of supervisors. T\'pically, people are
I
—
CHAPTER
selected for supervisor)' positions based
it}'
on
their technical
The Managerial Functions
2
I
competence, their senior-
or past performance, and their willingness to work hard. Charlotte Kelly, the
in this chapter's Vou Make the Call!, was expected to
new management position, even though her previous job did not
prov'ide her an opportunity- to develop many of the skills that will be needed in her
new assignment. Unfortunately, many organizations do not adequately prepare
newly-promoted supervisor
jump right into
her
them with the necessary
prospective supervisors for these responsibilities or equip
While new super\'isors begin
skills.
their
new assignment with
become disenchanted when the first
manage a situation. Some of us can recall
great enthusiasm, they
sign of trouble appears or
often
Forrest
stupid does." Figure 2.1 will help you take
Gump's
some smart
when
they mis-
observation, "Stupid
first
steps
down
is
as
the supervi-
sor)- path.
Employees wanting to move into supervisory or upper-level management
must make a conscious effort to develop their managerial skills by
learning from their own managers, by completing company training programs,
and by taking other avenues available to them. Fortunately, Charlotte Kelly took
the initiative to learn. She took college courses that would help her explore various leadership styles and gain an understanding of group dynamics and motivational techniques. She also observed the strategies employed by the more successful
managers at CMC. Not only did she learn some things that effective supervisors
need to do but she also obser\-ed some things that should not be done.
positions
What
will
your supervisory legacy be?
^^^'^'^^^'Oys
^
you want people to say you made the organization better?
it is
\oVee
your job to put the pieces of the puzzle together.
Your
moves
as a
new
supervisor are the most
iportant ones you'll ever make!
•
•
•
•
Trust your people.
•
Be an
A
•
Get commitment to goals.
Uncover and build on SKAs.
•
^^^^fl^^^w
» ^^^^^^^B^^k. o
•
enabler.
Get acquainted with your team.
Ask questions and
Establish routine to
listen
•
—practice MBWA, see Chapter
3.
manage your workload
»
—don't be drawn
Carefully analyze the
—look
•
•
•
•
•
•
FIGURE
"V
into political disputes.
situation
Put others interests ahead of your
for opportunities to
own
make
a difference
—be a servant leader, see Chapter
—make the easiest changes
with rewards.
Be innovative— Balance
•
•
Stay neutral
4.
Start small
first.
risks
Celebrate successes.
Reward behavior that contributes to the department's success, see Chapter
Pause periodically to check on progress, see Chapter
2.1 Making Your Mark as a
New
Supervisor
15.
4.
12.
expects.
Set high but realistic goals.
•
Maintain a positive mental attitude (PMA), see Chapter
Learn what top
management
plan your work then work the plan.
•
Focus on the target.
Ask
for help.
Manage up
as necessary.
43
W«
44
I
PART
1
Management Overview
Supervisory
To
this end,
lowing
Technical
The
skills
ability to
Human
do the
relations skills
Administrative skills
The ability to plan,
organize, and coordinate
we have grouped
major
Technical
1.
job.
The ability to work with
and through people.
six
the managerial
skills
supervisors need into the fol-
classifications:
skills:
The
perform the jobs
abilit)' to
of
in the supervisors area
responsibilit)'.
Human
2.
skills
Administrative
3.
ties
The
relations skills:
abilit)'
to
work with and through people; these
abilit)- to motivate team members.
include open-mindedness and the
skills:
The
ability to plan, organize,
Conceptual skills: The abilir\' to obtain,
needed to make sound decisions.
4.
and coordinate the
activi-
of a work group.
interpret,
and apply the information
activities.
game and
Conceptual skills
The ability to obtain,
interpret, and apply
to ascertain the
hidden rules of the organizational
to recognize the roles various people play in getting things
done
outside of formal organizational channels.
Emotional intelligence
6.
infornnation.
The sax^y
Political skills:
5.
skills:
The
"intelligent use of
your emotions to help
results. You can
by developing good communication
and mentoring relationships."'
guide your behavior and thinking in ways that enhance your
maximize your emotional
PolKical skills
The ability to understand
how
things get
skills,
intelligence
interpersonal relationships,
done
The notion of knowing oneself is not new nor
outside of formal channels.
is it
the only thing that super%i-
need to master. Supervisors such as Charlotte Kelly must strive to understand
and manage the moods and emotions of others.- Chess master Bruce Pandolfini
stresses that there are two basic forms of intelligence: ( 1 the abilitv' to read other
sors
Emotional intelligence
skills
The
ability to intelligently
use your emotions.
)
people and (2) the
abilitv'
understand one's
to
self.^
Unfortunately, it was not too many years ago that corporate .\merica believed
you could take "the best mechanics" or "the best salespeople," give them the title of
"supervisor" or "manager," and success would automatically follow. You may have
heard horror stories about the supervisors who did their homework, did everv'thing aboveboard, and called on the aforementioned skills, but somehow something
went wrong. These supervisors made judgment errors; others would say they lacked
common sense (visit our Student Support \\eb site: http://vN-v\-w.thomsonedu.
com /management /leonard for some additional thoughts on these skills).
MANAGERIAL
CAN
SKILLS
BE
LEARNED AND DEVELOPED
Many
Much
people believe that good managers,
like
research has indicated that this belief
is
good
true that people are born with different potentials
itv'
plays a role in intelligence.
athlete
who
is
and
that, to
is
individuals
who
athletes have
with practice, training,
manager. The
skills
some
as well as
It
skills.
from
and experience. The same holds true
takes time, effort,
Supervisors will
successes.
textbook, the superv isor can develop the
lenging and satisfying career.
many
close to that goal.
developed their natural endovNTnents into mature
effort,
ing tennis or golf, for example.
it is
degree, hered-
the other hand,
come
involved in managing are as learnable as the
visor to develop managerial
from mistakes
On
are so-called natural athletes also have not
Most superior
not made.
not endowed v\ith natural physical
not likely to run 100 yards in record time.
advantages
skills
An
athletes, are born,
generally incorrect, even though
skills
and determination
make
for a
for a super-
mistakes, but people learn
By applying the principles discussed
skills that
make
good
used in play-
in this
the supervisor)- job a chal-
"
CHAPTER
CONTEMPORARY
ISSUE
WHY
are operating
time when most
Ateither
or near bankruptcy-court protection,
in
Southwest Airlines remains profitable while holding
bare-bones strategic model. Much of
Southwest's success can be attributed to Herb Kelleher,
the former chairman, president, and CEO of Southwest
Airlines. Kelleher did not have an MBA and did not
work his way up the corporate ladder, but he did
create a corporate culture that inspired his employees to deliver top-notch service on the ground and
in the air. Southwest consistently has one of the best
customer-complaint records in the industry and turns
planes around in about half the industry average. The
"nutty" style of management has earned Southwest
the reputation of being a great place to work.
If everyone knows Southwest's strategy, why is it
fast to its
different?
In
what everybody
else's
problems
I
and empathy. This
wonderful group of employees gives voice to
the heart of Southwest Airlines.^
Every organization expresses a desire to provide
outstanding customer service. But do they?
are.^
employees are their most important
We have found that those
organizations that deliver outstanding customer
service and treat each customer as a VS. P. (very special person) do so because every employee is
listen that their
asset. But are they?
pieces."
SWA's current president. Colleen
Sources;
(1)
little
Hal Lancaster, "Herb Kelleher Has
How
many times have you heard members of upper-level
management proudly announce to anyone willing to
to understand
short, Kelleher's
firmed the importance of those
I
I
tance, humor, compassion,
—
little
skills.
The RSAs touch our customers' hearts in so
many ways, and when those customers share
their stories with me, smile, laugh, and
sometimes cry because our RSAs provide assis-
answer seems like common
sense, but he says, "there is no magic formula. It's
like building a giant mosaic
it takes thousands of
In
SOUTHWEST AIRLINES DIFFERENT?
to the position than mastering technical
Vbu have to recognize that people are still most
important. How you treat them determines how
they treat people on the outside. We have
people going around the company all the time
doing other people's jobs, but not for cross-
We just want everyone
45
I
an interview, Kelleher stated the secret:
utilization.
The Managerial Functions
Vbu never see their smiling faces, but they are
on duty 24/7 to provide our customers with
what we call "Positively Outrageous Service.
Of course, am speaking of our Reservations
Sales Agents (RSAs) who have the uncanny ability to convey an unseen smile through a simple
telephone line. The RSAs are the first point of
contact with Southwest for many of our customers, and we want to put our best face forward. To become an RSA, our employees have
to master technical skills and learn most aspects
of our operation. However, there is much more
U.S. airlines
a
IS
2
Barrett, reaf-
treated as a VS. P.
pieces.
One Main
Strategy: Treat
Employees Well," The Wa// Street Jouma/ (August
31, 1999), p. B1. Also see
Kevin Freiberg and Jackie Freiberg, Nuts'. Southwest Airlines' Crazy Recipe for Business and Personal Success (Austin: TX: Bard Press, 1996).
(2)
Colleen Barrett,
"Comer on Customer
Service:
The Voices of Southwest
Airlines,"
Southwest
to
visit
Southwest's
web
site
Simply talking about supenison' management
comment about
about
Airlines Spirit (April 2CX)5), p. 14. Also see Melanie
1 1
2003), p. A1 1 The authors also encourage you
(httpV/www.southwest.com) to view Southwest Stars of the Month and information regarding current job opportunities.
Trottman, "Inside Southwest Airlines: Storied Culture Feels Strains," The Wall Street Journal. (July
the weather:
"Evenbody
talks
is
about
some%vhat
it,
like
,
Mark
.
Twain's
but no one does anything
tips, suggestions, and acti\ities
However, these tools alone do not guarantee supenison- success. For example, if you wanted to learn to play golf or play the
game better, you might strive to emulate the games of .\nnika Sorenstam or Tiger
Woods. However, if you really wanted to learn to play golf, you should take lessons
from .-Vnnika Sorenstam's or Tiger Woods' teachers
the ones who proWded them
with the solid fundamentals of the game. Unfortunately, their teachers might not
have the time and you might not ha\e the money to pay what they might charge for
the lessons. Then you would take another course of action
find someone who has
knowledge of the fundamentals and the abilitv to instruct. You would also need the
it."
Therefore, throughout this textbook are
that are designed to reinforce concepts.
—
—
46
I
PART
1
Supervisory
Management Overview
Tiger says, "Even the
best continually seek
ways to sharpen
their
skills."'
(e.g., the right dubs) and the time to practice, learn from your mistakes,
and make corrections. There is one major difference bet\veen the beginning golfer
and the newly appointed super\asor. Unlike beginning golfers, who can go to the
driving range or the practice green to work on their games, newly appointed supervisors are on the job. Supervisors go through a learning curve that offers very little
ground for trial and error. The supervisor cannot hit it out of bounds and tee it up
again for another chance. To get the job done the right way, the super\isor must
avoid some common mistakes. Consider our supervisory tips and remember that the
challenge for any professional is to stay on the path of continuous improvement.
Even the best continually seek ways to sharpen their skills. Tiger says, "My creative mind is my greatest weapon. It is a kind of inner vision that enables me to see
things that others might not
like a certain way to play a shot. The psychology' of
proper tools
—
golf can be complicated as
it
does entail mental toughness, self-confidence, the con-
quering of mental demons, instant
failures. It
size the
is
a
game within
recall
the game.
I
of past successes, and being able to purge
developed mine
early.
I
cannot overempha-
importance of developing yours now.""*
FUNCTIONS OF MANAGEMENT
management and
discuss how the primary
The term management has been defined
managerial functions are
the process of getting things accomplished with and through people by guiding and
Define
interrelated.
Management
motivating their efforts toward
common
in
many
ways. In general,
management
is
objectives.
Successful managers will assure you that their employees are their most impor-
Most
successful
managers recognize
that they are only as
good
as the
Getting objectives
tant asset.
accomplished with and
through people.
people they supervise. In most endeavors, one person can accomplish relatively
little.
Therefore, individuals join forces with others to attain mutual goals. In
all
CHAPTER
2
The Managerial Functions
47
organizations, top-level managers or administrators are responsible for achieving
the goals of the organization, but this requires the efforts of
all
subordinate
man-
and employees. Those who hold supervisory positions significantly influence
the effectiveness with which people work together and use resources to attain goals.
agers
In short, the managerial role of a supervisor
is
to
make
sure that assigned tasks are
accomplished with and through the help of employees.
With this in mind, we believe the term enabler more closely defines the new role
of the manager.^ Clearly, the foundation for success is built when the manager clarifies
what
is
expected in the way of performance and specifies the behaviors that are
acceptable in the
work group. Then the
role of the super\isor
things that enable employees to be the best they can be
(i.e.,
is
to
do
effectively
Enabler
The person who does the
things necessary to enable
employees to do the best
all
those
and
possible job.
effi-
ciently achieve organizational objectives). Figure 2.2 illustrates the notion of the
supervisor as an enabler.
mental
The
better the super\isor manages, the better the depart-
results. In addition, the
super\isor
who manages
well
becomes capable of
handling larger and more complicated assignments, which could lead to more
responsible and higher-pa)dng positions in the organization. (See the accompany-
ing "Supervisor)' Tips"
box
for
some
tips
on becoming
a successful supenisor.)
FIGURE
2.1
The Supervisor's Multiple
Roles as Enabler
PART
48
1
Management Overview
Supervisory
THE MANAGERIAL
FUNCTIONS ARE THE SAME
SUPERVISORY TIPS
IN ALL
The E-Z Route for Supervisory Success
Above
all,
do
supervisors should
all
MANAGERIAL
POSITIONS
The managerial functions of a supemson'
of the things
position
necessary to Enable employees to be the best
are similar, whether they involve super\'ision of a
they can be at their assigned tasks.
production
line, a sales force, a laboraton-,
Supervisors must foster and sustain a commit-
small office.
The
ment to Excellence.
Employees need to know what
way of performance.
the
Supervisors should Establish
is
Expected
in
same regardless of the level in the hierarchy of
management: first-level supervisor, middle-level
the
manager, or top-level manager. Similarly, the type
common
of organization does not matter. Managerial func-
goals and
purpose.
tions are the
Employees must be Educated,
acquire the requisite job
that
they must
is,
in a
through coaching
skills
same whether the supervisor is working
profit-making firm, a nonprofit organization,
or a government office. Super\isors as well as other
and/or training.
managers perform the same basic managerial func-
Employees must be Equipped, that is, they must
have the necessary tools, supplies, and equipment to do the job.
tions in
all
organizations. In this textbook,
clas-
planning, organizing, staffing, leading, and controlling.
The following
description of these functions
general and brief since most of the
book
is
is
devoted
to discussing the applications of these concepts,
particularly at the supervisory level.
objectives.
Supervisors should nurture an Exciting workplace
where employees can
find
meaning and
PLANNING
fulfill-
ment of their individual needs.
Employees should Experience
a variety of tasks
and thus become experienced
in
The
many
managerial function
initial
what should be done
areas that
planning.
skills.
Supervisors should
It
their
employees
in
manage
called
and other plans needed
to
manager chooses a course of action
from various alternatives. Planning is primarily
ning, the
their
conceptual.
Emotions.
It
means thinking before
acting, look-
ing ahead and preparing for the future, laying out
Supervisors should possess Empathy, that
is,
they
advance the road
in
should understand their employees' feelings,
about
needs, and concerns.
to be followed,
how the job should be done.
sions.
includes col-
Planning not only includes deciding what,
how, when, and by
whom
also includes developing
work
"what
is
sor like Charlotte Kelly ("You
Make
to be done, but
if" scenarios.
word of caution: Regardless of how
A
well a supervi-
the Call!") plans, crises will happen, and super-
must anticipate them, considering what they will do
Many
and thinking
and sorting information from numerous
sources and using that information to make deci-
^^^^^i^^i^^^^^s^^^s
visors
It
lecting
Supervisors should Enthusiastically Exalt employees when the job is well done.
Planning
Determining what should
is
achieve the purposes of the organization. In plan-
takes place.
Supervisors should understand and
— determining
—
in the future
consists of setting goals, objectives,
policies, procedures,
Engage
two-way communication so that understanding
be done.
we
these functions under the major categories of
sif)'
Employees need to be Encouraged to see things
that need to be done and to do them.
Employees should be Empowered so that they
have the authority and responsibility to achieve
use a variety of
or a
primary' managerial functions are
if this
or that happens.
The
do not look
supervisors find that they are constantly confronted with crises.
probable reason for
much beyond
this
is
that these supervisors neglect to plan; they
the day's events.
It is
every supervisor's responsibility to plan; this
someone
else. Certain specialists, such as budget offiproduction schedulers, or engineers, may help the supervisor plan, but it is
up to each supervisor, as the manager of the department, to make specific
task cannot be delegated to
cers,
CHAPTER
2
The Managerial Functions
I
49
departmental plans that coincide with the general objectives established
by higher-level management.
Planning
is
the managerial function that
comes
As the supervi-
first.
sor proceeds with other managerial functions, planning. continues, plans
are revised,
and
alternatives are
chosen
as needed. This
as a supervisor evaluates the results of previous plans
is
particularly true
and adjusts future
plans accordingly.
ORCANIZINC
Once
plans have been made, the organizing function primarily answers
the question,
"How
will the
work be divided and accomplished?" The
supervisor defines various job duties and groups these duties into distinct
The supervisor must specify the duties,
same time, give subordinates the authority they
need to carry out their tasks. Organizing means arranging and distributing work among members of the work group to accomplish the organiareas, sections, units, or teams.
assign them, and, at the
zation's goals.
STAFF INC
The managerial
Planning
tasks of recruiting, selecting, orienting,
and training employees may
be grouped in the function called staffing. This function includes appraising the
performances of employees, promoting employees
employees opportunities to develop. In addition,
table compensation system and rates of pay. In
as
appropriate, and giving
staffing includes devising
an equi-
many companies, some activities
human resources (HR) (or personnel)
involved in staffing are handled by the
if the HR department and top-level managers establish the
compensation system, then supervisors do not perform this task. However, day-today responsibility for the essential aspects of staffing remains with the supervisor.
is
the
nnanagement function
that precedes all others.
New
supervisors should
establish the team's
purpose and inspire
people to do their best.
department. For example,
LEADING
Leading means guiding the
activities
of employees toward accomplishing objectives.
The leading function of management
organize,
effectively. It
and have enough employees
insufficient for a supervisor just to plan,
is
available.
The supervisor must attempt
motivate employees as they go about their work. Leading
ing,
all
to
the day-to-day process
supervisor)'
satisfaction, productivity,
and communication.
supervisor seeks to create a climate that
the
is
performance revolves. Leading is also known as directmotivating, or influencing because it plays a major role in employee morale, job
around which
same time, achieves the
super\dsor's time normally
is
It is
through
this
is
is
ways to
a significant challenge. In fact,
spent on this function because
which departmental performance
organization's goals.
it is
Staffing
The tasks of
recruiting,
selecting, orienting,
training, appraising,
promoting, and
compensating
employees.
function that the
conducive to employee satisfaction and,
objectives of the department. Finding
needs of a diverse employee workforce
work among members
of the work group to
accomplish the
involves guiding, teaching,
subordinates. This includes developing employees to their
coaching those employees
and supervising
potential by directing and
Organizing
Arranging and distributing
at
satisfy the
most of
a
the function around
Leading
The managerial function
of guiding employees
toward accomplishing
organizational objectives.
revolves.
CONTROLLINC
The managerial function of controlling involves ensuring that actual performance
is in line with intended performance and taking corrective action as needed. Here,
too, the importance of planning as the first function of management is obvious. It
would be impossible for a supervisor to determine whether work was proceeding
Controlling
Ensuring that actual
performance is in line with
intended performance and
taking corrective action.
PART
50
1
Supervisory
Management Overview
properly
if
there were
no plans against which
to check. If plans or standards are
superficial or poorly conceived, the controlling function
means not only making sure
trolling
is
limited. Therefore, con-
that objectives are achieved, but also taking
corrective action in case of failure to achieve planned objectives.
It
also
means
revis-
ing plans as circumstances require.
THE CONTINUOUS FLOW OF MANAGERIAL FUNCTIONS
The
If
five
managerial functions can be viewed as
we view
a circular,
continuous movement.
the managerial process as a circular flow consisting of the five functions
(Figure 2.3),
we can
see that the functions flow into each other
the others. At times, there
other begins. Also,
it is
no
is
and
that each affects
mark where one function ends and the
supervisor to set aside a certain amount of
clear line to
impossible for a
time for one or another function because the effort spent
in
each function varies as
conditions and circumstances change. Undoubtedly, planning must
come
first.
Without plans, the supervisor cannot organize, staff, lead, or control.
Remember: All managers perform essentially the same managerial functions,
regardless of the nature of their organizations or their levels in the hierarchy.
The
time and effort involved in each of these functions varies depending on which rung
of the management ladder the manager occupies, the type of tasks subordinates perform, and the scope and urgency of the situation.
FIGURE
The
2.3
circular
illustrates
concept
V
the close and
continuous relationship
between the
management
LVC^*^
''^.;
^
five
'>s^
functions.
Lead*»<»'
THE SUPERVISOR AS TEAM LEADER
Discuss the important
characteristics of the
supervisor as team leader.
Many
organizations have implemented a team-based organizational structure
focused on customer satisfaction, productivity, profitability, and continuous improve-
ment. In Chapter
a
means
13,
to an end,
we will
and
discuss the impact of teams in greater detail.
that
end
is
superior performance to what team
Teams are
members
CHAPTER
would achieve working
as individuals.'' Author, trainer,
2
The Managerial Functions
51
and consultant Fran Rees
identified several reasons for the increasing use of teams:
Given the complexity of jobs and information,
agers to
make
the one
who
all
the decisions. In
many
it is
nearly impossible for
man-
person closest to the job
cases, the
is
should decide.
The focus on
quality and customer satisfaction has increased attention to the
importance of each employees work.
The shift from a homogeneous workforce to a diverse one
to work effectively with multiple employee perspectives.
There
is
a
growing realization
that
requires managers
an autocratic, coercive management
does not necessarily result in productive, loyal employees. The
support what they help create
is
fact that
st\'le
people
behind the team approach.
People are demanding strong voices in their work
well as meaningful
lives, as
work, respect, and dignity.^
One example
how
perform is illustrated in the movie Apollo 13.
a problem," caused a diverse group of
\vorking against the clock, borrowing
ground-crew specialists at Mission Control
working
against the odds
to figure out a way to
and fabricating resources, and
The
five little
of
well teams
words, "Houston,
we have
—
—
bring the astronauts home.
MANAGERS AND
LEADERS:
ARE THEY DIFFERENT?
Explain the difference
"Managers and
abounded among scholars
regarding the differences between managers and leaders.^ Not surprisingly, hundreds of articles and books have tried to clear up the confusion. While some have
contended that only labels or semantics separate managers and leaders, others have
identified more substantive differences. For example, author Stephen Covey wrote,
"Leadership is not management. Leadership deals with the top line
What are the
things I want to accomplish? Leadership is doing the right things. In the words of
both Peter Drucker and Warren Bennis, 'Management is efficiency in climbing the
In the years since the classic Harvard Business Review article
Leaders: Are
They
between management
and leadership.
Different?" appeared, debate has
—
ladder of success; leadership determines whether the ladder
right wall. '""^
One
is
leaning against the
of the most noted wTiters on leadership, Bennis has pointed out
other differences between managers and leaders (see Figure 2.4).
•
The manager does things
•
The manager
•
The manager focuses on systems and
•
The manager administers; the leader innovates.
•
The manager asks how and when; the leader asks what and why.
•
The manager accepts the
relies
on
right;
FIGURE 2.4
Who does what?
the leader does the right thing.
control; the leader inspires trust.
structures; the leader focuses
status quo; the leader challenges
on people.
it.
Source: Adapted from Warren Bennis, On Becoming a Leader (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing
Company, paperback edition 1994), pp. 44—45.
m
52
I
PART
1
Supervisory
Management Overview
Harvard Professor John P. Kotter also draws a similar distinction between leadand management. He contends that management involves keeping the current system operating through planning, budgeting, staffing, controlling, and
problem solving while leadership is the development of vision and strategies, the
alignment of relevant people behind those strategies, and the empowerment of
people to make the vision happen. We concur with Kotter when he states:
ership
The point here
is
not that leadership
are simply different
and
good and management
is
serve different purposes. Strong
is
bad. They
management with no
leadership tends to entrench an organization in a deadly bureaucracy. Strong
leadership with no
a
management
When
people have the
title
be leaders? Clearly, the answer
other hand,
the
risks chaos; the
organization might walk off
cliff."
SKAs
when people have
of manager, does
is
no
the
—
title
title
necessarily follow that they will
to excel in that position? Again, the
answer
is
no.
good manager and a good leader?
be both good managers and good leaders?
On the
mean they will display
What does it take for an
of team leader, does
individual to be both a
uals to learn to
it
alone does not guarantee success.
it
Is it
possible for individ-
With the events of 9/11/2001, much discussion has centered on the relationship
heroes, leaders, and managers. Columnist Marilyn vos Savant stated that, "If
mother
dives into a river to save a struggling child unknown to her, she is clearly
a
a hero if she is successful. And, if not, she certainly behaved heroically."'^ Writer Pat
Wiesner proclaims that, "The hero brings in the biggest order the company has ever
had, the leader gets everv^one in the company to tr\' their best to do the same, and
the manager makes sure there is a profit."'-^ In subsequent chapters, we clearly identify the necessary ingredients
the managerial skills necessar\' for success
and
devote the bulk of Chapter 12 to further discussion of leadership and change.
among
—
—
MANAGERIAL AUTHORITY
O
Discuss the concept of
authority as a requirement
of any managerial position
Authority
The legitimate right to
direct and lead others.
Does the individual have the authority
perform managerial functions? If the
answer is no, the individual cannot perform well as a manager (see Figure 2.5).
Authority is the legitimate or rightful power to lead others, the right to order and
to act.''' It is the formal, positional right by which a manager can require subordito
nates to do or not to do a thing the manager deems necessary to achieve organiza»,
.i
tional objectives. Managerial authorit}' is not granted to an individual but rather to
.
-ii--
ii--
the position the individual holds
at
•i--jii..i.
the time.
are replaced, they cease to have that authority.
tion, that
person then has the
When individuals leave their jobs or
When a successor assumes the posi-
authorit)'.
Included in positional managerial authority are the right and duty to delegate
authority.
The delegation of authority
is
the process by which the supervisor
manager and, in turn, makes job assignments and entrusts related authority to subordinates. Having managerial authority
means the supervisor has the power and the right to issue directives in order to
receives authority
from
a higher-level
accomplish the tasks assigned to the department. This authority includes the
power and right to reward and discipline, if necessar)'. When a subordinate performs well, the supervisor has the power to give that subordinate a raise or another
reward, within
company guidelines.
supervisor's authority includes the
If a
worker refuses to carry out
power and
a directive, the
right to take disciplinary' action.
CHAPTER
2
The Managerial Functions
FIGURE
53
2.5
To be effective, a
nnanager nnust be able
to use the managerial
functions and possess
requisite SKAs, power,
and
even to the extent of discharging the subordinate.
authority,
is
Of
course, this power, hke
all
limited.
The acceptance theory of authority states that a manager does not possess real
authority' until and unless the subordinate accepts it. For example, a supervisor may
instruct an employee to carry out a certain work assignment. The employee has several alternatives from which to choose. Although such a response is not likely, the
employee can refuse to obey, thereby rejecting the supervisor's authority.
Alternatively, the employee may grudgingly accept the supervisors direction and
carr)'
out the assignment in a mediocre fashion. Supervisor Charlotte Kelly (see this
chapter's
"You Make the
Call!"
segment) can expect to experience
ance from some of her employees.
it}',
authority.
When some
employees
this t\pe
of resist-
reject Charlotte's author-
she will have no choice but to impose disciplinar)' action on those employees.
Acceptance theory of
authority
Theory that holds that the
manager only possesses
when the
employee accepts it.
authority
L.
54
I
PART
1
Supervisory
Management Overview
is introduced as the ER superxisor, Bob Murphy should
foundation for her acceptance. Every manager requires the support of his or
At the time that Charlotte
lay the
her boss, and Charlotte Kelly
is
no exception.
—
Numerous limitations to authorit)' exist union contract provisions, government or regulator)' agency restrictions, company policies, and ethical considerations. Generally, super\isors find that there are limits to their authority to use
make
resources and to
certain managerial decisions.
AVOIDINCi RELIANCE
ON MANAGERIAL AUTHORITY
Most
successful supervisors
duties
it is
know
other approaches. Generally,
duties.
authorit)-.
Some
They
perform their
many
employ
power and
authorit)' but to
better for a supervisor not to display
it is
formal authority. In practice,
about their
that to motivate workers to
on formal managerial
usually best not to rely
supervisors prefer to avoid even speaking
prefer to speak instead of their responsibilities, tasks, or
supervisors consider
it
better to say that they have responsibilit)- for
certain actixities instead of saying that they have authorit)- in that area. Using the
words
responsibilit); tasks,
—
and
duties in this sense
— although
these certainly are not
the
same
In general, hoxv you treat employees
on the job and develop
their sense of worth
are
more important
long run than
Research shows that
as authority
to
helps the superxisor to avoid showing the "club" of authority.
employees
in the
salan-.'''
approaches that foster mutual trust and respect between supervisor and subordi-
We contend that employperform better if they understand why the task needs to be done and
how to do it rather than simply being told to do it.'^
nate generally increase job satisfaction and productivit)-.
ees are likely to
have
a voice in
Regardless of
how
a superx-isor applies authorit)-, the point to
the superxisor)' position
must haxe managerial
cannot perform
manager.
xvell as a
authorit)'.
remember
Without
it,
is
that
a superx-isor
DELEGATING AUTHORITY
Delegation
The process of entrusting
duties and related
As mentioned
prex-iously, the delegation
of authorit)-
is
the process by xvhich the
superxisor receixes authorit)' from a higher-lexel manager and, in turn, makes job
assignments and entrusts related authorit)' to subordinates. Just as the possession of
authority to sub>ordinates.
authorit)'
is
a required
component of any managerial
gating authorit)' to loxver
hax'e etfectix-e
lex'els
in the hierarchy
is
position, the process of dele-
required for an organization to
managers, superx'isors, and employees. Chapter 12 discusses
in detail
the concepts of authorit)', responsibilitx', and the delegation of authorit)'.
POWER— THE
O
power
potentially available
to the supervisor.
Among
the most confused terms in
effectixe
Position
power
formal rank a person holds
in
the chain of
command.
management
are authority
supenisor understands the difference betxveen the
txvo.
and power. The
Some
behaxioral
manager s power comes from txvo sources: position poxver
poxver comes from a person's organizational posipoxver.'
Position
personal
and
tion. For example, a dix-ision manager has more position poxver than a first-line
supervisor. Personal power, on the other hand, emanates fi-om the relationship a
scientists
Power derived from the
ABILITY
TO INFLUENCE OTHERS
Describe the types of
contend that
a
superx'isor has x\ith other people.
A
superx'isors personal poxver
depends
to a
CHAPTER
on the
greater extent
and
followers' perceptions of that supervisor
s
2
The Managerial Functions
knowledge,
skill,
expertise.
Other theorists, such
lowing five sources:
French and Raven, assert that power
as
arises
from the
fol-
55
I
Personal power
Power derived from a
person's SKAs and how
others perceive that
person.
1.
Reward power. Super%isors have reward power
2.
Coercive power. Supenisors
who
if
they can grant rewards.
threaten punishment and discipline use coer-
cive power.
3.
Legitimate power.
Some
tion or rank
"I'm the boss
(e.g.,
super%isors gain compliance by rehing
— do
it
on
their posi-
my way.")
Expert power. Knowledge or valuable information gives a person expert power
4.
over those
who need
that information.
Referent OT charismatic power. People are often intluenced by another person
5.
because of some tangible or intangible aspect of another's personality.'^
Effective supervisors
understand the
effect their
indicates that reward power, coercive po^^'er,
ees to
comply with
directives
and
power has on
others. Research
legitimate po\ver often torce
employ-
but do not get those employees' commitment to organi-
zational objectives. Accordingly, super\isors who use expert po\\"er and referent
power effectively have the greatest potential for achie\ing organizational goals. ''
The acceptance theon- of authority- is also relevant to the application of po\N'er.
For example, you can be an expert in computer applications, but if others do not
need that kno\siedge, you will have ver)' little influence over them. Therefore, two
supervisors can hold the same title, occupy the same level in the hierarchy, and have
equal authorit}', yet have different degrees of power, depending on their abilities and
them.
ho\\' others perceive
COORDINATION
Explain the need for
Management has
and
\vith the
a sense,
generally been defined as a process of getting things
help of people by directing their efforts toward
all levels
objectives.
common
objectives. In
of management could be broadly \isualized as invohing the coor-
dination of efforts of all the
all
done through
Some \\Titers,
members and
resources of an organization toward over-
therefore, have included the concept of coordination as
coordination and
cooperation and
how
they depend on the
proper performance
of the managerial
functions.
a separate managerial function.
Coordination
members and
tives.
is
Coordination
puttmg together) of efforts of the
accompUsh the organization's objec-
the orderly s)Tichronization or
resources of an organization to
is
not a separate managerial function;
it is
an implicit, interrelated
aspect of the five major managerial functions pre\iously cited. That
whenever
Coordination
The synchronization of
employees' efforts and the
organization's resources
is,
coordination
toward achieving goals.
manager performs any of the managerial functions of planand controlling. In a sense, coordination can best
be understood as being a direct result of good management rather than as a managerial function in and of itself The abihty to communicate clearly and concisely is
is
fostered
a
ning, organizing, staffing, leading,
essential for coordination.
t)'picall)' is more difficult at the executive level than at the
The CEO has to s)Tichronize the use of resources and human efforts
throughout numerous departments and levels of the organization. A superxisor of
Achie%ing coordination
superxison' level.
one department has the responsibiht)' to achieve coordination primarily within the
department. However, this, too, can be difficult to achieve, especially during periods
of rapid change.
I
56
I
PART
1
Supervisory
Management Overview
COOPERATION A$ RELATED TO COORDINATION
Cooperation
The willingness of
individuals to work with
and help one another.
Cooperation
rily
is
indi\iduals' willingness to
desire
and willingness of
attempting to
move
a
participants. For example, consider a group of workers
hea\y object. They are sufficient in number, willing and eager
to cooperate with each other,
fully
of
work with and help each other. It primais more than the mere
involves the attitudes of a group of people. Coordination
aware of their
little avail
the right
bers can
common
and trying
one of them
until
their best to
purpose. However, in
— the super\isor —
move the object. They are also
all
likelihood their efforts will be
gives the proper orders to apply
amount of effort at the right place at the right time. Then the group memmove the object. It is possible that by sheer coincidence some cooperation
could have brought about the desired result in
this
example, but no super\isor can
on such a coincidental occurrence.
While cooperation is helpful and the lack of it could impede progress, its presence alone will not necessarily get the job done. Efforts must be coordinated toward
afford to rely
the
common
goal.
ATTAINING COORDINATION
Coordination is not easily attained, and the task of achie\ing coordination is
becoming more complex. As an organization grows, coordinating the many acti\ities of various departments becomes an increasingly complicated problem for highlevel managers. At the supervisory level, as the number and types of positions in a
department increase, the need
increases.
On
for coordination to obtain desired results similarly
the other hand, organizational downsizing
be even more effective in coordination.
Cooperation,
coordination, and
communication lead
to success.
may
force super\isors to
CHAPTER
2
The Managerial Functions
57
The complexities of human nature present added coordination problems. Many
employees understandably are preoccupied with their own work because, in the
final analysis,
how
they are evaluated primarily on
Therefore, employees tend not to
they do their individual jobs.
become involved in-other
indifferent to the fact that their activities
may
affect other
areas
and often are
departments.
Supervisors can achieve coordination by building networks focused on attaining
common objectives. According to Merriam
ed.), a
network
a "fabric or structure
is
Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (10th
of cords or wires that cross
at
regular inter-
and are knotted or secured at the crossings." This visual image is helpful when
conceiving of a network from a supervisor's perspective. A supervisor should think
of a network as any number of individuals or groups linked by a commitment to
shared purpose and values. Networking is the process by which supervisors become
connected with other individuals or groups to achieve particular goals. Simply
stated, networking is people connecting with people, linking ideas, resources, and
work effort. Think of the emergency room in the chapters opening "You Make the
Call!" and all of the individuals who have a stake in what the department does and
how well it performs. Charlotte Kelly is the proverbial person in the middle. There
are patients, their families, physicians, insurers who may pay for the care, government and regulator)' agencies, and a myriad of other departments within the medical center. Charlotte should develop networks with others, both inside and outside
the organization. Also, she must understand that network members must give as well
as receive. When Charlotte has a need, she contacts another person in her network
who might have a resource, and vice versa. Networking allo\vs Charlotte to balance
autonomy on the one hand and dependence on the other. Networking facilitates the
flow of ideas across organizational barriers and thereby eases the coordination effort.
vals
COORDINATION AS PART OF THE MANAGERIAL FUNCTIONS
While performing the managerial functions, the supervisor should recognize that
coordination is a desired result of effective management. Proper attention to coordination within each of the five managerial fiinctions contributes to overall coordination.
The planning
stage
supervisor must see to
is
an important time for fostering coordination because a
department are interrelated propmay wish to discuss departmental job assignments
with the employees who are to carry them out. In this way, the employees can
express their opinions or objections, which need to be reconciled in advance.
Furthermore, employees may be encouraged to make suggestions and to discuss the
merits of proposed plans and alternatives. When employees are involved in initial
departmental planning, the supervisor's chances of achieving coordination usually
erly.
it
that various plans in the
For example, a supervisor
improve.
must be present when a supervisor organizes. The
do what, when, where, and how is to achieve coordination. For example, whenever a new job is to be done, a supervisor assigns that
job to the unit with the employees best suited to the work. Therefore, whenever a
supervisor groups activities and assigns subordinates to those groups, coordination
should be uppermost in the supervisor's mind. Achieving coordination also should
The concern
for coordination
purpose of establishing
be of concern as
who
is
to
a supervisor establishes authoritv' relationships
ment and among employees. Clear statements
within the depart-
and reporting
and prevent duplicate efforts
as to specific duties
relationships in the department foster coordination
and confusion.
Similarly, coordination
the staffing fijnction. There
should be a high priority when a supervisor performs
must be the
right
number of workers with
the proper
Networking
Individuals or
linked by a
groups
commitment
to shared purpose.
L
58
I
PART
1
Supervisory
Management Overview
must
The supervisor
and job training they need to con-
the positions to ensure the group performs effectively.
skills in all
see to
it
that
employees have the
abilities
tribute to the coordination of their efforts.
When
leading, the super\isor
essence of gi^^ng instructions
manner
is
significantly involved in coordination.
most efficient way possible.
must assess and reward the performance of employees
harmonious work group.
that the overall objectives are reached in the
addition, a supervisor
maintain a
The
to coordinate the activities of employees in such a
is
In
to
The supervisor is also concerned with coordination when performing the conBy checking, monitoring, and observing, the supervisor makes
certain that activities conform to established plans. If there are any discrepancies,
trolling fijnction.
the supervisor should take immediate action to reprioritize or reassign tasks. In so
may
doing, the supervisor
achieve coordination
at least
from then on. The very
nature of the controlling process contributes to coordination and keeps the organization
moving toward
its
objectives.
COORDINATION WITH OTHER DEPARTMENTS
Not only must supervisors coordinate
activities
within their
own
departments, but
they also must coordinate the efforts of their departments with those of others. For
example, a production-department supervisor must meet with supervisors of
scheduling, qualitv- control, maintenance, and shipping to coordinate various activities.
Similarly,
an accounting supervisor
tv-pically
meets
vsith supervisors
from pro-
duction, sales, and shipping to coordinate cost accounting, inventorv' records, and
billing.
Achieving coordination
is
an essential component of the supervisor)' man-
agement position.
COOPERATION AND COORDINATIONEASIER SAID THAN DONE
A
team when
members
share values and a puron the supervisors coordination and team-building skills. The move toward increased employee participation,
broader spans of control, and fewer managerial levels causes a greater need tor
group of employees becomes
pose.
How well
coordination
skills.
r
its
Meanwhile, many supervisors have higher aspirations; they
eventually want to be
competition
a
the objectives are achieved depends
promoted
to positions of increased responsibilitv-. In realin;
among supenisors may impede
cooperation.
W H AT C A LL^p ID YO U MAKE?
Charlotte
Kelly's
decision to accept the supervi-
sory rr)anagement position appears to
opportunity and a considerable challenge.
make
In
be an
order
team leader
with limited authority to a supervisory position on
CMC's management team, Charlotte needs to
to
a successful transition from a
develop a plan of action. First, she should ask herwhat additional information is needed to help
self
start. She should ask her"What are my SKAs and how can best use
her get off to a successful
self,
them
I
in this
position?
How can
I
use
my strengths to
What does top management
expect from me? What are the current goals of the
ER department? What measures are being used to
determine the effectiveness and efficiencies of
the department? How does the ER department's
gain an advantage?
CHAPTER
current performance
compare
with expectations?
If
the objectives have not been achieved, what corrective action has
tions did
that
will
you
been taken?" What other ques-
think Charlotte should think
about
help her develop a course of action for her
supervisory
first
steps?
will be comprised of diverse
people with different needs and expectations.
What approach did you suggest for her to learn the
strengths (SKAs) and the weaknesses of the
employees she will be supervising? Her success, in
part, will depend on how well she gets people to
work together to achieve departmental goals.
Remember that Charlotte's performance as a super-
Charlottes department
depend primarily upon her gaining the
acceptance and respect of her employees. Honesty
visor will
and integrity must be part of her core value system.
She cannot compromise on those princip es
Supervisor Charlotte Kelly must do v.- ;-e e- :
takes to fulfill the various stakeholder expe la: ; s
She may want to review this chapter's Supervisory
Tips box and Figure 2.1 before she begins on
Monday moming. She also should review the concepts of scientific management presented in
Cnapter 1 and determine the tasks associated with
each of the jobs in the ER department. Charlotte
snould identify those employees who are capable
of instructing her and others on the essential tasks
associated with each job. Charlotte has a good
understanding of how the department functioned
under Amy Talmadge, so she shouldn't make the
2
The Managerial Functions
Graham an effective supervisor. Also, she should
remember what got her to this point, that is, the
traits that Bob Murphy cited while offering her the
She should try to place herself in positions each
day to apply those skills.
As soon as possible, ChaHotte needs to establish
guidelines and ground rules for the department. A
meeting w'rth Bob Murphy and other department
heads that have a stake in what the ER department
does or doesn't do should clarify their expectations
for the ER department. She should also ascertain
what authority she has. Over time, she should
attempt to convey a positive vision for the department and develop sound objectives that can serve
as benchmarks for measuring accomplishment.
A common mistake made by some new supervisors is that they are too eager to please. Charlotte
shouldn't try to do everything by herself. In her previous posrtion, she was very good at encouraging
and enabling people to do their best. She should
job.
continue that
same strategy.
Mr.
Murphy stated that
he is available to help her succeed. Charlotte
should meet with him periodically, ask for feedback,
and tell him what assistance (tools) she needs from
him. New supervisors may try to show what an
excellent choice they
neglect to
listen or
were
for the position
and
ask questions for fear that this
master Bruce Pandolfini, Charlotte must develop
contingency plans anc ce se.e'-al moves a'^eac: c^
would imply incompetence or uncertainty.
ChaHotte has a great deal of respect for Mr.
Edwards, the community college instructor. Perhaps
she could call Mr. Edwards and discuss situations
that arise from time to time. Such an exchange will
give her an unbiased sounding board and also a
chance to ask questions about her new responsibilities and analyze problems she has experienced.
ChaHotte also should maintain open dialogue with
her former boss. Patricia Graham, and try to
develop ongoing collaborative relationships with
any eventuality.
her fellow supervisors/managers throughout
C^e c'oblem that can arise "'c-^ ccct-g
someone from outside the department is resentment. Some employees may feel that they possess
She needs to balance coordination and cooperation. In reality, her personal skills will be stretched.
She should demonstrate a willingness to work
together with all that have a stake in the activities of
the ER department.
ChaHotte -^as much to leam and apply if she
intends to c ^
^ =n effective supervisor. She will
need to e" iz^ and maintain her professional
knowledge ana skills. She should plan for an ongoing personal program of continuing her education
same mistakes Amy did. Hindsight is wonderful, but
she cannot redo that which was previously done or
not done. The only thing she can do is leam from
her mistakes and the mistakes of others. Like chess
the
skills
or department-specific language that
them for the position. These employees
'^ay hold a grudge against Charlotte. There even
may be one or more employees who are p>erturbed
qualifies
by Amy's dismissal; even the worst supervisors may
have friends or allies in the department.
A major challenge will be how the ER employees will adapt to this change. From Charlotte's
experiences and classwork, she has learned "what
not to do" in supervising others. She needs to
remember the
characteristics that
made
Patricia
CMC.
: :
through readings, classes, seminars, professional
meetings, and other such opportunities that will
develop her professional perspectives and competence in her demanding new role as supervisor.
I
59
—
60
PART
I
Management Overview
Supervisory
1
SUMMARY
A
The
Supervisors are the "people in the middle."
Employees see
their super\'isors as being
manage-
own managers
the functions flow into each other, and each affects
ity to
at
higher
levels.
To supervisors of
who
must have
technical,
Planning is the first function of management.
The performance of all other managerial functions depends on it. The five managerial functions
and
most
critical that super\'isors
the activity involved, or a person's position in
human
be able to
A
must
attempting to manage job per-
formance, understanding employee needs
tial.
"People
skills"
objectives with
is
essen-
It is
supervisor's planning covers a shorter time
and narrower focus than
A Some
companies have redefined the
must possess
equally
certain skills as identified earlier in
important to remember that
the chapter,
d)Tiamics of the organization and to recognize
teams are usually formed
organizational politics.
improving customer
skills are
important to
all levels
of
man-
qualitv'.
agement. Most supervisors come to the job
in
equipped with some of these
is
skills.
Supervisors
have daily opportunities to apply managerial
skills
and must continually
those
skills.
common
Blending these
strive to
skills
sense and applying
it is
As such, developing
essential. Regardless
line superxisor or
develop
in the
them with maturity
tives.
A
can contribute suggestions to higher-level man-
and can work
in
harmony with
work environment
a purpose and goals
of the term used, the
first-
become
Leadership and
members
most
to function
management go hand
in
hand.
As one of the management functions identified
their
—
team leader must be an enabler
Information giving and information gather-
effectively.
agers
a
continuous pursuit of organizational objec-
allow supervisors to stay on top of the job.
effectively apply these skills
such purposes as
helping others to be the best they can
with a dose of
ing allow team
who
for
service, productivity', or
which team members share
help accomplish organizational objectives and
Supervisors
role of the
supervisor as team leader. While team leaders
important for super\isors to understand the
These
that of a top-level
executive.
help supervisors accomplish
and through people.
hierarchy. Typically, supervisors
spend most of their time leading and controlling.
understand the technical aspects of the work being
When
management
the
political
intelligently use their emotions. Super\isors
performed.
continuous flow
are universal, regardless of the job environment,
Effective supervisors
skills. It is
as a
the others.
manage.
relations, administrative, conceptual,
this text, leadership
is
in
concerned with establish-
colleagues. In short, skilled supervisors are
ing a vision, aligning people behind that vision,
candidates for advancement and additional job
and empowering those people
responsibilities.
intended results (doing the right thing) while man-
While there are numerous definitions of man-
agement
agement,
we
define
it
and motivating those people's
common
efforts
toward
objectives. Supervisors should look at
themselves as enablers, that
tations for
is,
as clarifying expec-
employees and giving employees the
right tools, training,
and opportunities to succeed.
do all those things
In short, supervisors should
that enable their
more
as the process of getting
things accomplished through people by guiding
employees to be the best they can
be while achieving organizational objectives.
L
and controlling.
These functions are viewed
must cooperate with each other. Supervisors must
have both good working knowledge of the jobs
being performed in their departments and the abil-
A
major managerial functions are plan-
ment, but supers'isors are subordinates to their
other departments, super\'isors are colleagues
A
five
ning, organizing, staffing, leading,
A
A
is
to accomplish the
getting things done.
The
distinction
is
than a semantical one.
supervisor must have authority' to perform well
as a
ful
manager. Authority
power
is
the legitimate or right-
to lead others. Authority
is
delegated
from top-level managers through middle-level
managers to supervisors who, in turn, delegate
to their employees. All supervisors must be
delegated appropriate authority to manage their
departments.
—
CHAPTER
The acceptance
subordinates accept
if
and when
supervisors
their
power
In reaHty, an employee's
it.
choice between accepting or not accepting a super-
Most supervisors
in the job or quitting.
to primarily rely
on formal managerial
visor has
use expert power and referent
have the greatest potential for
is
based, for the
most
ness of the employee to accept
prefer not
A
authorit)'
but to use other approaches for enhancing employee
A
who
effectively
achieving organizational goals.
may be the choice between sta\nng
visor's authorit)'
61
I
referent or charismatic. Research indicates that
theor)' of authority' suggests that
supenisors have authorit)' only
The Managerial Functions
2
Coordination
efforts
of the
The power a superpart, on the willingit.
the orderly synchronization of
is
members and
resources of an organi-
performance.
zation toward the attainment of stated objectives.
Supervisors have power because of the position
Cooperation
they occupy. Position power increases as a person
advances up the organizational hierarchy.
Supervisors derive personal power from their relationships
is
SKAs
pla)-
an integral role
as distinguished
from coordination
the willingness of individuals to
work with and
help each other. While cooperation
is
helpful,
it
alone will not get the job done. Efforts must also be
coordinated. Both coordination and cooperation
others. Subordinates' perceptions of
\N'ith
the superxisor's
—
in the
are attainable
through good management practices.
super\isor's ability to influence those subordinates.
Theorists French and Raven identify five sources
of po\\'er: reward, coercive, legitimate, expert, and
KEY TERMS
Acceptance theon^ of authorit)'
Delegation
(p. 53)
Administrative
skills (p.
44)
Authorit)' (p. 52)
Conceptual
skills (p.
Controlling
(p.
Cooperation
44)
49)
Coordination
(p.
Human
relations skills (p. 44)
Leading
(p.
Organizing
Planning
44)
48)
Position powder (p. 54)
Staffing (p. 49)
49)
(p.
(p.
PoUtical skills (p. 44)
47)
Net\vorking
(p. 55)
skills (p.
Enabler
Management
(p. 56)
Personal power (p. 54)
54)
(p.
Emotional intelligence
Technical
46)
skills (p.
44)
(p. 57)
(p. 49)
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
Identify the major managerial
sor needs.
Use the
Why are these skills
Web
skills
even' super^-i-
to search for current information
emotional intelligence
skills.
Daniel
sense.
skills
Do you
more or
agree?
less
on
t)'pe
We
skills?
Why or why not?
It is
Do you
is
the most important
agree?
Why or why
Stephen Covey observed that "Effective leadership
is
putting
first
things
as enablers.
first.
Effective
management
is
one who
is
the
desires to be a
team leader?
The
logical extension of this
notion
be that the supervisor clarify the objectives
must be obtained, provide the training and
needed to complete the tasks, and get out of
the way. Should "management by getting out of the
way" be an appropriate philosophy of management? Whv or \\'hv not?
that
tools
not?
4.
Do you agree? Why or
suggest that supenisors should view themselves
\s'ould
often said that planning
managerial function.
out."-**
between management and leadership? WTiy
superv-isor or
of sixth
Wh)' or why not? Are these
important than the other
it
not? \\^hat distinction have you obser\'ed
distinction important for
Coleman
described emotional intelligence as a
discipline, carr)'ing
why
important?
62
PART
I
Supervisory
1
Management Overview
SKILLS APPLICATIONS
APPLICATION
SKILLS
When we
first
began teaching,
2-1: Great
CEOs
Put Themselves Last, or
of the organization, and the person's legacy. In your
a colleague said that
"the ultimate criterion of organizational worth
concluding paragraph, briefly describe the
is
whether or not the organization survives." Today, we
contend that
surN'ival
work and be
affiliated
A
not the objective.
is
article stated,
We want to
"Great
CEOs
CEOs
the
also preside over
financial performance.
distinguishes this group of
trait that
CEOs
their
deep
b.
sense of connectedness to the organizations they ran,
c.
CEOs from
the
search to learn
CEO. Write
a
CEOs
Conduct an
often.
list
of All Time," Fortune
d.
54-68. Choose any one of the
(July 21, 2003), pp.
more about
W^hat were the ingredients that led to the organization's
ranking in Fortune's
How did
the
CEO
great
1-1: Attributes of a Successful
there SICAs
to be described as successful.
ROLE PLAY
1
.
i!
are
APPLICATION
1
on our student support web site (w^n^v.
thomsonedu.com/management/leonard) prior to
approaching
this role-play application.
Your instructor
role.
will
You might be
determine
who
will play
each
selected to play the role of
Charlotte Kelly (You
Make
who would
common
common items?
^^^th that
to both?
is
of a classmate. Are
Why do you
think there
and Friday,
show up on time for work. It was her
first day and my first day.
didn't even know
she was supposed to be here or that we had a
personnel shortage on the reception desk until
Diane Harms informed me that they were overloaded and that the new employee hadn't
shown up. About thirt)' minutes later (an hour
the Call!), or you might
didn't
I
and
a half after the
beginning of her
be Patricia Graham, Bob Murphy, Professor
Edwards, or an observer.
speak with her
Charlotte Kelly decided to share the following sce-
Graham, Murphy, or Professor
Edwards:
a.
that
2-3: Role-Play Application
Gloria Bellio strolled
narios with either
down
follow
to
ability'
orientation the previous Thursday
Review the role play
contained in Chapter
and the CEO's
Manager
Compare your paragraph
or heard about. Write a paragraph describing
SKILLS
CEO
todav?
known
manager does
since the
To what extent do you believe the culture devel-
Think of the most successful manager you have ever
that
list?
foundation for his or
path contributed to where that organization
learned about the persons leadership, the success
what
lay the
How successful has the company been
CEO stepped aside?
select a successor
that person's reign as
APPLICATION
Most Admired Corporations in American (this
March issue). Answer the
oped by the
Internet
one-page paper detailing what you
SKILLS
repre-
most admired corporations?
seT\'ed."
See "The 10 Greatest
CEOs
her organization to remain as one of America's
the employees they inspired, and the customers they
1.
the organizations that these
following:
The one
is
strate-
CEO.
usually appears in the
a.
and improve
of your chosen
sented to Fortune magazine's most recent listing of
innovation, lead through major transformations or
crises,
style
Compare
build organizations that thrive long after their tenure.
In addition to legacy, great
and
gies
with an organization that thrives!
2003 Fortune magazine
Do They?
"On Monday morning, Gloria Bellio, a new
front-end receptionist who had completed her
met with her
when
in.
I
told her
I
shift),
needed to
she had a few minutes.
in private
I
and reinforced our
expectations regarding attendance. She
explained that she had car problems and got
here as soon as she could. She then told
I
wasn't being
fair
since
Amy
me
Talmadge had
that
CHAPTER
know
hired her, and she was disappointed to
that
I
was the new boss. Then
I
poUcy manual and informed her
that
fault'
but to write her up.
tried to reaffirm
my
one of the ER physicians,
Bingi,
He
times this week.
find
When we
about going out with him.
made comments such
appears to really
like you.
A
me
business
policy
I
e.
was
it
is
become very appar-
mismatched
for the
reviewed her prior perform-
I
wonder what
my
3.
What
suggestions do you have for Charlotte?
4.
What
did you learn from this
skills
application?
1-4: Think Outside the Box
2.
Your challenge
3.
Your instructor has been provided with the correct response on the instructor
is
to try to
make
QCI
is
2-1:
site. Visit
www.thomsonedu.com/management/leonard, and click
on Skills Development Module 2-1. After viewing the
answer the questions provided. Hopefully,
these wdll stimulate your analysis
and thinking
stores across the
one of the leaders
in the
United
shown.
by moving only three matches.
International's Timely Tips for Teams, a
PO Box
438, Red Bluff,
CA
monthly Internet
96080.
DEVELOPMENT
only a few minutes long and
contained on the student support web
QCI
International,
DEVELOPMENT MODULE
clip
five triangles
as
site.
the second in a series of SkiUs Development
is
has
it
Using nine matches, arrange them into three triangles
SKILLS
With over 4,100
week,
CMC's
1.
newsletter (July 2005),
CVS
my actions."
options might be?"
Source: Reprinted with permission from
clip,
to guide
frowns on termination.
APPLICATION
support web
video
looks to be unprofessional.
can find nothing in
is in. I
a
my job!"
SKILLS
is
first
it
am
I
from
clueless as to the report require-
ments, and Bev said
is
"After the
I
phone.
call
have been fired but that top management
officer, just
and dropped a compliance report
desk. It was for the previous quarter,
Modules. The video
cell
Amy had written her
up and given her below-average ratings. Several
on my
and she wanted it before the end of the day. I
inquired and found that Jane Levy who usually
does the report is on maternity leave for another
This
a general
ance appraisals, and even
you going
in
SKILLS
seems to be
it
employees have complained that she should
"Bev Miller, CMC's compliance
two weeks. I'm
but
manual
position she
out with him?"
walked
not unique to any one category
ent that one employee
again
as "Dr. Bingi
are
call,
Unfortunately,
couple of the staff
When
is
not able to distinguish a personal
him rushing
get a chance to talk with
work hours.
certain employees during
doing a task while talking on a
sort
is
many permade by physi-
practice to see people standing, walking, or
I
for a date four
have work to do,
unprofessional to see
it
around to
have
me
has asked
and
practice
63
I
increasingly aware that
of ER employee, but
good employee. But it appeared that the more
tried, the more disgruntled she became."
"Tomas
become
cians
The
attendance policy
expectations regarding her ability to be a very
of a nuisance.
"I've
sonal telephone calls are being
had no
I
choice under our 'no
I
d.
took out CMC's
The Managerial Functions
2
skills.
CVS Stands
Consumer Value Store
for
business.
CVS's mission
healthier,
and happier
is
"to help people live longer,
lives,"
and
its
vision
is
"to be
the easiest pharmacy retailer for customers to use."
A visit to
the
CVS web site at http://www.cvs.com
you an overview of the company's philosophy, store management, pharmacy careers, and store
will give
employment
opportunities.
The Web
site describes the
company's store management development program
States,
pharmacy
retailing
and emerging
leaders program.
PART
64
Management Overview
Supervisory
1
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
Finding and keeping good employees
is
growing
a
concern for employers. After renewing C\'S s
of candidates for
its
store
How does CVS help
Web
management
positions.
employees hone those
skills?
and viewing the \ideo clip, why do you think
vou might like to work for C\'S in its store man-
leadership and
agement program?
think C\'S's Emerging Leaders Program helps both
site
Effective superxisors
skills.
the employee
should possess a variety of
some of the
Identify
skills that
we make
In this chapter,
C\'S expects
a distinction
management.
In
between
what ways do you
and the organization achieve
their
objectives?
ENDNOTES
We encourage you to
Glenn M. Parker, Cross-Functional Teams: Working with
rexiew Emotional Intelligence:
The Journal of Organizational Beha^^o^,
Issue 4 lune 2005 for additional insights.
Special Issue of
\
olume
26,
Allies,
team concept comes
Following on the works of others, Hendrie Weisinger
fi-om testimonials like those cited in Paulette
identified four building blocks that help to develop skills
"Teams Rule According
and
abilities,
which are
to:
(
1)
generate feelings
2
(
stand emotions and the knowledge that derives from
(4) regulate
at
Work San
I
8.
9.
Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1998). .\lso see
(New York;
Bantam Books, 1995); Benedict Carey, "Measuring
Emotions: Employee Tests Quantif)- Degree of
(4, 1995),
Mayer, Salovey, and Caruso, Emotional IQ
Version
Bales,
"\bur Emotional
Skills
pp. 197-208;
Cenntr\-
CD-ROM
Role of Emotional Intelligence,"
Human
Washington Po5t September
(
(New
Nan
Stone,
The
People
(New York: Simon
& Schuster,
and The 8* Habit (New York:
under pressure,
four major golf championships
the
at
see "All the
1999), p. 34.
first
the
same
Woods used
Nsnth
Quote
permission of Tiger
OH 441 14-1782
(August
all
11.
time. For
\ia
first
Do
(
Kotter, John
P.
P.
Kotter on
What
Boston: Harvard Business School
Press, 1999). .\lso see, M. .\vesson and S. Sveningsson,
"Managers Doing Leadership: The Lxtra-Ordinarization
of the .Mundane," Human Relations, 56, 12 (December
IMG,
17, 2005).
1,2003), pp. 1435-59.
12 Maril\Ti vos Savant, "Ask MariI>Ti," Parade Magazine
Ibid.
We
.adapted from lohn
Leaders Really
ft-om Tiger
Woods
&
S&S Trade, 1992);
Simon & Schuster,
2003).
person to hold
information on his career and his tips for improvement,
see http://\s'>>^v.tigerwoods.com.
Cleveland,
1989), p. 101,
Principle-Centered Leadership: Strategies for Personal
Company (May
and
10. Stephen R. Co\ey, The Seven Habits of Highly Effective
Relations, Vol.
making the
Woods became
1973),
"The Original
Professional Effectiveness [B€]ie\-ue:
4. Eldrick (Tiger)
Row,
York, HarperBusiness, 1999). Also see,
For additional information on Pandolfini's principles for
right decision
&
Challenges for the 2 1st
Management Guru," Tlie Wall Street Journal (November
1 1, 1999), p. A20 for Drucker s insights regarding
"knoNvledge worL"
No. 8 (2000), pp. 1027-55.
Right Moves," Fast
mana-
Mintzberg, The Sature of
Management
Joan Magretta and
p. 17.
See lennifer George, "Emotions and Leadership:
53,
Peter F. Drucker,
Can Make or
Break You," Sation's Business (April 1999),
Tlie
Managerial UbrJt (New York: Harper
(Needham, NL\: Mrtual Entertainment, 1997);
and Steve
),
Zaleznik, "Managers
gerial roles, see Henr%"
Intelli-
Test:
Abraham
and Leaders: Are
They DiiTerent?" Hanard Business Re\'iew {May -]une
1977), pp. 126-35 and "Letting Leaders Replace
See
27, 1992), pp. 1-5. For a definitive description of
gence and the Construction of Regulation of Feelings,"
Applied and Pre\entive Psychology'
How to Lead Work Teams: Facilitation Skilb
& Company, 1991 pp. 1-2.
Corporate Managers,"
Introspection," Los Angles Times (April 20, 2004), p. 8B;
lohn D. Mayer and Peter Salovey, "Emotional
Fran Rees,
(San Diego: Pfeiffer
Emotional Intelligence
Daniel Goleman, Emotional Intelligence
The
students
work team implementation.
for learning about
emotions to promote emotional and
intellectual gro\%'th. See Weisinger,
Our
(http://A\v\vv.\\orkteams.unt.edu) to be a valuable source
facilitate
understanding of wurself or another person; (3) under-
them;
1.
have found the Center for the Study of \Vork Teams
access the abilin" or
)
on demand when they can
Thomas,
to U.S. Manufacturers,"
Wall Street Journal (May 28, 1996), p.
accurately percei%e,
and express emotion;
appraise,
(November4, 2001),p.
heard the term enabler used in the xideo. The
Performance Appraisal, produced and distributed by
Business Advantage, Inc., of West Des .Moines, Iowa.
L
Enemies, and Other Strangers (San Francisco:
lossey-Bass, 1998). Support for the
)
(
13
9.
Pat Wlesner, "Leadership Checklist," ColoradoBiz
(September 2000),
p. 9. In 2006,
GE was again
selected
CHAPTER
Most Admired Company. See Geoffrey
"What Makes GE Great?" Fortune (March 6,
as America's
Colvin,
2006), pp. 90-104, for an overview of
14.
One
how GE
does
17.
i\s
Sir Isaac
Pitman
&
Organizations
Raymond
Effective
trans.
quoted
in
See "The Best Managers:
What
It
(
January
11, 1999), pp.
163-166;
Max
Messmer, Carol Hymowitz, "Good Leadership Requires
Executives to Put Themselves Last," The Wall Street
Journal (April 20, 2004), p. Bl; and "Manager's
16.
Admit
Press, 1961),
Dependence, and
Management," Harvard Business
Revievi'
P.
French and Bertram Raven, "The Bases of
Dorwin
E. Patch,
J.
Stanhelski, D. E. Frost,
"Uses of Socially Dependent Bases of
Power: French and Raven's Theory Applied to Working
Group Leadership,"
Journal of Applied Social Psychology
(March 1989), pp. 283-97.
10, 2000), pp. 60-I-;
Show," Fortune {]anuary
The Free
Kotter, "Power,
1959), pp. 150-67. Also see A.
Takes," Business
and John Huey and
Geoffrey Colvin, "Playing Smart: The Jack and ITerb
VVee/:
John R.
and M.
analysis of Business Week's top
twenty-five managers found the key trait to be adaptability.
York:
P.
Cartwright (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press,
National Business Employment Weekly (May 19-25,
An
Comparative Analysis of Complex
Social Power," in Studies in Social Power, ed.
Frank Shipper, "Ten
Quahties of Great Managers," The Wall Street Journal -
1996), pp. 15-16.
65
(July-August 1977), pp. 131-36.
18.
L. Hilgert, as
A
(New
pp. 4-6; and John
Sons,
1949), pp. 19-43.
15.
I
has been written about power. For additional
Amitai Etzioni,
it.
the "right to give orders."
Henri Fayol, General and Industrial Management,
Constance Storrs (London:
The Managerial Functions
information on position power and personal power, see
of Fayols fourteen principles of management
defined fonual authority
Much
2
19.
See Timothy R. Hinkin and Chester A. Schriesheim,
"Relationships Between Subordinate Perceptions and
Supervisor Influence Tactics and Attributed Bases of
Supervisory Power,"
Human
pp. 221-37. Also see, K.
S.
Relations
(March 1990),
Bright, and
Cameron, D.
They Make Mistakes, Too," Associated Press as reported
in the Fort Wayne, IN News-Sentinel (July 29, 2004), p. Bl.
A. Carza, "Exploring the Relationships between Organiza-
David
Scientist, 47,
Sirota, Louis A.
Meltzer, "Stop
Mischkind, and Michael Irwin
Demoting Your Employees!" Harvard
Management Update, 11,1 (January
2006). In about 85
percent of companies, employee morale sharply declines
after
only
six
months on the
Meltzer 's research shows
style
job. Sirota,
how
Mischkind, and
an individual manager's
of supervision contributes to the problem.
tional Virtuousness
Office
Most
and Performance," American Behavior
1, 2004), pp. 766-790; and
6 (February
Team, "Survey Highlights
in
Managers,"
(September
as reported
Traits
Employees Want
by AccountingWeb.com
13, 2004).
20. Stephen R. Covey as quoted
at
http://quotations. about.
com/od/stillmorefamouspeople/a/StephenCoveyl/.htm
(accessed July
8,
2005).
t
Glen Rogers
CASE
1-1
Where Should Glen
Go from Here?
is
a
production supervisor
at
Crandall Automotive, a Midwestern
piston manufacturer. Thirty years ago, he joined the tool-and-die apprentice pro-
gram
at
Crandall immediately upon graduation from high school.
He was
a better-
than-average athlete and played on the company's softball team. About twelve years
ago,
company
president Fred Crandall asked
him
to consider joining the
company's
supervisory team. Almost immediately after becoming a journeyman tool-and-die
maker, Rogers became active
in the union. During the good times of the late 1980s
was a member of the union's bargaining team.
However, Rogers found the transition to supervision problematic. Things changed
constantly, and he spent increasingly more time explaining why things had to be
done differently. Top management expected him to identify problems and to solve
those problems as quickly as possible. Rogers found himself in the proverbial position of being betw^een a "rock and a hard place." His former colleagues wanted to
only "work to the rules of the contract," but top management was constantly pushing to find efficiencies and improve production processes.
When the plant opened in 1942, it had 900 employees and the average wage was
much higher than that of the larger community, making jobs at Crandall
Automotive attractive. In 2004, the average wage of hourly workers, including benefits and overtime, was about $44 an hour.
In early October, the union rejected a three-year proposed contract that called
for an estimated twelve percent across-the-board wage cut and other concessions,
including a requirement for employees and retirees to contribute a larger percentage for their healthcare coverage. New bookings for orders had fallen substantially
in the preceding quarter, and the forecast for the next six months was bleak at best.
Ford, one of Crandall's largest customers, said it would slash 35,000 jobs, shut five
plants, and drop four models. At that time, all employees received a registered letter
informing them of the company's intention to eliminate a substantial portion of the
and
early 1990s, he
workforce.
The week before Thanksgiving,
its
corporate staff and to lease
its
the Crandall family
entire headquarters
announced plans
to relocate
building to a local hospital.
shock came when a local reporter broke the story that the Crandall family
had tentatively accepted an offer from a Chinese firm for the purchase of its physi-
The
real
Media coverage indicated that the sale
from various government agencies. The feature article
pointed out that IBM had sold a division to a Chinese company and that other U.S.
firms were contemplating offers from Chinese conglomerates.
U.S. automakers were in dire straits. General Motors, Ford, and Chrysler offered
customers opportunities to purchase their autos at the same price that employees
cal assets, as well as its intellectual properties.
was subject
to approval
These deep discounts coupled with other incentives, increased sales of existing
stock, but industr)' analysts predicted a grim future for the industr\'. As Christmas
approached, Crandall laid off another 160 workers, shrinking its workforce to about
pay.
560, including salaried employees, from more than 1,200 in 1998. Some Crandall
employees had been idle for a long time and did not expect to return. Rogers wondered if this restructuring would return Crandall to profitability. Good or bad, the
company and union were unable to find common points of agreement. The current
contract would expire on June 30.
—
Cases
On December
26, Jon Crandall, vice-president of finance
and grandson of the
down the entire facility. A few
highly skilled maintenance employees and several members of management would
have an opportunity to relocate on a temporary basis te the new Chinese facility.
Even though the sale to the Chinese company was not expected to be completed for
some time, the company had developed a production site in China that would be
founder, announced that Crandall would be shutting
The union was expected to file unfair labor
company. While the current contract had specific prohibitions regarding subcontracting, the contract was mute on closing the entire
plant. Like many automotive suppliers, Crandall Automotive was looking for a way
to survive, and management contended that the only way to survive was to lower
total manufacturing costs.
Glen Rogers's job would be eliminated no later than April 15. He knew that he
would get one week of severance pay for each year of service with the company and
that medical benefits could be extended under COBRA regulations. He worried
about his prospects for a new job. Who would need a 50-year-old former tool-anddie maker turned supervisor? Rogers wondered whether the company would have
flilly
operational no later than June.
practice charges against the
sufficient finances to cover all the severance
payments. Whether the U.S. economy
was debatable. Rogers remembered the adage, "It's a
recession when your friends are unemployed, but it's a depression when you're
unemployed." Not since the early 1980s had the staffing outlook in the Midwest
been so negative.
It was the Friday afternoon after Christmas as Rogers reflected on the events of
the past two days. Christmas Day had been a time of celebration. Today, it felt like
the end of the world. Rogers was sitting in the car thinking about how he would tell
Nancy, his wife of 28 years, and their three children, Samantha, age 27, Andrew, age
23, and Hope, age 18. Andrew would be graduating from college in the spring, and
Hope, a high school senior, was expecting to go to college in the fall. Nancy worked
full time as a retail clerk for the first several years of marriage, but had been a fulltime homemaker for many years. When Hope entered high school, Nancy had contemplated getting a part-time job, but since Glen's yearly income was approximately
$70,000 per year, she had decided to wait.
Like many of their friends, Glen and Nancy Rogers had not saved for a rainy day
they had lived from paycheck to paycheck with the belief that Glen's job at Crandall
Automotive would always be there. Unfortunately, the recent low interest rates had
enticed them into the new home market two years ago. Their monthly mortgage payments were in excess of $1,100 a month on the twenty-year mortgage. Glen Rogers had
invested thirty years at Crandall Automotive, and, in three months, it would be over.
He knew that he could probably get a job as a greeter at the new Wal-Mart Super Store
opening in June or work the counter at Taco Bell, but the reality was that it might be
very difficult to get a good job at his age. Rogers knew that whatever job he might find
would not proxdde him the standard of living to which he had grown accustomed.
And, few companies offered medical benefits nearly as good as those offered by
Crandall. Crandall's human resources director said the company would provide some
was or was not
in a recession
outplacement counseling to
assist
the displaced workers.
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
1.
Should Glen Rogers have anticipated that
with a "lifetime guarantee?"
career?
his job at Crandall
What could he have done
might not come
second
to prepare for a
I
67
68
I
PART
1
Supervisory
1.
Management Overview
List the strengths
new job
3.
search.
you were Glen Rogers, what should you do? What steps would you take to
find gainful and meaningful employment?
What should Glen and Nancy Rogers do
5.
Chapter and the current job openon our student support web site. Which of those jobs, if any, should
Glen Rogers consider? Assume that you are Glen Rogers. Write a cover letter
expressing interest in one of the jobs.
Look
carefully at Skill Applications 1-2 in
What important
of a Lifetime?
largest
a
lessons did
life
1
you learn from
this case?
36-year-old construction crew chief,
mechanical contractors
and fourteen foreign
states
to survive?
list
Randy Harber,
The Opportunity
Glen Rogers might have as he begins a
a hst of his SKAs.
4.
6.
1-2
Make
that
If
ings
CASE
and weaknesses
in the countr)'.
countries.
is
employed by one of the
His employer operates
Randy and
in forty-four
his spouse, Eileen, have t\vo chil-
dren, 7-year-old Kelly and 3-year-old Jason. Eileen
is
a registered
nurse and works
Randy began his career in the construction
field by entering the apprenticeship program immediately upon completing high
school. He serv'ed as an officer in the local union and became a crew chief three
part time in a family-practice office.
years ago. His technical
taken evening courses
skills
and
to
improve
skills
his
rank
among the best. During the
past tsvo years, he has
the local communit)' college to enhance his supervisor)^
at
chances of becoming a
field
superintendent. However, the
construction industry' has experienced no real growth, and opportunities for
advancement are slim. During the past wanter. Randy and others suffered reduced
work weeks and had their use of the company truck severely restricted.
Randy Harber had been called to meet with Kevin Cook, \ice president of field
operations, in Cook's office. The following conversation took place:
K£\L\: Randy, you
know
that
our revenues are down about 25 percent ft^om
last
year.
R\NDY:
Yes.
(Thinking to himself, "Here
it
comes: I'm going to get
laid off.")
expand our base of operations and have bid on conwe have the opportunit)- of a lifetime, and you
figure to be one of our key players. The United Methodist Church is collaborating
in a joint venture in Liberia to build a hospital on the outskirts of Monrovia, the
capital city. They have a medical missionary' program there, and this hospital is a
$23 million project. The general contractor will be out of Milan, Italy, and we have
Kex'IN:
We've been tr)ing
tracts all
over the world.
to
I
think
received the mechanical portion of the contract.
Randy: That's
great!
We can
use the work.
Kevin: This project will give us a strategic advantage in the European-African cor-
Top management has talked it over, and we would like for you to be our field
superintendent on this project. Not only is this a great opportunity for us, but it will
give you invaluable experience. In addition, your salary- will almost double. All the
people on this project will be our very best. You'll be leaving in three weeks, and
we'd expect you to be on-site for fourteen months. What do you think?
ridor.
Randy: Geez, that sounds fascinating.
Ken'IN:
Go home,
afternoon
at
think
about 3:00.
it
How soon
over, talk to Eileen,
do you need an answer?
and
let's
get back together
tomorrow
—
1
Cases
I
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
1.
Evaluate the offer
made
tunity of a Hfetime?
2.
What
factors should
to
Randy Harber. Do you agree
that this
is
the oppor-
Why or why not?
Harber consider, and how should Harber evaluate
his
career options?
3.
If
vou were Randv Harber, what would vou do and whv?
Tanieta Gavagan manages Professional Landscape, a landscape business that provides contracted services to a variety of resorts, hotels,
east Georgia.
She has
and other venues
sLx project cre^^ chiefs as direct reports.
in south-
These are the only
Each project crew consists of between 6 and 1
crew members. Ever}' januar)', Gavagan runs help-wanted ads to find people \s^ho
are \Nilling to spend their days mowing, trimming, edging, mulching, seeding,
planting, sodding, or weeding. With wages starting at S8.35 per hour, she had no
responses to her ads. Her contacts with the state unemplo)TTient office pro\'ided no
employees with full-time
benefits.
worthwhile suggestions.
—
imported labor
seasonal guest workers allowed to immiunder the federal guest-worker program. For nine months, 46 men and
women from Mexico and Central .\merica comprise her labor cre^vs.
"I don't think its the wage situation
its the t)'pe of work and the nature of the
work. It's hard
I've done it! I have contracts wdth some of the best resorts and
hotels in the area, and they expect a quality' job
and an affordable price. .\ny
wage increase would be passed along in the form of higher prices to our customers,
and that increase would be passed on to their (unhappy) consumers."
During the spring 2006 season, political debate at all levels of government
brought daily news coverage to the illegal immigrant situation. A study done by the
Pew Hispanic Center reported that illegals accounted for one out of even' 20 workers in America. During the past fifteen years, the number of illegal immigrants
coming into Georgia has ranked in the top five nationally. In the coastal Georgia
areas, it was estimated that as many as 40 percent of employees in the sendee, maintenance, and cleaning industries were illegals.
"More than two-thirds of my employees are here with visas from a 'guest
\vorker' program to fill jobs for which no .\merican workers can be found. I'm s)Tnpathetic toward Mexican workers ^vho come across the border illegally, not because
of the povert)' that drives them from their homeland but because of their willingness to take matters into their outi hands. I don't care if mv employees have a high
school or college education," Gavagan explained, 'I hire people ^^ho are willing to
do the work. My crew chiefs are really good at training and helping people to do an
excellent job. Ask any customer: our work is second-to-nonel"
Under the law (current as of March 2006 all an employer has to do is to review
t\vo forms of government-issued identification to verify that a worker is a legal resident. "I keep copies of all IDs and 1-9 forms on file in case I'm ever investigated,"
added Gavagan.
"I don't want to become an enforcer of who's legal and who's not," Gavagan
said. "Sometimes, I have a gut feeling that someone may be illegal who is brought
to us bv one of our crew chiefs. I reallv don't kno\s' how to recomize a fraudulent
work document or social security card. I heard a rumor that vou could buv fake IDs
So, she turned to
grate
—
.
),
.
.
CASE
Up
in
1-3
to Your
Neck
Alligators?
69
PART
70
1
Supervisory
at
Management Overview
one of the
Jacksonville, Florida, flea markets.
could check the social
I
securit)'
numbers in the national database, but don't see it as a priority. As long as workers
show up for work every day and do a good job, the customer is happy and that
makes me ver)' happy."
Late last evening, over dinner at Ruby Tuesdays, a friend handed her a copy of
the March 30, 2006, Atlanta Constitution. Georgia lawmakers approved what supporters claim would be the nation's toughest anti-immigration law, limiting state
benefits such as nonemergency medical care and unemployment checks to those in
the countr}' illegally. The law would crack down on employers who knowingly hired
them. Companies seeking state contracts will have to verify that their workers are
not illegal immigrants. Gavagan gasped as she read about how the U.S Senate was
grappling with "new get-tough" federal immigration policies. Her company had
just bid on the landscaping contract for the Golden Isles State Park. The State DNR
was considering outsourcing various functions and had solicited bids to determine
the potential benefits of outsourcing the landscaping and grounds activities. If she
got that contract, it would more than double her business.
Contemplating the future, Tanieta Gavagan wondered: "What have I gotten
myself into? Then she remembered an example one of her college professors had
used about facing tough situations: "Often times, when you're up to your neck in
the swamp with alligators all around, you must remember that your job was to drain
the swamp."
I
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
1.
Write an assessment of the
2.
Why are
illegal
situation.
immigrants so important to
a business
such as Professional
Landscape?
QSZISIIlZfliniil^H
3.
3.*
Using the Internet, find information regarding:
a.
-**"
the current status of Basic Pilot
Program (http://www.uscis.gov/graphics/
services /save. htm or google "Basic Pilot Program").
b.
an organization's responsibility to ensure that
c.
what
all
strategies organizations are using to recruit
new
hires are legal.
employees for entry-level
positions such as those found in the service industries.
4.
What
are
some of the disadvantages
that a small business o\NTier like
Gavagan
has in complying with government regulations?
5.
If
Tanieta Gavagan doubled her starting wage, do you think that she would be
able to attract native-born Americans?
6.
Do you
believe that
Why or why not?
Gavagan might have lost some business because some of
illegals and paying them a lower wage? Why
her competitors might be using
or
7.
If
why
not?
you were Tanieta Gavagan, what would you do
to ensure
compliance with
the law?
Malcolm
CASE
1-4
A Job Made
for Me
Just
Peters could not believe his ears.
He was
sitting in a
classroom
at
Old Ivy
morning class with Professor Car)' Raymond. On this day, an
and young alumnus, Donnie Sanchez, was speaking to the class.
Sanchez was stating that his experiences as a student had prepared him for the
"real world." Sanchez first recalled that about a year earlier, he had been sitting
Universit)' for his
invited guest
Cases
and wondering what the future would hold. As
some of Professor Raymond's
thought to himself, "Can it be that my professor actually
where the students were
Malcolm
sitting
Peters listened intently, he heard echoes of
recent lectures. Peters
knows what he is talking about?"
Donnie Sanchez continued: "Each term. Professor posed the question to our
class, 'Where do you want to go tomorrow?' Every semester, he preached that we
needed career self-reliance or at least career self-direction. It was the question facing
each of us as we planned our sprint into the full-time job market. Throughout the
'90s, the U.S. economy had surged but then peaked with the dawn of the millennium. Jobs were in plentiful supply for the 'techies' and those willing to work for
basic entr\'-level wages. I played on the college baseball team and in summer
leagues, so a co-op program or internship was out of the question. I felt I had pretty
good interpersonal skills, persistence, and a high energy level, but no experience.
The college placement officer told me that I would probably have trouble finding
meaningful work. After posting my resume on the Web and reviewing many
Internet databases, I found that restaurants, computer companies, and engineering
firms were hiring
at a
not appealing, and
for a
I
brisk pace. Even though
I
love to eat, the restaurant field was
lacked technical and computer courses and experience to apply
computer or engineering firm
job.
As a native of Puerto Rico,
I
had braved the
cold Midwest winters to play college sports and pursue a basic liberal arts degree.
"Midway through
my sophomore year,
I
heard some of my teammates extolling
the virtues of Professor Gary Ra)TTiond. After enrolling in his Principles of Manage-
ment
class,
I
changed
my major to
general management.
Professor Ra\Tnond in front of his students, but
best teacher.
tions
and demanded
after a
Color
I
He played
I
don't
want
to embarrass
can honestly say that he was
a lot
from
us.
He
extracted
Your Parachute?
A
Practical
my best
Raymond
efforts
and output, even
required us to read
Manual for Job-Hunters and
What
Career-Changers.
decided to follow the advice offered by the author, Richard Boles, so
Tom
my
the role of brain surgeon; he asked thought-provoking ques-
strenuous day of practice. Professor
Is
I
I
contacted
Luxor employs about 280
people and manufactures and assembles electronic components for the telecommunications industry. I had the opportunity to shadow Tom Mercer as part of my
senior class project in Professor Ra)Tnond's Management of Technological Change
course. Mercer's project team was changing some of Luxor's methods and processes.
I learned a lot about the process of change and gained a mentor and friend in the
experience. Toward the end of my last semester, I really just wanted to touch base
with Tom Mercer and ask him one simple question: 'Do you know of any jobs in
general management?' I got the surprise of my life when he told me to come to
Luxor that afternoon and meet with him and Philip Lynn, the plant manager. I was
hired on the spot. I guess having a recommendation from Professor Raymond didn't
Mercer, a supervisor
at a local electronics firm.
hurt!
"Even though the work is somewhat technical, I was hired. They put me
series of tests to prove that I was a self-starter and a team player. Mr. Lynn
says that he hires for attitude over aptitude. He claims that technical stuff is teachthrough a
able but that initiative and ethics aren't. The plant is organized on a self-directedwork-team approach. Teams elect their own leaders to oversee quality, training,
scheduling, and communication with other teams. The goals are created by Mr.
Lynn and his staff after in-depth consultation with all teams. The plant follows
simple ground rules, such as commit yourself to respect all team members, communicate openly and honestly, continually look for ways to improve on what we do
well, and do the right job the right way the first time.
I
71
72
I
PART
1
Supervisory
Management Overview
"The
sales staff,
customers, engineers, and assemblers constantly 'noodle ideas
around,' and there are no status symbols or an attitude of
'us'
versus 'them.' There
no sacred cows in the company. Many procedures are written down, but any
employee can propose changes to any procedure, subject to approval by those
whose work it affects. When we change processes or methods, an employee logs
onto the network to make it a part of the record
the law of the plant. There is
plenty of feedback on performance. Team leaders share the good and the bad. Each
day begins with a recap of the previous day's performance. Every employee knows
the destination of every product they touch. Each employee puts his or her signature on the part.
are
—
"In conclusion,
me
let
say that
I
have been
in
an intensive apprenticeship with
my guides. Tom Mercer ser\'es as my
my progress. have visited customers to
mentor, and we
meet each day to discuss
I
understand how
they use our products. The company has a bonus system based on individual performance, team performance, and ideas generated. Last year the bonus averaged
in excess of 20 percent of regular pay. Even though
have only limited authorit)^
I'm getting an education for a lifetime and getting paid to learn. It doesn't get any
experienced employees as
1
better!"
Malcolm
on Donnie Sanchez's remarks,
Peters reflected
or are there really companies like Luxor, and
guy
as this
how
in the
"Is
he making
world could
I
this up,
be as lucky
in finding a great job?"
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
Do you
1.
think Donnie Sanchez was exaggerating his experiences?
Why or why
not?
Evaluate
1.
why Sanchez
is
excited about his job
and
future.
Evaluate the "techniques" Donnie Sanchez used to obtain the job at Luxor. Do
you think Malcolm Peters could use the same techniques to find a great job?
3.
Discuss.
Would you
4.
like to
work
at
Luxor?
Why or why not? What would be your con-
cept of a "great job to launch a great career?"
Mark
CASE
1-5
Fear of Being
Passed on the
Corporate Ladder
Wells
is
the evening shift warehouse supervisor for Sanders Supermarkets, a
Over the past twelve years, wdth only a high-school eduway up from being a laborer to a super\'isor. The 35year-old Wells was married with two school-aged children, and he had been wanting
large grocery-store chain.
cation,
Mark had worked
move
his
spend more time with his family.
Two days ago, Mark's boss, John Swanson, told him that the current day-shift
supervisor was retiring at the end of the month and that Mark was first in line for
the job. This would be a lateral move; there would be no change in title and no pay
increase. Actually, Mark would take a $20 per week reduction because the evening
shift salary included a premium shift differential. Nevertheless, Mark Wells was very
interested because he saw it as his only near-term opportunity' to move to the day
to
to the day shift so that he could
shift.
leadman, on the evening shift was Sam Melton, an energetic
young man in his mid-twenties who had been VNith the company for
three years. Sam had been attending a local community college, and he recently
completed a two-year management certification program. Mark felt somewhat
Mark's
and
assistant, or
intelligent
Cases
I
comand his ability to get work crews to go the "extra mile." On several occasions, Sam was able to get work crews to complete difficult projects that
Mark could not accomplish. Mark knew that if he took the day-shift position, Sam
likely would be promoted to evening-shift superv'isor. Then Sam would be able to
demonstrate to upper management his superior supervisory skills. Because opportunities for advancement beyond the supervisory position were limited, Mark was
concerned that Sam would soon pass him by on the corporate ladder. Thus, Mark
would be forever trapped in a first-tier supervisory position with little hope for
advancement.
intimidated by Sam's credentials, his easygoing personality, his exceptional
munications
skills,
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
1.
2.
What
factors account for
What should Mark do
Why?
Is
it
realistic for
if
Mark Wells's apprehensions
the day-shift supervisor;^ position
supervisors like
subordinates will not pass
4.
What
specifically
potential
(e.g.,
could
in this situation?
Mark Wells
them on
is
offered to
to expect that younger,
the corporate ladder?
him?
former
Why?
Mark Wells do to increase the value of his
SKAs he brings to work each day)?
services
and
increase the
Terry Miles was promoted to a supervisory position in the Glendale street department's repair (chip and seal with
tion
new
He was chosen for the posiRonnie Callahan, who felt that Miles was
asphalt) section.
by the manager of utility operations,
the "ideal" candidate for the position. Miles had been hired five years earlier as a
all new employees so
Although two other employees had
been in the division for at least twelve years, they had constantly expressed their dislike for supervisory responsibilities. In addition, Miles's job performance ratings
had been very good, his attendance was near perfect, and he seemed to be well liked
by his colleagues and others who knew him well.
When Callahan told Miles that he was to become supervisor of the repair section.
Miles expressed apprehension about leaving the security that his union position
afforded and worried that his fellow employees would see him as a "turncoat." He
asked Callahan how he should handle the problem that his fellow employees now
w^ould be his "subordinates." Callahan told Miles not to be concerned about this and
assured him that his former associates would soon accept the transition. Callahan
also told Miles that the company would send him to a supervisory management
training program sponsored by a local college just as soon as time became available.
After several months, however, Jerry Mitchell, general superintendent of the
street department who reported to Callahan and who was Miles's immediate manager, was getting the impression that Miles was not adjusting to his new position.
Although Mitchell had not been directly involved in Miles's selection, he felt Miles
was an excellent worker who was not progressing in the supervisor)' position.
Mitchell was particularly concerned because he had observed Miles socializing with
his employees during lunch periods and coffee breaks. Callahan had received
reports that Miles often socialized with several of his employees after work, including going on double dates and to ballgames and parties arranged by these employees. Despite Miles's assurances, Mitchell had received a number of reports directly
general-purpose employee. Utility operations cross-trained
that they
were capable
in a variet)' of functions.
CASE
The
1-6
Socializing
Supervisor
73
—
74
PART
1
Management Overview
Supervisory
from Cit)' Council members and the mayor s office that the work of the repair secwas not being performed as efficiently as it should be. Another utilities department manager even told Callahan, "Since Miles became supenisor, there is little
discipline in the department, and it's just a big social group that reluctantly does a
tion
little
work."
After reviewing various productivity reports, Mitchell realized that Miles had
not made a good adjustment to super\'ising employees in his department. Overtime
had been substantially higher when compared with the preceding two years.
Rework had increased, and it appeared that the crews were not doing the job right
the first time. Last evening, one of the local television stations announced a "pothole of the week" contest. He wondered how much of this was attributable to
Miles's lack of experience as a team leader, and he worried that Miles's former colleagues might be taking advantage of him. At the same time, Mitchell was concerned that Miles perhaps did not have the desire to disassociate himself from
socializing and being a "buddy" to his employees. Mitchell wondered what his next
step should be.
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
1.
Evaluate the decision to promote Terr\' Miles to super\isor. Discuss the prob-
lems
in
promoting anyone
to
team leader or
super\'isor over his or her
former
fellow employees.
2.
Besides sending Miles to a superxison.' training program, what other actions
could Callahan and Mitchell have taken to prepare Miles for the transition to
the supervisor role?
3.
Why is
it
dangerous for
report employees?
a
team leader or super\isor to socialize with directthis leave a team leader or supervisor open to
Why does
criticism as exemplified in this case?
4.
INTERNET ACTIVITY
5.
At the end of the case, what should
that may be open.
Jerr\'
Mitchell do? Consider alternatives
Surf the \Veb to find information that supports the hiring decision of Terr)'
Miles by Ronnie Callahan.
Is
it
a
good
practice for the immediate
to be directly involved in the hiring process?
CASE
1-7
Coping with the
Manager
New
manager not
Why or why not?
Cindy Smith is a supervisor)' training facilitator at the Barr)' Automotive Albion
plant. The plant makes composite plastic components for the automotive industry.
Plastic components are more durable and resisted dents and scratches better than
components made of steel. The nonunionized facilit}' employs about 450 personnel. Eight years ago, Smith began as a second-shift entr)'-level worker in the modeling section. After a series of advancements, she was promoted to production
supervisor and then to training facilitator, and she had been performing this function for about sixteen months. New employees were assigned to Smith s section for
orientation and training, usually lasting a week or more. Depending on the company's needs, employees then were reassigned to a specific production department.
In recent months, however, the high turnover rate
within six weeks of hire
—
25 percent of
coupled with requirements to produce
new
hires quit
a variet)'
of high-
qualit)' products for individual customer specifications have led to a deterioration
of morale.
Cases
Traditionally, the average car
order was placed
at a
buyer waited 26 to 35 days from the time a custom
dealership until the customer could drive the vehicle off the
However, during the past decade, some manufacturers had cut the time to build
from the moment the customer places an order at the dealership to the time
to five days. Not more than five days for
the vehicle rolls off the assembly line
travel was allotted from the plant to the dealership. Reducing the time to build a car
to customer specifications, including color, engine type, and other options, had
been an ongoing effort. As a supplier to the automotive industry, additional quality
and production pressures were placed on the plant management team.
About one year earlier. Operations Manager George Patterson was replaced by
Don May. Even though the plant often had missed delivery deadlines and labor
costs as a percentage of product costs were escalating, Patterson had been content
with the status of the plant. Patterson had the reputation of expecting department
managers to correct problems after they occurred, and "crisis management" was
the prevalent style. Don May, a former military officer, was expected to turn the
place around. Under May's direction, the culture of the plant seemed to change
overnight. May immediately announced to all supervisors that he was not willing
to accept the high rate of product rejects. May practiced management by wandering around (MBWA), and he met and talked with supervisors, group leaders, and
facilitators one on one. Further, he met with small groups of employees and listened to their concerns. Initially, May was positively received, but the situation
soon deteriorated.
Shortly after assuming the position of operations manager, Don May informed
all managers and supervisors that they were being placed on a salary-and-bonus
system. He told them that their hard work was appreciated and would be rewarded.
Yet, because of costly rework production delays and overtime for hourly employees,
the bonus system did not yield any tangible benefits. Among the supervisory complaints: "You told us the new system would result in greater compensation, and it
hasn't. We're making less than before. We'd be better off financially if we were
lot.
a car
—
—
hourly production workers!"
Most supervisors now were working six days a week, ten to twelve hours a day.
Employees and machinery were being stretched to the limit. Several supervisors had
quit during the past month, and some took less-demanding plant jobs. Surviving
supervisors often worked "double duty" in overseeing several production departments. On any given day, ten to twenty percent of employee production positions
could be vacant. Cindy Smith and her only remaining employee (five were assigned
to fill in for vacant supervisory positions and one was placed in the quality department) were directed by Don May to cut the normal one-week training time to a half
day. The most recent customer quality audit was a disaster. There were rumors that
some work would be transferred to other Barry plants or even to competitors.
To Cindy Smith, it was like someone had flipped a switch. Any supervisor who
spoke out and didn't agree with Don May "fell from grace," and May put pressure
on all who questioned what he was doing. Most supervisors were afraid to speak up.
To Smith, supervisors appeared to be "mindless robots going through the motions."
Smith's crowning blow came at a choir rehearsal in her church Wednesday night.
Amy Richardson, a fellow choir member and a front-office secretary to Don May,
told Smith, "Mr. May told me that when he was meeting with and interviewing our
supervisors he was actually getting the scoop on everyone. He took names and
tucked them away.
I
even heard him
rid of all malcontents."
Cindy Smith
tell Bill
felt
Arnold, Barry's president, that he'd get
betrayed.
I
75
—
76
I
PART
1
Supervisory
Management Overview
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
1.
How would you
2.
Compare and
evaluate
Cindy Smith's
contrast the
situation in terms of job satisfaction?
management
styles
of George Patterson and
Don May.
3.
4.
What should Cindy Smith do? Why?
Have you ever experienced a situation
did you handle those problems?
like the
one described
in this case? If so,
how
INTERNET ACTIVITY
5.
Using the Internet, find at least two sources that provide examples of how
employees view managers who use their authorit)' to an extreme. To help your
search, we suggest you start wnih http://www.npr.org/programs/morning/
features/2002/june/bosses/ or google "bad bosses." Write a one-page paper
explaining what you learned from this experience.
Debra Allen was the branch manager
CASE
1-8
Losing Your Cool!
charge of approximately
two of the
t%vent)'
at
Big Bank's
Northwood branch. She was
were women. Several were employees who had
tellers
in
people, including two assistant managers. All but
difficult lives out-
work environment in
a negative way. Allen regularly met with the employees, both indi\idually and in
small groups. She constantly reminded them of the need to work together to ser\'e
the customers. The bank's motto was, "Two centuries of giving customers outside the workplace. Often, their personal lives influenced the
standing service."
Bank Northwood branch. She had
bank shortly after her high school graduation about fourteen months ago. Taylor had been a model employee, coming in early for work,
investigating every opportunity to learn, and seemingly enthusiastic about her
job at the branch. Her work ethic was a positive influence on the other tellers.
Unlike many of the tellers, Taylor still lived at home with her parents and had
never experienced the personal problems or financial woes that many of her
Janet Taylor was the lead teller at the Big
started
working
at
the
peers were experiencing.
Bonnie Boyce, a single parent, showed up for work late without calling in. As head teller, Taylor had the responsibilit)- of addressing the issue with
Boyce and putting documentation in her file. Subsequent attendance issues within
a two-week period were referred to Allen or one of the assistant managers. As one
of the youngest people in the branch, Taylor found her responsibilities stressful. She
was not comfortable dealing with performance or personal problems.
Today was another matter. It was the ver\' busy first Friday of the month. Many
senior citizens came in to deposit their retirement or Social Securit)' checks, and
most businesses paid their employees on Friday. The bank also handled utilit\' payments for its customers. The customers appreciated the convenience, and it saved
them postage. Rhodda Ayers was the oldest teller. She was in her sixties, and her disposition was annoying at times. She often tried to boss or "mother" most of the
Yesterday,
other
tellers.
Shortly before noon, the teller lines were long, and Bonnie Boyce strolled in
t\vo
hours
after she
was scheduled. Because of the workload, Taylor immediately
windows with the comment that she would talk with
assigned her one of the vacant
her
at
break time.
I
Cases
Taylor was ha\ing lunch in the break
tell
that Avers
room when Avers came
was upset, and Taylor made an
T.wtor: Rhodda, what's the matter?
Is
in.
i
77
Ever)'one could
effort to cheer her up.
something wrong?
Ayers: (Tries to ignore Taylor.)
T.WLOR: Well, go ahead and ignore me.
A^trs: You'd help
to
if
I
was
just trying to help.
you'd get that problem out of here.
Tm
I
tired of always
having
work harder because of that woman.
T.AYLOR:
What do you mean?
Avers: You
know exactly who I mean
— Bonnie Boyce.
She's
laz)',
and
inconsiderate,
a slob.
Ta\tor:
What
exactly has she done?
late, and you did nothing. Today, she showed up midmorning on our busiest day of the month, and you welcomed her like she was the
prodigal son. You never should have been promoted to head teller. Getting louder)
Your good looks might have dazzled some of the guys downtown, but I've never
Ayers: Yesterday, she was
(
been impressed
\N'ith
you.
Taylor: Stop that right now. I'm just doing
so rigid
and motherly, things might be
Ayers: You are nothing but a naive
my job.
a lot better
little
If you'd
around
do yours \vithout being
here.
pipsqueak!
Taylor: \Vhv don't you just back offi" (She stormed out of the break room.)
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
1
.
1.
3.
"WTiy did anger appear at the
North wood branch?
To what extent did Taylor handle
Given the
situation,
list
Friday's events well? Poorly?
what might have been done by either
at least minimized the situation.
part)' (Taylor or
A)ers to have prevented or
)
4.
Taylor had been a model employee for fourteen months, and then she lost
How do you
explain her beha\'ior? Search the
tional intelligence
Web
for information
and controlling anger. You might want
it.
on emo-
to re\iew the
Emotional Intelligence Special Issue of the Journal of Organizational Behavior,
Is. 4 dune 2005) to understand different perspectives.
\ol. 26,
5.
\Vhat strategies have you learned for keeping your emotions under control?
6.
How do vou
think Debra Allen should deal
mth
this situation?
INTIRNET ACTIVITY
$UPERVr$ORY ESSENTIALS
COMMUNICATION: THE VITAL
LINK IN SUPERVISORY
MANAGEMENT
AFTER STUDYINC THIS CHAPTER
YOU WILL BE ABLE TO:
^%
Define communication and
its implications
discuss
for effective supervisory
management.
^%
Discuss the major channels
of
communication available
to the supervisor.
^^
Explain the benefits of
the various methods of
communication.
#k
A
Identify
and discuss
barriers
to effective communication.
Describe ways to overcome
communication barriers.
Describe how supervisors
can better manage meetings
with their own managers.
—
YOU MAKE THE
*1
Mathews
James
is
CALL!
the department supervisor
When James
discussed the incident with Harris, he
of the water maintenance department for the
city of Middletown. Middletown is a medium-sized
apologized and said that he had resolved the disagreement. Harris further explained that Smith
Midwestern city that revitalized itself in the past two
decades by aggressively pursuing new business
and industry and providing economic incentives to
appeared to be having some personal problems
work performance, and in the discussion about performance.
Smith became angry and raised his voice. Harris
assured James that the problem had been
resolved. Harris explained that he was extremely
busy with his new supervisory responsibilities and
the increased work load of the evening shift, and,
therefore, had not bothered James about the
support expansion of existing
amounts
firms.
However, the
pay for city services are
generally higher than comparable cities in the
Midwest. The current mayor, David Graham, maintains that fee and tax increases were necessary to
pay for utility and road improvements, bolster police
and fire protection, and pay bond debt for improvements to the existing water and sewage systems.
Some of the water and sewer lines are antiquated.
The city has increased local income tax rates and
garbage collection fees. In July, the city council
approved added separate storm water charges and
dramatically increased water and sewage fees to
that residents
help fund the $75-million
and sewer
bond
issue for infrastruc-
These changes were not
popular with the public. Taxpayers can see direct
results when streets and sidewalks are replaced, but
the water and sewer line upgrades are below ground
and improvements are not readily visible.
ture water
Six
lines.
months ago, James was promoted from day-
shift supervisor. His
management
style
is
character-
"managing by wandering around" (MBWA).
He can be expected to show up during any of the
ized as
four shifts
1 1
p.m.),
—days
(7
mornings
a.m. to 3
(1 1
p.m.
p.m.),
to 7
evenings
a.m.),
or
(3 p.m.
to
weekends
(7
A.M. to 7 P.M. or 7 p.m. to 7 a.m.). Two-thirds of the
workforce
divided
is
on the day
among
shift
with the remainder
the skeletal crews of the evening,
morning, and weekend
Back-up crews supplement these skeletal crews as needed. James
believes that he is familiar with all employees and
knows their strengths and weaknesses. His employees know that he is willing to help out when needed
even though he prefers to let employees work
through problems on their own. One of his first
actions was to
shifts.
promote George
Harris to the posi-
tion of evening shift leader.
About
a
month ago, James heard through the
Thomas Smith, an employee on the
grapevine that
evening crew, had threatened Harris during
confrontation witnessed by several
a verbal
employees.
that were negatively affecting his
incident.
Late yesterday (Wednesday), James again heard
through the grapevine that Smith had been over-
going to shoot Harris!" Another
that he thought the
grapevine had blown the situation out of proporheard to
visit
tion.
ment
to
say, "I'm
Harris
revealed
James was concerned and made an appointfor Friday to
human
see
Deb
Barnes, the director of
He pondered what future actions he should take.
Shortly before midnight on Thursday, the ringing of the telephone woke James from a sound
sleep. The call from the on-duty emergency room
policeman informed him that George Harris had
been shot in the water maintenance parking lot and
was pronounced dead at the scene.
A subsequent call from the desk sergeant
informed James that Thomas Smith had strolled
into the jail, admitted the shooting, and turned himself in. Smith, a 25-year city employee, had allegedly
waited
resources, to discuss the matter.
in
the parking
lot
with a .22-caliber handgun.
Police reported that Smith shot Harris three time,
twice at close range and once
when standing over
Harris,
—the
who had
final
shot
fallen to the
ground. Smith told police that Harris "was ruining
his life and giving him a hard time."
Later as James interviewed several employees,
he realized that he didn't know the workers as well
as he thought. Not only were both Smith and Harris
separated from their wives but also most employees knew more about the situation than he did.
They knew that Smith and Harris had argued over a
woman.
The local newspapers were filled with additional
details. Smith's attorney announced that a set of
mitigating circumstances should weigh
in his client's
82
I
PART
2 Supervisory Essentials
favor
when the case went
himself
in
to
Smith turned
trial.
supervisor. Smith claimed that Harris was
"obsessed" with his wife and had sent her flowers on
a
almost immediately and had no past
Even though Smith and Harris
had been friends for many years, Smith had
accused Harris of having a relationship with his
wife and being hostile toward him since becoming
the day of the murder
criminal record.
Now James is having trouble sleeping at night
and wonders what he could have done to prevent
this tragedy. YOU MAKE THE CALL!
NEED FOR EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
Define communication
and discuss
innplications
its
for effective supervisory
management.
Communication
is
from one person
to another. Effective
the process of transmitting information and understanding
cessful transfer of information,
communication means
that there
meaning, and understanding from
is
a suc-
a sender to a
communication is the process of imparting ideas and
making oneself understood to others. While it is not necessary to have agreement,
there must be mutual understanding for the exchange of ideas to be successful.
Most super\-ison- acti\ities involve interacting with others, and each interaaion
requires skillful handling of the information process. The ability' to communicate effecti%'ely is key to superxisorx" success. Communication links aU managerial functions.
There is no managerial function a supenisor can fulfill without communicating. In
managing their departments, supervisors must explain the arrangement of work.
Supervisors must instruct employees, describe what is expected of those employees,
and counsel those employees. Super\isors also must report to their managers, both
orally and in wTiting, and discuss their plans with other supervisors. All these activreceiver. In other words,
Communication
The process of
transmitting information
and understanding.
require communication.
Noted author Peter Senge believes that people who develop and exchange information are not merely talking about the learning organization; they use the
information as a springboard for ex-periments and initiatives. With each effort
people make, they create a new facet of the overall image of what the learning organities
ization can be.' Senge feels that:
is one single thing a learning organization does well, it is helping people
embrace change. People in learning organizations react more quickly when their
environment changes because they know how to anticipate changes that are going
If there
to
occur (which
is
different than trying to predict the future)
the kinds of changes they
and how
to create
want?
Sharing information takes effort on everyone's part, and the organization's effecdepends on good communication. Due to the Enron, Adelphia Communi-
tiveness
cations,
WorldCom, Arthur Andersen, Qwest, Tyco, Global
business implosions, the CEO's
sinking, the captain of the ship
credibilit}'
was
is
suspect.'
telling ever>'one
Crossing, and other
As the Titanic was rapidly
not to panic, to believe there
was no problem, and to implicitly trust the ship's staff. The quality' we, as the
authors of this text, admire most in others is the abilit)' to communicate effectively.
Now, more than ever, mutual respect and trust is at the heart of effective communication. Yet, in an era where more messages are being sent and received, the
primar)- objective in ever)' organization is "doing a better job of communicating."
Unfortunately, as the accompan\ing "Contemporar)- Issue" box illustrates, this
objective
is
not being attained.
CHAPTER
Communication: The
3
Vital Link in
Supervisory
Management
I
83
COMMUNICATION REQUIRES
TWO-WAY EXCHANGE
EFFECTIVE
Comtnunication was defined as the process of transmitting information and understanding from one person to another. The significant point
is
communication
that
two people: a sender and a receiver. For example, a supervisor who is alone in a room and states a set of instructions does not communicate
because there are no receivers. While the lack of communication is obvious in this
always involves
case,
it
may
he or she
at least
not be so obvious to a supervisor
hits the
who sends an e-mail message. Once
may believe that communication
"send" button, the supervisor
has taken place. However, this superv'isor has not really communicated until and
CONTEMPORARY
For years, we
ISSUE
started each semester with the follow-
"Where were you on December 7,
1941?" or "Where were you when President Kennedy
was shot?" Today, the question is, "What were you
doing on September 1 1, 2001?" Regardless of where
you were when those events transpired, the issue will
ing questions:
"How
be,
you do
in
did that event impact your
response to the tragedy?"
of 9/1 1/2001
,
many
life?
In
What
did
the aftermath
businesses did an excellent job of
communicating with their workers. Others did "management by mystery."^ Communication is not the
same as information. Some blame miscommunication
on individuals. Others blame poor communication on
the organization as a whole. Consider these points:
•
•
People need to know what is expected of them. Is
that common sense? Yes, but one study reported
surprisingly,
manners as the most
them
clear
Miscommunication cannot be
my
fault.
A Roper
skills
sufficient oral
communications
while only 9 percent of employers agreed.^
major difference between the
perceptions of students and the perceptions of
employers.
Clearly, there
is
a
The pen is mightier than the sword. All employees
must have writing ability. More than 80 percent of
the companies in the services and the finance,
insurance, and real estate (FIRE) sectors assess
writing
when
hiring.
Applicants
poorly written letters wouldn't
who
likely
make
Is
a difference.^
every organization a learning organization? Best-
companies regularly use multiple tools to
feedback from customers and use proactive
practice
A
study of the Singapore
insurance industry found that listening was ranked
as the
most important
skill
Are the mistakes and experiences used as a
springboard for continuous improvement? It does
not appear to be so. One study reported that 90
percent of respondents said that lessons learned
by others
in
their organizations are not shared. ^°
do the best
means of communication? Not necessarily. In 1999,
it was reported that medical errors were the eighth
Is
always telling people exactly what to
leading cause of death
with writing deficiencies.'^
to success on the job.
feedback and
to establish practices based on that input.'
of automobile accidents, HIV,
more than 40 percent of the surveyed
companies offer or require training for employees
listening important?
their sales personnel to collect client
provide
view. Yet,
Is
for handling complaints.® Unfortunately,
only 30 percent of the other companies require
get an
inter-
good
elements for effec-
If our management team espouses an "opendoor" policy, won't that ensure upward feedback?
Only 29 percent of line managers thought their
organizations encouraged employees to express
their opinions openly.* Seventy percent of employees felt afraid to speak up about issues or problems they encountered at work. They feared there
would be negative repercussions for speaking up,
and they did not believe speaking up would
approaches
gives
critical
tive listening.^
ment
employees say managegoals and directions.^
respondents rated focus (the
suppress personal feelings) and
solicit
thought they had
•
Not
ability to
that less than one-third of
Starch Survey found that 57 percent of students
•
ARE WE COOD COMMUNICATORS?
in
the United States
and breast
—ahead
cancer.
in any business are risky, but none
more so than in the medical profession. Could a
hospital be held liable because a nurse did not
Verbal orders
question an improper order by a physician?
How do
Yes.''^
get the support of others? One study
reported that you are fourteen times more likely
I
PART
84
2 Supervisory Essentials
to get a person's support or purchase commit-
Who
you give that person something up front,
unasked, before you ask for the support or deci-
takes place?
nnent
sion. This
Sources:
(1)
A
is
is
responsible for ensuring that communication
We strongly urge you to resolve to
improve your information-giving and -getting skills.
It is your responsibility.
if
often called the "reciprocity reflex."'^
survey by the Council of Public Relations Firms reported that 59 percent of those surveyed said their companies communicated with
them regarding
their
also found that
20 percent of
concerns after the 9/1 1/2001
U.S. workers worry
of business. Sixteen percent said they
terrorist attacks.
about being
were anxious about
Only 7 percent said
laid off,
and
1 1
their
employers had not discussed
their concerns.
The survey
percent said they were concerned that their companies might go out
their personal safety at work." Survey:
Employers Communicating Well," Fort Wayne, IN
Journal Gazette (October 29, 2001), p. 1C. (2) Dianna Booher, "There's No Communication Around Here!" Busir)ess Forms, Labels. & Systems
(February 20, 2001), pp. 22-23. (3) See the news release, "Workforce Preparedness," by Roper Starch (April 19, 1999), which reports the results of a
study commissioned by Junior Achievement with the support of
Amway
that explores
what employers want
in
graduates and what
skills
students are
Poorly written business communications waste time, drain productivity and cause errors. See Kathy Gurchiek, "Shoddy Writing
Can
and "Writing: A Ticket to Work. ..Or a Ticket Out: Survey of Business Leaders,"
National Commission on Writing for America's Families, Schools, and Colleges, as reported by AccountingWeb.com (September 17, 2004);
"Communication in Management," Harvard Management Communication Letter (September 2(XX)), p. 12. (6) B. S. Moskal, "Is
(5) Adapted from
Industry Ready for Adult Relationships?" Industry Week (January 21, 1991), pp. 18-25. (7) K. D. Ryan and D. K. Oestreich, Driving Fear Out of the
Workplace: How to Overcome the Invisible Barriers to Quality, Productivity, and Innovation (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1991). (8) Michael S. Garver,
Pass," Sales and
"Listening to Customers," Mid-America Journal of Business (Fall 2001), pp. 41-54. (9) Gabrielle Birkner, "Feedback? Nah,
Marketing Management (September 2001 ), p. 1 6. (10) Leah Miller, "Wanted: Improved Communication," The Internal Auditor (October 2000), p. 1 3.
(11) Sue Dill Calloway, "Preventing Communication Breakdowns," RN (January 2001), pp. 71-73. (12) Karen Anderson, "What You Can Say Without
Speaking," Journal of Property Management (September/October 2001), pp. 12-14.
developing.
Trip
(4)
Up Employees,
Organization,"
SHRM Home
(April 27, 2006),
I'll
unless the e-mail has been received and the information and understanding have
been transferred successfully to the receiver (see Figure 3.1).
It cannot be emphasized too strongly that effective communication includes
both sending and receiving information. A listener may hear a speaker because the
listener has ears, but the listener may not understand the speaker. Understanding is
a personal matter between people. If an idea received has the same meaning as the
one intended, then we can say that effective communication has taken place. If,
however, the idea received by a listener or reader is not the one intended, then communication has not been effective. The sender has merely transmitted spoken or
written words. This does not mean that the sender and receiver must agree on a
message or an issue; it is possible to communicate and yet not agree.
FIGURE
3.1
Communication does not take place unless information
is
transferred successfully.
CHAPTER
EFFECTIVE
3
Communication: The
Vital Link in
Supervisory
Management
I
85
COMMUNICATION MEANS
BETTER SUPERVISION
An
analysis of
supemsory
activities
would
more than
likely find that
half the work-
day involves giving and receiving information. Unfortunately, formal communication training
is
some
often limited to basic writing and speaking courses in school/
more
effective communicators than others. Usually
communication is vital, and they give it their full
attention. Unfortunately, many more supervisors simply assume that they know
how to communicate, and they do not work at developing their communication
skills. A supervisor's effectiveness depends on the ability to create an environment
that fosters communication. Employees must understand their supervisor's instructions to achieve their objectives. Similarly, the supervisor must know how to receive
information and understand the messages sent by employees, other supervisors,
and high-level managers. Fortunately, the skills of effective communication can be
developed. By using some of the techniques and suggestions in this chapter, we
hope you will become a more effective communicator and, ultimately, a more effec-
Clearly,
supervisors are
these supervisors recognize that
tive
manager.
O
CHANNELS OF THE
COMMUNICATION NETWORK
-
.
.
.
,
.
,
,
discuss the major channels
ot
1
11
communication network has two primary and equally
important channels: (1) the formal, or official, channel of communication and (2)
the informal channel, usually called the "grapevine." Both channels carr)' messages
downward, upward, and
from one person or group to another in organizations
In every organization, the
communication available
to the supervisor
I
—
horizontally.
FORMAL CHANNELS
Formal communication channels are established primarily by an organization's
structure. Vertical formal channels can be visualized by following the lines of
authority from the top-level executive down through the organization to supervisors and employees.
DOWNWARD COMMUNICATION
The concept of a downward formal channel of communication suggests that upperlevel management issues instructions or disseminates information that managers or
super\'isors at the next level receive and pass to their subordinates, and so on down
the line. The downward channel is most often used by high-level managers to communicate. Downward communication, which helps to tie levels together, is important for coordination. Managers use it to start action by subordinates and to
communicate instructions, objectives, policies, procedures, and other information.
Generally, downward communication is informative and directive and requires
subordinates to act. Downward communication from a super\'isor involves giving
instructions, explaining information and procedures, training employees, and
engaging in other types of
activities
designed to guide employees in performing
their work.
Unfortunately, in practice
When
downward communication
leaves
much
to be desired.
asked to describe the communication in their organization, only 22.2 percent
I
86
PART
2
Supervisory Essentials
was "open and honest."
it
by asking, "Communication? What communi-
of respondents in a recent survey reported that
Surprisingly, 22.6 percent responded
Another study reported that 87 percent of CEOs failed the candor test. If top
managers are not perceived to provide "open, honest, sincere, and genuine" communication, what impact does that have on the rest of the organization?"" We have found
that employees want to be told what they need to know when they need to know it.
cation?"
UPWARD COMMUNICATION
Upward communication is equally important to the official network. Supervisors
who have managerial authorit}' accept an obligation to keep their superiors informed
and to contribute their own ideas to management. Similarly, employees should feel
convey their ideas to their supervisors and to report on activities related to
Managers and supervisors should encourage a free flow of upward
communication.
Upward communication usually involves informing and reporting, including
asking questions, making suggestions, and lodging complaints. This is a vital means
by which managers can determine whether proper actions are taking place and can
obtain valuable employee insight into problems facing a unit. For example, employees may report production results and also present ideas for increasing production.
Super\isors should encourage upward communication from employees and
give ample attention to the information being transmitted. Supervisors must show
that they want employee suggestions as well as the facts, and then those super\'isors
must evaluate information promptly. It has become clear that often no one knows
better than the employees doing the work.^To
problems
and possible solutions
tap into this important source of information, supervisors must convey a genuine
desire to obtain and use the ideas suggested by employees. (See the accompanying
"Super\asor\' Tips" box.) The key word is probe: Ask questions such as "How can we
?" and "What will make it work?"
?" "What can we do better?" "What if
improve
Effective supervisors develop rapport with their employees and other stakeholders.
free to
their work.
—
.
.
.
—
.
.
.
one
knows the problems and
Frequently, no
possible solutions to
those problems better
than the employees
who
are doing the work.
i^fe31
^S^^fcTTx ^""^
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^i
jj^H^H
i^^^^^^^^^Hi
—
CHAPTER
Communication: The
3
Vital Link in
Supervisory
Management
87
I
and suggestions and acting on suggestions. A supervisor
skills usually wins the respect and admiration of
really listening to ideas
with effective information-getting
and employees.
Most supervisors acknowledge
colleagues
that
tell
their
managers they
failed to
often easier to converse with their sub-
it is
ordinates than with their managers. This
is
particularly true
when
super\isors
must
meet schedules or they made mistakes.
SUPERVISORY TIPS
Management By Wandering Around (MBWA) Improves Communication
The most
to
from Mohandas Gandhi
effective leaders,
Sam Walton
of Wal-Mart to Jack
GE
Welch of
Colin Powell, have always led from the front
asking the right questions and encouraging
line,
where the action is. Today, any leader, at any level,
who hopes for even limited success must likewise
lead from the trenches. Getting out and about (commonly known as "management by wandering
around," or
MBWA)
everyone to ask questions, listening to those
affected by problems, learning all the facts,
"walking the talk"
and acting on and incorpo-
to
—
rating suggestions as part of the process can lead
to a
5.
deals with gathering the infor-
mation necessary for decision making, making a
vision concrete, engendering commitment and risk
taking,
how
to
and caring about people.'' But
wander? Where do begin?
do not know
I
6.
I
all
employees and
organization.
Remember:
Be available to provide guidance and direction.
when everyone knows
you are accessible and able to listen to their
•
something
about them: Why did they decide to work here?
What are their interests? Where do they want to
be three years from now? What can do to
enable them to be the best they can be? In short,
1. Sit with
more productive
As you wander, catch people doing something
right. Tell them how good you feel about what
they have done and encourage them to do more
of the same. Make sure you link good performance to rewards people value.
try to learn
Set aside a certain time
ideas/suggestions/concerns.
I
Do
•
purpose.
•
to the goals of the organization.^
•
Tell
Developing a climate of mutual trust and respect
is critical to getting everyone committed to the
•
To be a good wanderer, you have to be a good
listener. Stop what you are doing and listen.
•
When you
common
3.
a
done the right way the first time,
you need to know where they are coming from
and be able to link that knowledge to get buy-in
to get the job
2.
not wander just for the sake of wandering.
Have
Your work group
means more than wandering to where
your employees are. It is not enough to advertise
an open-door policy. It means being available to
effective corporate culture.
in
can't
answer
a worker's
question on
them
when you will get back to them and do it! This
is one way to build credibility, trust, and loyalty.
within a specified period of time. Tell
important for you
It is
of individuals.
the spot, get back to them with an answer
answer any questions that might arise.
Accessibility is a crucial part of developing an
to stay
made up
to each person.
people you want feedback and go out of
your way to get it.
purpose.
MBWA
is
message
Tailor the
•
touch with everyone.
Effective
communication
is
the key to your
success.
people that you want feedback and be prepared to receive it. The technique of probing
4. Tell
Sources:
In
(1)
MBWA
was developed by executives of Hewlett-Packard
in
the 1970s.
Noted author Tom Peters popularized the concept
Search of Excellence: Lessons Learned from America's Best Run Companies (New York: Harper
advised that managers need to
1988), pp. 423—440.
(2)
from them. As reported
spective on
MBWA,
become
highly visible
D. Michael Abrashoff,
in
Polly LaBarre,
see Harry
K.
"The
and do
Commander
MBWA
USS Benfold
Leadership,"
April 2006).
a
In
in
the book.
subsequent book, Peters strongly
on Chaos (New York: Alfred A. Knopf,
down with his new crew members and tries to learn something
Fast Company (April 1999), pp. 14+. For a twenty-first century per-
sits
(Management by Wandering Around)
Olissue/management-by-wandering-around.htm (accessed
Row, 1982).
a better job of listening to subordinates, Thriving
of the
Agenda—Grassroots
Jones, "Does
&
1
Still
Work?" http://www.achievemax.com/newsletter/
88
I
PART
2
Supervisory Essentials
it is a supenison.' dut\' to ad\ise the manager whenever there are
developments and to do so as soon as possible, before or after such events
is quite embarrassing to a manager to learn important news elsewhere; this
Nevertheless,
significant
occur.
It
can be interpreted to
mean supenisors
are not abreast of their responsibilities.
High-level managers need complete information, because they retain overall
Of course,
organizational performance.
responsibilitA.' for
supervisors need to pass
upward
ever)' bit
of
trivial
this
does not
that super\isors should mentally place themselves in their
own
A super\isor's upward communication should be sent on time and
them on, though
it
iobs properly.
in a
form
that
The supervisor should assemble and
enables the manager to take necessan' action.
facts before passing
that
means
managers' positions and
consider what information their managers need to perform their
check
mean
information. Rather,
may be quite difficult at
this
times.
.^
nat-
bit so that things do not look quite as bad
WTien difficulties arise, it is best to tell the
manager what is really going on, even if it means admitting mistakes. High-level
managers depend on super\isors for reliable upward communication, just as supervisors depend on their employees for the accurate, upward flow of information.
ural inclination
in the
is
to "soften
information a
'
manager's eyes as they actually
are.
HORIZONTAL COMMUNICATION
A
third direction of formal
functioning. This
is
communication
lateral,
is
essential for efficient organizational
or horizontal, communication, which
is
concerned
communication betvveen departments or people at the same levels but
charge of different functions. Horizontal communication must be open and
mainly
in
\Nith
freely flowing to coordinate functions
Horizontal communication
accomphsh
may have
among
t\"pically
departments.
involves discussions
and meetings to
manager
tasks that cross departmental lines. For example, a production
managers of the marketing and shipping departments to ascersomeone from the human
uith
supenisors
resources department may meet
a number of
to discuss how a new
medical leave polic)" is to be implemented at the departmental level. Still another
example is the cashier who pages the stock clerk to inquire when a particular item
upward, downwill be available. Without an open communication environment
ward, and sideways
it would be virtually impossible to coordinate specialized
departmental efforts toward a common purpose.
to contact
tain progress
on
a deliver}' schedule for a product, or
—
—
INFORMAL CHANNELS— THE GRAPEVINE
Grapevine
The informal, unofficial
communication channel.
Informal communication channels,
commonly
referred to as the grapevine, are a
normal outgrowth of informal and casual groupings of people on the iob, of their
social interactions, and of their understandable desire to communicate with one
another. Even- organization has
because
it
fulfills
The grapevine
its
grapevine. This
emplovees' desire to
offers
members of an
know
is
a perfectly natural element
the latest information and to socialize.
organization an outlet for imagining, as well as
an opportunity to express apprehensions in the form of rumors.
UNDERSTANDING THE GRAPEVINE
The grapevine can
An
whenever
it
offer considerable insight into employees" thoughts
and
feelings.
alert supervisor acknowledges the grapevine and tries to take advantage of
possible.
The
carries half-truths,
grapevine often carries factual information, but
it
sometimes
rumors, private interpretations, suspicions, and other
bits
of
CHAPTER
Communication: The
3
distorted or inaccurate information. Research indicates that
more
and confidence
faith
them.
in the grapevine
In part, this reflects a natural
Vital Link in
Supervisory
many employees
have
than in what their supenisors
human tendeno'
tell
to trust one's peers to a
greater degree than people in authority, such as supenisors or parents.
The grapevine cannot be predicted because its path today is not necessarily the
same as its path yesterday. Most employees hear information through the grapevine,
but some do not pass it along. Any person in an organization may become active in
the grapeWne on occasion; some indiuduals are more active than others. Some
people feel that their prestige is enhanced if they can pass along the latest news, and
they do not hesitate to spread and embellish upon that news. Rumors ser\'e, in part,
as a release for emotions, pro^^ding an opportunity" to remain anon%Tnous and say
wanted \Nithout being held accountable. Many people know of allegatales that have found their way into homes
and offices \ia the Internet. Xot surprisingly, most of these pieces of information
are passed along as "fact," even though thev lack truth and scientific accurao". How
often have you heard, "It must be true, I read it in the newspaper, heard it on T\',
found it on the Internet]"?
According to author Nigel Nicholson, we have all seen the ts\'0 sides of rumors.
One side is positive, the result of spending time with a friend and sharing stories
about mutual acquaintances. The other side is negative, the erosion of self-esteem,
fi'ustration, and anger arising when someone spreads bad news about you.*
The grape\'ine sometimes helps clarif\' and supplement formal communication,
and it often spreads information that could not be disseminated as well or as rapidlv through official channels.
whatever
tions,
is
rumors, gossip, and "old-wives'"
THE SUPERVISOR AND THE GRAPEVINE
The super\isor should
realize that
it is
impossible to eliminate the grapeWne.
It is
rumors can be stamped out, and the grape%ine is certain to flourish in even." organization. To cope with the grape\ine, supenisors
should tune in to the grape%ine and learn what it is saving. Supenisors should also
determine who leads the grapeWne and who is likely to spread its information.
Many rumors begin in the \\ishful-thLnking stage of employee anticipation. If
employees want something badly enough, they may start passing the word to other
employees. For example, if secretaries want a raise, they may start the rumor that
management will offer an across-the-board raise. Nobody knows for certain where
unrealistic to expect that
or ho\\" the
believe
it.
rumor
Of
all
started,
but the ston" spreads rapidly because everyone wants to
course, morale suffers
something that does not happen.
izes
it \\ill
when hopes
If such a stor)"
is
up in anticipation of
spreading and the supenisor realare built
lead to disappointment, the supenisor should
ston" \\ith facts.
The
best cure for
to give straight ans\vers to
all
rumors
is
move
quickly to refute the
to expose the facts to
all
employees and
questions.
Other frequent causes of rumors are uncertainty" and fear. If business is slack
and management is forced to lay off some employees, stories multiply quickly.
During periods of insecurity" and anxiet)", the grape\ine becomes more active than
at other times. Often, rumors are far worse than realit)". If a supenisor does not disclose facts to employees, those employees will make up their own "facts," which
may be worse than realit\". Thus, much of the fear caused by uncertaint)" can be
eliminated or reduced if the truth of what will happen is disclosed. Continuing
rumors and uncertaint)-^ may be more demoralizing than even the saddest facts presented openly.
Management
I
89
90
I
PART
2
Supervisory Essentials
Especially during periods
of
economic
uncertainty,
the grapevine carries bits
of distorted information
that flow quickly through
the organization.
Rumors
from
also arise
dislike, anger,
and
distrust.
Rumors spread through
the
grapevine can be about such topics as the company, working conditions, or the pri\'ate
the
or work-life happenings of its members. Rumors, like gossip and stontelling, ease
boredom of organizational
an employee grows
to hate a
life
and, in extreme cases,
harm
people. Occasionally,
company, super\isor, or fellow employee. This employee
could fabricate a sensational story about the target of animosit)'.
Rumors
who embellish those
may be shocked to hear such rumors, and their trust and respect for
the rumors may erode. Unfortunately, there is no effective means for
often start small but are spread quickly by a few
rumors. Others
the people in
repudiating rumors and rebuilding
refuting
it,
some people may
the best prescription
all
is
credibilit)'. If
speculate that the
the information, they should admit
One
cation
and
is
rumor without
When
try to assess the real situation,
remember
Again,
super\isors lack
is
to
and report
expose
that the receptiveness of a
directly related to the qualit)' of the supervisor
When
leadership.
about them and make
it,
a
least partly true.
of the best ways to stop a rumor
untruthfulness. Super\'isors should
employees to rumors
is at
openly and honestly.
to state the facts
the situation to employees.
you mention
rumor
s
its
group of
communi-
employees believe their super\-isors are concerned
keep employees informed, employees tend to
ever)- effort to
disregard rumors and to look to their supervisors for answers.
The supervisor should
For example, an
alert
listen to the
supervisor
knows
grapevine and develop
skills to
that certain events cause
undue
address
it.
anxiety. In
should explain immediately why such events have occurred.
emergencies occur, changes are introduced, or policies are modified, the
this case, the supervisor
When
why and answer all employee questions as openly as posemployees will make up their own explanations, and often these
supervisor should explain
sible.
Otherwise,
explanations will be incorrect. In
some
situations,
supenisors do not have the
In these cases, super\isors should seek appropriate high-level
managers
facts.
to explain
CHAPTER
3
Communication: The
Vital Link in
Supervisory
Management
91
what is bothering employees and to ask for specific instructions as to what information may be given, how much may be told, and when. Also, when something
happens that might cause rumors, it is helpful for superx'isors to meet with their most
influential employees to give them the real story. Then, those employees can spread
the facts before anyone else can spread the rumors.^
METHODS OF COMMUNICATION
Explain the benefits
The preceding
sections described various
communication flows or channels of
of the various
of
communication. The effective supervisor is concerned with not only the content of
communication but also the context of communication. The following sections
explore various methods for delivering a message. Especially during periods of eco-
nomic
methods
communication
uncertaint)', the grapevine carries bits of distorted information that flow
quickly through the organization.
BEHAVIOR
1$
COMMUNICATION
Super\isors should realize that their behavior as managers
form of communicating
on the job
is
an important
Body language is the observable
The supervisor s body language communicates
\\ith their subordinates.
actions of the sender or the receiver.
something to employees, whether it is intended or not. Gestures, a handshake, a shrug
all have meaning and may be interpreted
of the shoulder, a smile, or even silence
—
by different people. For example, a supenasor s warm smile and posture
slightly bent toward employees can send positive signals to employees. Particularly in
an uncertain and sometimes chaotic world, smiling may be somewhat difficult, but it
is definitely more effective than scowling. Conversely, a scowl on a supendsor s face
may communicate more than ten minutes of oral discussion or a printed page of
information. Many of us have seen news clips of President John F. Kennedy's 1961
inauguration address in which his gestures changed from a clinched fist to a wagging
finger as he delivered those famous words: ''Ask not what your country can do for you,
ask what you can do for your country." Clearly, President Kennedy used body language
differently
to reinforce the important points of his message.
Body language
is
not universal. The messages sent by different expressions or
postures van*- from situation to situation and particularly from culture to culture.
Touching,
like the "pat
on the back," may be perceived
people. Studies report that
women
differently
by different
distinguish between touching for the purpose of
convening warmth and friendship and touching to convey sexual attraction while
men may not.'° Male super\-isors must recognize that touching female employees
may cause resentment or even charges of sexual harassment.
A super\isor's unexplained action may create a meaning that is not intended. For
example, a super\'isor arranged to have some equipment remo\'ed from the production floor without telling the employees that the
equipment was removed because
it
needed mechanical modifications. To the employees, who feared a shutdowTi, this
unexplained action communicated a message that the super\isor had no intention of
sending.
ORAL AND WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
Spoken and written words are the most widely used forms of communication in an
They also challenge ever\^ supervisor who wishes to communicate
effectively. Words can be tricky. Instructions that mean one thing to one employee
organization.
Body language
All
observable actions of
the sender or receiver.
92
I
PART
2
Supervisory Essentials
may have a different meaning to someone else. A collection-agency supervisor told
new employee, "Get tough with Mr. Stump. His account is two months overdue."
Upon checking an hour later, the supervisor found that the new employee had
a
Mr. Stump. Obviously, instructions
tough" can be interpreted in several different ways.
started foreclosure proceedings against
like "get
Because words are the essence of oral and written communication, supervisors
should constantly tr)' to improve their skills in speaking, listening, writing, and
reading.
A well-balanced communication
system uses both written and oral media.
Supervisors have fewer occasions to use the written
medium
because most supervi-
sory communication takes place orally.
Oral communication generally
understanding and takes
is
superior to written communication because
it
true both with telephone
and
face-to-face communication. Face-to-face discussion between a supervisor and
employees is the principal method of two-way communication. Employees like to
see and hear their supervisors in person, and no written communication can be as
effective as an interpersonal discussion. In a face-to-face discussion, both employees and supervisors can draw meaning from body language as well as the oral message. Another reason oral communication is more effective is that most people can
express themselves more easily and completely by voice than by letter or memo.
Probably the greatest advantage of oral communication is that it can provide an
immediate opportunity for determining whether communication between the
sender and receiver has been effective. Although the response may only be an expression on the receiver's face, the sender can judge how the receiver is reacting to what
is being said. Oral communication enables the sender to find out immediately what
the receiver hears and does not hear. Oral communication enables the receiver to ask
questions immediately if the meaning is not clear, and the sender can clarify. The
human voice can impart a message with meaning and clarity that pages of written
words cannot convey. Body language and tone of voice help convey the message.
The principal problem with oral communication is that usually there is no permanent record of it and, over time, speakers' and listeners' memories blur the
meaning of what was conveyed. This is why many supervisors follow up certain
meetings and discussions with some t\^e of memoranda or documents to have
written bases for recalling what was discussed.
To reiterate, a supervisor must always remember that effective communication
takes place only when the meaning received by the listener is the same as that which
the sender intended to send. Supervisors who are effective communicators know
how to speak clearly and to be aware of the listener. They are sensitive to the many
barriers to effective communication, which can distort communication. They also
know how to overcome these barriers. Such supervisors recognize that a speaker
and a listener are unique individuals who live in different worlds and that many factors impact the messages passing between them.
facilitates
A PICTURE
IS
less time.
This
is
WORTH A THOUSAND WORDS
in conveying meaning should never be underestimated.
and symbols can be effective visual aids, and the supervisor should employ them as appropriate. These tools are particularly effective when
used with well-chosen words that complete the message. Businesses use such visual
aids as blueprints, charts, drafts, models, and posters extensively to communicate
information. Movies, videos, and comic strips demonstrate the power of visual
The power of visual media
Pictures, charts, cartoons,
media
in
communicating.
^
CHAPTER
3
Communication: The
Vital Link in
Supervisory
Management
I
93
Pictures, charts, cartoons,
and symbols can be
effective visual aids.
1
BARRIERS TO
EFFECTIVE
Human
differences
COMMUNICATION
and organizational conditions can create obstacles
identify
that distort
messages between people. These obstacles can be called noise. Misunderstandings,
confusion, and conflicts can develop
when communication
and discuss barriers
to effective communication.
breaks down. These
breakdowns not only are costly in terms of mone)' but also create dilemmas that
hurt teamwork and morale. Many supervisor)' human-relations problems are traceable to faulty communication. The ways supervisors communicate with their sub-
Noise
Obstacles that distort
messages between
people.
ordinates constitute the essence of their relationships.
Speak to any group of employees about the communication in their workplace
and
turn
their first response
down
is
usually, "There's so
much
noise.
Can you
the volume?" This problem has increased substantially as
get someone to
more and more
organizations have moved to "open offices" in which employees are separated only
by cubicle panels. Imagine being on an important call with a client and having the
background noise reach such a level that it is impossible to carry on a conversation.
According to some reports, the open-office concept, which was intended to foster
creativit)^ collaboration, and teamwork and to facilitate communication, has given
rise to numerous complaints of having to work in a stereophonic environment.
"Acoustical privaq^ remains the biggest concern of workstation employees," according to commercial architect Richard Pollock.
"It's
that everything
is
too noisy."'
LANdUAOE AND VOCABULARY DIFFERENCES
People vary greatly in their
though language
is
abilit)'
to
convey meaning. Words can be confusing, even
the principal vehicle people use to communicate. In regions of
common languages, differences in cultures,
and word
meanings can be profound.'^ Within the organization, an accounting department
the world with
accents, dialects,
1
94
PART
I
2
Supervisory Essentials
may
supervisor, for example,
use specialized words that
conversing with a computer technician. Similarly,
uses technical terms
when
propriate use of what
are specific
is
may be
meaningless
when
an information technologist
interfacing with the accounting department super\'isor,
the latter could be confused. This
Jargon
Words that
if
known
communication problem stems from the inapwords that are specific to a
as jargon, or the use of
background or specialty.
Another consideration relates to the number of languages that may be spoken
in a work environment. Some Hispanic Americans and native Mexicans may speak
Spanish fluently but have difficulty with English. A native of Southeast Asia
may speak Vietnamese but ver\' little English. Some organizations have launched
person's
to an occupation or a
specialty.
Spanish-language web
sites to
more
primarily Spanish (see Figure 3.2).
effectively
Motor
communicate with those who speak
vehicle license branches in Indiana will
provide interpreters for those needing assistance. The increasing
number of immi-
grants from Asian, Eastern European, Central American, and Latin American countries
has led
some
to
clamor that only English be spoken
in the workplace.
Others
support a bilingual working environment.
Another communication problem
Semantics
The multiple meanings
known
of
words.
as semantics.
larly in English,
some words
Words can mean
which
is
lies
meanings of words,
in the multiple
different things to different people, particu-
one of the most
languages in the world. The ways
difficult
manbook of synonyms,
identifies the numerous meanings of commonly used words. When a word has multiple meanings, the desired meaning must be clarified because receivers tend to
interpret words based on their perceptions, experiences, and cultural backgrounds.
The question is not whether employees should understand words; it is whether
are used in sentences can cause people to interpret messages in
ners other than the ways that were intended. Rogefs Thesaurus, a
employees do understand. Super\isors should use
statements.
plain, direct
meaning or
in brief,
simple
context.
DIFFERENCES IN LISTENING STYLES
According to Edward
"Today s audiences are
E. Scannell, past president
far different
from
AND ATTENTION SPANS
of the National Speakers Association,
don't want to be 'talked
at'
and more
sophisticated,
by a speaker. They want to be part of the process.
—
Maybe it's the MT\' effect a generation with
demand constant \isual stimuli or maybe it's just that
all areas of life, are bombarded by ever-more-provocative messages."'-'
to contribute their owti ex-perience.
shortened attention spans
people today, in
The
and they
People want
their counterparts of even a few years ago.
majorit)' of audiences are younger, better educated,
FIGURE
words
When needed, supervisors should restate messages to clarify the intended
—
\\'ho
3.2
YOU UNDERSTAND, DON T YOU?
Please explain this to nne!
"No importa
cual sea tu idionna o descendencia, tecnologia e involucramiento
comunidad, solamente, no son capaces de ganar el corazon del Cliente.
Una sonrisa vale mil palabras en cualquier idioma, y nuestros Empleados son
expertos en compartir sus corazones con todos nuestros Clientes. Southwest esta
muy agradecido a todos los Clientes que nos honran con su eleccion, y a la hora
de escoger una aerolinea, espero que lo que digas sea: "Vamonos con
con
la
Southwest
Airlines."
—Colleen Barrett
— Presidenta, Southwest Airlines
Source: Reprinted with permission from "Hablemos de Servicio," Southwest Airlines Spirit {July 2005),
each issue of
Spirit,
SWA's president sends her message
in
both English and Spanish.
p. 16. In
^
CHAPTER
3
Communication: The
Vital Link in
Supervisory
Management
95
I
TOO MUCH INFORMATION— TMM^
In todays business world, employees
bits
of information
understanding and
that have
little
ever)' day.
and supervisors are inundated with hundreds of
Many messages are long and wordy, which
lost productivity.
The
typical written
message
is
can cause mis-
loaded with words
much
or no bearing on the messages purpose. Giving employees too
information results in "information overload" and causes employees to complain of
being overwhelmed with irrelevant and redundant messages.
before employees consider
all
How
long does
it
take
messages to be "junk mail" and discard them?
Keeping a message short and simple means using as few words and sentences as
show that supervisors spend between 70 to 90 percent of their time
possible. Studies
sending and receiving information. Noted author
employee should be empowered and have
all
Tom
Peters stated (sic),
the organizations information
"Each
at their
fingertips."'-^
THE INTERNET AND TMI
With the advent of
communication, it seems that employees
do their jobs. On one hand, companies want employees to have access to the best and latest information and resources
to do a better job. On the other hand, Internet use can become time-consuming for
some employees, and, if left unchecked, can impede productivity.
How much are employees using the Internet for personal use? One recent study
reported that U.S. workers are wasting at least two hours a day at work. Not surprisingly, surfing the Web for personal enjoyment was at the top of the nonwork
activity list.'^ Another study found that 68 percent of companies have detected
employees surfing sexually explicit web sites.''
Some small-business owners cite this lost productivity as their major reason for
forbidding employees to use the Internet. Another survey conducted by the
American Management Association and the ePolicy Institute reported that electronic monitoring of employee Internet use and e-mail has become standard operating procedure (SOP) for most organizations. More than three-quarters of
employers monitor Internet surfing by their employees, and 55 percent retain and
review e-mail messages.'^ See this chapter's second "Contemporary Issue" box to
understand the scope of the problem and what some companies are doing about it.
should have
all
electronic forms of
the information they need to
CONTEMPORARY
ISSUE
SEARCHING THE WEB: FRIEND OR FOE?
<t.-?illH
H
•
as the Web revolutionized communication
channels?
Of the respondents
in
one
reported they use the
Web
employees. The same
poll
poll, 91
to
•
said.
percent
communicate with
noted that 48 percent
of the firms use the Web as the means for employees to enroll in benefit plans or training programs^
How much
•
valuable information
is
there on the
estimated that 6
billion instant
Is
•
Web?
messages are
sent in a day, 5 percent of which are spam; and
one in every 1 1 e-mail messages contains a virus.
It is
There is no opportunity to look into someone's
eyes to make sure they understand what's being
everyone overloaded with information?
It appears that way. The Federal Trade
Commission (FTC) gets more than 15,000 complaints about spam (unauthorized mass mailings)
every day, and the problem is worsening.^
Do employees waste
•
One
men
time because of Internet use?
survey found that 32.9 percent of employed
25-34 years old and 24.9 percent of
women
^
96
I
PART
2
Supervisory Essentials
same age range reported spending three
more hours per day on the Internet at work.
Two out of every five employees reported that
they use the Internet at work to look up information on a product while more than one-third have
in
another 25 percent have terminated employees
The survey reported that 75
percent of companies monitor employees' web
the
for e-mail misuse.
or
purchased a product for personal use online while
at work. Checking local or national news (53.9%),
site
•
•
A
activities
web
sites.
One-third of employers track employees "content, keystrokes,
and time spent
at the key-
board." Another 50 percent of companies store
and sending online greetings (20.4%) were
reported as popular online
connections, and two-thirds use software to
block connections to inappropriate
entertainment schedules (32.4%), sporting news
(26.5%),
^
and review employees' computer
files.
while at work."^
survey by Siemens Communications found that
Are there any examples of careless use of the
Internet or e-mail systems?
two-thirds of respondents said they have to leave
multiple e-mail
messages
in
•
different places to
—
get an answer quickly. An equally big complaint
was that the slow responses mean decisions have
to be delayed.^
Harry Stoncipher out because of a "consensual"
had with a female executive at the
company. Boeing's board had launched an internal investigation after information was sent
anonymously to Chairman Lew Piatt and the company's legal and ethics leaders. Stonecipher, who
is married, admitted having the affair with
another Boeing executive who was not one of his
direct- re ports. Their sexually explicit e-mails, one
says, "made the Prince Charles and Camilla
Parker Bowles tapes sound like kindergarten
relationship he
Are there any examples of how firms are using the
Web to enhance customer service?
•
Dollar Rent A Car, for example, wanted to let customers make reservations through a major airline
partner's web site. Using .NET connected software, the two companies linked two different systems on two different platforms, which enabled
both partners to better connect with each other
and their customers. The project was complete in
weeks rather than months.*
What
are organizations doing to monitor
use of the
•
There are numerous illustrations but the Boeing
case draws top billing for the moment. The
board of directors of Boeing Co. forced CEO
talk."
Stonecipher's e-mails
members
employee
asked Stonecipher to stop the
later asked for his resignation.
computer?
A
study on electronic monitoring and surveillance
by the American Management Association and
the ePolicy Institute found that companies
increasingly are "putting teeth in their technology
policies." About a quarter of employers have
fired workers for misusing the Internet, and
became
of the board of directors,
ecessor, Phil Condit, also
alty of a contracting
affair
accessible to
who
first
and
five
Ironically, his
left in
disgrace, a casu-
scandal that ultimately sent
two subordinate Boeing executives to
What
•
Be
is
days
pred-
jail.'
the moral of these stories?
careful of
what you send and where you send
it.
(1) Carol Kleiman, "You Say You Want a Revolution in the Workplace," Business Monday Fort Wayne News-Sentinel {AprW 15, 2001), p. 1 1B.
World Features Syndicate as reported in the Fort Wayne, IN Journal Gazette (June 24, 2005), p. 23. (3) "Overwhelmed by Spam," Business Week
(April 22, 2002), p. 16. (4) Survey of employees by BURST! Media as reported by HR.BLR.COM (December 13, 2004). (5) "Infatuation with E-mail Dies
as Companies Demand In-Person Contact," AccountingWEB.conn (December 10, 2004). (6) See Special Advertising Supplement to Newsweek (March
25, 2002), pp. 8+. (7) Ed Frauenheim, "Is Your Boss Monitoring Your E-mail," c/net New.con) (May 18, 2005) and Mike Verespej, "Who Should Be
Monitoring Your Employees' Messages," SHRM Home (July 14, 2005). (8) Ibid. (9) "Boeing Ousts Top Executive Because of Relationship,"
HR.BLR.com (March 7, 2005), and Pui-Wing Tam, Erin White, Nick Wingfield, and Kris Maher, "Snooping by E-Mail by Software is Now a Workplace
Norm," Wall Street Journal Online (June 30, 2005).
Sources:
(2)
Clearly, employees must be able to gather information. The key is that the information is pertinent and timely and helps employees do their jobs. Supervisors
should begin by asking, "What information do my employees need to do their
jobs?" The answer should be the foundation for policies and procedures governing
information gathering. Employees must know what is expected and what is and is
not allowed. In short, effective supervisors do the following:
Encourage everyone
to ask questions
and gather
essential information
Keep messages short and simple
Provide employees with timely and complete information
CHAPTER
STATUS
3
Communication: The
AND
Supervisory
Vital Link in
members of an
organization hold toward a position and
its
occupant. The status
of executive-level positions and supervisory-level positions, supervisors and
employees,
tries to
differs.
I
97
POSITION
An organizations structure, with its multilevel managerial hierarchy, creates a number
of status levels among members of the organization. Status refers to the attitudes
the
Management
Differences in status and position
communicate with another. For example,
become apparent
a super\'isor
who
Status
Attitudes toward a person
based on the person's
position.
one level
to convey
as
tries
enthusiasm to an employee about higher production and profits for the company
may find the employee indifferent. The employee may instead be concerned with
achieving a higher personal wage and security. By virtue of their positions in the
company, the supervisor and the employee represent
these views
may
When employees listen to
First,
and
different points of view,
be obstacles to understanding.
come into play.
own backgrounds
a super\dsor's message, several factors
employees evaluate the supervisor's words in
light
of their
and experiences. Second, they also consider the supervisor's personalit)^ and posiIt is difficult for employees to separate a supendsor's message from the feelings
they have about the supervisor. As a result, employees may infer nonexistent
motives in a message. For example, union members may be inclined to interpret a
tion.
management statement in ven^ uncomplimentar\' terms
agement is trying to weaken their union.
if
they are convinced
Obstacles due to status and position also can distort the
man-
upward flow of com-
munication when subordinates are eager to impress management. Employees
may
up the Hne; they may tell their supervisor only what they
think the latter likes to hear and omit or soften unpleasant details. This problem is
known as filtering. By the same token, supervisors are eager to impress managers
in higher positions. They may fail to pass on important information to their
managers because they believe the information portrays their supervisory abilities
screen information passed
Filtering
The process
of omitting or
softening unpleasant
details.
unfavorably.
RESISTANCE TO CHANCE OR
Some people prefer things
uations.
If a
normal
It is
message
is
A
IDEAS
they are; they do not welcome change in their work
for people to prefer their
intended to convey a change or a
work assignments,
the message.
as
NEW
sit-
environments to remain unchanged.
— something
— employees
new idea
positions, or the daily routine
that will upset
are inclined to resist
message promising to change the equilibrium
may
be greeted with
suspicion. Employees' receiving apparatuses \vork like screens, causing employees to
new ideas if those ideas conflict with a currently comfortable situation.
Most listeners receive that portion of a message that confirms their beliefs
and ignore the portion that conflicts with those beliefs. Sometimes beliefs are so
fixed that listeners hear nothing. Even when they hear a statement, listeners
reject that statement as false or find a convenient way of t\visting its meaning to fit
reject
their perceptions.
When
Receivers usually hear what they wish to hear.
fearful, these barriers
become even more
difficult to
receivers are insecure or
overcome. Supervisors often
confront situations in which their employees do not fully attend to the message.
Employees become so preoccupied with
their
own
thoughts that they attend only to
those ideas they want to hear, selecting only parts of the message they can accept.
Employees brush
aside, fail to hear, or explain
like or that are irreconcilable
bits
of information they do not
when a message intends to convey some change
normal routine or customary working environment.
possibilities, particularly
interfere with the
away
with their biases. Supervisors must be aware of these
that
may
I
98
I
PART
2
Supervisory Essentials
PERCEPTUAL BARRIERS
Not What I Meant! explains that people have differpeople from different parts of the country- or the
world, or from different ethnic or class backgrounds, communicate, their words are
unlikely to be understood exactly as intended. The workplace has many different
Deborah Tannen's book
ent conversational
That's
When
sr\'les.
'"^
people. Messages can be misunderstood because people see the world differently.
is one major barrier to effective communication.
Other barriers arise from deep-rooted personal feelings, prejudices, and physical
conditions. The perception that all people in a group share attitudes, values, and
Perception
Stereotyping
The perception that all
people in a group share
attitudes, values, and
beliefs
It
is
how
called stereotyping. Stereotyping influences
becomes
a barrier to effective
communication
people respond to others.
as people are categorized into
groups
because of their gender, age, or race instead of being treated as unique indi\iduals.
Managers must be aware of stereotyping because
it
can impede communication.
beliefs.
In her
book You
In the workplace,
men
—
if
Just Don't Understand.,
Tannen
common problem:
women not
illustrates a
women's and men's conversational
—
styles differ,
Consider the follo\Ning conversation from
Tannen's book, which occurred between a couple in their car:
are usually told to change.
The woman had asked, ''Would you Uke
answered
truthfully,
to stop
for a drink?"
"No," and they hadn't stopped.
He was
Her husband had
later frustrated to
was annoyed because she had wanted to stop for a drink. He
just say what she wanted? Wliy did she play games
with me?" The wife was annoyed, not because she had not gotten her way but
because her preference had not been considered. From her point of view, she had
shown concern for her husband's wishes, but he had no concern for hers.
learn that his wife
wondered, "Wliy didn't she
Tannen adds that, "Both parties have different but equally valid points. In understanding what went wTong, the man must realize that \vhen she asks what he would
like,
she
is
not asking an information question but rather starting a negotiation about
what both would
is
like.
The woman must
not making a nonnegotiable demand.
ments."-° It
is
realize that
when he answers
Men and women must
'yes'
or 'no' he
both make adjust-
sad that neither part)' worked toward what was really important and tar-
how the conversation could have gone
from the mans perspective: "Xo, I'm not really thirst)'. But if you'd like to do that, it
would be okay with me." Being considerate of other people and keeping an open
mind go a long \vay toward improxing understanding. Tannen's example clearly illustrates the importance of "sa)'ing what you mean and meaning what you say."
geted that goal with specific inquiries. Imagine
INSENSITIVE
Sometimes, one
WORDS AND POOR TIMINC
conversation uses so-called
part)' in a
"That's the stupidest idea I've ever heardi"
killer phrases.
Comments
like,
"You do understand, don't you?" or "Do you
really
know what you're talking about?"
killer
phrase becomes silent and indifferent to the sender. Sometimes, the receiver
takes offense
and
directs anger
can
kill
conversation. Often, the recei\'er of the
back to the sender. Insensitive, offensive language or
impetuous responses can make understanding
many workplaces.
Often, the conflict that results impedes
to effective
workplace with "baggage"
pay attention to a
listen politely
attention, attentiveness
other
part)''s
in
organizational goals.
communication is timing. Employees come to the
that happened oft the job. It can be difficult to
sender while anticipating a test, for example. An employee can
Another barrier
pretend to
These exchanges happen
difficult.
— events
but receive
little
and responsiveness
expectations.
to nothing.
to
When
other issues
work information
will fail to
demand
meet the
CHAPTER
3
Communication: The
Vital Link in
Supervisory
Management
Differences
I
in
perception can lead
to misunderstanding.
Because the barriers to effective communication are numerous and diverse, super-
Wsors should not assume that the messages they send
may want
\\ill
be received
as intended. In
most of the messages they send are likely
to be distorted. WTien super\dsors operate from this premise, they are more likely to
overcome communication barriers and to achieve mutual understanding.
Many companies have installed "impersonal media" e-mail, fax, Internet, PCbased \ideo conferencing, and voice-mail systems. Such systems enable employees to
have almost immediate contact with many more people. However, there is a do^\'nside. Rambling is an oft-cited complaint by those recei\ing voice-mail messages.
Some callers forget their phone numbers or reasons for calling, inad\'ertently wasting
other people's time. To avoid this, communicate messages slowly. Remember to identify yourself clearly and concisely. Susan Bixler, \vho counsels business executives on
social graces, emphasizes the basics of voice mail: "I have to tell them to be articulate,
never to eat, drink, chew gum, or suck on cand}' while they're lea\'ing their messages."-' When used properly, electronic communication systems can help provide
information in a timely manner.
fact,
supervisors
to
assume
that
—
INABILITY TO CREATE
MEANINC
Communication begins when the sender encodes an idea or a thought. For example, when managers set out to draft responses to issues, they address several questions, including:
What conclusion have
What
claim do
I
want
I
formed about
to
make?
this issue?
99
100
PART
2
Supervisory Essentials
What
evidence, or reasons, can
What
data can
I
I
offer in support of
my claim?
my claim?^^
provide to back up
Decoding is the receiver s version of encoding. During decoding, receivers put
messages into forms they can interpret. To analyze a manager's position on an issue,
an employee must find and weigh management's claim, evidence, and data, but the
employee can ask more: "Does the writer's choice of words influence how I feel
about this issue?" "Do
agree with management's basic premise or with the
assumptions underlying management's position?" Often, the receiver's interpretation of a message differs from what the sender intended.
The authors recently saw a promotional piece for a laundry detergent. The label
read "New and Improved." We wondered what it really meant. We pondered the
following: (1) If it's new, how can it be improved? (2) If it's improved, how can it be
new? Have you ever wished that other people would say what they mean and mean
what they say? We have!
I
OVERCOMING BARRIERS
TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
Describe ways to overcome
communication
barriers.
Most techniques
overcoming communication barriers are
for
straightforward. Supervisors will recognize
but not as frequently as they should.
are just
common
ever observed
sense."
The
A
as
relatively easy
and
techniques they use sometimes
supervisor once remarked, "Most of these
reply to this
how uncommon common
them
comment
is
simply, "Yes, but have you
sense sometimes
is?"
Volunteer
staff at the
Games were urged to use common sense when communicating
Figure 3.3 cites some common-sense guides. The lesson is, "If you do
Atlanta Olympic
with others.
FIGURE
3.3
Communication and
Most of the
Common
unusual; they were
Sense
how
policies
and procedures
common
chaotic the world
may
for the
Olympic Games
sense. Regardless
how
staff
uncertain the
Have
•
Be sure to say "Please," "Thank you," and "You're welcome."
Pointing with your fingers
is
considered offensive
or
several cultures. To indi-
in
full
tors will look
Remember
upward, trying
hand, palm up.
and "What's up?" Some
to understand your message.
Try not to use slang expressions, like "You bet"
•
is
a friendly, helpful attitude.
cate a direction or to point to a person or object, use your
•
economy
appear, the following guidelines are relevant:
•
•
were not
visi-
and remember that smiles can mean different things
The Japanese smile when feeling angry or sad.
to smile,
different people.
•
Enunciate clearly and precisely.
•
When someone
asks a question,
know the answer,
say, "I'm
do not guess
at the answer.
not sure about that, but
I
will
If
to
you do not
find out for you."
Then, follow through.
you do not know the
•
If
•
Ask
for help
right
when you need
way
it.
to solve a problem,
You
will
do not
hesitate to ask.
sometimes need help completing
a
job or an assignment.
Source: Olympic
Games
Games
Staff
Handbook: Your Guide to Making Every Moment Count During the Centennial
While there have been several Olympic Games since Atlanta, we feel that
of every employee's "to do" list.
(Atlanta, 1996), pp. 29-32.
these guides should be a part
CHAPTER
not know, find out
that
3
— then follow up."
communication
is
Communication: The
In short, supenisors
Vital Link in
Supervisory
Management
I
must proactively ensure
effective.
PREPARATION AND PLANNING
A
major step toward becoming a better communicator is to avoid speaking or
communicated has been thought through to the
point that it is clear in the sender s mind. Only when super^^sors can express their
ideas in an organized fashion can they hope for others to understand. Therefore,
before communicating, supervisors should know what they want and should plan
the steps needed to attain their objectives (see Figure 3.4). Regardless of the method
face to face; written; signs, posters, graphs, or charts; fax; or
of communication
e-mail
supenisors must consider many elements before sending messages.
For example, when super\isors want to assign jobs, they should first anah^ze
those jobs thoroughly so they can describe them properly. .-Vn employees abilit\' to
do a job depends on determining what information is important. Therefore, the
supervisor needs to plan the method of communication
\isual (body language),
vocal (tone of voice', verbal (words*, and emotional feelings). When supervisors
must give their bosses bad news, those super\isors should study the problems until
first
writing until the message to be
—
—
—
i
FIGURE
What
are
my objectives
in
sending the message?
3.4
Steps to Achieving
Communication
Why am
I
Objectives
sending the message?
/
Does the message
contain useful and
How
timely information?
action impact performance?
will the receiver's
\
/
Do have
I
on
a handle
How
my emotions?
will
know the
I
receiver
has acted?
Is this the best way
to address this issue?
What
will the receiver
do
with the message upon
receiving
Who
is
it?
/
supposed
to get the message?
Have
\
I
framed the message
to get the receiver's
attention?
Have considered
the receiver's position
on the issue?
I
Have
I
selected
the right words
and tone?
Somres: Ffom ideas
in
Curtis Sittenfeki,
—
'How to WOW an Audience E e-% ~ ~ie, ' Fast Company (September
Up and Listen,' Working Women (May 1999), p. 41; Sean
.
1999), pp. 86+; Carol Leonetti Dannhauser, 'Shut
Morrison,
Difficult
'Keep
It
Simple,' Training (January 1999), p. 152; Douglas Stone, Bruce Patten, arxJ Sheila Heen,
Conversations:
How to
Otscuss
What Matters Most (New York:
Business Schools Teach Aristotle?' Strategy
'Quality
Management
Getting the
Word
&
Viking, 1999); Paul A. Argenti,
'ShouW
Business fThird Quarter, 1998), pp. 4-6; ar>d A. Blanton Godfrey,
Out.' Quality Digest (Jur>e 1996), p. 7.
101
PART
102
2
Supervisory Essentials
easily. Supervisors may even want to tr\' to see the
problems from their bosses' points of view. Supervisors should write down all
important points so all important points are covered.
they can explain the problems
A
point of caution: Supervisors should only raise problems with their bosses
having formulated suggestions on
after
When communication
is
how
to solve or prevent those problems.
to involve disciplinary action, supervisors should investi-
and compile all relevant information before issuing penalcommunication should not begin until supervisors know what they
gate the cases sufficiently
Clearly,
ties.
should say to achieve their goals.
USINC FEEDBACK
Among
methods
the
for
improving communication, feedback
Feedback
important. In communication, feedback
The
to a message.
receiver's verbal or
nonverbal response to a
is
ate
by
far the
most
Feedback can be used to determine whether the receiver understood
the message and to get the receiver's reaction to that message.
message.
is
the receiver's verbal or nonverbal response
The sender can
initi-
feedback by using questions, discussion, signals, and clues. Merely asking the
receiver, "Do you understand?" and receiving "Yes" as an answer may
More information is usually required to ensure that a message was
not
suffice.
received as
intended.
A
simple way to obtain feedback
is to observe the receiver and to judge that
on such nonverbal clues as expressions of bewilderment or
understanding, raised eyebrows, frowns, and eye movement. Of course, this kind of
feedback is possible only in face-to-face communication, which is one of the major
advantages of this form of communication.
person's responses based
Perhaps the best feedback technique for ensuring that the sender's message
understood
is
information
just received.
the instructions are clear.
in the receiver's
sage,
shows
"Let
me see if
When the
so."
is
for the sender to ask the receiver to "paraphrase" or "play back" the
that
I
own
This is much more satisfactor)' than merely asking whether
The process of restating all or part of the person's basic idea
words, rather than "parroting back verbatim" the sender's mes-
communication has taken place. For example, the
understand correctly. Your understanding of the
receiver
might
is
receiver states the content of the message, the sender
say,
thus and
knows
the
and understood the message. The receiver may then ask additional questions and request comments that the speaker can provide immediately.
Do not ask questions that can be answered "yes" or "no." Phrase questions that force
receiver has heard
the other party to elaborate.
The feedback technique
an employee or
when
a supervisor receives a
sure
words the message you
just
I
understand what you want,
gave me." An employee or
appreciate this effort to improve communication.
phrasing
is
reflective feedback.
This
is
A
illustrate,
may be
manager
in
will
reflects the feelings
feel
."
Feedback can also help when written communication
— read
a
me repeat
the supervisor might say, "You
the message for
is
involved. Before send-
—
someone else perhaps a colcomprehension. Most writing can be improved. It
ing a written message, the supervisor can have
league
let
similar technique to para-
used when the supervisor
(emotions) expressed by the sender. To
because
message from
manager. To clear up possible misunderstandings, a
make
supervisor can say, "Just to
my own
also applies
a higher-level
necessary to develop several drafts of a written message and have various
people provide feedback as to which draft
interpreted.
is
the most clearly stated and readily
I
CHAPTER
Similarly, after sending a
3
memo,
Communication: The
a fax, a letter, or
Vital Link in
an e-mail message,
Supervisory
it
often
is
desirable to discuss the written correspondence over the telephone or face to face to
ensure that the receiver understands the message.
written message and doubts any part of
and
the sender to discuss
its
When
a supervisor receives a
meaning, that supervisor should contact
clarify the message.
DIRECT
AND CLEAR LANCUACE
Another sound approach to effective communication is to use words that are understandable and as clear as possible. Supervisors should avoid long, technical, complicated w'ords. They should use language receivers can understand easily. Jargon, or
"shop talk," should be used only when receivers are comfortable with it. The "keep
it short and simple," or "KISS," approach is good to remember.
A CALM ATMOSPHERE
As mentioned
earlier,
When
nication.
tension and anxiety are serious barriers to effective
supervisors
upset, the chance for
tr\'
to
mutual understanding
is
commu-
employees who are visibly
minimal. It is much better to com-
communicate
\vith
municate when both parties are calm and unburdened by unusual tension or stress.
One of the best ways for supenisors to create the proper atmosphere for communicating with employees
is
to set times to
meet
in quiet
rooms. This usually enables
both parties to prepare to discuss problems calmly and unhurriedly.
Similarly, if super\isors want to discuss something with their managers, they
should make appointments for times and places that allow calm, uninterrupted
cussion.
How
(the tone),
when
(the time),
and where
dis-
(the place) are as important
as the message.
TAKINO TIME TO LISTEN
Another approach to overcoming communication barriers
more time
is
for
both senders and
opportunity' to express their feelings. The supervisor who listens to employees learns
more about employees' values and attitudes toward the working environment.
Supervisors should provide feedback by restating employees' messages from time to
time and by asking, "Is this what you mean?" A supervisor should always listen
patiently to what the employee has to say. Intensive listening helps reduce misunderstanding, and, by listening, the supervisor can respond in ways that are approreceivers to take
to listen, that
is,
to give the other parties full
priate to the concerns of the employee.
One
their
of the worst things supenisors can do
minds
"Right
now
attention,
is
to appear to
are elsewhere. Super\isors can avoid this situation
is
and
not a convenient time for us to have
if
we can
be listening while
by
politely stating,
this discussion. It
needs
my full
reschedule this meeting for 10:00 in the morning, you will
my undi\ided attention."
way toward
and don'ts of effective listening.
Listening is a ver)' important part of the supervisor's job, whether in one-onone conversations or in meetings. The ability to listen is critical to success as a
super\isor. Therefore, super\isors should work to develop their listening skills
ever)^ chance they get. To ensure that they have understood the message, super\isors
must confirm it by restating in their own words what they have heard. In this way,
they get confirmation of the accuracy of the message, and both sender and receiver
are on the same page of the play book.
have
building trust. Figure 3.5
lists
Attentiveness to the speaker goes a long
some
practical do's
Management
I
103
104
I
FIGURE
PART
2
Supervisory Essentials
3.5
The Do's and Don'ts
DO$ OF LISTENINC
of
Do adopt the attitude that you will always have something to learn.
Do take tinne to listen, give the speaker your full attention, and hear
Effective Listening
the
speaker out.
Do
withhold judgnnent
until
the speaker
is
finished. Strive to locate the
main
ideas of the message.
Do try to determine the work meanings in the context of the speaker's background. Listen for what is being implied, as well as what is being said.
Do establish eye contact with the speaker. Read body language. Smile, nod,
and give an encouraging sign when the speaker hesitates.
Do
ask questions at appropriate times to be sure you understand the
speaker's message.
Do
moments
restate the speaker's idea at appropriate
received
it
to
make
sure you have
correctly.
DON'TS OF LISTENINO
Don't
listen with
you are
only half an ear by "tuning out" the speaker and pretending
listening.
Don't unnecessarily interrupt the speaker or
finish
the speaker's statement
because of impatience or wanting to respond immediately.
Don't fidget or doodle while
and the speaker.
listening.
Don't
let
other distractions bother you
Don't confuse facts with opinions.
Don't show disapproval or insensitivity to the speaker's feelings.
Don't respond
Don't
become
until
the speaker has said what he or she wants to
say.
defensive.
REPETITION OF MESSAGES
It
often helps to repeat a message several times, preferably using different words and
different
methods. For example,
mentioned in
posted on the
a
new medical
a staff meeting, discussed in
bulletin board,
an
and maintained
insurance claim process might be
article in the
company
in a policy file for
newsletter,
employee
use.
The
degree of repetition depends largely on the content of the message and the experi-
ence and background of the employees or other people involved
in the
communi-
However, the message should not be repeated so much that it gets ignored
because it sounds too familiar or boring. In case of doubt, some repetition probacation.
blv
is
safer
than none.
REINFORCING WORDS WITH ACTION
To succeed
as
communicators, supervisors must complement
their
words with
appropriate and consistent actions. Supervisors communicate a great deal through
their actions; actions do speak louder than words (see Figure 3.6). Therefore, one of
meaning to messages is to act accordingly. When verbal
backed
by action, the supervisor is more credible. However,
announcements are
when a superv^isor says one thing but does another, employees will eventually
the best ways to give
behave
similarly.
CHAPTER
Communication: The
3
Vital Link in
Supervisory
Management
I
105
FIGURE 3.6
A supervisor
Office Open 9 00to5:oO
communicates by
actions as
much
as
by words.
MANAOINO MEETINCS WITH THE
BOS$
Describe
communicating "up the organization."-^
For example, supervisors may want to report the most recent department /team
meetings at their manager staff meetings. Supervisors should communicate not only
the issues and items impacting their departments but also the positive contributions
of their team members and other members of the organization.
Throughout this text, we focus on how to manage subordinates, teams, projects,
and organizational processes. As discussed earlier in this chapter, all managers
should develop a climate that encourages a free flow of upward communication.
However, in realit)', the responsibilit)' for upward communication typically falls to
the supervisor. Increasingly, in an era of intense competition replete with organizational mergers and restructurings, supendsors are responsible for keeping upper
management informed and for managing the relationships with their own bosses.
Supervisors also must be prepared to contribute suggestions, ideas, and opinions on
another supervisory responsibilit)'
Still
is
a timely basis.
How many times
have you heard someone say, "Treat others the way you want
The same holds true for the supervisor's relationship with upper
management. Most upward communication occurs in meetings between supervi-
to be treated?"
and
sors
their
managers. Supervisors should
tr)'
to build
bonds with
their bosses.
Supervisors must clearly understand what their bosses expect of them, and the
know what
their subordinates need from them to achieve the organiEach interaction that the supervisor has impacts the boss's perception of the supervisor, and vice versa. Obviously, how supervisors manage
bosses must
zation's objectives.
upward
is
1.
more
effectively
Respect the boss's time.
has time
door
The following list provides insight on how
manage meetings with the boss:
vital to their careers.
supervisor can
Remember
demands of which you
policy, so
the
that "every boss has a boss" and, as such,
are not aware.
Many bosses
be careful not to burden your boss with
advocate an open-
trivial issues
or issues
how
can better
supervisors
manage
meetings with their
own managers.
106
I
PART
2
Supervisory Essentials
you can handle yourself. Choose a time when the boss is not busy and can give
you and the issue undivided attention. A good approach might be, "I need
about 5 minutes of your time to discuss.
What would be a convenient
time?" If the boss says, "2 o'clock," be a few minutes early. It may sound basic,
but think of the impression you make when you are late.
.
.
.
2.
Check your motives. Is a meeting the best way to address the issue or problem
and achieve your purposes? If the answer is "no," the meeting may not be
worth having. Don't barge in on the boss when you are angry and upset.
3.
Analyze the
teners
Some bosses are analytical listeners who like to
own conclusions. Others may be emotional liswith how you feel about the message, then pres-
boss's listening style.
hear the facts and draw their
who want you
to start
ent the factual information, and close with your suggestion or conclusion.^'*
Turn yourself 180 degrees, put yourself in the boss's shoes, and try to see the
situation from his or her perspective. This will help you outline a plan.
your agenda. To ensure you cover what you want in the meeting with the
boss, have in front of you a few notes on the important points or issues. Be
4. Plan
prepared by always carrying a note pad to
things you want to discuss.
ration
and planning.
nique: Keep
5.
Do
it
short
When
in
list
Managing upward
advance the most important
successfully begins with prepa-
planning the agenda, remember the KISS tech-
and simple.
An
manager encourages subordinates
No one wants a
problem or an issue simply given to them to solve. You should start with a
review of the situation and end with your suggestions. Bring suggestions on
how to resolve the problem or prevent the situation from happening again.
One manager we know only wants you to bring a problem to her after you
have discussed it with others that have a stake in the outcome and have developed at least two viable options for solving it. You want to leave the boss with
the feeling that you are on top of things, and this is one way to do it.
not go
to the boss ''naked."
effective
to develop alternatives, solutions, or suggestions to problems.
6.
Commit
to the truth.
In The Fifth Discipline, noted author Peter Senge calls
honesty a commitment to the truth, which he argues
pline of personal mastery. -^^
ship
is
built
on mutual
objectively using facts,
7.
Advertise success.
Make
We
8.
claim
meaningful relation-
and respect. Explain your position on the
figures, and examples.
certain that
all
issues
upper management knows the successes of
on to succeed. The supervisor who, in a
rely
credit loses respect.
Upper managers can impose unrealistic workloads or deadbe tremendous pressure from above to "buy in." Do not
overcommit your team. The supervisor who does not learn to say "no" loses
the respect of subordinates and ends up looking bad to the boss.
Learn
lines.
9.
tries to
necessary for the disci-
A
trust
your work group and others you
meeting,
is
could not agree more.
Do
to
say no.
There
may
not filter information from your boss.
sometimes
unfavorably on them.
to hear. Supervisors
reflect
10. Anticipate problems.
ion.
The
When
fail
Do
not
tell
bosses only what they want
to pass along information because
you need the
boss's help, ask for
best time to get the help you need
is
at
it
might
in a timely fash-
the beginning.
A common
make is to wait until they are overwhelmed by
job assignment or when failure is imminent.
error supervisors
it
a project or
CHAPTER
11.
3
Communication: The
Vital Link in
Supervisory
Management
107
Meet periodically to clarify expectations. In our fast-paced world, job requirements change rapidly. You must take responsibility for knowing what is
expected from you. You may have to ask your boss to help you understand.
Conversely, you need to analyze your job expectations and take the initiative
to ensure that your boss knows what you need from him or her in order to
succeed.
12.
Do
not be a complainer. As mentioned above,
it is
essential to apprise the boss
of problems, but do not complain constantly. The super\'isor w^ho only
approaches the boss to complain becomes part of the problem, not part of the
solution.
13.
Do
not put the boss on the defensive. Supervisors can
They can
become upset or
angr)'.
by demanding, pointing fingers, or venting their
anger. These behaviors and words are an aggressive attack on the boss. Many
people lack the abilit)' to cope with attacks on them, and they attack back with
vigor. The encounter then becomes antagonistic rather than favorable. In a
favorable environment, colleagues focus on understanding the issues from the
viewpoint of the other person and strive to reach agreement and to develop
follow-up steps. Attack the problem, not the person.
14.
attack the boss
Leave on a positive
note.
Get an agreement on a course of actions. Summarize
the meeting in writing so that you have documentation that
at a specific place,
discussed and, from your perspective, the
What
is
said
on
a specific date,
with specific individuals present, the following issue was
and done day-to-day on the
outcome was as you have
is the most important
job
stated.
part of
communication.
15.
Make
a resolution. Treat the boss as
though you are
a dedicated
and competent
employee, ready to make a difference. Resolve to manage upward
r
WHAT CALL
Sadly, hundreds
year
that
tell
in
DID YOU MAKE?
of employees are murdered each
might have withheld the information for many rea-
James should recognize
sons, including the belief that sharing such informa-
the workplace.
communication
is
a
two-way
street.
the other person what to do, but
It is
it
easy to
takes real
what the person is really saying.
communication depends not only on what
you say and how you say it but also on how well
you listen. It is very easy for supervisors to get so
wrapped up in the pressures of their work that they
do not effectively listen to what is or isn't being said.
Or in this case, to ask probing questions to clarify
what Harris was, in hindsight, reluctant to share with
James.
skill
to listen to
Skillful
This "You
Make
effectively.
the Call" situation exemplifies the
problems that occur when people hear what is
being said but do not understand the full meaning
of the message. Clearly, it is "what was not being
said" that was critical. Harris failed to tell James
Mathews the unpleasant
details
of his personal
problems and the altercations with Smith.
Harris
tion
might
reflect
evening crew
In
shares
a sense,
some
unfavorably on
his
abilities
as
chief.
everyone involved
in
this
tragedy
culpability for the events that occurred.
James needs to assess the entire situation, recognizing and accepting that the situation occurred and
that life goes on. Would he have felt less guilt if the
incident had occurred away from the water maintenance facility? Probably, but the point is that the incident happened, and he can't turn back the clock.
James needs to
learn from this experience and
develop a work culture where all employees can
speak their minds and he can count on everyone to
be open and honest.
Most of the principles of effective communication discussed in this chapter were violated. It
appears that James did not adequately take the
time to gather information. He intended to discuss
the grapevine concerns with the director of
human
—
108
PART
I
2 Supervisory Essentials
resources at a future date and did not sense the
urgency of the situation. Setting
dealing with potential
fashion
is
a requisite
and
situations in a timely
crisis
skill
priorities
wrong things. The
ness,
upon hearing through the grapevine of
the threats nnade by Smith, James needed to interview both employees separately and together
and involve human resources director Deb Barnes.
While it may not have been comfortable for James to
do this or he may have felt that by interviewing Smith
he would be diluting Harris's authority, it was the
right thing to do. Sometimes managers, no matter
how carefully they plan the message, say the
—
will
to ask probing (information-
make James more
Remember
for effective supervision.
Innmediately,
ability
getting) questions, regardless of their unpleasant-
that
his
effective as a supervisor.
ability
to
do the job
is
dependent on information. The information was
available, and he failed to follow up. He must assume
responsibility for improving his own communication
skills.
Nothing
is
A thorough
gained by finger-pointing or
analysis of this "You
more
situation requires
specific
Make
self-pity.
the Call"
knowledge about
preventing/dealing with the threat of workplace
violence (Chapter 13) and strategies for resolving
(Chapter
conflict
16).
SUMMARY
A
communication means that information
transfers successfully and understanding takes
place bet\veen a sender and a receiver. The abilit)'
to communicate effectively is one of the most
Effective
Communication is a t\vo-way process.
Communication succeeds only when the receiver
understands the message. The receiver need not
\N'ith
the message, just understand
it
as the
sender intended.
A
Formal channels of communication operate douTi-
communi-
ward, upward, and horizontally. These
cation channels primarily ser%'e to link people
and
departments to accomplish organizational objectives.
Super\isors communicate douTiward to their
employees, but equally important
sor s ability to
ment and
is
communicate upward
the supervito
preferred because of their permanency. Msual aids,
such as pictures, charts, and \ideos, can be powerful tools for
A Human
important qualities of super\isor)' success.
agree
instantaneous. Written words and visuals often are
manage-
horizontally with supervisors in other
conveying meaning.
differences
and organizational conditions
can create obstacles, called noise, which distort
messages bet\veen people. The use of jargon that
do not understand can impede communiwords have different meanings, so the
sender must ensure the receiver understands the
intended meaning. However, TMI is just as bad as
receivers
cation.
too
.-Vlso,
little
become
information. Information overload has
a
People
major problem
in today's societ}'.
at different status
or position levels in an
organization bring different points of view to interactions,
filter
which can
distort
meaning. People may
out unpleasant information
change can cause them to avoid hear-
departments. In addition to formal channels, even*-
resistance to
company has an informal
ing messages that upset the status
grapevine.
channel, called the
The grapevine can
as facts. Super\isors
carr)'
should stay
in
rumors
as well
touch with the
grapevine and counteract rumors with
facts,
where
A Communication methods
range from oral, written,
body language. Spoken and written
words are the most important means of communication. However, body language
a person's
actions, gestures, posture, and so forth
also communicates, often more powerfully than words. Oral
communication is generally superior because it
and
with their
visual to
—
—
enables face-to-face interaction. Feedback
is
quo or
conflict
beliefs.
Individuals perceive the world fi^om the context
of their backgrounds and prejudices. Perceptual
barriers bet\veen sender
necessary.
when communi-
cating with their managers. Also, people's natural
and
receiver, such as biases
and stereotyping, can impede communication, as
can conversation-killing phrases and poor timing.
Both sender and receiver share
ensure that information
The
inability
is
responsibility' to
successfully transferred.
of the receiver to properly analyze the
content of a message causes misunderstanding.
Misunderstanding may lead to suspicion and
of trust.
a lack
CHAPTER
Communication: The
3
Vital Link in
Management
Supervisory
109
To overcome communication barriers, supervisors
should adequately prepare what they wish to com-
overly stressed and have time to really listen to
municate. During face-to-face communication, the
and formats can improve understanding if not
done to excess. Also, to be effective, words must be
and nonverbal responses,
receiver's verbal
called
feedback, can help the supervisor determine
reinforced with consistent actions.
A Most
whether the receiver understood the message.
Asking the receiver to
restate the
message
one
is
sors keep higher
For wTitten communication, the supervisor
can obtain feedback by asking a colleague to com-
ment on
the message before
it is
sent
and by
cussing the message with receivers after
dis-
facilitates
higher
communication. Also, both parties
should agree on
a
time to talk
when
essential that supervi-
abreast of the devel-
opments and problems in their work areas. The
tips for managing upward in this chapter blend
who
Supervisors
Clear, direct language the receiver can under-
stand
it is
management
practical applications with
sent.
it is
people are not comfortable managing up. In
todays fast-paced world,
feedback technique that helps verify understanding.
each other. Repeating the message in various words
common
sense.
manage meetings with
credibility and likely
effectively
management
gain
accomplish organizational goals.
they are not
KEY TERMS
Body language
(p.
Communication
Feedback
(p.
Grapevine
91)
Jargon
(p. 82)
Noise
102)
Status (p. 97)
88)
Stereotyping
(p. 94)
(p.
(p.
98)
93)
Semantics
Filtering (p. 97)
(p.
94)
(p.
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
What
is
meant by
effective
mutual understanding
tion of effective
If
at
communication?
Why is
the heart of any defini-
communication?
you were arrested and accused of being
a
"good
communicator," would there be enough evidence
to convict you?
effectively
All successful
great
communicators.
Think of someone who
is
exceptionally
good
at
giving information. List the things that person-
make him or her effective.
Think of someone you know^ who is
does that
b.
adept
at
person does that make him or her
c.
especially
getting information. List the things that
Compare your
list(s)
effective.
with those of a classmate.
Discuss the similarities and differences.
Benjamin Franklin
well said."
for you?
What
is
said,
"Well done
is
better than
the relevance of that statement
a
improvements. The
chance to gripe, but
management understand
ees'
a.
for
president feels that this session not only gives
employees
with the grapevine.
managers are
any issue that concerns them, ask any question,
and make suggestions
W'hy or why not?
Discuss the techniques by which a superv^isor can
cope
The president and the two top managers of a 44employee organization in Fort Wayne, Indiana
meet quarterly with ever)' employee on an individual basis. Employees can talk directly about
it
also helps
things from the employ-
viewpoints. According to the president,
"One
of our biggest concerns was that our employees
were not being heard. While we espoused an
'open-door' policy, few employees came to the
we go to the employees. I assumed I
knew what my employees' problems were instead
of talking to them. Now I talk with them instead
of assuming that I know what is going on. We
door. So
weren't picking up the signs from disgruntled
employees."
a.
In your opinion, what are the advantages of this
practice?
PART
110
What
Supervisory Essentials
2
are the difficulties in adopting such an
"If you told the president everything
(2)
approach for communicating with employees?
felt
Suppose you could ask the employees
would you
organization the following questions.
you think
(1)
"If
their response(s)
in this
What do
you
about the department /organization,
get into trouble?"
What about you?
would be? Why?
recent
In your present or most
work experience, what would be your
answers to those two questions?
you disagreed with one of the comwould it be the end of your
Why?
pany's policies,
career here?"
SKILLS APPLICATIONS
APPLICATION
SKILLS
A
professor friend of ours said that sometimes only
one
a.
3-1: Test
letter in a
Look
at
mean
word makes
the
word
What does
the
to you?
Now add
c.
What does that word mean to you?
What is the difference between the two words?
d.
Write
a
trating
a "t"
F in the follov^dng text:
and the word becomes "there."
paragraph of less than 40 words
what you learned from
Your instructor
b.
illus-
rect
will
provide you with the cor-
answer so you can compare your answer
with your analysis.
little
word may not seem like much to you,
case, it does make a big difference.
SKILLS
did you count? Did you find
three Fs?
this skills applica-
Moral of the application: While one
1.
How many Fs
a.
letter in a
in this
Skill
FINISHED FILES ARE THE RESULT OF YEARS
OF SCIENTIFIC STUDY COMBINED WITH THE
EXPERIENCE OF YEARS.
word
b.
tion.
Count every
2.
a big difference.
"here."
Your Reading
Write one paragraph summarizing what you
c.
learned from this
APPLICATION
skills
application.
3-2: Unpleasant Situations
Consider the following situations:
a.
An employee
want
it
is
performing
a task improperly,
done. The employee
says, "I
was doing
and you show him how you
this before you were born, and
I
don't need your advice."
b.
An employee
has suddenly developed a tardiness problem.
her, she says,
"My
spouse
is
an alcoholic;
the kids' breakfast and send
c.
One
ing.
I
them
I
am
When
you confront
worried about him.
off to school before
I
I
have to get
can get here."
of your better employees has been caught in the organization's downsiz-
As you hand him
guess
my
a
pink
slip,
he
says, "I don't
kids will have to drop out of college
know what
and go
I'm going to do.
to work."
For each situation, do the following
2.
List all the
questions you will ask to determine the meaning of the employee's
message.
ROLE PLAY
3.
Decide on an appropriate response.
4.
Pair with a classmate. Decide
which of you
will play the
supervisor and which will
be the employee. Alternate roles for each situation so that both of you get to play
the supervisory role. Pick
5.
up the action where the
situation leaves off.
Evaluate the interaction. Are you pleased with your follow-up to the situation?
What
did you do well?
What could you have done more
effectively?
"
CHAPTER
APPLICATION
SKILLS
The increased
diversit)-
the need for better
Communication: The
3
3-3: English
of the workplace has created
communication
skills.
Vital Link in
Supervisory
Management
111
I
Only Spoken Here!
practice their newly- acquired English-language skills
Consider the
while off the job.
At Monday's management meeting,
following:
the discus-
sion focused on the fact that production expectations
two-thirds of the employees of Maple
Grove Farms, a Midwestern food-processing facility,
all
are Hispanic, Asian, or refugees from the former
having employees with so
More than
were not being met and waste and spoilage were at
Most of them have limited profiEnglish language. The company has
provided ESL (English as a second language) training
the full tuition for the
they understand, they nod their heads
the job the
of them do
(including up to four of the employees' dependents).
For the first six weeks of employment,
all
new non-
off with
pay
to
take the in-plant
ESL
uling.
it
raises
switching back
and forth between
their
new-found
English
speak a
their
take pride in using
is
United
like the
common
tongue
— and
that tongue
is
not English.
The general manager, Barth Davis, questioned
whether the company needed a written policy that
time, howe\'er, the employees tend
group together with only those who speak the same
gave employees permission
is
or lunch periods.
appears that few employees
1.
Using the Internet,
What
3.
Do you
speak their native lanto
speak only
English on the job.
see if there are
any prohibitions that limit Maple Grove Farms
from implementing an "English only" policy
2.
to
guages during breaks but required them
English spoken during break
native language. Rarely
It also
The break room
Nations with segregated areas for those who
to
and
to
"Some
temporarily." Lori Wliitten added,
feel excluded.
skills.
During break
to
and
same way they have been doing it. Some
it the same wrong way every time. I've
Caucasian employees had complained that they
havoc with their production sched-
native tongue while at work
—
help
course.
Many of the employees are accustomed
and then do
even tried showing them. Just this morning, I got
Supervisors have constantly complained about this
practice as
I ask if
Rolf to act as an interpreter and that seems
native-English-speaking hires are given one hour a
day
languages
communicating with the Bosnians. "Wlien
Maple Grove
ESL program
courses at no cost to the employees.
Farms pays
many different
was a major part of the problem. Quality manager,
Jorge Rodriquez, countered that he had problems
Soviet Bloc states.
ciency in the
time highs. Several supervisors complained that
in the workplace.
are the advantages of such a poUcy?
think that such a poliq'
\N'ill
improve communications
at
Maple Grove
Farms?
SKILLS
All
one has
to
do
is
to read a
APPLICATION
3-4: Dealing with Difficult
newspaper or magazine,
Usten to the radio, or watch tele\ision, and
it
becomes
apparent that some people in the world are angn', hostile,
uncaring, uncixil, or vociferous malcontents
are ready to battle for
This
is
the
first
introduce you to
—
in a series of Skills Applications to
some people who
will
lives.
1.
work you kno\v
them. They are the difficult coworkers, and you must
work with them. What do you do?
at
In the \s'orkplace, these characters share cer-
tain characteristics. First, they
Second, there
is
show up
no one way
regularly in our
to deal \\ith them.
who
any or no reason. There are
always one or two of these people
difficult.
People— "Stretch"
make your
life
Consider the following statement from Alice, a
project engineer at
/
Supreme
work for a boss who has
the
Electronics:
uncanny
ability to
stretch the truth.
He selectively remembers
uses his selective
memory
change
things.
On
to nullify
a proposal
things
agreements or
we submitted
to
a
and
112
I
PART
2
Supervisory Essentials
we spelled out that a particular key team
member would be leaving the project after two weeks,
and my boss altered it to make it look like he would
Another
be running the whole thing.
A
others.
guide,
our
time, he cited his
ability to develop people as the reason there
coworker got a copy of the Cornell media
and nowhere
in the
Ail-Time Roster
he said we had misunderstood. The guy
was a
sive liar.
employees jump at a chance
other
leave. I've repeatedly tried to transfer
Not long
was talk-
department, but while
departments or
ago, during a
to leave the organization.
my
department meeting,
ing about the importance of mental toughness. To
INTERNET ACTIVITY
I've found out that
how he had
he told us about
illustrate the point,
I'm locked into
that "he'll support
boss
was
List
name. When the coworker confronted him,
boss's
high turnover rate in the department. In fact, most
to transfer to
among
played football at Cornell against Mike Ditka,
customer,
my
this
my
boss
efforts
is
a compul-
job and can't afford
me
tells
to
out of the
to
my face
for advancement,"
he continually stonewalls
my
requests.
Using the Internet, find
at least
three sources of information for dealing with
who stretch the truth. Carefully
on how to deal with "stretch."
people
review each of these
sites for
suggestions
Based on your findings, what suggestions would you make to Alice on
how
to deal
with her boss?
Write a one-page paper explaining
how
your
this Skills Application increased
working knowledge of coping with the behaviors of this type of difficult person.
SKILLS
SKILLS
Visit
DEVELOPMENT
DEVELOPMENT MODULE
our student support web
site
com /management /leonard), and
Development Module
3-1. After
3-1:
(w\vw.thomsonedu.
on
click
Skills
viewing the video
answer the questions provided. Hopefully, these
clip,
will stimulate
your analytical and thinking
skills.
Communication
its
guests.
Paramount
Is
The first Le Meridien property was a
1,000-room hotel
was welcomed
into
clip,
Starwood Hotels
Le Meridien
& Resorts
The acquisition of the 130 Le Meridien hotels
gave Starwood Preferred Guests and Le Meridien
family.
Moments members
access to
more than 850
hotels in
over 95 countries. Le Meridien has a rich European
heritage
and uniquely French
ethos.
The 25,000
in Paris, the
Le Meridien
Etoile.
Since that time, Le Meridien has experienced various
bumps and
turns regarding internal growth
and
being acquired. Nevertheless, Le Meridien aggressively cultivates
Since the development of this video
at Le Meridien
customer loyalty and continues
receive superior ratings from
Before or after viewing the video
might want
to get
to
guests.
its
clip,
you
a complete overview of
Le Meridien's colorful history in the hospitality
industry.
Hotels
We
suggest
& Resorts
you view
Worldwide,
the
Inc.
Starwood
web site
(http://www. Starwood, com).
Le Meridien associates (employees) were promised a
smooth and speedy
transition into the
Le Meridien was established
to
provide a "home
in
Starwood family.
1972 by Air France
away from home"
experience for
Le Meridien
is
recognized as one of the top luxury'
hotels in the world. Listen carefully as several of
managerial
its
staff share their stories.
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
Only one of the CEOs running the
corporations
English.
is
fluent in
five largest U.S.
any language other than
We contend that
comhampered by
the United States
petitiveness in future years will be
managers' lack of foreign language
awareness.
Do you
or wh\' not?
skills
and global
agree with our contention?
Why
CHAPTER
how good communication
Discuss
2.
Communication: The
3
important to a hotel manager such as
Oord
are
skills
What
3.
Bob van den
Supervisory iVIanagement
Vital Link in
aspects of
good
113
i
listening are exhibited in the
video clip?
or Michiel Lugt.
ENDNOTES
1.
Peter
M.
B. Ross,
Han'ard Management Communication
Senge, Art Kleiner, Charlotte Roberts, Richard
and
Handbook:
Br)^an
Strategies
(New
Organization
and
Tools for Building a Learning
York: Doubleday, 1994), p.
Korn/Ferr)' International Sur\'ey found that
that the three
A
6.
agers
70
at least
more information,
see
practice,
1 1.
Senge's latest fieldbook. The
Dance of
Um, You Know;
\'erbal Tics
How to
Them and
Back:
Identify
importance of "open, honest, sincere, and genuine"
communication
Switzer, Crucial Conversations: Tools for Talking
Learning Organizations
A
in
York: Doubleday, 1999),
and
exercises to illustrate the
to create
foster real learning
culture.
Momentum
(New
uses theor)', case studies,
change
in
an organization,
Stakes are High," (2004);
en\ironments, and sustain a positive
appears to be a sine qua non for a communication
DaWd
Cottrell
and
The Manager's Communication Handbook:
study reported in the Academy of Management
Guide
Journal concluded that pro\'iding relevant information
to
(Dallas,
cli-
A
W^en
Eric Hars'ey,
Practical
Build Understanding, Support, and Acceptance.
TX: The Walk The Talk Company, Performance
mate and, thus, for improving employee identification
System Corporation and Cornerstone Leadership
with the organization. See Briarcliff Manor
Institute,
"The
et al.,
(October 2001), pp. 1051+.
5.
has been written about the high-profiJe corporate
scandal cases.
We
did not include Martha Ste\sart and
her Merrill L\Tich broker Peter Bacanovic in our
);
and
P.
.\ndrews and
(New York, NY: McGraw-Hill
External Prestige on Organizational Identification,"
Much
2003
Communication for Business and
Impact of Employee Communication and Perceived
among
WorldCom
J.
Baird,
Professions, 7^^ Edition
Irwin, 2003).
Ed Frauenheim, "Is Your Boss
Monitoring Your E-mail," c/net New.com (May 18,
2005) and Mike Verespej, "Who Should Be Monitoring
See
others,
Your Employees' Messages,"
list
SHRM Home (July
14,
2005).
because Martha Stewart's actions were independent from
years in prison (July 14, 2005). See http://w\N'Av.
See "An Operating Manual for Business: Hands on
Managing - Lost in Translation," Inc. Magazine
(September 2005), pp. 38-39. Noted author Tom Peters
sur\'e\Tnonkey.com /DisplaySummar)'.asp?SID. (August
has strongly advised managers to
those of her company. Bernie Ebbers, former
chief executive, received the
8,
2005). Also, see "Survey
Fail
Candor
Test,"
news)
(
June
9,
is
sentence to date
is:
a Ticket Out:
on Chaos
Employees, Organization,"
and
"\Vriting:
(New
LaBarre, "The
inabilit)'
A
7.
Work
...
Or
Survey of Business Leaders," National
The
Agenda
1999), pp.
nications. See Stanle)'
Believable," Industry
and Walter Kiechel
Fortune (August
and
by AccountingWeb.com
Communication and
2004);
"Communication
in
Management,"
on
J.
Modic, "Grape\ine Rated Most
15, 1989), pp. 11
and
14,
"In Praise of Office Gossip,"
19, 1985), pp. 253, 254,
sic article
17,
114-I-.
Weeki^Uy
III,
for America's Families, Schools,
Colleges, as reported
in practice, see Polly
— Grassroots Leadership," Fast
grape\'ine cuts across the formal channels of commu-
Commission on Writing
(September
We
on "management by
Tom Peters, Thriung
York: .\lfred A. Knopf, 1988), pp.
Company (AprH
of
SHRM Home
Ticket to
become highly Wsible
better jobs of listening to subordinates.
423-40. For an example of MBWA
the
trust\vorthy?"
(April 27, 2006),
do
wandering around (MBWA)," see
"If
business world. See Kathy Gurchiek, "Shoddy Writing
Up
to
agree. For additional information
(http://^^'^\'^\•.accountingweb.com/
school systems to adequately prepare students for the
Trip
and
as reported
The bottom-line question
the CEO or the CFO, who in
There has been discussion regarding the
Can
6.
— 25
Shows 87 Percent of CEOs
2004).
you cannot believe
organization
stiffest
The Rittenhouse Rankings
on AccountingWeb.com
4.
See Alyssa Danigelis, "Like,
May Be Holding You
Overcome Them," Fast Company (May 2006), p. 99;
"Communications Is Critical to Business Success,"
Management Services (October 2001), p. 3; Ron
McMillan, Kerr)' Patterson, Joseph Grenny, and Al
Change: The Challenges of Sustaining
3.
and change management. Unfortunately, the
these positions have relevant professional qualifications.
Internal Auditor (October 2000), p. 13.
2. Ibid., p.
for mancommunicacommunication
for internal
study found that fewer than half the people occupying
Leah
"Wanted: Improved Communication," The
Miller,
(September
most important competencies
and directors responsible
tion are strategic thinking, internal
percent of the surveyed workers "are inventing the wheel
daily at their jobs." For
Letter
2000), p. 12; Research by Business Intelligence reported
Smith, The Fifth Discipline
J.
this subject
is
Keith DaNis's
and 256. The clas"Management
the Grapexine," Har\'ard Business
i?mov (September-October
1953), pp.
43-49.
114
8.
I
PART
Supervisory Essentials
2
New Word
"The
Nigel Nicholson,
Economy, (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 2005); Michael
Schrage, "Working in the Data Mines: Sixteen Tons of
On," Psychology Today
(May/June2001), pp. 40-45.
9.
Information Overload," Fortune (August
For further discussion of informal channels of commu-
and the grapevine,
nication
and Kathleen
S.
Rudolph
and "Data, Data,"
Verderber
F.
impetus for
\'erderber, Inter-Act: Using Interpersonal
Communication
(Belmont, CA: Wadsworth
Skills
Company,
Publishing
see
W.
1995); William
15.
HR
(November
1990), p. 22;
J.
[NOTE: This appears
1990), pp. 21328;
rect
how
(Summer
16.
page number.) Keith Davis and Curtis Sittenfield,
"Good Ways
to Deliver
(April 1999), pp.
E.
and promote employee
retention.
2005). Also see. Respondents to
12,
Wang, Elizabeth M.
Also, Richard Y.
Madnick, and Craig C.
Pierce, Stuart
Fisher, Information Quality
(Armonk,
(November 2001), pp. 3-5, for tips on
how managers can interpret body language; and K. \'an
Nostram, "Top-Down: Building a Better Organization
Through Effective Communication," Communication
Training (]une 1999), p. 18, reported that nearly one-
As reported
Our
third of
worker
18. See
in
Motoko
The Wall
Jobs!"
12. Qualit)'
that
Rich, "Shut
Street Journal
Up
So
We Can Do
to be bilingual
Mike
"Web
Delaney,
J.
The Wall
Verespej,
Start-Ups Vie to Detect
Street Joi4mal (June 9, 2005),
"Who
Should Be Monitoring Your
SHRM Home (July
14,
2005).
"Many Corporations Employ Staff to Monitor,
Read Outbound E-mail," AccountingWeb.com (July 13,
—
that
is,
2004) which reported the findings from survey con-
they had
upper management and of
Language," Qua/fty Digest (July 1998),
estimated to contain
is
p. 18.
ducted by Proofpoint. Another study conducted by
Forrester Consulting found that
to 40,000 words.
While English
is
is
understand the
their book,
common
at
19.
all
employees
most companies
IT professionals
live
"they're
How Conversation
(New
with the business
to 5:
York: Quill, 2001);
Makes or Breaks Your
Morrow, 1986);
Women and Men at Work
Style
(New
Tannen, Talking from 9
York:
and Stephanie
Clifford, "Young,
Female, and Demanding," Inc Magazine Januar)- 2006),
(
Rob Rodin and Curtis Hartman, Free, Perfect,
and Now: Connecting to the Three Insatiable Customer
Demands (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1999), pp. 49,
units."
Father's Audience:
Conversation
Relations with Others
herded into one, isolated department." The authors argue
that "the best
in
1990), pp. 13-15. Also
Meant!
obser%'e that IT staff
Women
(New York: William Morrow,
see Tannen, That's Not What I
See Deborah Tannen, You Just Don't Understand:
and Men
tongue. In one section of
Rodin and Hartman
use technical terms because
with monitoring and reading outbound e-mail.
only 20,000
generally recognized as
the world's primar\' business language, not
more than 43% of large
corporations have staff members specifically charged
The English
some 750,000 words,
but the vocabularv' of the a\erage person
How to
Listeners," Southwest Airlines Spirit
p. 27.
56.
for the
today aren't just multitasking
(September 2004),
Wellman contends that people tend
to be less inhibited and more prone to conflict on the
e-mail network. See Barr)' Wellman (http://w\N^v.chass.
utoronto.caZ-wellman) for information on his Internet
m\Tiad dimensions
Company
Speak to Today's
research.
"Women
— they
in their
complex
lives," Fast
(Januar)VFebruar)- 2006), p. 37.
20. Ibid. Also see Holly Weeks, "Taking the Stress
Stressful Conversations,"
Out of
Han'ard Business Revinv
(July/August 2001), pp. 112-19.
21.
Nancy
Mind Your
(May 29, 1996),
Keates, "After the Beep, Please
Manners," The Wall
Street Journal
pp. B1,B5.
The term TMl was
first
brought to our attention
Rebecca Ganzel, "Editor's Notebook: Too
Much
Information," Training (February 1999), p.
J.
Shaw,
ed.,
E-Commerce and
in
6.
Also,
the Digital
are
multi-minding, constantly thinking about and preparing
p. 115. Also, Barr)'
Michael
and
Internet e-mail threatens corporate assets
Employees' Messages?"
the workforce. See A. Blanton Godfrey, "Speak the Right
"Not Your
Sharpe, 2005). "You've Got Junk,"
E.
producti%it\'.
Kevin
p. Bl;
(August 29, 2001),
guru Joseph Juran used the simple explanation
to speak the language of both
will
all
M.
Also see
managers needed
language
N^':
'Click Fraud,'"
pp. B1,B8.
14.
Effectively,"
11-12, for
run an organization, improve
effectively
ser\'ice,
18, 2002), pp.
Rich McGuigan, "Communication: Your Most Valuable
World, 21, 2 (2004), pp. 10.
13.
— To Communicate
"Workers Say They Waste 2 Hours a Day," San Antonio,
17. Ibid.
Springer-Verlag, 1981). Also see
Tool," Superx'ision
11.
more
York:
Bean, "Training
L.
March 1997 "Where I Stand" poll in Nations Business.
Also see Tim McCollum, "Preventing a Productivity
Drain," Nation's Business (March 1998), p. 56.
58-1-.
(New York:
provided
the
"Gender Patterns in Touching Behavior,"
Nancy M. Henley, ed.. Gender and Non-Verbal
Behavior
Yourself
TX WOAI .Vnv5 (July
Bad News," Fast Company
10. Brenda Major,
in
to
customer
an incor-
to be
Also see Darla
National Underwriter (March
Mishra, "Managing the
Grapevine," Public Personnel Management
p. 14.
Your Staff
Focus
1999), p. 244,
2,
p. 70,
Management (New
Peters, Liberation
J.
— And
the Grapevine to the Punch," Super\'ision (August 1994),
pp. 17-19; "Stopping Those Nasty Rumors,"
Thomas
(January 1999),
this discussion.
Knopf, 1992),
Hull, "Beating
Inc.
22. Kathleen H. Jamieson as
About
quoted
in Critical
Critical Issues (Williamsburg,
Enrichment,
Inc., 1995), p. 9;
Thinking
VA: Learning
and Jamieson, Dirty
CHAPTER
Deception, Distraction
Politics:
Communication: The
3
& Democracy (Oxford,
England: Oxford Universirv- Press, 1993),
23.
p. 38.
The authors cannot remember when they heard the term
"Managing Up!" but the article by John J. Gabarro and
John
P.
Kotter, ".Managing
Your Boss," Han-ard Business
i?n'JOf (Januar>-Februar\- 1980), pp. 92-100
relevance today as even,' boss has a boss.
suggestions in this
Menl
Natchez's
Element
site,
in Successful
"Managing Up: The Overlooked
Management"
(http://w\%-w.tech-
prose.com/managing_up.html); Mike L\Tich and
Lifton's Training Clips:
.\ids,
HRD Press
and Douglas Stone, Bruce Patton, and
Difficult Conversations:
Haney
150 Reproducible Handouts,
Discussion Starters, and Job
p. 16;
and
were derived from material on
list
web
The
has
still
ideas
How to Discuss
(
1998),
Sheila
Heens
Wliat Matters
Most (New York: Mking, 1999). Also see Stanley Bing,
"Zen and the Art of Managing Up," Fortune (March 18,
2002), pp. 115-16 and Bings Throw-ing the Elephant
Vital Link in
Supervisory
Management
(HarperCollins Publishers, 2002). Also see
115
I
Andrew
Park,
"Taming the .\lpha Exec (aka: "How to Tame the Boss
from Hell)," Fast Company {May 2006), pp. 86-90; Bruce
Tulgan, "Work This Way: Maximize Your Internship by
Managing Your Boss," Rainmaker Thinking, Inc., 15th
ed.,
(December 1998)
(http://w^^•^v.rainmakerthinking.
com). For interesting approaches to managing the
rela-
tionship with one's boss, see Sue Shellenbarger, "The Care
and Feeding (and the Avoiding) of Horrible Bosses,"
Wall Street journal October 20, 1999),
{
I.
p.
Bl,
Tlie
and Thomas
Zuber and Erika H. James, "Managing Your Boss,"
), pp. 33-36.
Family Practice Managanent (]une 2001
24. .Mike
Lynch and Harvey
Lifton, "Delivering
Bad News,"
Training Clips: 150 Reproducible Handouts, Discussion
Starters,
25. Peter
M.
and Job
.\ids,
HRD Press,
(1998), p. 16.
Senge, The Fifth Discipline
(New York, NT:
Currenc>7Doubleday, 1980), pp. 159-161.
Hilitty^
C H
A
P
T
E
MOTIVATIONAL PRINCIPLES
AS APPLIED TO SUPERVISION
AFTER STUDYINC THIS CHAPTER
YOU WILL BE ABLE T
^%
Discuss the reasons people
behave the ways they do.
^% Compare
various
motivational theories and
explain their importance for
understanding employee
behavior.
^% Cope
your
^k
with people
who make
life difficult.
Explain the
ABCs
of shaping
behavior.
^^ Compare the
assumptions
and applications of Theory X
and Theory Y in supervision.
^%
Discuss supervisory
approaches for stimulating
employee motivation,
especially job redesign,
broadened job tasks (multiand participative
management.
tasking),
T
r
YOU MAKE THE
CALL!
the
of reloading operations
Don Davis
Economy Moving and Storage,
is
director
for
a
international shipping
reorganization,
promoted
charge of
recently transferred
to the Dublin center,
forward to the
is
in
supervisors
new position, but he would
friends.
where he
and
who supervise
of 80 employees. Don was looking
challenge and responsibility of his
five front-line
the operations
large
company. Due to a corporate
Don was
Maintaining contact
miss his old network of
via
e-mail would not
be
the same.
In
Don's
first
week on the
that the Dublin center
job, it becanne obvious
had some serious problems
had to be corrected quickly. Recently, customers had begun to complain that packages
shipped from the Dublin center arrived at their
destinations late and in poor condition. For a company that prides itself on quality customer service
and timely delivery, these conditions are unacceptable, and it is Don's responsibility to correct
that
the situation.
The first thing Don did was gather information
regarding the customer complaints. Then he
checked with Holly Henderson, the human resources
supervisor, to gather information on the employ-
ment
characteristics at the Dublin center.
Don
dis-
covered that his center had the company's highest
employee turnover and lost-time injury rates.
Absenteeism and tardiness were running rampant,
and the number of employee grievances had been
increasing over the past six months. Realizing that
unhappy employees equal poor customer service,
Don decided to meet with the five reload supervisors to understand why the employees were performing below expectations.
During the meeting,
Don
^
illustrated with charts
and graphs the most recent month's performance
results to Amy, Steve, Joe, Sue, and Ryan and asked
for their input. Amy, the senior supervisor, pointed
out that the conditions in which the employees
worked were terrible. "We had record temperatures
every day
last
week," she
over 100 degrees
in
said.
here.
"Two days, it was
can you expect
How
people to perform in extreme heat?"
Joe, the newest of the supervisors, added,
"Most workers are part time. Many have other jobs
or are working here while they attend school. They
come in here tired and with other things on their
minds. Most of the injuries
I
see are related to a lack
They are just stupid mistakes. Even
during our safety meetings, workers seem bored
and do not seem to pay attention." Steve claimed,
"The job the employees perform is very repetitious.
They seem bored and lack enthusiasm. In fact, on
several occasions employees have pointed out that
their work is mindless and never changes. If you ask
me, boredom is the main problem with employee
of concentration.
performance."
Ryan continued,
"I
think the performance of our
employees is affected by a few 'bad apples.'
Overall, most of our people are good workers. They
want to do a good job. I've seen them get frustrated because of a poorly performing coworker
who should be reprimanded. can't do anything
about it; we're short staffed, and if
discipline
someone, he or she will probably quit. That's what
happened a week ago when leaned on Reuben to
improve his performance. He quit. They know what
to do, but sometimes they just don't or won't do it.
Even when plead with them to improve or threaten
to write them up, it doesn't work. If could only get
the poor performers motivated, think the rest would
fall in line and overall performance would improve."
Last, Sue chimed in, "I'm having trouble motivating my workers. Just yesterday, one of my best
workers left with a back injury and the rest failed to
pick up the slack. If we don't find a way to motivate
these people, none of us will have a job."
The real question is: "How can Don motivate
employees to perform better?" He cannot tempt
them with pay increases because that is outside his
authority. He knows he will have to do something
quickly What should he do? YOU MAKE THE CALL!
I
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118
1
PART
2
Supervisory Essentials
DETERMINANTS OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR
Discuss the reasons people
behave the ways they do.
In
Chapter
2,
we
defined management as getting things accomplished with and
efforts toward common objectives.
To manage effectively, as this definition suggests, superv^isors must understand
employee motivation and develop approaches that encourage employees to work to
through people by guiding and motivating their
their full capabilities.
Human
sor
is
beings are a resource that
asked to manage.
Human
Our
is
quite different
from any other the supervi-
society gready values the worth of
human
beings.
beings have values, attitudes, needs, and expectations that significantly
influence their behaviors
on the
job.
The
feelings people have
toward
their supervi-
environments, their personal problems, and numerous other factors
are often difficult to ascertain. However, they have a tremendous impact on
sors, their job
employee motivation and work performance.
What causes employees to behave the ways they do? This question is difficult to
answer because each individual is unique. The behaviors of people as individuals and
in groups at work is often rational, consistent, and predictable. However, people's
behaviors may at times seem irrational, inconsistent, and unpredictable. When an
employee's behavior is inconsistent with the organization's expectations, problems
arise for the super\'isor. Beha\'ior is influenced by many forces, making it difficult for
the super\isor to formulate simple principles that apply to even.' situation.
The
forces that stimulate
their en\ironments.
they
To
human behaxior come from
illustrate,
within individuals and from
think about wh\' parents' behavior changes
become grandparents. One answer might be
that the grandparents are older
perhaps more mature or experienced. They ha\'e received feedback on their
enting efforts and have taken corrective action.
to
when
Many grandparents
and
earlier par-
have extra income
spend or more time to devote to grandparenting. As grandparents, duties and
responsibilities change. Also, grandparents can always
to their parents. All these factors together
Even.' day,
employees confront
may
issues that
send their grandchildren
home
lead to behavioral change.
were unheard of a decade or two ago.
The t)'pical employee today spends more waking hours "going to, being at, and
coming home fi-om work." With the explosion of two-income households, employees find less time to spend with aging parents and growing children or on vacations
and other leisure-time activities. Often, employees find themselves in intolerable or
soured personal relationships.
who were
Many experienced managers speak about the people
who lost their luster. Understanding the "bag-
their star performers but
gage" that affects employee performance
is
critical to
the supervisor's success in
dealing with people.
DETERMINANTS OF PERSONALITY^
Every individual
is
the product of many factors, and
human
it is
the unique combination of
Personality
the
Personality
these factors that results in an individual
The knowledge, attitudes,
and attributes that make
up the unique human
complex mix of knowledge, attitudes, and attributes that distinguishes one person
from all others.
Many people use the word personality to describe what they observe in another
person. However, the real substance of human personality goes far beyond external
behavior. The essence of an individual's personalit)' includes his or her attitudes,
values, and ways of interpreting the environment, as well as many internal and
external influences that contribute to behavioral patterns. Several major schools of
being.
personalit)'.
is
CHAPTER
4 Motivational Principles as Applied to Supervision
personality study can help explain the complexit)' of human behavior. First,
and then we
cuss the primar\' determinants of personalit}',
major theories
relate these factors to
describe
we
dis-
how some
employee motivation.
PHYSIOLOGICAL (BIOLOGICAL) FACTORS
One major
influence on
Such factors
human
personalit)'
person sees the world. Intelligence, which
Most
in
is
physiological (or biological)
as gender, age, race, height, weight,
is at
and physique can
makeup.
affect
how
a
least partially inherited, is another.
and they may affect the way
is tall is sometimes conshorter person. While physiological
biological characteristics are apparent to others,
which
a person
sidered to have
is
perceived. For example, a person
more
leadership
abilitv'
than a
who
characteristics should not be the basis for evaluating an employee's capabilities, they
do
on an
exert considerable influence
tain physical abilities
and
individual's personality' as well as define cer-
limitations.
EARLY CHILDHOOD INFLUENCES
Many
psychologists
feel that
the ver\' early years of a person's
life
are crucial to an
indiWduals development. The manner in which a child is trained, shown affection,
and disciplined has a lifelong influence. Parents ^\"ho encourage autonomy, independence, exploration, and the
abilit)'
to deal ^\ith risk while instilling a willingness
work \Nith others give the child valuable lessons. Author and consultant Sandra
A. Crowe says, "Our histon,' creates our present. So, people s backgrounds affect the
way they are and the way they act at \vork. Problems \sith a critical parent in
to
—
younger
years, for instance,
up humiliating
others,
may lead
to insecurit)' in adult
blaming them
life.
for their shortcomings,
Such folks often end
and taking credit for
others' work."-\ arious biographies illustrate that an individual's ability' to cope with
problems and work with others may be determined
on
in part
through the influences
that indi\idual in childhood.
ENVIRONMENTAL (SITUATIONAL) FACTORS
emphasize the immediate situation or emi-
Sociologists
and
ronment
being the most important determinant of adult personalit); Such fac-
as
social psychologists
tors as education,
income, employment, home, and
confront an indiWdual throughout
life,
influence
manv
who
that
other experiences that
person
is
and eventually
becomes.
Each
day's experiences contribute to
an indi\dduars makeup. This
is
particularly
true in terms of the immediate working environment. For example, the personalit}'
of the blue-collar worker performing routine, manual labor on an assembly line
affected
by work
differently than
is
the personality of a white-collar worker
is
who
performs primarily mental work involving thought and judgment. Stated another
way, what a supenisor does in a work situation affects the personalities of the people
being supervised.
CULTURAL (SOCIETAL) VALUES
Culture also influences personality'. In the United
States,
such values as competition,
rewards for accomplishment, equal opportunities, and similar concepts are part of
a democratic society. Individuals are educated, trained,
and encouraged
to think for
themselves and to strive to achieve worthwhile goals. Ho\vever, some cultural values
I
119
PART
120
Supervisory Essentials
2
CONTEMPORARY
ISSUE
unmet profit expectations,
employee trust in management, low
employee morale, bad management practices, and
Poor communication,
lack of
despicable behavior are but a few of the problems
in today's organizations. The popular press con-
reminds us of all the people who sin
society. You and don't have a bad attitude
it's all those other people!
stantly
I
Not
surprising, there
suggests that
like
our
('tude);
a rule of reciprocity that
is
human beings
manner to the
in
react
and respond
in
and action expressed by
attitude
the other fellow. Consider the following scenarios:
Scenario
1
:
As we
drive
down
the highway,
we
can
see this rule in effect. Suppose someone is driving
slower than the speed limit and another person is in
What happens? The second
a hurry.
the horn,
nity to
yell,
and gesture
until
driver
there
is
may
blast
an opportu-
pass the slower driver. How does the slower
Who has the bad attitude? Now
driver respond?
both do.
Scenario
one cut
2:
On
little
mouthed
bit later that
if
a driver lets
what happens?
A
somewave
"thanks," and, perhaps, a
person
The notion of
another" comes into play.
traffic flow.
someone else into the
"one good deed warrants
lets
You are a very well-organized person.
day of class, you laid out a strategy for
each of your classes. You have planned your work
and have been working your plan. Today, one of
your instructors the absent-minded one walked
into class and told you that a research project is due
in two days. Then the instructor laid out the assignment. When questioned, the instructor said he
forgot but that "in the real world of work, you had
better be prepared for the unexpected, ha, ha." His
announcement threw a monkey wrench into your
plan. Since before the term began, you had planned
to go to dinner and a concert with that special
Scenario
On
the
go through your mind? Perhaps you think back to an
earlier life experience. Do you remember the time
you stood up and, even though you knew the
answer, you drew a complete blank? Or worse yet,
what about the time you misunderstood the question? The instructor asked you to answer question 2,
and you thought she said question 10. You confidently delivered a well-developed answer for question
0.
1
How
3:
first
—
—
someone in your life. What are your options? Will
you cancel the date and have a miserable evening
while working on the assignment? Will you go on
the date and spend the evening worrying about the
assignment? Or, will you go on the date and then
pull an "all-nighter"? Would you have a 'tude?
Would your 'tude be positive or negative? Often,
our 'tudes are caused by what others do and say.
Scenario 4: Without warning, the instructor calls on
you to provide an answer to one of the discussion
questions at the end of this chapter. What thoughts
A couple
of your classmates started giggling.
How do
did you feel?
these previous experi-
ences influence your 'tude?
Scenario
5;
Your
father,
and gifted
a talented
mother, or older sibling was
athlete, musician, artist, or
public speaker. Many people constantly compare the
two of you. Some might even pose the question,
?" As you go
"Why can't you be more like
through life, you are constantly being compared.
You keep trying, but you just don't measure up. How
do you feel? How does constantly being reminded
that "you don't quite measure up" to someone else,
affect
the other hand,
into the traffic flow,
of the hand, a
EVERY EMPLOYEE HAS A TUDE^
The
your 'tude?
positive or negative behavior of
spills
one person
—someone else now has either
over
or negative 'tude.
We
a positive
also are conditioned
we
past experiences. But,
are
still
in
by our
control.
No one
can make us happy or sad unless we allow it.
Motivational speaker Charles Swindoll said:
The longer
I
live,
of attitude on
important than
more
the
I
realize the
Attitude, to me,
life.
facts.
It is
is
impact
more
more important than
the past, than education, than money, than
cumstances, than
failures,
what other people
cir-
than successes, than
think or say or do.
It is
more
important than appearance, giftedness, or skill.
It will make or break a company ... a church
home.
The remarkable thing is that we have a
choice every day regarding the attitude we will
embrace for that day. We cannot change our
We cannot change the fact that people
past.
will act in a certain way. We cannot change the
inevitable. The only thing we can do is play on
the one string we have, and that is our attitude.
percent what
am convinced that life is
happens to me and 90 percent how react to it.
You are in charge of
And so it is with you
your own attitude.^
... a
.
.
.
W
I
I
.
.
.
Look at your own 'tude. Do you complain about
work or school? Do you gripe that a sibling doesn't
CHAPTER
4
Motivational Principles as Applied to Supervision
this or that? Do you talk about your supervisor
behind his or her back? Do you look for ways to get
out of work? Or, are you always looking for ways to
improve? How do you want to be remembered?
What do you want people to say about you?
do
Rise to the occasion.
Look
in
121
the mirror and repeat
have a positive mental
choose to do so! will find some^ing nice to say to each person meet today! If it is to
be, it is up to me!" Remember: The choice is yours\
the following three times:
attitude
because
"I will
I
I
I
empioymeni and development at Paramount Pictures m Hollywood, CA, was the first person we found to use
a 'tude." HR Magazine (June 2CX)1), pp.189-94. (2) Adapted from http://home.xnet.com/~ansible/
attitudes.html. See Charles R. Swindoll, Three Steps Forward, Two Steps Back (Nashville; Thomas Nelson, 1980), and Swindell, Hand Me Another
Brick (Dallas; Word Publishing, 1998) for additional insights. Also see, Sarah Cliffe, "What a Star What a Jerk," Harvard Business Review, 79, 8
(September 2001), pp. 37-44; P. Gregory Smith, "Attitude Counts," Career World, 32, 1 (September 2003), pp. 8-12; and Terese Hudson Thrall, "Anger
Management." H&HN: Hospitals & Health Networks. 78, 2 (February 2004), p. 28.
Sources:
(1)
Paui Faicone, Director of
the word 'tude. See
"When Employees have
—
are changing. For example, for
relatively
ilar.
many
homogeneous, and the
years the workforce in the United States was
cultural values of
In recent decades, however, the workforce has
many
most workers tended
become
to be sim-
increasingly diversified,
and subgroups. As the diversit)' of the worknorms and values on the
workplace. In particular, the values of certain ethnic, age, and other minorit)'
groups may be quite different among employees. By recognizing and respecting difreflecting
different subcultures
force has increased, so has the effect of different cultural
ferent cultural values, supervisors should
become more adept
in dealing effectively
with people unlike themselves.
EVERY EMPLOYEE HAS A TUDE^^
Not long ago, a manager expressed to one of the text's authors that her biggest challenge was an employee with an attitude problem. The employee constantly complained. The manager was upset with herself because she had taken the path of least
resistance and avoided the employee. Superv'isors must recognize that an employee
with a bad attitude is like cancer and can affect the entire system if left unchecked.
How do others see you? Some employees' attitudes are better than others. Think
about a person you know who has a positive mental attitude (PMA). Is this person
fun to be around (i.e., work wth)? Is this person's attitude infectious? Does an
employee \sith a PMA perform better in the \s-orkplace? How do others see you?
Are you knowm for ha\dng a PMA (see the accompaming first "Contemporary
Issue" box)? Do others see you as having a negative attitude? Skills Application 4-2
at the end of this chapter gives you an opportunity' to develop strategies for coping
uith this t\^e of beha^ior. Remember an axiom of supenision: "Focus on what the
person does or does not do."
RECOCNIZINO
AND
HUMAN
DIFFERENCES
SIMILARITIES
The many complexities of human personality have been discussed here only briefly
because there are any number of factors that cause a person's personalit}' and attitude to change. Ideally, supenisors should get to
know
their
employees so well that
they can tailor their supervisor)' approaches to each indi\idual's personality.
Realistically,
however,
it is
of a person's personalit)-.
impossible to understand
all
the unique characteristics
Positive Mental
Attitude (PMA)
A person with a PMA
usually responds favorably
to the job, other people,
and most
situations.
122
I
PART
2
Supervisory Essentials
Fortunately, behavioral studies have demonstrated that people tend to be
alike than different in their basic motivational
the ways they do. Super\'isors can
more
needs and their reasons for behaving
implement managerial techniques
that
the similarities, rather than the differences, of people. This does not
emphasize
mean
that
unique differences in people should be overlooked. Supervisors can understand the
unique needs and personalit)' makeups of individual employees enough to adapt
general approaches to individuals to some extent. However, a consistent supervisory approach based on similarities rather than differences is a practical way to lead
a group of employees toward achieving company goals.
Compare
UNDERSTANDINC MOTIVATION
AND HUMAN BEHAVIOR
various
motivational theories and
explain their importance for
understanding employee
Too
often, motivation
is
viewed
as
something one person can give
to,
or do, for
another. Super\isors sometimes talk in terms of giving a worker a "shot" of moti-
behavior.
vation or of having to "motivate employees." However, motivating employees
that easy, because
human
Motivation cannot be given to another. In the
A willingness to
effort
exert
toward achieving
effort's ability
to
fulfill
is
a
an
fulfill
motivation comes from
toward achieving
a goal,
an individual need. In other words,
employees are more willing to do what the organization wants if they believe that
doing so will result in a meaningful reward. The supervisor s challenge is to stimulate that willingness
individual need.
final analysis,
a willingness to exert effort
stimulated by the efforts ability to
goal, stimulated by the
not
motivation really refers to an inner drive or impulse.
within a person. Motivation
Motivation
is
results in the
by making sure
that the
achievement of organizational goals
rewards employees want. The rewards need not always be money; they
can be anything employees value. For example, praise and recognition can be powerful motivators.
Because employee motivation
about which there has been
much more
mental, and
emphasize the
is
much
crucial to organizational success,
research.
The
it is
a subject
theories in this chapter are funda-
has been written elsew^here. However, most theories
similarities, rather
than differences, in
human
needs.
THE HIERARCHY OF NEEDS (MASLOW)
Most
all
psychologists
behavior
is
who
study
human
behavior and personalit}' are convinced that
caused, goal-oriented, and motivated. Stated another way, there
reason for everything a person does, assuming the person
is
rational, sane,
is
and
a
in
not under the influence of drugs or alcohol). People constantly strive
something that has meaning to them in terms of their needs and in relation to how those people see themselves and the environments in which they live.
Often, we may be unaware of why we behave in a certain manner, but we all have
subconscious motives that govern the ways we behave in different situations.
control
(e.g.,
to attain
of the most widely accepted theories of human behavior is that people are
motivated to satisfy certain well-defined and more or less predictable needs.
One
Hierarchy of needs
Maslow's theory of
motivation, which suggests
that
employee needs
are
arranged in priority order
such that lower-order
needs must be satisfied
before higher-order needs
become
motivating.
Abraham H. Maslow formulated the concept of a hierarchy (or priorof needs."* He maintained that these needs range from low-level needs to high-
Psychologist
ity)
an ascending priority (see Figure 4.1). These needs actually overlap
and are interrelated, and it may be preferable to consider them as existing along a
continuum rather than as being separate and distinct from one another.
level needs, in
Maslow's theory of a hierarchy of human needs implies that people
tr)'
to satisfy
these needs in the order in which they are arranged in the hierarchy. Until the
CHAPTER
4
Motivational Principles as Applied to Supervision
FIGURE
"V-^bC))
BlOLO&ICAL
lo\s'est,
PhY
(
S lo
tocri CAi,
123
I
4.1
Hierarchy of
Needs
)
or most basic, needs are reasonably satisfied, a person
strongly by the other levels. As one level of needs
is
\vill
satisfied to
not be motivated
some
extent, the
which then becomes the stronger motivator of
behavior. Maslow even suggested that once a low level of needs was reasonably satisfied, it would no longer motivate behavior, at least in the short term.
individual focuses
on the next
level,
BIOLOGICAL (PHYSIOLOGICAL) NEEDS
On
the
first level
of Maslow's hierarchy are physiological (or biological) needs.
These are the needs even'^one has for food,
shelter, rest, recreation,
and other phys-
Mrtually even' employee views work as a means of caring for these
ical necessities.
fundamental needs.
A paycheck enables a person
to
buy the
Physiological needs
Basic physical needs
(e.g.,
and
food,
rest, shelter,
recreation).
necessities \dtal to sur-
some of the comforts of life.
\dval, as well as
SECURITY (SAFETY) NEEDS
Once
a person's physiological needs are reasonably satisfied, other
important. The security (or
against danger
some
and
to
guard against the uncertainties of life. Most employees want
Security needs
Desire for protection
against danger and
life's
uncertainties.
offer various
retirement, hospitalization,
supplementary' benefits. For example, medical,
disabilit)',
and
life
insurance plans are designed to pro-
employees against various uncertainties and their possible serious conse-
quences.
and
needs become
needs include the need to protect ourselves
sense of securit)' or control over their future. To satisfy such expectations,
many employers
tect
safet)')
Wage and benefit packages
safet)'
retain
needs.
By
are designed to satisfy employees' physiological
fulfilling these basic needs,
organizations hope to attract and
competent personnel.
SOCIAL (BELONGING) NEEDS
Some
supervisors believe that
good wages and ample
benefits suffice to motivate
employees. These supervisors do not understand the importance of the higher-level
needs of
human
beings, beginning with social (or belonging) needs. Social needs
by
group motivation can be a
are needs people have for attention, for being part of a group, for being accepted
their peers,
and
for love.
Many
studies have
powerful influence on employee behavior
shown
at
that
work, either negatively or positively.
Social needs
Desire for love and
affection
and
affiliation
with something
worthwhile.
fli
124
I
PART
2 Supervisory Essentials
may
For example, some employees
deliberately
perform contrary to organizational
goals to feel that they are accepted in an informal group.
On the other hand,
if
infor-
mal group goals are in line with organizational goals, the group can influence individuals toward exceptional performance. Some employers provide off-the-job social
and
athletic opportunities for their
ees satisfy their social needs
and
employees as a means of helping those employ-
to build loyalt)' to the organization as a whole.
Think about these questions: "Do you have friends? Or, do you have a group of
"Do you have a group you can sit around with to enjoy a cup of
coffee or tell a few jokes, but then each of you go your own way?" "Or, do you have
someone you can call at 3 a.m. to discuss a personal problem and who will listen
critically without passing judgment?" Think back to when you were ten years old.
Who was your "ver\' best friend"? Where is that person today? Or ask someone who
has been married for more than 25 years these questions: "Who was the best man
at your wedding? The maid (or matron) of honor? Where are they today? Are they
still there for you? Hav^e they stood along side you (unconditionally, without strings
acquaintances?"
some
answer is "Yes." Sadly, in many
today-gone tomorrow" phenomenon.
Sadly, the following illustration hits closer to home for the authors. Not long ago,
one of us attended the funeral of a colleague. His grie\ing widow was overheard to
say, "Jim knew a lot of people. I had no trouble getting pallbearers, but no one visited us after he retired and then got sick."^ Human connectedness is at the top of the
list for some people. To illustrate, consider the following findings: A national sur\'ey
reported that sLx months after 9/11/01, employees' commitment to, or desire to, stay
with the same employer was at a five-year high. Interestingly, the third most powerful factor driving that commitment was workers' sense of affiliation, or connectedness, on the job, just behind safet)' and securit)' and pay and perks.^ On the other
hand, we all know many people who like their job but not the people the\' work with
attached to the relationship)? "In
cases, the
instances, they are illustrations of the "here
and, as such, seek fulfillment of their social needs through off-the-job interactions.
SELF-RESPECT (ESTEEM) NEEDS
Self-respect needs
Closely related to social needs are self-respect (or esteem or ego) needs. These are
Desire for recognition,
needs ever\'one has for recognition, achievement,
achievement, status, and a
sense of accomplishment.
plishment. Self-respect needs are
ver)'
and
status,
powerful because they
a sense of
accom-
relate to personal feel-
and importance. Supervisors should look for ways to satisfy these
internal needs, such as providing varied and challenging work tasks and recognizing good performance. Something as simple as saying "good job" to someone can
keep that person doing good work.
ings of self- worth
SELF-FULFILLMENT NEEDS
Self-fulfillment
needs
Desire to use one's
abilities
to the fullest
At the highest
want to be
creative
human
of
level
actualization) needs
—
needs are self-fulfdlment (self-realization or selffullest. People
the desires to use one's capabilities to their
and
to achieve within their capacities. Presumably, these high-
extent.
est-level
needs are not
satisfied until
needs persist throughout
rather than
people reach their
a person's life
fulfill this level
of
human
and can go
fiall
potential.
needs. For example,
jobs are routine and monotonous, and workers must seek
suits off the job
and
employees to use their
abilities
self- fulfillment in
pur-
However, super\isors can provide
on the job by assigning tasks that challenge
in family relationships.
opportunities for self-fulfillment
As such, these
Many jobs frustrate
many factor)- and office
unsatisfied.
more
fully.
CHAPTER
4 Motivational Principles as Applied to Supervision
125
I
Some employers
provide
off-the-job social
and
athletic opportunities for
their
employees to help
those employees
their social
satisfy
needs and to
build loyalty to the
organization.
APPLYING THE NEEDS THEORIES
TO SUPERVISORY MANAGEMENT
Supervisors can use the hierarchy of
the kinds of needs people have
and
human
needs as a framework for visuahzing
for assessing those needs' relative
in motivating individuals in the workplace.
individual fulfillment the result of doing a
importance
The supervisor's challenge is to make
good job. For example, if the supervi-
most influential motivator is social needs, the
good job when assigned to work with a group and
for doing the job well. If an employee seems to be
sor senses that an employee's
employee is most likely to do
the whole group is rewarded
a
seeking self-respect, the supervisor might provide visible signs of recognition to
influence this employee toward
good performance, such
as
supervisor
is
to recognize
where each employee
is
a bonus or
The key for the
awarding
praise in front of the employee's peers at a departmental meeting.
in the hierarchy so that the
supervisor can determine which needs are driving the employee. Withholding
praise
and not recognizing employee accomplishment
is
a
common
pitfall (see
Figure 4.2).
all motivation is self-motivation. Therefore, a good supervisor
work situation and reward systems such that employees are motivated
to perform well because good work performance leads to satisfaction of their needs.
We all know someone for whom work appears to be the primary focus of life.
Others have found work to be a source of comfort, security, and meaning. Their
." and Emerson's
values combine Edison's "There is no substitute for hard work
"We put our love where we put our labor." However, we challenge you to find
someone who, when on the deathbed, says, "As I look back over my life, I wish I had
spent more time at work."^
It is normal for associates to expect good wages, generous benefit plans, and
job security. You likely have heard stories of older family members who spent
Ultimately,
structures the
.
.
126
I
PART
2
Supervisory Essentials
FIGURE 4.2
own
—that
Learn frona the Mistakes
As mentioned
of Others
and behaviors formed by members of the organization
over time. The leadership style of top management helps to shape the culture.
Words alone do not produce culture or commitment to the organization's purpose, rather the actions of managers do. When asked, "What is the biggest mis-
in
earlier chapters,
each organization has
it
culture
set
of shared values, beliefs,
made
take you have ever
corporations
in
didn't give recognition to
I
employees, and
soon
I
didn't give credit
I
some
as a boss?" executives representing
of the largest
the United States reported:
someone who turned out
to
be one of my best
lost her.
when
it
was due
to individuals
who made major
contributions.
failed to
I
wish
I
acknowledge someone who needed
had provided more opportunities
I
to
be rewarded.
for subordinates to
engage
proj-
in
ects they enjoyed.
my
didn't recognize
I
associates' birthdays or anniversaries.
didn't understand that
I
my
staff
had reached
a limit
on
their ability to
produce.
•
was overly harsh
I
in
my
criticism,
and that brought about
insecurities
in
my
employees.
Not
surprisingly, withholding of praise
was
a mistake
admitted by many of the
staff. Will you
respondents. Others regretted not being more supportive of
repeat the
same mistakes?
Source: Survey conducted by Accountemps as reported
Made
They've
Accountennps, and author of
40-some
years working for the
sizings have
alty
it
may
in
"Executives Surveyed Reveal Biggest Mistakes
AccountingWeb.com (June 28, 2004). Also see, Max Messmer, chairman
Motivating Employees for Dummies (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2003).
as Supervisors,"
become
lessen.
facts
and downcompany loywork teams may find
same company. Today, business
Managers who are asked
to develop effective
become
less enthusiastic
for the firm!" Further, the lack of trust and low job securitv'
individual orientation that one must take charge of one's
is
Is
no guarantee
money
closings
of life. As the downsizing trend continues,
increasingly difficult as employees
there
of
a job will
everything? For
own
about "winning one
may
create a strong
future. Realistically,
be there tomorrow.
some
time, employees have been saying
it
is
not the
only thing. According to one survey, one-third of respondents place a positive work
environment at the top of a list of factors for employee satisfaction.'^ A retail store
manager recently said, "We have employees for whom time is just as important as
money. Many working mothers need time off to spend with kids. They also have a
psychological need to be healthy and not worn out. Time becomes more valuable
than money." The slogan "Different strokes for different folks" should be part of
every supervisor s
management
practice.
some organizations, there is a phenomenon called employee entitlement.
Employee entitlement is a belief held by some individuals that the organization
owes them something regardless of the effort they put forth. This attitude manifests
In
Employee entitlement
The
belief that the
organization "owes"
them.
itself in
package
the workplace in
after
being
many
fired,
ways: the poor performer
employees who fail to meet
who
asks for a severance
sales goals
but
demand
bonuses anyway ("we got one last year"), or college professors who expect
stantial pay raise because they survived another year.'°
a sub-
.
CHAPTER
4
Motivational Principles as Applied to Supervision
127
I
MOTIVATION-HYGIENE THEORY
Another theon' of motivation
"tvvo-factor
the
is
the motivation-hygiene theory, sometimes called
theory" or the "dual-factor theor\s" developed by Frederick
Herzberg." Herzberg's research has demonstrated that some factors in the work
environment that were traditionally believed to motivate people actually serve primarily to reduce their dissatisfaction rather than motivate them.
Herzberg and others have conducted numerous studies
asked to describe events that
made them
feel
particularly
in which people were
good or bad about their
Other questions were designed to determine the depth of feelings, the durawhich those feelings persisted, and the t)ipes of situations that made
employees feel motivated or frustrated. These studies were conducted with employees in varied organizations and industries, including personnel at all levels and from
different technical and job specialties. Interestingly, the general pattern of results
was fairly consistent. It revealed a clear distinction bet\veen factors that tend to
motivate employees {motivation factors) and those that, while expected by workers,
jobs.
tion for
are not likely to motivate
them {hygiene
Motivation-hygiene
theory
Herzberg's theory that
in the work
environment primarily
influence the degree of
factors
job dissatisfaction while
intrinsic job content
factors influence the
amount
of
employee
motivation.
factors)
MOTIVATION FACTORS
Herzberg identified motivation factors as elements intrinsic in the job that promote job performance, .\mong the most fi-equently identified motivation factors
were the follo^vdng:
Motivation factors
Elements
intrinsic in
the
job that promote job
performance.
Opportunit)' for growth and advancement
Achievement or accomplishment
Recognition for accomplishments
Challenging or interesting work
Responsibilit)' for
work
Stating this another way, job factors that tend to motivate people are primarily
related to higher-level needs
and
aspirations.
These factors
all
related to
outcomes
associated with the content of the job being performed. Opportunity' for advance-
and interesting
making work motivating and
meaningful. The absence of these factors can be frustrating and nonmotivating.
These motivation factors are not easily measured, and they may be difficult to find
ment, greater
work
responsibilit)',
recognition, gro\Nth, achievement,
are consistently identified as the
major
factors
in certain ts'pes of jobs.
HYGIENE FACTORS
Also called "dissatisfiers," hygiene factors are elements in the work environment
that, if positive,
tified the
reduce dissatisfaction but do not tend to motivate. Herzberg iden-
following hygiene factors:
Working conditions
Hygiene factors
Elements in the work
environment that, if
positive, reduce
dissatisfaction but
do not tend
Money,
status,
and
security
Interpersonal relationships
Supervision
Company
policies
and administration
to motivate.
128
I
PART
2
Supervisory Essentials
The
factors that
ions in the
employees complained about most were the following condi-
work environment:
Poor company policies and administrative practices
Lack of good supervision
in
both
a technical
and
a
human-relations sense
Poor working conditions
Inadequate wages and benefits
Herzberg concluded that these job-context factors tend to
motivate. In recent years, the conflict between
been identified
as
another hygiene factor.
equate, employees are unhappy.
When
dissatisfy rather than
work demands and personal
When
life
these factors are adequate or even excellent,
they do not, by themselves, promote better job performance. This does not
that hygiene factors are unimportant.
has
these factors are negative or inad-
They
mean
are ver\' important, but they ser\'e pri-
marily to maintain a reasonable level of job motivation, not to increase
it.
APPLYINO HERZBEROS THEORY
TO SUPERVISORY MANAGEMENT
To improve performance, Herzberg's theory suggests that the supervisor should
implement strategies that target the motivation factors
that is, those that contribute to the satisfaction of employees' social, self-respect, and self-fulfillment
needs. One of the supervisor's strategies should be to "catch people doing something right" and "give them credit when credit is due." A note of caution: Praise and
other forms of recognition must be highly individualized and genuinely deserv'ed to
be effective. A key element in effective supervision is to give employees an opportunity to fulfill their needs as a result of good job performance.
The supervisor should not conclude from Herzberg's work that hygiene factors
such as money, benefits, good working conditions, and the like are unimportant.
These factors are extremely important, and organizations must strive continuously
—
Some employees
find
meaning outside work.
-
CHAPTER
to be competitive in these areas.
granted, especially
related
more
when
4
Motivational Principles as Applied to Supervision
I
129
However, employees often take such factors for
Employee motivation is
job opportunities are plentiful.
to their higher-level needs.
EXPECTANCY THEORY
Another interesting and practical way of looking at employee motivation is provided by expectancy theor)'.'- Expectancv' theory is based on the worker's perception of the relationships among effort, performance, and reward. According to
expectancy theory, workers
be motivated to work harder when they believe their
will
improve performance and that such improved performance
Figure 4.3 shows the expectancy theor)' model.
Expectanc)' theor)^ is based on worker perceptions and on relationships called linkages. Employee motivation depends on workers being able to perceive an effort
performance linkage, as well as a performance -reward linkage. When employees
enhanced
efforts will
will lead to desired rewards.
cannot clearly recognize that such linkages
exist,
Expectancy theory
Theory of motivation that
holds that employees
perform better when they
believe such efforts lead
to desired rewards.
they will not be highly motivated.
For example, when computer operators receive inadequate training, they
will
probably be unable to perceive a relationship between their effort and their performance. Instead, they
there will be
no
will
significant
conclude that no matter
improvement
in their job
how much
effort they
expend,
performance. Similarly, when
nurses' aides perceive that their high-performing coworkers are not being rewarded
any more than average or even substandard performers, they will not believe that a
performance -reward relationship exists, so they will not be motivated to perform well.
Super\dsors may believe that their organizations reward high-qualit)- work.
However, such a belief may be based on management's perception of the reward
system. Supervisors should tr)^ to verify whether workers perceive linkages. Supervisors and employees often do not view reward systems in the same way. For example, on his last day on the job, an assembly-line employee in a manufacturing plant
participated in an exit interview. When the interviewer asked him why he was leaving, the worker said he had become extremely frustrated waiting for work to come
to his workstation. Further, he stated that he came to work even.' day knowing that
no matter how hard he worked, his extra efforts would not be visible on the pro-
duction chart.
^\^hile
expectanq^ theorv^ is a
"People will do what
forth
much
is
complex theorv^ in realitv^ it is a simple notion:
Employees will be motivated to put
the additional effort will result in something of
fairly
in their best interest."
effort if they believe that
FIGURE
Workers' perceptions
/
Effort
-
Expectancy Theory
\
Improved performance
4.3
-^' Desired
rewards
(instrlnsic or
extrinsic)
130
I
PART
Supervisory Essentials
2
value. For example,
to a better
We
A
known
have
or B
if
a student believes that
performance on the forthcoming
a
who
few students
more work
(study time) will not lead
then he or she
test,
will
not study more.
are content to "just pass" a course.
A
grade of
not sufficient enough reward for them to put forth additional
is
effort.
Therefore, the motivational effort
is
low when perception of improved performance
low and the anticipated reward
is
low.
is
does not matter
It
how
formance, and rewards.
clearly supervisors
If the
view the linkages
among
effort, per-
workers cannot see them, the linkages might as well
strive to show employees that increased effort will
improve work performance, which in turn will increase rewards. Rewards may be
extrinsic, in the form of additional pay, or intrinsic, such as a sense of accomplish-
be absent. Supervisors should
ment or some
of a reward
teristic
of praise or recognition. Probably the most important charac-
t^'pe
is
that
it is
something the recipient desires and
values.
EQUITY THEORY
Equity theory
Explains how people
strive for fairness in
the
How many
times have you heard the following: Ed, an employee, complains to
anyone who
will listen, "It's
job, but he gets paid
workplace.
his
outcome /input
not
more than
ratio
been here
fair! I've
I
as long as Carl;
lower than Carl's (see Figure
is
we do
the
same
do." Ed's belief of inequit)' rests on the notion that
things as seniority', experience, age,
skill, abilit}',
4.3).
Inputs include such
and
job knowledge,
effort. Ed's
exasperated statement suggests that Ed and Carl have similar inputs: They have both
same job for the same time. Inequity exists because Carl eWdently receives
more outcomes (he is paid more than Ed). Outcomes can include salar)', working
held the
conditions, degree of employee involvement and decision making, opportunity
for
advancement and promotion, challenging assignments, pay and
benefits,
and
assorted forms of recognition.
Based on the works of
that explains
how people
time, people have
outcome
J.
Adams,
Stacy
equit)'
strive for fairness in the
compared themselves
to others.
When
ratios to those of others.
theon'
is
They compare
Adams
also stressed that
ative, rather
'"*
forming similar work
Ed
believes Carl
is
what
is
level
important
People can
same organization.
paid more, this
Carl,
make
a
may not be
number of
draw conclusions about
someone who has the same
to
to individuals or
in
or fairness, by
still
It is
important to
the rel-
job.
in
realize that while
still
exists
be motivated to achieve equity.
comparisons N^th others
We have seen
Ed might
also
other departments in his organization, even
such as where he expected to be
in
Ed compares himself to
be inclined to compare himself
that
those people do different work than Ed. Ed might compare himself to his
tations,
is
to Carl, a person per-
the case. However, inequity
different kinds of
fairness.
groups of people
determining motivation
Ed compares himself
because of what Ed believes, and Ed will
which
input/
inequit)'.
is
of outcomes a person receives and the inputs a
In Figure 4.4,
in the
equit)',
own
ratios equal.
than the absolute,
person contributes.
their
the ratios are unequal, there
This inequit)' will be followed by a motivation to achieve
making the outcome/input
a theor\' of motivation
workplace. Since the beginning of
at this stage
own
if
expec-
of his career. Ed could even
compare himself to an individual or a group in another organization. To illustrate,
consider the following scenario, in which Ed uses a referent from another company:
Ed's next door neighbor, Carolyn, works at Donnelly Corp., the Holland,
Michigan manufacturer of mirrors, windshields, and other precision-glass products for the auto industry. Part of Carolyns work satisfaction comes from
Donnelly's governance system, called "equity structure, " which operates as a
CHAPTER
4
Motivational Principles as Applied to Supervision
I
FIGURE 4.4
Not
Theory
It's
Ed's
Outcomes
Carl's
<
Ed's Inputs
Outcomes
Carl's Inputs
same as Carl's; they both have the same job. Carl has higher outbecause he gets paid more.This makes Carl's outcome/input ratio
greater than Ed's, which creates a feeling of unfairness. Equity theory holds that Ed
will be motivated to change the situation so that his and Carl's ratios are equal.
Ed's inputs are the
comes than
Ed,
Her factory is organized into small teams. These teams set their own
and have broad discretion in how they do their work. Each team chooses a
representative to serve on the equity committee, which is a forum for the entire
building. One person from the equity committee is chosen as the representative to
the Donnelly Committee, whose members also include senior management. The
Donnelly Committee's power is limited to matters that concern employees directly.
It solicits ideas from employees, studies solutions, debates issues, and develops
republic.
goals
plans for running the business in a
way
that
is
fair.
To an interested audience of coworkers, Ed laments, "You should see how Donnelly
listens to its employees and the input they have. No one listens to us. It's not fair!"
In this case, Ed is comparing his work situation to his perceptions of the work envi-
ronment of another organization.
Ed's frustration with his situation inspires
prepare a poster like that in Figure
him
to
4.5.
TYPES OF INEQUITY
work environment. The first is negative or
and Carl have relatively equal inputs
and perform the same work. Because Carl's outcomes are greater
he is paid
more Ed's outcome /input ratio is lower than Carl's. Ed believes this to be unfair.
There are two types of inequity
underpa)TTient inequity.
Ed
in the
perceives that he
—
—
when there is a substantial perceived inequity, people
be motivated to correct the situation. Ed might attempt to maximize the
amount of positive outcomes he receives. In this case, Ed will be motivated to corEquity xheory purports that
will
rect the perceived inequit)^
by contacting
his boss
and building
a case for a
pay
raise,
Fair!
at
— Equity
Work
131
132
I
PART
2
Supervisory Essentials
FIGURE 4.5
A Disgruntled
Employee's Response
may search for other positive outcomes. If Ed cannot increase his outcomes,
may resort to lowering his inputs by putting forth less effort on the job, by stay-
or he
he
ing away
at critical
times, or by being at
cally (inattentive) to the goals
by coming
work
physically but tuned out psychologi-
of the department. While Ed could increase his inputs
work earlier, staying later, or taking classes to add to his knowledge
shows that most employees resist increasing their inputs when doing
substantial effort or when there is a belief the outcomes will be dispro-
to
base, research
so requires
portionate to the effort expended.
The second
ple,
t)'pe
of inequit)'
is
positive or
overpayment
inequit)'. Carl, for
experiences positive inequity because his outcome-to-input ratio
Ed's.
To say
that
he enjoys the situation
may be
incorrect, however.
is
exam-
higher than
It is
doubtful
employee admit
unfair and realize
that Carl will be motivated to correct the situation. Rarely does an
to being overpaid,
but that employee
that a similar situation could
may
sense the situation
impact him or her
may impede performance. However, some
later.
individuals
These
is
feelings of discomfort
may be motivated
(willing to
put forth the effort) to maintain the overpaNinent inequity.
SUPERVISORS
What
AND EQUITY THEORY
are the implications of equity theor)' for the supervisor? First,
it
provides
another explanation for
how perceptions and beliefs about what
performance. Second,
acquaints managers with the disasters that can occur
it
is
fair
influence job
when
rewards are misaligned with performance. Ed's constant complaints of the untair
CHAPTER
4
Motivational Principles as Applied to Supervision
situation could negatively affect other employees.
While some people
I
133
like to dis-
tance themselves from negativists, others find solace in continuing claims of unfairness
and jump on the bandwagon. The
situation can get out of hand: Factions can
develop to threaten organizational effectiveness. Effective^uper\'isors must be
vigi-
and immediately address employee concerns. Questions
like, "What is not fair?" "Why is it not fair?" and "What would it take to make it fair?"
must be asked. Additionally, the super\'isor may give Ed information that will help
him to better assess his and Carl's outcomes /inputs. However, research indicates
that rather than change perceptions about himself, Ed is more likely to change his
lant for signs of unfairness
perceptions of Carl's outcomes/inputs or to change to another referent.
Ed feel they must go somewhere else because their orgando not appreciate their contributions. How many times have you heard
someone say, "I'm not happy with the way I was treated!" An understanding of
equitN' theon' and other motivational theories is too little. Supenisors must find out
what employees want, need, and perceive as just and equitable rewards for their
Often, employees like
izations
contributions.
O
COPINO WITH DIFFICULT PEOPLE^^
Even'one has a bad day once in awhile. People get too
or
earn.'
family or personal problems.
little
bad news,
sleep, receive
Some people blame others
for their problems.
Often, these blamers and complainers are referred to as "difficult people."
caution
is
warranted
what they do
We
that
at this
point:
makes our
Do
li\'es difficult.
introduced "Stretch" in Chapter
for another
member
A note of
not tag a label on people; instead, focus on
3.
We want
to
change their behavior.
See this chapter's Skills Application 4-2
of our cast of characters that make your
life
difficult.
you will see that these people come in all sizes and
shapes. Our students always want to know, "What am I supposed to do when conft^onted by a difficult person?" Our response has always been the same: "Tell us w^hat
you mean." "Describe this person to us." "Tell us how the person makes your life
difficult." These and other questions can be used to focus attention on what the
person does and how it impacts others. Because there are many different variants of
the people who make our lives difficult, and there is no prescription to cure all, we
refer students to books and programs that are designed to guide people in successfiilly dealings with difficult people. There is also a great deal of information on the
Throughout the
rest
of this
text,
Internet. Consult Figure 4.6 for
that
make your life difficult.
Often, we are asked, "W^hy
some
are
generic suggestions for dealing with people
some people
so easy to get along
\\-ith
while
others are so difficult?" Generally, conditions that do not bring about the fulfillment
when
on the job, man)' employees resort to behavior patterns
that are detrimental to their job performance and to the organization. A ts^ical
approach for frustrated employees is to resign themselves to just "getting by" on the
job. They simply go through the motions and put in time without trying to perform
in other than an average or marginal manner. They look for personal satisfaction off
the job and are content to do just enough to draw a paycheck.
Some employees constantly find things that distract them from doing the job,
and, at times, they even tr>' to beat the system. They often are absent or tardy, or they
break rules as a way of tn-ing to get back at situations they find frustrating. Still other
of a persons needs ultimately result in dissatisfaction and frustration. Then,
their needs are not satisfied
employees
who
are dissatisfied adopt aggressive behavior, \\'hich ultimateh'
may
Cope with people who
make your life difficult.
134
I
PART
2
Supervisory Essentials
FIGURE 4.6
Suggestions for Coping
with People Who Make
•
Do
•
Think
Your
•
The
Life Difficult
not label people as
they
no
nnatter
how
difficult
they nnake your
life.
ternns of difficult behaviors, not difficult people.
in
easiest
answer
difficult,
isn't
do
to cope with some people is to avoid them, but the easiest
always the best answer. Change your mind-set and focus on what
way
well.
—
•
Accentuate the positive
•
Take control of the situation. Get their attention by calling them by name.
•
Talk with
•
Avoid accusations, ask open-ended questions, and
•
Factually provide
•
Clearly state that you expect the behavior to improve.
•
Focus on changing what they do, not
•
Establish deadlines
•
If
them
in
build
private; give
one
on
their strengths.
them your undivided
attention.
listen to their side of
specific situation that illustrates the
and timetables
who
Resources to step
Remember: There
for the behavior to cease.
management
or
in.
no recipe
is
problem behavior.
they are.
the behavior does not change, consider asking upper
Human
the story.
for dealing with
Search the Internet, review the
people that make your life difficult.
about what people
literature, continually learn
want and need, and develop strategies
for getting the best out of people.
cause these employees to leave the job. Examples of aggressive behavior are vandalism, theft, fighting,
and temper outbursts.
When
the situation
becomes
intolerable,
these employees quit or almost force their super\isors to
fire them.
These types of reactions to job situations are undesirable and should be prevented. Employee turnover, absenteeism, tardiness, poor performance, and other
unsatisfactor)'
visor
is
conduct on the job can cost an organization
employee s behavior,
a super\isor
more opportunities
ing
a great deal.
The super-
responsible for dealing with these behaviors. Rather than just accepting an
for
need
should endeavor to relieve frustration by provid-
fulfillment.
USINO THE ABCs TO SHAPE
Explain the
ABCs
EMPLOYEE BEHAVIOR
of
shaping behavior.
Organizational behavior researchers have long debated the influence of job satisfaction
We
on performance.
satisfaction are
more
tional efficiency
believe that employees
likely to
engage
who
experience high levels of job
in positive behaviors that influence organiza-
and productivity. Performance management expert Aubrey Daniels
developed a practical guide for shaping employee behavior.'^
According to Daniels, "behavior (the B) cannot be separated from the antecedents
(the A) that
come before
suggestions on
how
to
and the consequences
use the ABCs.
it
Common sense dictates that
set the stage so that the
if
(the
supervisors expect
C)
after it."'^ See Figure 4.7 for
good performance, they must
expected performance occurs.
First, superx'isors
should
what they want the employee to do. Then, the employee must know
what the job entails and what is expected in the way of performance. Ask someone
you know to think back to his or her first day on the job. How did the person know
what was expected? Many respondents will say it was a process of "trial and
clearly identify
CHAPTER
employee performance
Regularly nnonitor
and to
4
Motivational Principles as Applied to Supervision
to uncover areas of low productivity
identify the behavior leading to undesirable
Describe the performance you don't want and who
I
135
FIGURE 4.7
in ABC Analysis
Steps
performance.
is
doing
it.
Record the specific behavior that needs to be changed.
Determine all possible links between the antecedents, the undesirable behavior, and its consequences.
Tell
cific
the employee what
is
expected
in
the
way
of performance
(i.e.,
set spe-
goals).
Set the stage for
good performance
(i.e.,
arrange antecedents so that the
employee can achieve the desired
behavior).
Eliminate any consequence that
irrelevant to the
is
employee.
Ensure an appropriate linkage between desired behavior and consequences
the employee values.
Monitor performance.
Provide support and feedback on performance.
Reinforce the positive aspects of the employee's performance with conse-
quences the employee values.
Ensure that consequences are positive, immediate, and certain.
Evaluate results and continue to reinforce desired behavior with desirable
consequences.
•
Experiment to find the most effective forms of reinforcement and
rate of
reinforcement.
Remember:
1.
You cannot change people; you can change only
2.
You
their behaviors.
get the behaviors you consistently expect and reinforce. Therefore,
will
only expect the best from your employees.
3.
Employees need to know exactly what behaviors
what they are doing that is right or wrong.
will
be reinforced and pre-
cisely
in part, on the book by Aubrey C. Daniels, Ph.D., Performance Management (Atlanta, GA:
Performance Management Publications, Inc., 1989, 3rd ed revised), with permission.
Sources: Based,
error"
found
—
that the
this to
supenisor never clearly explained what was expected.
be particularly true in
this era
sor either does not sense the importance of expectations or
them. In Chapter
2,
we
is
all
have
too busy to explain
discussed the supervisor's role as enabler.
ensures that employees have
We
of corporate downsizing. The supervi-
The enabler
they need to do their jobs correctly the
first
time,
including the appropriate instruction, training, tools, and materials. Unfortunately,
this is often
not the way
it
works.
If
the supervisor does not set the stage (pro\dde
the proper antecedents), employee performance
Consequences can
affect
tulates that "behavior
is
likely to
be unsatisfacton^
behavior in one of two ways. Thorndike's law of effect pos-
with favorable consequences tends to be repeated while
behavior with unfavorable consequences tends to disappear."' Unfortunately, some
superxisors assume that what would be a favorable consequence for them would also
be a desirable consequence for others. Consider the following:
Question 1: When you do your job exceptionally well and your immediate supervisor
knows you do your job exceptionally well, what happens?
Law
of effect
Behavior with favorable
consequences
is repeated;
behavior with unfavorable
consequences tends to
disappear
"
136
PART
I
2
Supervisory Essentials
Answer
^'Sothing
1:
—
absolutely nothing.
My immediate supennsor
takes
good per-
formance for granted.
Implication
1:
When good performance
is
ignored or goes unrecognized, what hap-
pens? Clearly, the lack of feedback and recognition for good performance can cause
employee discontent. Also, the good performance
Extinction
Good behavior occurs less
frequently or disappears
because
it
is
not
forced. This process
is
is
weakened because
Answer
2:
"Here's
Implication
some more work
"
to do.
employee perceives that the additional work
2: If the
ety of skills or fulfill higher-order needs, then the consequence
more
is
often because
it
Punishment
is
will require a vari-
desirable. This
is
something the employee values or
pleasing to good performance strengthens beha\nor. As a
is
sees as
good performance is
work to be
boring, monotonous, or mundane, then the consequence of good performance is perceived to be punishment. The employee got something unwanted
an unfavorable
consequence. The result is that the employee's good performance will decrease. Chapter 6
disaisses punishment and discipline in greater detail.
On
result,
the other hand, if the employee perceives the extra
—
consequence.
Making behavior occur
less frequently because
called positive reinforcement. Linking
likely to repeat itself.
linked to a positive
not rein-
Question 2: U7je« you do your job exceptionally well and your immediate supervisor
knows you do your job exceptionally well, what happens?
recognized.
Positive reinforcement
Making behavior occur
it is
called extinction.
it
linked to an undesirable
consequence.
Question 3: Wlien you do your job exceptionally well and your immediate supenisor
knows you do your job exceptionally well, what happens?
Answer
from
3:
"We
Implication
good job you
your own office."
really appreciate the
the six-person cubicle into
3: Tliis
did. I've
recommended moxnngyou
response gets hack to the perceptual problem pre\'iously identi-
and genuine praise for a job well done is positive reinforcement. For
many employees, the move from a six-person shared cubicle to a private office would
be negative reinforcement. By removing a consequence that is unpleasant or undesirable, the employee's good performance is reinforced. The employee will continue
to do a good job. Suppose the employee really enjoyed the close interaction with the
other five employees of the cubicle. In this case, the relocation would be \nevi'ed as
something the employee did not want (i.e., punishment).
fied. Sincere
Negative reinforcement
Making behavior occur
more frequently by
removing an undesirable
consequence.
Question
4:
Wliat happens when a coworker, Charlie, faib
to
show up on time for work
regularly?
Answer
4:
"Nothing happens."
Implication
4:
The chronically tardy employee continues
bad performance tends
a message
to the
to streiigthen the
employee that
"it's
okay
to
be tardy regularly. Ignoring
behanor. Unintentionally, management sends
to
show up
late for work. "
Wlien management
ignores "poor performance" in one employee, that employee usually has a cancerous
impact throughout the entire work group. Others might assume, and
management has sanctioned showing up for work
Question
5:
rightfully so, that
late (a desirable behaxHor).
Wliat happens when a coworker, Charlie,
fails to
show up on time for work
regularly?
Answer 5: "The employee was given an unpleasant task or made
to stay late
and com-
plete necessary work."
Implication
5:
The tardy employee perceives staying
quence. Because of the punishment, the employee
late as
may make
an undesirable consespecial efforts to get to
CHAPTER
FIGURE 4.8
4 Motivational Principles as Applied to Supervision
I
137
Antecedents and consequences influence behavior.
Reprinted with special permission of King Features Syndicate.
work on
ishment.
Other employees also will see the linkage between performance and punRemember: The process of removing undesirable consequences when an
time.
employee's behavior improves
is
called negative reinforcement.
Supen'isors must continually be alert for ^\hat their employees perceive to be
important, and, like so
many
things in
life,
timing
is critical.
tends "that an intelligently timed consequence has
random
Aubrey Daniels con-
much more
influence than a
Immediate feedback on performance and positive reinforcement
if the supenisor wants to shape employee beha\'ior positively. Figure 4.8
one."'^
are essential
presents an interesting picture of how workers' perceptions of consequences influ-
ence their beha\ior.
COMPARING THEORY X AND THEORY Y
A continuous
(and unresolved) question that confronts supervisors
is
what general
employee motivation. This age-old
dilemma t)'pically focuses on the degree to which supervisor}' approaches should be
based on satisfying employees' lower-level and higher-level needs. This often
becomes an issue of the degree to which supervisors should rely on their authorit)' and position instead of trying to use human-relations practices to provide
approach, or
st}'le,
best contributes to positive
e
Compare the assumptions
and applications of
Theory X and Theory Y
in
supervision.
138
I
PART
2
Supervisory Essentials
more opportunities for employee motivation. In the following paragraphs and in
12, we will research approaches associated with various supervisory manstyles. First, we shall look at the contributions of Douglas McGregor.
Chapter
agement
McGregor s theory x and theory y
book The Human
In his
Side of Enterprise, Douglas
McGregor noted
that individual
supervisor)' approaches usually relate to each supervisor's perceptions about
people are
or her
all
own
attitudes
McGregor
ison,
Theory
X
X
and
ideas about people's needs
stated that extremes in attitudes
X and
Y.
Theory Y: The assumption
and can self-direct.
and motivations. For compar-
among managers
could be
classi-
Following are the basic assumptions of McGregor's
Theory X: The assumption that most employees
ity, and must be coerced to work hard.
Assumption that most
employees dislike work,
avoid responsibility, and
must be coerced to do
what
each supervisor manages employees according to his
is,
Theory
and Theory Y.'^
fied as Theor)'
Theory
about. That
dislike work,
avoid responsibil-
that most employees enjoy work, seek responsibility,
their jobs.
Assumption that most
employees enjoy work,
seek responsibility, and
who are Theory X- oriented have a limited view of employees' abilities
and motivations. These supervisors feel that employees must be strictly controlled;
closely supervised; and motivated based on money, discipline, and authority.
Theory X supervisors believe that the key to motivation is in the proper implemen-
can
tation of approaches designed to satisfy employees' lower-level needs. Theorv'
Supervisors
Theory Y
self-direct.
supervisors have a
feel that if
much
higher opinion of employees'
abilities.
Y
These supervisors
the proper approaches and conditions can be implemented, employees
will exercise self-direction
and
while objectives. According to this
scheme of each employee's
set
toward the accomplishment of worthview, management's objectives should fit into the
self-control
of needs. Therefore, Theorv'
the higher-level needs of employees are
more important
in
Y managers
believe that
terms of each employee's
personality and self-development.
The two approaches McGregor
describes represent extremes in supervisory
most supervisors are somewhere between
and Theory Y. Neither approach is right or wrong because the appropriateness of a given approach depends on the needs of the individuals involved and
the demands of the situation. In practice, supervisors may sometimes take an
approach that is contrary to their preferred approach. For example, even the
strongest Theory Y supervisor may revert to Theory X in a time of crisis, such as
when the department is shorthanded, when there is an equipment failure, when a
serious disciplinary problem has occurred, or when a few employees need firm
styles
(see Figure 4.9).
Theory
Realistically,
X
direction.
ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF THEORY X
Supervisors
faster.
who adopt Theory X
typically find that, in the short term, a job
Because the questioning of orders
is
not encouraged,
it
done
is
may appear
that
workers are competent and knowledgeable and that work groups are well organized,
and disciplined.
major disadvantage of Theorv'
efficient,
A
ees'
X
is
that there
litde
opportunity for employ-
is close and constant, employees are
and independence. Moreover, most workers resent
personal growth. Because supervision
unlikely to develop initiative
is
CHAPTER
EMPuOYtes
THE
IN
hAY
4
Motivational Principles as Applied to Supervision
\
TUe EMPLrYEe$ I'M IM OlARCrE
A &REAT TE'AM - THFY Po
pePAR-TA/vENX ARE A UAZy 8UNC»4
TV EM
H*^v£ Tc Vs'aTCM
ANP
CuCSfW^ -TO 6CT ANYTHiNJC- DCNE
DF ARE
1
FIGURE 4.9 The two
Theory
who
X
extremes of managerial approach are typified by Theory X and Theory
supenision, and
this
may impede
motivation. Traditionally, supervisors
advocated the Theory X approach could get employees to do what they wanted
by using the "carrot-and-stick" approach ("Do what I want you to do and you will
be rewarded.").-*^ Punishments were applied when the job was not done. This
approach is still used by many. Howe\er, employees may rebel when confronted
with the stick, and supervisors ma}' not have sufficient rewards to motivate employees to subject themselves to this tight control.
ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF THEORY Y
An
overriding advantage of Theor\'
Y supenision
is
that
it
promotes individual
growth. Because workers are given opportunities to assume some responsibility' on
their ow^n
tasks,
it is
and are encouraged
to contribute their ideas in accomplishing their
possible for these employees to partially satisfy their higher-level needs
on the job.
While the Theors- Y approach is often viewed as more desirable than Theory X,
it is not without disadvantages. Theory Y can be time-consuming, especially in the
short term. Because personal development is emphasized, supervisors must become
instructors and coaches if they are to help their employees move toward the simultaneous attainment of organizational and personal goals. Some super\isors find the
extreme application of Theor>' Y to be more idealistic than practical because some
employees expect firm direction from their supervisors.
Y.
I
139
140
<
PART
2
Supervisory Essentials
O
SUPERVISORY APPROACHES
FOR ATTAININO POSITIVE
EMPLOYEE MOTIVATION
Discuss supervisory
approaches for stimulating
employee motivation,
especially job redesign,
broadened job tasks
(multitasking), and
participative management.
Having reviewed
prominent theories of employee motivation, the next quesin the most meaningful ways?" There is
no simple set of guidelines a supervisor can implement to achieve high motivation
and excellent performance. Human beings are much too complex for that.
However, some generic tips apply (see this chapter's "Supervisory Tips" box).
Supervisory skills can be learned and developed, but they often need to be modified
to fit individuals and situations.
tion
Job redesign
The
is,
"How
several
can these theories be applied
belief that well-
designed jobs lead to
JOB REDESIGN
increased motivation.
It
is
generally believed that well-designed jobs
lead to increased motivation, higher-quality per-
SUPERVISORY TIPS
formance, higher satisfaction, and lower absenteeism and turnover. These desirable outcomes
occur when employees experience three
Motivating Employees
•
•
•
psychological
People need to know what is expected in the way
of performance. Therefore, be sure to tell employees what they must do (the expectations you have
for them) in order to receive reinforcement.
People want to know how they are doing.
Therefore, provide immediate feedback on
performance.
People want recognition for
Therefore,
a
consequences
—different
strokes for different folks.
•
•
2.
it
is
okay to make mis-
takes. Therefore, create a learning organization
employees, "We'll learn what not
to do from the mistakes we make." The supervisor can say, "Everything I've learned, learned
from either the mistakes I've made or the mis-
that says to
feel
responsible for
is
mean-
important to
how the work
They learn how well they performed
turns
their jobs.
redesign programs are based on the
model developed by Professors Hackman and
Oldham (see Figure 4.10). Their model says that
the greater the experienced meaningfulness of
work, responsibility for the work performed, and
knowledge of the
Make the consequences equal to the behavior.
Remember that failure to respond has reinforcing
People need to know that
They
Many job
results, the
more
positive the
work-related benefits. According to this model,
any job can be described
consequences.
•
work
other people.
3.
their jobs well,
people the same
all
are doing something
out.
they desire and value.
Don't reward
They believe they
ingful because their
job well done.
when employees do
reinforce their behavior with the
•
1.
critical
states:
five
1.
in
terms of the following
core job dimensions:
Skill variety.
The degree
to
which an employee
has an opportunity to do various tasks and to
all
use a
number of different
skills
and
abilities.
I
2.
takes of others."
•
Don't punish people
•
Employees will do their best work for people they
trust and respect. Therefore, treat your employees as you want to be treated.
Remember: Be an
in
front of others.
enabler. Therefore,
that enable others to
Task identity. The completion of a whole,
identifiable piece of work.
do the
be the best they can be.
3.
things
Task significance: The degree to which the job
impacts the
4.
lives
or work of others.
Autonomy. The amount of independence,
freedom, and discretion an employee has in
making decisions about the work to be done.
Feedback The amount of information an
employee
receives
on job performance.^'
CHAPTER
Motivational Principles as Applied to Supervision
4
I
141
FIGURE 4.10
Critical
Core job
dimensions
Skill
-^
Personal and
psychological
work outcomes
states
variety
Experienced
-^- meaningfulness
of the work
Task identity
Task significance
High internal
work motivation
High-quality
work performance
Experienced
Autonomy
^
^
Feedback
responsibility
for outcomes
of the work
High satisfaction
with the work
Knowledge of the
actual results of
Low absenteeism
the work activities
and turnover
i
Employee growth
need strengthened
Source: J. Richard Hackman and Greg R. Oldham, Work Redesign (adapted from Figure 4-6), © 1980 by AddisonWesley Publishing Company, Inc. Reprinted by permission of Addison-Wesley Longman, Inc. See our web site
(www.thomsonedu.com/management/leonard) to evaluate your own job in light of these characteristics.
The instrument
in Skills Application 4-1
com /management /leonard)
on our web
can be used to evaluate your
site
(\v\\^v.thomsonedu.
own job and to determine
With this instrument, it
(MPS)" for the specific job.
Low scores indicate that the individual will experience low internal motivation from
the job. Such a job is a prime candidate for job redesign. Suppose that close examination reveals that the task significance score is relatively lo\v. The supenisor could,
the extent to which each of these characteristics
is
is
present.
possible to calculate a "motivating potential score
for example, assign
workers in a word-processing pool to specific departments as
opposed to letting the word-processing pool serve the company as a whole. This
approach could increase both skill variet)' and task significance scores, thereby
increasing the job's motivating potential.--
On
the other hand, high scores indicate that the job
motivation. According to
Hackman and Oldham's
"turned on to
is
stimulating high internal
theory, internal motivation
work because of the pos-
occurs because the employee
is
itive internal feelings that are
generated by doing well, rather than being dependent
on
[his
or her]
external factors (such as incentive pay, job securit)', or praise
sor) for the motivation to
work
from the supervi-
effectively."^^
BROADENINO THE SCOPE
AND IMPORTANCE OF EACH JOB
There are ways to give employees new tasks and new work experiences by which the
basic nature of the job can be broadened in scope and importance. Variety and challenge can keep jobs from becoming monotonous and can fulfill employee needs.
The Job-Characteristics
Model
142
I
PART
Supervisory Essentials
2
The following job redesign
strategies are similar in the sense that
each attempts to
increase employee performance by improving job satisfaction.
JOB ROTATION
Switching job tasks
known
Job rotation
The process of switching
job tasks among
ennployees in a work
group.
among employees
in the
work group on
job rotation. Most supervisors can implement
a
scheduled basis
is
which often
is accompanied by higher levels of job performance and increased employee interest. Job rotation not only helps to relieve employees' boredom but also enhances
employees' job knowledge. Although the different tasks may require the same skill
level, learning different jobs prepares employees for promotion. A major side benefit to the supers'isor is that job rotation results in a more flexible workforce, which
can be advantageous during periods of employee absence. Moreover, job rotation
should mean that employees share both pleasant and unpleasant tasks so work
as
assignments are perceived as
this process,
fair.
MULTI-TASKINO
Another motivational
Multi-tasking
Increasing the
number
of tasks an individual
strategy'
employee's job with a greater
by
multi-tasking, which means expanding an
is
variet)'
of tasks. For example, tasks that were handled
employees may be combined or consolidated into one
Some employees respond positively to multi-tasking, and this
several
performs.
jobs.
or two enlarged
positive attitude
performance and in increased job satisfaction. In one furniture
factory, for example, a number of routine jobs were changed so that each job
required five or six operations rather than just one repetitive operation. Employees
supported the change. Such comments as "My job seems more important now" and
"My work is less monotonous now" were common.
There can be problems in implementing multi-tasking. Union work rules and
job jurisdictional lines may limit the superv^isor's authorit)' to change job assignments. Attitudes toward taking on additional tasks without an increase in compenis
reflected in their
may present significant
Some employees, for example,
sation also
difficulties.
expanded duties because they are conand pay. Usually, these employees will not object if at least a
small increase in pay comes with the enlarged job. Unfortunately, many employees
(e.g., the survivors of organizational dowTisizing) have been asked to do more and
more. Some have found themselves stretched too thin, and, as a result, frustration
and discontent have crept into the workplace.
object to
tent with their jobs
JOB ENRICHMENT
Job enrichment
A
Job design
lenging tasks and giving employees
that helps
employees'
higher-level needs by
giving those employees
fulfill
more challenging tasks
and more decision-making
responsibility for their jobs.
variant of multi-tasking
is
job enrichment, which means assigning more chal-
more decision-making responsibility for their
enrichment goes beyond job rotation and job enlargement in an effort to
appeal to the higher-level needs of employees. To enrich jobs, the supervisor should
assign ever)'one in a department a fair share of challenging and routine jobs and
jobs. Job
give employees
more autonomy
in
accomplishing their
supervisors prefer to assign the difficult or
tasks. Unfortunately,
more challenging
many
jobs only to their best
employees and the dull jobs to the weaker employees. However, this practice can be
defeating in the long term. The supervisor should give all employees opportunities
to find challenging and interesting work experiences within the framework of the
department's operations. Sometimes, job enrichment can be accomplished by committee assignments, special problem-solving tasks, and other unusual job experiences
CHAPTER
that
4
Motivational Principles as Applied to Supervision
I
143
go beyond the routine of day-to-day work. For example, one supervisor
enriched the jobs of machine operators by giving them a greater role in scheduUng
work and devising their o\nti work rules for the group. The result was a schedule that
better met employee needs and rules the employees were willing to follow because
they helped create them. In its most developed form, job enrichment may involve
restructuring jobs in such a way that employees are given direct control and responsibilit}'
for
what they do.
may be uncomfortable with job enrichment
Superv^isors
require
them
to relinquish
some control and
decision making. If job enrichment
is
to delegate
at
first.
It
may
some planning and
practiced sincerely, however, subordi-
assume an active role in making or participating in decisions about
The result can be better decisions and a more satisfied and motivated
nates usually
their jobs.
workforce.
some of the
The supervisor remains accountable, how-
In a sense, job enrichment involves the employees' assumption of
supervisor's everyday responsibilities.
ever, for the satisfactor)- fulfillment of these obligations.
inherent in job enrichment. Despite the
ment because
it
risk,
many
Therein
lies a
major
risk
supervisors endorse job enrich-
works.
PARTICIPATIVE
In his best-selling book,
A
Great Place
to
MANAGEMENT
Work, Robert Levering postulates that the
high morale of great workplaces consists of pride in what you do (the job
itself),
enjo)ing the people you're working with (the work group), and trusting the people
you work for (management practices and economic rewards).-^ Levering and others
have been tracking the "best places to \vork." Historically, Dallas-headquartered
Southwest Airlines has ranked among everyone's Top 10. WTiy Southwest? According
to comments from enthusiastic employees: "^\'orking here is truly an unbelievable
experience. They treat you ^\•ith respect, pay you well, and empo\ver you. The\' use
vour ideas to solve problems. Thev encourage you to be vourself I love going to
work!!"^5
Job enrichment can
help reduce boredonn
and increase interest
and know/ledge for
employees by giving
employees more
decision-making
responsibility.
J.
144
i
PART
2
Supervisory Essentials
Do the comments from Southwest Airlines employees translate to better company performance? While we do not want to enter the "employee job satisfactioncompany performance" debate, we would like to reaffirm our belief that "happy
cows give more milk." A Gallup poll of 55,000 workers found that the following attitudes together correlate strongly with higher profits.
Workers
they are given the opportunity to do what they do best every day.
feel
Workers believe
their opinions count.
Workers sense
their fellow
Workers make
a direct
workers are committed to
qualit)^
connection between their work and the company's
mission.-^
As mentioned
the authorit)'
and
in
Chapter
1
of this
text,
empowerment
refers to giving
employees
responsibility to accomplish organizational objectives. (For another
make
perspective, see Figure 4. 11). Providing opportunities to
ipate in decisions affecting their jobs
is
one of the most
suggestions and partic-
effective
ways to build
of employee pride, teamwork, and motivation. This supervisor)' approach,
employees have an active role
in decision
making, has
historically
a sense
in
been called
which
partici-
pative management.
Delegation, discussed in greater detail in Chapter 12,
employees. Delegation does not
mean
turning
all
is
important to motivating
decisions over to employees, nor
mean
just making employees believe they are participating in decisions.
means the supervisor should earnestly seek employees' opinions whenever possible and be willing to be influenced by employee suggestions and criticisms. When employees feel that they are part of a team and that they can influence
the decisions that affect them, they are more likely to accept the decisions and seek
does
it
Rather,
new
it
solutions to problems.
The major advantages of participative management are that decisions tend to be
of higher quality and that employees are more willing to accept those decisions. One
disadvantage
FIGURE
approach can be time consuming. Also, participation
that this
4.11
Empowerment: Another
Viewpoint
is
damage
being done by the overuse and misuse of the term empowerwhere the word means whatever a manager wants
it to mean. Some examples quoted to show the importance of empowerment are
laughable. To allow the counter person at a burger bar to distribute additional
Great
ment.
We
is
are reaching a stage
packets of sauce
if
them is not empowerment; it is a modifisame person working at the counter were allowed
the customer wants
cation to the standard.
If
the
to close the burger bar for an hour because he believed the french fries were
below standard, that would be empowerment.
use of the words employee empowerment can
In
some
management's
The employees'
cultures,
inspire fear.
expectations are that they are going to have to take responsibility for everything
that
goes wrong.
Empowerment
terms,
it
quite simply
customer
supervisors or workers permis-
priority
rather than mindless robots.
common
means granting
over other issues in the operation. In practical
relates to the resources, skill, time, and support to become leaders
sion to give the
The concept
lies at
the heart of managing with
sense.
Source: John MacDonald, Calling a Halt to Mindless Change, Copyright
AMACOM,
a division of Annerican
http://www.amanet.org.
Management
©
Association International,
1998. Reprinted by permission of
New
York, NY. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER
4 Motivational Principles as Applied to Supervision
"One has
first,
I
145
to assume,
that the individual
human being
at work
knows better than
anyone else what
makes him or her more
even in
work the only
productive
routine
true expert
who does
.
.
is
.
the person
the job."
-Peter Drucker
makes
it
easier for
On balance,
employees to
criticize,
which some
however, participative management
motivational
strateg)'. Its
who
Supenisors
is
advantages far outweigh
practice participative
super^'isors find threatening.
widely recognized as an effective
its
disadvantages.
management properly
importance of their information-giving and information-getting
know
that
it is
vital to
respond
are aware of the
skills.
fully to subordinates' suggestions as
They
soon
also
as those
super\isors have had sufficient time to consider them.
EMPLOYEE SUGGESTION PROGRAMS
Many organizations actively solicit employee input via formal suggestion
programs.-''
Other organizations have an open ^vork en\ironment where employees can share
their ideas
and suggestions without
fear of retribution.
While some suggestion
sys-
tems provide monetan' rewards for suggestions that are received and accepted, the
monetan' rewards are only part of the employee's overall compensation. Employees
like to
have their suggestions heard and answered. To some employees, the
suggestion has been implemented
may mean more
fact that a
than the monetary reward.
Publicly held organizations' need for suggestion systems have increased due to
A system must be in place to allow
employees to submit confidential and anomTnous messages to the audit committee
passage of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act (SOX).
of the company. Regardless of the content of the message, there must be a mecha-
nism
make
in place to
provide a way for employees to address issues and concerns and to
suggestions for improvement.
EMPLOYEE INVOLVEMENT PROGRAMS
During the past two decades, most organizations have adopted various forms of
participator}' management programs. These types of programs often are known
by other labels, such as employee-involvement programs, problem-solving teams,
146
I
PART
Supervisory Essentials
2
semiautonomous or self-directed work teams. Regardless of
programs are based on the beliefs that employees want
to contribute to the long-term success of the organization and that managers
have a strong commitment to participatory management as a way of organizaquality circles, or
what they are
tional
r
life.
WHAT CALL
DID YOU MAKE?
Motivating employees
lenge facing
Don
called, these
is
central to the chal-
Davis. Currently, the goals
of the employees are inconsistent with organizational expectations. Davis
must
cultivate motivation
He is to be applauded
Based on the information he
openness, and honesty may motivate most employees, but unless the employees desire these things,
they are not motivators. Ultimately,
through supportive actions.
their
for acting immediately.
employees.
it is apparent that there are major probwork unit. Absenteeism, turnover, grievances, and customer complaints are all on the rise.
He recognizes the need to understand his employees and their needs. Each of his direct reports perceives the causes differently. He must remember
that each employee is unique. Therefore, the next
time he discusses productivity issues with his supervisory team, he should do it individually. He might
learn more about their personal values, attitudes,
uncovered,
lems
in his
needs, and expectations.
it
comes down
to supervisors building healthy relationships with
workers to find out
Good communication
He must
how
is
to motivate those
essential to Don's suc-
and observe to assess his
employees' needs, and he must communicate his
expectations. Quality customer service and timely
delivery are the most important accomplishments
of an organization. Therefore, Don must constantly
stress their importance. He might consider allowing
small groups of employees to meet with him and
their immediate supervisors to fully understand and
appreciate the importance of doing the job right
the first time. This action would elevate the taskcess.
listen
significance aspect of their jobs.
Don should
not
try
to motivate
he should teach
all
eighty employees.
how
The fact that grievances are on the rise suggests
employees feel their problems and concerns
do it
themselves. Job satisfaction needs must be met. The
costs of not dealing with employee needs and concerns are high as shown in the unacceptable productivity level. Don will need to establish and clarify
these issues. Acting on employee problems
desired behavior patterns for each of his supervi-
good way
Instead,
his supervisors
sors so that those supervisors can
to
model the desired
He should ask his supervisors these ques"What happens when employees do the job
behavior.
tions:
right?" "Are they
being appropriately recognized
for
achievement?"
Don
system for
Don should identify the
may feel are unfair Then he
are not being addressed.
things that employees
should work with
his supen/isory
tent with employees' needs.
He should
ascertain
jobs. Placing workers
ents
may
in
jobs that best suit their
Don might use
reporting questionnaires
in
Skills
Don can attempt
are high, he
set the stage for
employee success.
are causing the dissatisfaction.
to determine their responsibility to find
out what motivates their subordinates. His supervisory
team must understand
motivated by different things.
that
employees are
Praise, recognition,
In
is
will
addition,
If
scores are low,
causing the problem.
characteristics
in turn,
self-
Application 4-1
to discover which of the core job
sure that his supervisory
and,
tal-
and on our web site (vwvw.thomsonedu.com/
management/ leonard) could be used to assess the
should review the section of the chapter on the
to find out what motivates his direct reports
a
to increase
the meaningfulness of employees' jobs. The
ABCs and make
Don
is
help to improve worker productivity. There
motivating potential of these jobs.
to
to address
Often, employees perform below standards
because they lack the skills or confidence to do their
what employees consider unfair about the work, the
working conditions, and the work environment. He
team has
Clearly, it is up
team
to build trust with employees.
are other strategies that
need to develop a reward system for
employee accomplishments. The reward
performing the job well must be consis-
will
reinforcing
that
need
it
If
the scores
to look for other factors that
may be
appropriate to use job
one of the
programs cited in the chapthe comments by his direct reports
rotation, multi-tasking, job enrichment, or
employee
participation
ter However,
reflect
if
the feelings of the majority,
Don
will
have to
CHAPTER
147
Motivational Principles as Applied to Supervision
4
deal with these feelings of inequity and frustration
improve
before he can begin an employee-participation pro-
may
gram. Discipline may be appropriate if performance
does not improve. Ultimately if quality does not
their jobs.
substantially,
lose customers,
Economy Moving and Storage
and many employees may lose
SUMMARY
A
human being is unique. Behavior is influmany factors in both the individual and
Every
enced by
the environment. Personalit)'
is
the
complex mix of
knowledge, attitudes, and attributes that distin-
of motivation. Forces
called motivation
These motivation
factors, are intrinsic to the job.
ment, opportunit)' for advancement, challenging
factors that interact to
form the per-
work, promotion, growth, and recognition. Effective
sonality of each individual include physiological
supervisors implement strategies that target motiva-
makeup, early childhood experiences, the immediate and continuing environment through life, and
cultural values. The working environment is one of
tion factors to
number of influences
the almost unlimited
become
part of an employee's personalit)'.
that
A
tacts and, often, negatively or positively
Supervisors need to be sensitive to individual
sor)^
and
approach based on
way to
A
similarities.
consistent supervi-
similarities
a practical
a willingness to exert effort
is
an
indi^'idual need.
effort's abilit)^ to
According to Maslow,
cal, security, social, self-respect,
a lower-level
need
and
need
levels.
is fulfilled,
supervisor}' approaches that
on the
job, job
Some employees
higher-level
performance usually
and disruptive behavior;
The
result
may
still
others
decrease in production and a loss of
suf-
may quit.
from a
qualit)'.
rela-
how
in their organizations, to
who do
determine
if
not
per-
hygiene factors such as money,
working conditions, and
tain aspects of supervision
effects,
A Work
must be adequate
know the
possible
and address employee concerns.
conditions that do not
fulfill
ultimately cause dissatisfaction
make
may cause some
other people's lives
and
employee needs
frustration.
people to do things
difficult. Incivility
and other inappropriate behavior must be
with in a proper and timely manner.
of behavior modification
dealt
is
built
that antecedents (those things that
precede behavior) and consequences (the results of
tion desirable behavior or to extinguish undesirable
behavior.
The use of extinction,
positive reinforce-
ment, punishment, and negative reinforcement can
be used to make specific behavior occur more or
less often.
Feedback and positive reinforcement
should be used regularly to shape employee behav-
Herzberg's motivation-hygiene research stud-
policies,
such
behavior) can be used by the supervisor to condi-
display aggres-
that the organization suffers
management
work
on the notion
express their dissatisfaction
sive
ies indicate that
perform-
Employees can compare themselves
other people, even ones
A The ABC model
they rely on
if
promote
through absenteeism. Others
is
ratio.
many
that
need fulfillment. W^hen employee needs are not
fers.
input
with
higher-level
Super\dsors can influence
employee motivation positively
satisfied
clarify
Equit)' theor\' of motivation explains
Other factors
important for supenisors to recognize the
different
their
tionships for the workers or strive to develop them.
self- fulfillment.
needs emerge that influence one's motivation.
It is
must
revvards. Supervisors
to watch for perceived inequity,
toward
needs in ascending order of importance are biologi-
When
they perceive links between their
ceived equity or inequity exists. Supervisors need
achie\ing a goal, stimulated by the
fulfill
is
lead employees.
Motivation
if
and performance and between
people strive for fairness based on an outcome/
the organization's performance.
differences
be motivated
ance and
impacts
promote good job performance.
Expectanc)' theor)' suggests that employees will
efforts
persons attitude impacts everyone that person con-
A
level
good performance,
factors include the employees' needs for achieve-
guishes one person from another.
Prominent
maintain a reasonable
that stimulate
to
cer-
ior in the desired direction.
A The Theory X
supervisor believes primarily in
authoritarian techniques, which relate to the
148
PART
I
Supervisory Essentials
2
human
lower-level
needs.
The Theory Y supervisor
prefers to build motivation
suggestion programs, qualit)' circles, and
by appealing to employ-
directed
efforts.
self-
emphasize
at all levels
of the organization involved in objective setting
job characteristics model has been used to
guide job redesign
are approaches that
employee involvement. Getting people
ees' higher-level needs.
^ The
work teams
and problem
The major approaches
and
and creating ways to reward people
accomplishments is the essence of the
solving, rearranging duties
responsibilities,
to job design include job rotation, multi-tasking,
and job enrichment.
for their
The advantages of participative management
and
employees are more willing to accept decisions.
approaches to motivating employees to perform.
Employee-participation programs are widely used
different people
The super\isor must
are that decisions tend to be of higher quality
and varied
learn to
implement
different
supervisor)' approaches that are appropriate for
and
settings.
in application. Delegation strategies.
KEY TERMS
Employee entitlement
Equity theory
(p.
Motivation
126)
Expectancy theory
(p.
Positive reinforcement (p. 136)
122)
(p.
Motivation factors
(p. 130)
Motivation-hygiene theor)'
129)
Multi-tasking
Extinction (p. 136)
Punishment
(p. 127)
136)
Self-respect needs (p. 124)
(p. 142)
Self- fulfillment
(p. 122)
Negative reinforcement
Hygiene factors
127)
Personalit)' (p. 118)
142)
Physiological needs (p. 123)
(p.
(p.
Job redesign
140)
(p.
Positive mental attitude
(p.
(p.
needs
(p. 124)
Social needs (p. 123)
X
(p. 138)
Theory Y
(p. 138)
Theory
(PMA)
(p. 121)
Job rotation (p. 142)
Law of effect
136)
Security needs (p. 123)
Hierarchy of needs
Job enrichment
(p.
(p. 127)
135)
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
(a)
What
thing that
Theor\' Y?
Think of a time that you accomplished somemade you ver\' proud? \\'hat caused you
to behave that way? (b) Think of a time that you
did something that made you ashamed. WTiat
caused you to behave that way? (c) Ho\s' do you
explain
2.
why
people behave the way they do?
Compare and
X and
Can you think of any reasons
would be inappropriate
W^th respect
to the
for
all
Theor)'
Y
super\'isors?
management problem of moti-
vating subordinates to accomplish organizational
goals,
contrast each of the motivational
are the basic elements of Theory
what conclusions can you draw from reading
the material in this chapter?
theories discussed in this chapter.
3.
From
the aspect of practical application, what are
the benefits of each of the motivational theories
discussed in this chapter?
SKILLS APPLICATIONS
SKILLS
1.
Rank
4-1:
the following tvvent)' items in order of their
importance
the
APPLICATION
number
to you. In the left-hand
1
column, place
next to the most important item, the
What Motivates Employees?
number
2 next to the
and so on through
(number 20).
second most important item,
to the least important item
Option:
If this skills
application
class exercise, to save time,
we
CHAPTER
4
used as an
in-
is
Motivational Principles as Applied to Supervision
Job security
A manager who
suggest that you use
Select the four items that are
most important
the
left
least
^
the four that are
number two
Then
(2) in the blanks.
Interesting
and challenging work
and resources
to
do the job
Good compensation and benefits
for a company that is ethical,
you and place
to
expected
Daily feedback on performance
the remaining items, select
most important
is
right the first time
important to you and place the number four
From
me know what
Material, equipment,
of those items. Select the four items that are
(4) in the blanks.
the
to
in the blanks to
( I )
lets
one who springs no surprises
the following scale rather than the rank order:
you and place the number one
149
I
honest, and
Working
place a
fair-dealing
three (3) in the blanks remaining.
3.
When
and recognition
Praise
everyone has completed the
task,
your instruc-
Working
for a
for
accomplishments
company that
is
profitable
tor will aggregate the rankings of all individuals.
Coworkers dedicated
4.
Compare your
individual rankings with those of
other class members.
How do you
to achieving
company
goals
explain the
Opportunity to make work-related decisions
differences?
Freedom
to
Supervisors
do
Opportunity to use
my job
who
me
care about
One-on-one team meetings so
as a
I
Knowing what
company
person
can keep up
a variety of skills
me and
the future holds for
Support and encouragement when
to date
I
make
the
a
mistake
Opportunity to learn and use new
A work environment where others
on my ideas and suggestions
INTERNET ACTIVITY
skills
listen
A boss who
and
act
allows
me
freedom
Optional Internet Activity: Use the Internet to search for
articles or reports that
to play to
my
strengths
present findings
at least
three research
on "what employees want from
their
jobs" or the "current state of employee morale." Write a one-page report
sum-
marizing your findings. Then write another one-page report answering the
fol-
lowing questions:
b.
Why do the perceptions of employees vary?
How different are the perceptions of members
c.
Briefly identify the factors that
a.
This instrument was developed by Edwin C. Leonard,
(Mason, OH: Thomson Custom Pubhshing
SKILLS
This
is
APPLICATION
©
Jr.
and Roy A. Cook,
Resource Management: 21st Century Challenges,
4-2: Dealing with People
you to people who might make your
Who Make Your
Nancy
Life Difficult— "The
difficuh.
1.
Read the following statement from Ed Wright,
at
a
Sanders
Supermarket's Ashton Distribution Center:
brings her personal
life to
work. I see that in
her daily conversations with me. Every day, I hear
how
she has to be a
work.
On
superwoman
at
and nice when she
interviewed for the job. She knew what was expected
and that the job was physical and demanding at
times. Most of the time, she gets her work done, but
it's
really pleasant
the baggage that
comes with her that annoys me.
is
and
at
top of that, every time the supervisor asks
her to do something, she comes
day
kids,
home and
to
me
to tell
a hard, nasty, hot job has been assigned
Nancy seemed
Edition
Whiner"
about her out-of-work husband, her lazy
life
shipping department employee
1st
2005), p. 237. Reproduced here with permission.
the second in a series of Skills Applications
that introduces
Human
of your class?
account for the differences.
me what
to her.
Every
another poor, miserable, "everything-bad-
always-happens-to-me"
happens
to her.
Every day
is
the worst
than yesterday.
story.
Nothing good ever
She never has a good day at work.
day of her
life
— much worse
150
PART
'»'
Supervisory Essentials
2
Nancy's whining
ment.
No
one
in the
is
like
cancer in the depart-
group wants
on any quality or methods-improvement
When
she's in a really
leaves
work with her
to
to
supposed
dency
miserable. I've learned to deal with her by develop-
ing a positive mental attitude
this
and
for her.
Using the Internet, find
^^
people
how
who complain
Because she cannot
agenda during the day, she
impedes everyone's performance.
are born unhappy,
smiling. I suspect
probably aggravates her more, but she just
INTERNET ACTIVITY
exhibits a negative attitude with a ten-
to feel sorry for herself
set aside her personal
be
to
work area and looks for another shoulder
Nancy
projects.
bad mood, everyone avoids
her. If she's miserable, everyone's
my
whine on.
at least
all
I don't
think people
and I'm running out of sympathy
What should I do?
three sources of information
on how
to deal with
on
the time. Carefully review each site for suggestions
to deal with these people.
Based on your findings, what suggestions would you make to Ed on
how
to
cope
with Nancy?
Have you ever acted
4.
like a
"whiner" yourself?
caused you to behave that way?
What made you change your
What were
If so,
what were the antecedents that
the consequences of your behavior?
behavior?
Write a one-page paper explaining
how
this skill application increased
your
knowledge of how to cope with the behaviors of this type of difficult person.
SKILLS
APPLICATION
Often, supervisors are given assignments without
warning. This
nity to
Reward and Punishment
much
The other student's topic will be "WTiat I would
do if I had just won the $50 million Mega
b.
application gives you an opportu-
make an impression and
nication
1.
skills
4-3:
practice your
commu-
Lottery jackpot
skills.
to
come back and
The
a.
first
"If
I
upon
DEVELOPMENT MODULE
4.
and educational. By viewing the
many
Your instructor may wish
4-1: Motivation
video clip and answering the questions below, you will
be able to integrate the
be asked to critique the presentations.
to ask
you to write a
DEVELOPMENT
students have found the journey to the Buffalo
to be enlightening
gather-
short paper addressing additional questions.
SKILLS
Our
Zoo
room momentarily
At the conclusion of the presentations, the observers
will
only had one year
will
The students should be called back to the room
one at a time to give their prepared talk.
minutes to plan
called
and
ing their thoughts.
give a three-to-five-minute
impromptu speech on
to live, I would ..."
SKILLS
dents are out of the
student will
and when
are to be observers
get their specific assignments while the tAvo stu-
be instructed to take a
f'^w
.
The other students
c.
The instructor will randomly select two students
and ask them to leave the room.
HHQ^Q^OgBJUmil
™^
^^^^
^ilH JH^^^^^^H
HHlliH^^^H^^^H
."
.
concepts introduced in
Is
a
Wild Experience at the Buffalo Zoo
mission
is
to
provide the general public with an edu-
cationally, culturally,
community
and
recreationally significant
resource.
In 1973, operational responsibilities for the zoo
were turned over from the
this chapter.
city
of Buffalo
to the
Zoological Society of Buffalo, which assembled a
The Buffalo Zoological Gardens
is
the third oldest
institution of its kind in the United States.
The Zoo's
professional staff to provide care
and
oversight for
the collection. Today, the philosophy of the Buffalo
CHAPTER
Zoo
Motivational Principles as Applied to Supervision
4
animals and plants in ecological
and geographical arrangements that repre-
the Buffalo
to exhibit
is
habitats
sent the biomes of the world.
Animab
are presented to
\lsit
ment Module
be fascinating. See
to
our student support web
site at
com /management /leonard, and
the section on
"Becoming a Zoo Volunteer"
use enthusiastic caring
people.
increase awareness for the importance of conserx'ation.
Our students have found
Zoo can always
151
I
w'ww.thomsonedu.
click
on
Skills
Develop-
4-1.
ZooCrew, Decent, and
http://y\'ww.huffalozoo.org for
Internship opportunities. Like most organizations.
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
What does
you want
the Buffalo
to be a
Zoo Wdeo clip tell us about employee motivation? Would
of the ZooCrew? Why or why not?
member
\\Tiich of the motivational theories presented in this chapter
might be used to
increase worker motivation at the Buffalo Zoo?
appears that volunteers
It
bilities.
at
the Buffalo
Zoo
are enthusiastic about their responsi-
Based on what you have observed, what suggestions
employer looking to increase worker
\s-ould
you make to an
satisfaction?
ENDNOTES
1.
Many companies
programs
rely, in part,
on
to evaluate employees.
personalit)' assessment
supports the contention that early influence
One of the more wdely
in leadership
and
recognized approaches to the identification of indiNidual
differences
is
the Myers-Briggs T\-pe Indicators.
If your college has the
Myers-Briggs
your basic personalit)-
test,
use
it
and
R. C. Carson, "Personalit),"
quoted
in
See Paul Falcone, "WTien Employees
See
ed.;
see
People:
{]\xne
2001
),
Common
Option
Problems and
.
.
.
Dealing with Diificult
Uncommon
HR
a 'tude,"
Abraham H. Maslow, Motivation and Personalit)' (2d
New York:
Harper
& Row,
Ron Zemke, "Maslow
for a
1970), Chapter
4. ^\lso
New Millennium,"
rramzng (December 1998), pp. 54-58.
highly
recommend
this
book, particularly Chapter
6:
"The Secret of Job Contentment."
Rebecca Meany, "What a Pain?" Successful
An
Have
pp. 189-94.
The ideas and thoughts for this section were adapted
from Patrick Morley's The Man in the Mirror (Grand
Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1989). We
Annual
Meetings (Februar)' 2001), p. 72. See Sandra A. Crowe,
Since Strangling Isn't
important
O. Harris, "The Role of Parental Influence in
Magazine
Re\iew of Psychology- (Volume 40, 1989), pp. 227-48.
2. -As
is
Hartman
pp. 153-67.
to
t>'pe.
nents," Journal of Applied Psychology' (Volimie 74, 1989),
pp. 187-92;
J.
Leadership," Journal of Social Psychology' (April 1992),
You can also use it
to identifS- personality- tv^pes that do not complement
yours. For additional information on personalit)- development, see J. M. George, "The Role of Personalit)' in
Organizational Life: Issues and EWdence," Journal of
Management (Xohime 18, 1992), pp. 185-213; R. D.
Arsey, T. J. Bouchard, X. L. Segal, and L. M. Abraham,
"Job Satisfaction: En\-ironmental and Genetic Compoidentifv-
Jeff
development. See Sandra
6.
Sue Shellenbarger, ".Along
wth
Benefits
and
Pay,
Employees Seek Friends on the Job," The Wall
Street
Journal (Februar)' 20, 2002), p. Bl.
Solutions
Margaret Henning and Anne Jardim, The Managerial
The quotes attributed to Thomzis .\lva Edison and Ralph
Waldo Emerson were cited in Steve \ ogel, "She Just
Woman (New York: Anchor
Keeps Rolling .-Mong," The Washington Po5f June
(New York:
p. 82.
The
Perigee, 1999). Also see the classic
social
by
Press /Doubleday, 1977),
grouping of children
at
an early age
can have lifelong psychological consequences. See Hara
Estroff
Marano, "The Friendliness Faaor," Working
Mother (November 1998), pp.
42ft'.
Additional research
(
p.
D-1.
-AJso see the
4, 1998),
Oxford Dictionary of Quotations
(Oxford: Oxford Universit)- Press, 1980), pp. 199,
206-8
for other quotes attributed to these t\vo distin-
guished persons.
152
8.
PART
I
This quote
Supervisory Essentials
2
a variation of Lee lacocca's
is
their deathbed,
'I
wish
business." as reported in Morley, op.
9.
"No one
had spent more time
I
cit., p.
sa>'s
on
13.
wth my
Quality' Z>i^e5f
(
Finn, "Redesign
Want?"
Inc,
Small Business (May 21, 1996), pp. 62-74; Timothy
Temp
—
1997), pp. Bl, B6; Linda Morris,
Tick?" Training
All See the Job in
{fchTuny
(
1987), pp.
28,
and Robert
\ecchio, "Predicting
14.
Academy of
{]inuir\- 1982), pp. 103-10.
Robert M. Bramson, Coping Hith Diffiadt People (New
York: Doubleday, 1988). Also see Cherie Carter-Scott,
Business Horizons (September 'October 1987),
Xegaholics
pp. 58-65.
Press Publications, 1999); Rick
So More (Sha^sTiee
Mission, KS: National
Brinkman and Rick
Kirschner. Dealing mr/i People You Can't Stand (Nets'
iNew York: H\perion, 2000)
for a
York: McGraw-Hill, 1994);
description of how people \%x)rking in a smelly,
dim%
Working with Diffiadt People Englewood
rough place Pike Place Fish Market
fotmd
Prentice Hall, 1990).
Christensen, Fish!
in Seattle)
i
wa)-s to
make
their jobs
produaive and
Also see Spencer Johnson, W/io
before
wur e>'es.
tell it is
Even
How?
changing.
should savor
ineWtabiht)-
gag on too
new
fun.
15.
Moved My Cheese?
don't see
Smell
it.
move
again.
it
change, \X)u can
The thoughts and
He
Publications, Inc., 1989, 3rd edition).
16. Ibid., pp. 14, 75-r.
17. E. L.
much because
also sa\s
it is
Thomdike, Educational
of Learning, \bl.
eas)' to
L'niversitv.
latter is
culture of job entitlement, see .\lison Stein Wellner,
HR Magazine (No\'ember 2004),
1913
•.
(
well explained in
article,
&
to
Work, 2d ed.
How Do You
Employees?" Harvard Business Rexiew
i
New
New York:
olume
19.
Douglas McGregor, The
cit.,
Daniels, p. 45.
Rex-iew, 81,
1,
(
Hope
46,
For a discussion of expeaanc>-
theory-, see
Mctor H.
New York:
John Wile>'
(
Satisfaction,
Effort: .A Theoretical,
&
Methodological, and Empirical
1053-77.
(\blume
"The Shop Floor Schop)enhauer
ment Education (Februan- 1997), pp.
87-h.
ceded that coercion works reasonably
Occupational Preference, and
.\ppraisal," Psychological Bulletin
Harter,
for a Theory-.X Supertisor," Journal of Manage-
Among other
^^•ell
under certain
circumstances.
Sons, 1964). and Terrence R. Mitchell, "E\-peaanc>'
Models of Job
W.
Side of Enterprise
1960), pp. 45-57.
notions, Harter acknowledges that even .McGregor con-
January- 2003).
\'room. Work and Motivation
Human
(New York: McGraw-Hill,
January- February- 1968), pp. 53-62. Also, see the BEST
ofHBR 1968, a reprint of Herzberg s 1968 article in
Han'ard Business
of
Appleton-Centur>' Crofts, 1938).
Op.
20. See Nathan
Motivate Your
(\
\\x>rks
S-R and R-S behaWors. The
knowTi as op>erant conditioning and implies
18.
Sons, 1967), and in Herzberg s classic
"One More Tune:
The Psyrholog}'
Skinner built on the
B. F.
identified
Frederick Herzberg, Bernard Mausner, and Barbara
Bloch Snyderman, The Motivation
Psycholog}-:
Ne\v York: Teachers College Columbia
consequences. See Skinner, The Behavior of Organisms
(
is
II
that indi\iduals behave, in large part, to receive desired
pp. 61-65.
York: John \\lley
the .-VBCs was
through Positive Reinforcement (.\tlanta: Performance
Management
Thomdike and
theor>-
on
Management: Improving Quality and Producti\it\-
cheese.
The complete dual-faaor
ideas for the section
NJ:
adapted from Aubrey C. Daniels, Ph.D., Performance
10. For a discussion of the factors that contribute to a
"Spoiled Brats,"
Cliffs,
Johnson says that one
cheese, but not too
it \st11
much
if \x)u
and Muriel Solomon,
(
(New York: Putnam, 1988). The cheese represents what
one wants out of life. Leave a piece of cheese on the
counter for a week or so, and you will see it change
li.
P.
^^brkers and Super\isors Give Different .Ajiswers,"
See Stephen C. Lundin, Harn- Paul, and John
11.
10;
Management Re\iew
58-62;
1995), pp.
and Kenneth Kovach, "What Motivates Employees?
89-1
^^'brker F\erformance in Inequitable Setting,"
"What Makes People
& De\elopment (July
eds..
Management
Response to L'nderpa>Tnent Inequin," Academy of
Management Journal [March 1989), pp. 174-84; YL T.
Mowday, "Equit)' Theon.- Predictions of Beha\ior in
Organizations," in R. M. Steers and L. W. Porter, eds..
Motivation and Work Beha\-ior New York: .McGraw-Hill.
"The Happiest
a Different Light," Vie Wall Street Journal
Resource
(Greenwich: CT: JAI Press, 1990), pp. 265-303;
in the NN'orld," Inc. Special Issue: Tlie State of
Aeppel, "Full Time, Part Time,
Human
Greenberg, "Cognitive Reevaluation of Outcomes in
June 1999), pp. 75-, for a comparison with
(
pre\'ious studies. See leffrey L. Seglin,
Workers
Research in Personnel and
Do Employees
Work: What
and Claire
and Kendrith M. Rowland,
in Gerald R. Farris
July/August 1999), pp. 14-15. Also see
Donna
Adams, "Toward an Understanding of Inequity-,"
L McCarty, "Comparable Worth: A Matter of Justice,"
Work EnWronment,"
Positive
Stacy
1963), pp. 422-36. .\lso see Jerald Greenberg
125.
See Pamela Babcock, "Find NMiat Workers Want," HR
.\fagiizine (.\pril 2005), pp. 50-56; "Executives Note
Worker Emphasis on
J.
Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology (No. 67,
81, 1974), pp.
21.
J.
Richard Hackman, Greg R. Oldham, Robert Janson,
and Kenneth Purdy,
".\
New
Strategy- for Job
Enrichment," California Managemait
1975), pp. 51-71;
J.
R.
Hackman and
Re\-iexv
(
Summer
G. R. Oldham,
Work Redesign (Reading, .MA: Addison- Wesley-,
1980);
and
Carol T. Kulik, Greg R. Oldham, and Paul H. Langner,
CHAPTER
12.
4
Motivational Principles as Applied to Supervision
What
the World's Greatest
York:
Simon
Make
Success Measurable
Hackman, Oldham,
1999). For a different viewpoint, see
Jenson,
and Purdy,
p. 58.
Random House,
25. See
Dan
Profit,"
A
Great Place
to
Schuster, 1999);
(New
Differently
and Douglas
&
Sons,
Bassett,
"The
York: John Wiley
Glenn
(New
K. Smith,
Case Against Job Satisfaction," Business Horizons
27.
The
(May/June 1994), pp. 61-68.
Work (New York;
1988).
documented system of formal employee
is Eastman Kodaks employee-suggestion program, established in 1898. The Employee Involvement
oldest
involvement
Reed, "Southwest Surprises Street by Tripling
USA Today
(April 15, 2005), p. 5B;
its
and Robert
Association (EIA) annually reports suggestion system
Levering and Milton Moskowitz, "The 100 Best
Companies
to
12, 1998), pp.
Work
for in
information. Contact EIA, Fairfax,
America," Fortune (January
84+.
(Januar)' 12, 1998), p. 81. Also see Jeffrey Pfeffer,
The
Equation: Building Profits by Putting People First
(Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 1998); Marcus
Buckingham and Curt Coffman,
303-1010, or
Numerous
Linda Grant, "Happy Workers, High Return," Fortune
Human
8<
""
23. Ibid.
24. Robert Levering,
26.
Managers Do
"Measurement of Job Characteristics: Comparison of the
Original and the Revised Job Diagnostic Suwey" Journal
of Applied Psychology {August 1988), pp. 462-66.
153
I
First,
Break All the Rules:
vis'n its
web
site,
VA 22030
(703)
http://wwrw.eianet.org.
suggestions for getting employees involved in
improvement
activities
can be found in
Norman Bodek
and Bunji Tozawa, The Idea Generator: Quick and Easy
Kaizen (Vancouver,
WA: PCS
Press, 2001).
iMMklM
CHAPTER
SOLVING PROBLEMS: DECISION
MAKINC AND THE SUPERVISOR
^%
Explain the importance
of problem-solving
decision-making
A
and
skills.
Describe the types of
decisions
made
in
organizations.
^^
Describe and apply the basic
steps of the decision-making
process.
^%
^^
Identify and describe various
decision-making styles.
Explain
why a supervisor
make hasty
should not
decisions.
YOU MAKE THE
^r
Shannon
O'Neill
is
the transportation supen/isor
for the East Fairfield
Her basic
CALL!
County School Corporation.
responsibilities include hiring,
and evaluating
all
scheduling bus
utilization;
employees
in
training,
the department;
purchasing
all
fuels
and
maintenance supplies; coordinating extracurricular
activities; activity transportation;
arranging for trans-
and safely trans-
portation of special-needs children;
porting 9,200 children to
and from school each
day.
The school district covers approximately 50 square
miles, and fewer than 20 percent of the students
walk or drive to their respective schools.
beyond
fixed level,
tendent
announced
state appropriations for edu-
Upon
board
with
arrival,
approval
a cost-cutting
the
new
(a
4-to-3
program.
superin-
vote)
A number
of the
enrichment programs were cut along with tennis,
golf, and other after-school programs. The new
superintendent said that these programs could continue but that participants
the
would have to generate
money necessary for their continuation. The
pay-to-
program was put on hold because a
group of parents filed an injunction. The court agreed
to hear the case at a later date, pending appeal of a
participate
similar case
Shannon developed
and
cation had declined.
in
another part of the
state.
system to schedule transportation requirements
and preventive maintenance. The East Fairfield
The war in Iraq, unsettled times in the Middle
East, and the devastating hurricanes had sent gasoline prices soaring. About 35 percent of the nation's
School Corporation had substantially lower per-
domestic crude
oil
pupil transportation costs than other school corpo-
Mexico. Just
morning. Shannon paid over $3.00
rations
a
computerized planning
and was able to use the savings to provide
enrichment experiences
Shannon
is
for the district's children.
frequently called
upon
to explain the
workings and benefits of her system to other school
districts,
and
system
at
last
year she was invited to present her
the American Association of School
a gallon
year
this
— more than
in
fuel costs,
be unable to
will
twice as
much
She had budgeted
earlier.
increase
output came from the Gulf of
fully
as she did a
for
a
modest
but the school corporation
cover the cost without elimi-
nating additional extracurricular activities or run-
ning a larger
deficit.
At an early afternoon meeting, the superintend-
Administrators' annual meeting.
Shannon is highly regarded as an administrator
Employee turnover is minimal, and the list of
people wanting to drive a bus for her is long. The
employees meet quarterly to review progress, identify potential problem areas, and make recommendations for improvement. Shannon's department
ent encouraged
all
supervisors, building principals,
and other administrators to question their current
supervisory practices and find ways to improve
them. Each supervisor was asked to develop a list of
three cost-cutting strategies for his or her areas of
responsibility
and submit them by week's end. Then
gets together informally twice a year at the holiday
the superintendent dropped the bombshell. Each
season and
person was to develop a strategy for each of the following scenarios: (1) reduce department costs by 10
in
July to celebrate accomplishments.
The foundation of Shannon's supervisory style
was inherited from her father, whose favorite saying
was "Plan your work, and then work your plan."
She has
a
weekly meeting with her key direct reports
to recap the results of the previous week, develop
expectations for the coming week, and discuss prob-
lems and issues affecting the department.
A new superintendent of schools arrived this
summer amidst great turmoil and conflict within the
community and among the board members. East
Fairfield, not unlike other school corporations and
government agencies, had been running budget
deficits for several years. State law
prevented the
school corporation from raising property tax rates
percent without eliminating positions,
(2)
reduce
department costs 10 percent by eliminating or
combining existing positions, and (3) reduce
department costs by 20 percent.
Shannon believes that her supervisory style has
served her well and that her system for continuously
improving the transportation department is well in
place. On the way home, she felt betrayed: "It's not
fair! I've consistently run the most efficient operation
in
the school corporation.
have gotten
fat!
Now
I've
Some
of the others
got to figure out ways to
comply with the superintendent's request."
MAKE THE CALL!
YOU
156
I
PART
2 Supervisory Essentials
THE IMPORTANCE OF
DECISION-MAKINO SKILLS
Explain the importance
of problem-solving and
decision-making
skills.
All
human
activities involve decision
and
making. Each of us faces problems
at
home,
at
groups for which decisions must be made. Problems
can be large or small, simple or complex, life-threatening or trivial. Some problems
can be dealt with almost automatically. Consider the following illustration:
work,
at
school,
Lori,
in social
a college student, has been juggling school work with her clerking job at
Wal-Mart. As soon as her 7:00 a.m.
to
3:30 P.M. shift
is
completed, she runs to her
car so that she can get to class a few minutes early to review for her midterm
exam
that ex'ening.
The car wont
start.
She needs
to get to
campus
quickly.
grabs her backpack out of the trunk and begs a coworker to give her a lift.
shouldn't be too much out of your way, and Vm really in trouble if I miss
exam," she pleads. The coworker
Whew!
I
Lori has solved one problem.
minutes
I
obliges
to
It's
and drops
— answering
this
Lori off at the circle drive.
almost 4:30
P.M.,
and she has just a few
quickly re\'iew one last time before the exam. But
with another problem
She
"It
now
Lori
is
faced
the questions posed by the instructor. There
are thirty multiple choice questions, each one of which forced Lori to choose
between four possible answers. The two essay problems required her
additional choices.
As
the itistructor collects the
exam
of relief She really feels good about her performance on
to the parking lot, she suddenly remembers that her car
parking
there
is
Even though Lori has solved
another one waiting for her.
lot.
All of us have
se\'eral
this test.
is
problems
encountered similar situations. Look
each day. You constantly have to make choices.
Some
at
may
As she walks out
few hours,
in the last
the events you experience
choices
may be
easier to
Decision making
choosing a course of
action from among
alternatives.
make
this chapter's
by 10
normal
human requirement that begins in childhood and continues throughout life.
Oftentimes, we just "wing it." Other times, we have to make really tough decisions
that require a rational problem-solving approach as described in Figure 5.2.
In \\'ork settings, when asked to define their major responsibilities, many super%isors respond that "solving problems" and "making decisions" are the most important components of what they do daily and throughout their ongoing super\'isor)'
management tasks. Decision making is the process of defining problems and choosing a course of action from among alternatives. The term decision making often is
used \Nith the term problem solving because many super\ison' decisions focus on
solving problems that have occurred or are anticipated. However, the term problem
solving should not be construed as limited to decisions about problem areas.
Problem solving also includes decisions about realistic opportunities that are present
or available if planned for appropriately. Therefore, throughout this chapter, we use
Call!"
find
it
easier to figure out strategies to reduce costs
percent than to cut employee costs by 10 percent. Decision making
Defining problems and
make
back at the Wal-Mart
than others. Others seem to be insurmountable. Shannon O'Neill in
"You Make the
to
booklet, Lori heaves a sigh
is
a
these terms interchangeably.
While decision making
is
an integral part of
all
managerial functions,
it is
par-
ticularly at the core of the planning function of management. However, we have
placed this chapter on decision making in Part 2 of this text because the principles
discussed here apply when super%isors carr\' out all their managerial functions and
duties.
CHAPTER
5
Solving Problems: Decision Making and the Supervisor
157
Many of the problems that confront supervisors in their daily activities recur and
are familiar; for these problems,
When
most supervisors have developed routine answers.
new and unfamiliar problems, however,
supervisors are confronted with
many
find
it
difficult to
choose courses of action.
Managers and supervisors at all levels are constantly required to solve problems
that result from changing situations and unusual circumstances. Regardless of their
managerial levels, supervisors should use a similar, logical, and systematic process
of decision making. While decisions at the executive level are usually wider in scope
and magnitude than decisions at the supervisor)- level, the decision-making process
should be fundamentally the same throughout the management hierarchy.
Of course, once a decision is made, effective action is necessary. A good decision
that no one implements is of little value. In this chapter, we are unconcerned with
the problem of getting effective action. Instead, we discuss the process before action
is
taken that should lead to the "best" decision or solution.
A
pen
decision
in
maker
is
often depicted as an executive bent over
hand, contemplating whether to sign on the dotted
line,
some papers with
or as a manager in
meeting w^ho is raising an arm to vote a certain way. These images share one thing:
They portray decision makers as people at the moment of choice, ready to choose
an alternative. Often, a supervisor would like to know in which direction to go but
has given little thought to the result (see Figure 5.1). Supervisors must understand
that information gathering, analysis, and other processes precede the moment of
a
selecting
one alternative over others.
is an important skill
Decision making
developed
— by learning
that can be developed just as golf skills are
the steps, practicing,
things, supervisors can learn to
and exerting
make more thoughtful
By doing these
and can improve
effort.
decisions
the quality of their decisions.
FIGURE
To make
5.1
you
must first know what you
want to accomplish.
WHERE You VVAN
TO
OiO
/
a decision,
^
158
PART
1
2
Supervisory Essentials
At the same time, supenisors should ensure that their employees learn to make
own decisions more effectively. A supervisor cannot make all the decisions
necessar)' to run a department. Many daily decisions in a department are made by
their
the employees
who do
the work. For example, employees often have to decide,
without their super\isors, what materials to use,
is
to be done,
and how
how a job
is
to be done,
when
a job
to coordinate with other departments.
This forward thinking is embodied in the notion of Appreciative Inquiry (AI).
Case Western Reser\'e Professor David Cooperrider explained that, "AI is the coopera-
Appreciative
Inquiry (Al)
The cooperative search
for the best in people,
organizations, and the
world around them.
tive search for the best in people, their organizations,
AI involves the
art
and
to heightened positive potential."
Issue" box,
and the world around them
practice of asking questions that strengthen a system
many companies
'
s
.
ISSUE
been ainnost twenty years since Professors David
Cooperrider and Suresh Srisvastva coined the
phrase Appreciative Inquiry (AI). Since that time
numerous organizations have embraced the concept
in order to push performance to higher levels. What
It's
is
•
appreciative inquiry?
Appreciate:
(1)
To recognize the
cance, or magnitude
quality, signifi-
be
fully aware of;
admire greatly; (5) to
raise in value, especially over time.
Synonyms: value, prize, esteem, treasure, cherish.
These verbs mean to have a favorable opinion of
someone or something.
(3)
•
to
be thankful
Inquire:
to
for; (4) to
To seek information by asking
(1)
tion, (2) to
of; (2)
make an
a
ques-
inquiry or investigation.
Synonyms: discovery, search,
study, systematic
exploration.
•
Inquiry:
(3) a
(1)
The
act of inquiring,
(2)
close examination of a matter
a question,
in
the search
for information or truth.''
According to Professor Cooperrider, "Appreciative
Inquiry (AI) involves the art
and practice of asking
questions that strengthen an organization's capacity
to apprehend, anticipate,
and heighten
positive
more
active roles in charting the
USING APPRECIATIVE INQUIRY (Ai) TO BRING
ABOUT POSITIVE ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE
A
example of inviting the whole
is World Vision, one of the
world's largest nonprofit organizations and the world's
largest distributor of food. In early 2004, World Vision,
with more than 20,000 employees and offices in 100
countries, embarked on a strategic-planning process
to identify goals and priorities for guiding the organization into the future. More than 150 of the organization's leaders, donors, and partners met in Bangkok for
an Appreciative Inquiry (AI) Summit. World Vision also
engaged 4,000 other employees and stakeholders in
the "virtual summit" process.
Before the Bangkok summit began, employees
and other stakeholders were asked to participate in
face-to-face meetings at country and regional levels
to explore the theme: "What gives life to World
Vision when it is at its best?" Both individuals and
groups summarized their stories and insights and
then logged into an online community designed to
capture and share best practices among the globally
dispersed organization. Face-to-face and online dialogue and collaboration continued for a month as
rather dramatic
system to "participate"
part of the pre-summit.
When
the summit began
in
Bangkok,
ticipation continued, with the online
potential. The excitement of discovering, dreaming
and designing can turn empowered employees
tion could participate
into a revolutionary force for positive organizational
Highlights from the
serving as a link through which the entire organiza-
and posted
in the summit process.
Bangkok meeting were summa-
community.
rized
decision-making processes, AI assumes that every
Overnight, the rest of the organization's
system has many untapped resources and
unexplored potentials and, as such, managers must
believe that their employees want to
will
ultimately
make
be involved and
decisions that are
interests of their organization.
in
the best
virtual par-
community
change." Instead of relying on traditional managerial
living
.
As evidenced by the accompaming "Contemporan'
are giving employees
future of their organization.
CONTEMPORARY
.
capacity
for the entire online
members
around the world read, discussed, and voted on
issues and ideas that emerged from the face-to-face
summit. Their input was summarized and integrated
into the Bangkok meeting the next day.
CHAPTER
5
Solving Problems: Decision Making and the Supervisor
employees from various departments were teamed in
company projects and delegated considerable author-
Watt Santatiwat, World Vision vice president,
"It's been incredibly powerful to include thousands of people in the process. Not only did we
develop more robust strategies, we saved time and
money and created a new model for participation
and collaboration." Engaging the broader organizasaid,
tion in a shared experience resulted
in
to
make
project decisions. Research has found that
in
subordinates to
make
of the organization.'^
higher quality
power
decisions
The World
around the world, and enhanced organizational
ticipate"
readiness for implementation.^
face-to-face Al processes can
organizations have turned to
"empowered
Sources:
(1)
Definitions from
including
It
system, tapping the collective
illus-
weave together an entire
wisdom in the spirit of
positive change.
skilled
Inquiry
the best interests
of inviting the
a summit.
The American Heritage Dictionary of tlie English Language, 3rd
the definitions canne fronn Appreciative
Cooperrider and Diana Whitney quote on Appreciative Inquiry
A
in
in
Vision approach
whole system to "pardemonstrates how virtual and
trates the
employee teams" by which knowledgeable and
for
ity
employee involvement in decision making was most
successful where managers had a high degree of trust
goals and plans, the rapid alignment of stakeholders
Many
159
I
Commons
Edition (Boston:
Houghton
Commons, "What
is
The idea
Mifflin Co., 1992).
http://appreciativeinquiry.cwru.edu/intro/whatisai.cfm.
Appreciative Inquiry?" Also see David
L.
(2)
L
David
Cooperrider and Diana
Change: Appreciate Inquiry (Berrett-Koehler, 2000). (3) "Engaging the Whole System' in an Appreciative Inquiry
Inc. 2004. For more information about OvationNet, including introductory workshops by David
Cooperrider, Al online learning modules, the Al toolkit, contact Dr. Soren Kaplan (925-256-4343 x127). (4) Gretchen M. Spreitzer and Aneil K.
Mishra, "Giving Up Control Without Losing Control; Trust and Its Substitute Effects on Managers Involving Employees in Decision Making," Group
and Organizational Management (June 1999), pp. 155-187; and Robert H. Miles, "Beyond the Age of Dilbert: Accelerating Corporate
Transformations by Rapidly Engaging All Employees," Organizational Dynamics (Spring 2001), pp. 313-321. Also see the following: Whitney and
Whitney,
Positive Revolution in
Summit," David Cooperrider and iCohere,
Amanda
Trosten-Bloom, Power of Appreciative Inquiry (Berrett-Koehler Publishers,
Appreciative Inquiry
Inquiry
Summit
Handbook (Lakeshore
Publishers, Inc., 2003);
(Berrett-Koehler Publishers,
Emerging Direction
for Organizational
Inc.,
James
D.
2003); Cooperrider, Peter
Development
Inc.,
2002); Cooperrider, Whitney and Jacqueline Stavros,
Ludema, Whitney, Bernard
F.
J.
Mohr, and
Thomas
J. Griffin,
Appreciative
An
Sorenson, Therese Yaeger, and Whitney, Appreciative Inquiry:
(Stripes Publishing, 2001).
TYPES OF DECISIONS
Describe the types of
Training subordinates to
make
decisions should be a high priorit)' for
all
supervi-
decisions
Management decision-making theorists often classify managerial decisions as
programmed or nonprogrammed, \w\\\\ many decisions falling somewhere bet^veen
sors.
made
in
organizations.
these t^vo extremes.-
Programmed decisions
are solutions to problems that are repetitive, well strucand routine. The term programmed is used in the same sense that it is used in
computer programming; there is a specific procedure, or program, that applies to
the problem at hand. Many problems that confront supervisors daily are easy to
solve because relatively rote answers to those problems are available. These problems are usually routine or repetitive, and fixed answers, methods, procedures, or
rules exist. Supervisors can delegate these kinds of decisions to subordinates and be
confident that the decisions will be made in an acceptable and timely manner.
tured,
Xonprogrammed decisions occur when supenisors confront new or unusual
problems for which they must use their intelligent, adaptive problem-solving
behaWor. Such problems may be rare, unstructured, or unique, and they are ty^pically one-time occurrences. There are no pat answers or guidelines for decision
making in these situations. Xonprogrammed decisions tend to be more important,
demanding, and strategic than programmed decisions. In nonprogrammed decision making, super\'isors are called on to use good judgment, intuition, and creattempting to solve problems. In these situations, supervisors should apply
decision-making process by which they can approach problems consistently and
ativit}' in
a
Programmed
decisions
Solutions to repetitive and
routine problems provided
by
policies,
procedures
,or
rules.
Nonprogrammed
decisions
Solutions to unique
problems that require
judgment, intuition, and
creativity.
r
160
I
PART
2
Supervisory Essentials
logically, yet adaptively.^
grammed
The remainder of this chapter
refers primarily to
nonpro-
decision making.
THE DECISION-MAKINO PROCESS
Describe and apply the
basic steps of the
decision-making process.
When making nonprogrammed
define the problem. Second, they
Decision-making
process
A systematic,
step-by-step
process to aid in choosing
the best alternative
managerial decisions, supervisors should follow
the steps of the decision-making process (see Figure 5.2). First, supervisors
tion. Third,
must analyze the problem using
they must estabhsh decision criteria
—
must
available informa-
factors that will be used to evalu-
Fourth, after thorough analysis, super\isors should develop
ate the alternatives.
alternate solutions. After these steps, the superxisor should careftally evaluate the alter-
natives
and
select the solution that
circumstances.
The concluding
appears to be the "best" or most feasible under the
step in this process
is
follow-up and appraisal of the
consequences of the decision.
STEP
1:
DEFINE THE PROBLEM
Before seeking answers, the supervisor
Nothing
is
not
is
easy.
as useless as the right
What appears
on the
surface.
define
it.
It is
first
should identify the
problem.
real
answer to the wrong question. Defining
a
problem
s\Tnptom that shows
usually necessan- to delve deeper to locate the real problem and
to be the
problem might merely be
Consider the following scenario.
Tom
a
Engle, an office super\isor, believes that a
problem of conflicting personalities exists in his department. Two employees, Diana
and Stuart, are continually bickering and cannot work together. Because of this lack
of cooperation, the job is not being done in a timely manner. Engle must develop a
clear, accurate problem statement. The problem statement should be brief, specific.
FIGURE
5.2
Effective supervisors
follow the decision-
making process.
2.
1.
Analyze the problem
Define the problem.
CHAPTER
and
understood by others.
easily
5
Solving Problems: Decision Making and the Supervisor
A good problem
statement addresses the following
key questions:
What
How
is
the problem?
do you know there
Where
is
a
problem?
has the problem occurred?
\Vhen has the problem occurred?
Who
is
involved
in,
or affected by, the problem?
Expressing a problem through a problem statement can help the super\'isor understand
it.
A
careful review of the answers to key questions can lead to a
statement, as sho\vn in Figure 5.3, which reveals that the major problem
work
is
not getting done in a timely manner.
supervisor should focus on
why
the
work
is
When
problem
is
that the
checking into this situation, the
not getting done.
problem often can be time-consuming, it is time well spent. A
supervisor should go no further in the decision-making process until the problem
relevant to the situation has been specifically determined. Remember, a problem
exists when there is a difference between the way things are and the way they should
be. Effective super\isors use problem solving not only to take corrective action but
also to improve the organization.
Unfortunately, many managers and supervisors do not spend the time necessary
to properly frame the problems before them; often, they resort to making snap decisions and taking quick actions that do not solve the problems at hand. The accompanying "Contemporary Issue" box discusses these and other reasons so many
While defining
a
decisions go wrong.
ANALYZE THE PROBLEM:
GATHER FACTS AND INFORMATION
STEP
After the
problem
1:
— not
analyze the problem.
—
just its symptoms
has been defined, the next step is to
The supenisor begins by assembling facts and other pertinent
is sometimes \iewed as the first step in decision making, but until
problem has been defined, the supervisor does not know what information
is needed. Only after gaining a clear understanding of the problem can the supervisor decide how important certain data are and what additional information to seek.
Tom Engle, the office super\isor in the Step 1 scenario, must find out why the
work is not getting done. When he gathers information, he finds out that he never
clearly outlined the expectations for his employees
where their duties begin and
where they end. What appeared on the surface to be a problem of personalit)' conflict was actually a problem caused by the supervisor. The chances are good that
once the acti\ities and responsibilities of the tvvo employees are clarified, the friction will end. Engle must monitor the situation closely to ensure that the work is
completed on time.
information. This
the real
—
FIGURE
between the employees detracts from the completion of work assignments.
Last Monday and Tuesday, customer callbacks were not completed. Customers, other
department employees, and the shipping department all are affected.
Bickering
5.3
Sample Problem
Statement
161
162
I
PART
Supervisory Essentials
2
CONTEMPORARY
Approximately
WHY MANAGEMENT DECISIONS
ISSUE
CO WRONG
management and
go wrong, according to
Ohio State University's
In summary, Professor Nutt makes the following comments on and recommendations for making better
one-half of
supervisory decisions
Professor Paul C. Nutt of
decisions:
Based on twenty years of
studying decision making in numerous business
areas, Professor Nutt concluded that the main reasons so many managers and supervisors make poor
decisions is that they "employ failure-prone tactics."
Fisher College of Business.
Chief
among
what can you do to improve your chances of
making better decisions? Certainly, as my studies
show, you should resist pressures for a quick fix,
accept uncertainty and ambiguity, and recognize
subtleties in what works and what does not.
So,
these are:
In
1.
Problems are often framed
supervisors'
truthful
own
in
addition, you should:
ways to protect
interests rather than
and directed toward solving the
manage your decision making
Delegation to experts or to people who are
Personally
•
being
real
expected to champion your ideas may give you
problems.
2.
Managers and supervisors are more interested
time for other things but
will
make success much
in
less likely.
action solutions
(i.e.,
"doing something") than
in
Search for understanding. Signals that capture
•
thoughtfully setting objectives to be accom-
your attention can be more urgent than important. The time spent in reflecting on what is at
stake can pay handsome dividends.
plished by their decisions.
3.
Supervisors often take shortcuts and look for
"quick fixes" instead of going through a thorough
4. Participating with others
limited
(i.e.,
objective that states the
in
making decisions
one in five
up the search
is
only on the order of
An
outcome you seek opens
Establish your direction with an objective.
•
decision-making process.
Manage the
for
new
ideas.
and
political forces that can
block you. Use an intervention to establish the
•
decisions).
social
rationale for action.'
Sources: (1) Paul C. Nutt, "Half of the Decisions We Make Are Wrong. Why?" Across the Board (March/April 2001), pp. 63-66. Professor Nutt is also
the author of Making Tough Decisions: Tactics for Improving Managerial Decision Making (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1989), and Why Decisions Fail:
Overcoming the Blunders and Traps That Lead to Decision Debacles (San
Francisco: Berrett-Koehler, 2002).
may find that personal opinion impacts decision
when employees are involved in the problem. For
an employee who performs well, the super\isor may
Being human, a supenisor
making. This
example,
if
a
is
particularly true
problem involves
be inclined to show that employee greater consideration than a poor performer. The
super%isor should tn- to be as objective as possible in gathering and examining
information.
Sometimes the supervisor does not know ho\v
tional facts.
Good
means gathering
all
is
that play a significant role.
and personal
go in searching for addi-
to observe reasonable time
In the process of analysis, the supervisor should
pline,
far to
and cost limitations. This
information \vithout undue delay and without excessive costs.
practice
biases.
Some
It is
trv'
to think of intangible factors
intangible factors are reputation, morale, disci-
difficult to
be specific about these
Fishbone technique
should be considered when analyzing a problem. As a general
(cause-and-effect
objective information
diagranfi)
Cause-and-effect
approach to consider the
potential interrelatedness
of
problem causes
decision making.
in
factors,
but they
rule, written
and
than opinions and hearsay. Another way to
depict Step 1 and Step 2 of the decision-making process is the fishbone technique
(cause-and-effect diagram) (Figure 5.4). This approach has the problem solver not
is
more
reliable
only identify the various factors that have brought about the problem but also consider the potential interrelatedness of the causes of the problem. For a set of guidelines
and
a depiction of this process, see the
appendix to
this chapter.
CHAPTER
Solving Problems: Decision Making and the Supervisor
5
I
163
^^^
FIGURE
5.4 Sample Fishbone (Cause-and-Effect) Diagram
STEP
ESTABLISH DECISION CRITERIA
3:
Decision criteria are standards or measures for evaluating alternatives; they are typically
statements of what the supervisor wants to accomplish ^^ith the decision. Such
criteria also
process
To
It
going
is
illustrate,
will
can be used to determine
—
that
is,
suppose that
how
well the implementation phase of the
whether the decision
Tom
is
doing what
it was intended to do.
do not remedy the situation.
Figure 5.5 pro^'ides examples of
Decision criteria
Standards or measures
to use
in
evaluating
alternatives.
Engle's initial actions
be appropriate to establish decision
criteria.
the decision criteria that can be used to evaluate other courses of action.
Once
must determine which
and must establish their order of priorit}'. Because no solution
alternative is likely to meet all the criteria, the super\isor must know which criteria
are most important so alternatives can be judged by how many of those criteria
alternatives meet. The supervisor may want to consult with upper-level managers,
the decision criteria are established, the supervisor
criteria are necessan.'
peers, or
employees when prioritizing
criteria.
FIGURE
THE SOLUTION TO A PROBLEM
Should
result in
Should incur no
the work assignments being completed on time.
financial cost.
Must not impede quality of service to the customer.
Should put no employee's job
in
jeopardy.
Should allow differentiation of product or service
Should have no negative impact on employees.
Must
alleviate the
problem within one week.
in
the marketplace.
5.5
Sample Decision
Criteria
164
PART
I
2
Supervisory Essentials
STEP
DEVELOP ALTERNATIVES
4:
After the supervisor has defined and analyzed the problem and established decision
next step
criteria, the
sider as
many
is
The supervisor should conBy formulating many alter-
to develop alternative solutions.
solutions as can reasonably be developed.
natives, the supervisor
less
is
apt to overlook the best course of action.
A decision
is
only as good as the best alternative.
Almost
problems have
all
number of alternatives. The
a
be obvious, so supervisors must search for them.
they are likely to
stretch their
may be
minds
not always
do not do this,
not enough for
It
is
employees have suggested
other alternatives to consider. Therefore, supervisors must
of the alternatives
can choose the one that
Suppose an
alternatives that
to develop additional alternatives, even in the
None
ing situations.
among
may
choices
supervisors
into the "either/or" kind of thinking.
fall
supervisors just to decide from
because there
When
is
most discourag-
desirable, but at least the supervisor
least undesirable.
been directed to reduce emplovment by 20
office supervisor has
percent because the firm
may be
is
experiencing financial problems. After careful study, the
supervisor develops the following feasible alternatives:
1.
Lay off employees with the
least seniority', regardless
until the 20 percent reduction
1.
is
reached.
Analyze department duties and decide which jobs are
employees
4.
of job or performance,
reached.
Lay off employees with the lowest performance ratings until the 20 percent
reduction
3.
is
who
are best qualified to
perform those
Lay off no one and reduce work hours for
all
essential.
Keep the
jobs.
employees to achieve
a 20 per-
cent reduction.
5.
Develop ways to increase the organization's revenues so that no employees
must be
laid off.
While Alternative 5 is most attractive, it is not realistic given the current economic situation. While no other alternative may be the ideal solution to this
unpleasant problem,
at least
the office supervisor has considered several alternatives
before making a decision.
BRAINSTORMING AND CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING
When enough
time
is
available, a supervisor
should meet with a group of other
supervisors or employees to brainstorm alternatives to a perplexing problem.
Brainstorming
Brainstorming
A free
flow of ideas
in
a
group, while suspending
aime a
developing many
ju
grrien
,
identify as
^^^^^ ^Yie
is
many
the free flow of ideas in a group, with judgment suspended, to
alternatives as possible.
Using
problem, and the participants offer as
can in the time available.
Any
-^
idea
is
r
acceptable
i
alternative solutions
^o be wild or unusual. Evaluation of ideas
to a problem.
fi^ee
this technique, the supervisor pres-
many
•
is
alternative solutions as they
— even one
j
j
suspended so
that
mav
•'•
at first
appear
•
that participants can give
rein to their creativity.
Of
When
course, brainstorming requires an atmosphere that encourages creativity.
supervisors are unwilling to devote sufficient time to brainstorming, or
supervisors
tr\'
to
dominate the process with
brainstorming effort
is
likely to
their
own
when
opinions and solutions, the
fail.'*
Alex Osborn, an authority on creativity and brainstorming, suggests the following four guidelines for effective brainstorming:
CHAPTER
1.
5
Solving Problems: Decision Making and the Supervisor
165
judgment of ideas. During brainstorming, allow no criticism by the
group. People suppress ideas consciously and subconsciously, and this tendency
must be avoided. Even if an idea seems impractical and useless, it should not be
Defer
all
rejected because rejection could inhibit the free flow of
2.
I
Seek
many
ideas. Idea fluency
ency means
quantit)'.
is
The more
more
ideas.
the key to creative problem solving,
ideas that are generated, the
more
and
likely
flu-
some
ideas will be viable.
3.
Encourage
"free wheeling." Being creative calls for a free-flowing
wildest idea
4.
all
ideas,
"Hitchhike" on existing ideas. Combining, adding
often produce
new approaches
to hitchhike
to,
and rearranging
that are superior to the original ones.
creative thought processes slow or stop, review
tr)'
mental
no matter how extreme, are welcome. Even the
may, on further analysis, have some usefulness.
process in which
on them with additions or
some of the
ideas
When
existing ideas
and
revisions.''
The preceding guidelines apply to both individual and group brainstorming. When
it involves a large group, unstructured brainstorming can become long, tedious,
and unproductive because many ideas are simply not feasible and because conflicts
may develop. For this reason, the nominal group technique (NGT), which provides a means of enabling group members to generate ideas more efficiently, is
advocated. T)^ically, NGT involves having group members first write dowTi their
ideas and alternatives to the problem. Then, group members share, discuss, evaluate, and refine their ideas. The group's final choice(s) may be made by a series of
confidential votes in which a list of ideas is narrowed until consensus is attained.^
Creative approaches and brainstorming meetings are particularly adaptable to
nonprogrammed decisions, especially if the problem is new, important, or strategic.
Even the supervisor who takes time to brainstorm a problem alone is likely to develop
more alternatives for sohing the problem than one who does not brainstorm.'
Nominal group
technique (NGT)
A group brainstorming
and decision-making
process by which
individual
first
members
identify alternative
solutions privately
and
then share, evaluate,
and decide on an
approach as a group.
Using brainstorming,
the supervisor presents
the problem and the
participants offer as
many
solutions as they
can
the time available.
in
166
I
PART
2
Supervisory Essentials
ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Both when developing and evaluating
alternatives, a supervisor
should consider
and acceptable within the organization's ethical guidelines. In recent years, many firms have become concerned that their managers, supervisors, and employees make ethical decisions because they recognize
that, in the long term, good ethics is good business.** Consequently, many firms have
developed handbooks, policies, and official statements that specify their ethical
standards and practices.^ Ethical policy statements and other behavioral /ethical
standards are discussed in Chapter 6.
The following list of guidelines or ethical "tests" for decision making is not
only those alternatives that are lawful
Ethical "tests"
Considerations or
guidelines to be
addressed in developing
comprehensive, but these considerations are relevant when addressing the ethical
aspects of most problem situations.
and evaluating
Legal /Compliance
ethical
aspects of decision
alternatives.
Laws, regulations, and policies are to be followed, not
test:
broken or ignored. The rationale and explanation
"everybody's getting away with
it"
are
that "everybody's
poor excuses
if you
law, policy, or regulation. If in doubt, ask for guidance
doing
it"
and
get caught violating a
from someone who knows
the law or regulation. However, compliance should be only a starting point in
most
making.
ethical decision
test: What would be the consequences if the outcome of an
decision became known to the public, one's family, the media, or
Public-knowledge
alternative
a
government agency?
Long-term-consequences test: What would be the long-term versus short-term
outcomes? Weigh these outcomes against each other.
Examine-your-motives test: Do the motives for a proposed decision benefit the
company and others, or are they primarily selfish and designed to harm or
destroy other people and their interests?
Inner-voice
test:
instilled in
is
or
This
is
and moral values that have been
something inside you says the choice
then prudent to look for a different and
the test of conscience
most of us since childhood.
may be wrong,
it
usually
is. It is
If
better alternative.
It
cannot be stressed enough that when supervisors believe an alternative
is
questionable or might be unacceptable within the firm's ethical policies, they should
consult their managers, the
who
human resources department, or other staff specialists
how to proceed. Figure 5.6 is an example of guidelines
can provide guidance in
making developed by a major corporation for all of its manand employees. This firm, like many others, has an ethics "hot
for ethical decision
agers, supervisors,
when confronted with ethical dilemmas.
Employees should have access to safe and confidential channels to raise concerns
about possible ethics violations. It is not enough to just have an "ethics policy."
Supervisors are responsible to see that the company's ethical policies aren't just nice
words posted in the company handbook; they must be words to "live by."
line" individuals can call to seek assistance
STEP
5:
EVALUATE THE ALTERNATIVES
The ultimate purpose of decision making is
provide the greatest number of wanted and
to
choose the course of action that will
number of unwanted con-
the smallest
sequences. After developing alternatives, supervisors can mentally
test
each of them
been put into effect. Supervisors should try to
foresee the probable desirable and undesirable consequences of each alternative.
by imagining
that each has already
r.
CHAPTER
5
Solving Problems: Decision Making and the Supervisor
FIGURE
ETHICAL DECISION MAKINC
It is
do
not always easy to determine the ethical or "right" thing to
a business
in
or work situation. Sometimes, because of the highly compjex rules and regula-
way we do business, a decision is not
situation can be difficult when the ethical
tions that govern the
A
A
decision or
valid,
clear cut.
issue includes:
These situations involve the careful balancing of different, and yet
interests. Sometimes, the correct decision is just not clear.
close
call:
A new
problem: These situations usually involve facts that have not yet been
addressed specifically by the company's policies or procedures.
Multiple considerations: The decision
many
different
Personal cost: The right and
much
bears so
these situations requires the input of so
in
people that the decision process becomes very
cost
fair
do
thing to
is
clear,
inefficient.
but the decision maker
time or personal sacrifice that the decision
in lost
is difficult.
By reviewing the following outline, each of us can, at the very least, ensure that
applied a process that is designed to call to mind sound principles of
ethical decision making. Unless we apply such a process honestly and consistently, we risk failing to provide our customers, whether internal or external, with
the quality of products and services they deserve.
we have
ANALYSIS
•
What
•
Who
•
or
•
What
What
What
•
What
solutions are available to
•
are the facts?
responsible to act?
is
whose
interests are involved?
are the consequences of the action?
is
fair
treatment
in this
situation?
SOLUTION DEVELOPMENT
Have
•
I
considered
all
me?
the creative solutions that might permit
the harm, to maximize the benefits, to acknowledge
fair
to
more
more
me
to reduce
interests, or to
be
individuals?
By thinking alternatives through and appraising their consequences, supervisors
can compare the desirability of choices.
The usual way to begin is to eliminate alternatives that do not meet the supervisor's decision criteria and ethical standards. The supervisor should evaluate how
many of the most important criteria each alternative meets. The successful alternative
is
the one that satisfies or meets the
Often, there
is
no
most
criteria at the highest priority levels.
clear choice.
Nonprogrammed
decisions usually require the decision
maker
choose a
to
course of action without complete information about the situation. Because of this
uncertainty, the chosen alternative
result, there
is
risk involved.
each course of action. There
may
simply involve
less risk
Time may make one
between
how much
alternative.
time
Some
is
may
not yield the intended
and, as a
than others.
as a risk-free decision;
available
one
alternative
'°
alternative preferable, particularly
is
results,
supervisors consider the risk and uncertainty of
no such thing
and how much time
The supervisor should consider the
is
if
5.6
Sample company
there
is
a difference
required to carry out an
available facilities, tools,
and other
guidelines for ethical
decision making.
167
PART
168
2
Supervisory Essentials
resources.
also critical to judge alternatives in terms of
It is
resources. In other words,
which action
economy of effort and
will give the greatest benefits
and
results for
the least cost and effort?
When one alternative clearly appears to provide a greater number of desirable
consequences and fewer unwanted consequences than any other alternatives, the
decision is fairly easy. However, the "best" alternative is not always so obvious. At
times, two or
become
more
alternatives
may seem
a matter of personal preference.
equally desirable. Here, the choice
It is
also possible that the supervisor
may
may
no single alternative is significantly stronger than any other. In this case, it
might be possible to combine the positive aspects of the better alternatives into one
composite solution.
Sometimes, no alternatives are satisfactory; all have too many undesirable
effects, or none will bring about the desired results. In such a case, the supervisor
should begin to think of new alternative solutions or perhaps even start all over
again by attempting to redefine the problem.
A situation might arise in which the undesirable consequences of all alternatives
appear to be so overwhelmingly unfavorable that the supervisor feels the best solution is to take no action. However, this may be deceiving because taking no action
does not solve the problem. Taking no action is as much a decision as is taking
another action, even though the supervisor may believe an unpleasant choice has
been avoided. The supervisor should visualize the consequences that are likely to
result from taking no action. Only if the consequences of taking no action are the
most desirable should it be selected as the appropriate course.
feel that
STEP
SELECT THE BEST ALTERNATIVE
6:
known
However, the
an alternative that
famous management theorist, Herbert
Optimizing
Selecting the alternative that seems best
Selecting the best
supervisor sometimes makes a satisficing decision
alternative.
meets the minimal decision
Satisficing
Selecting the alternative
that
meets the minimal
decision
criteria.
A
is
as optimizing.
Simon, once likened the difference to finding a needle
—
selects
in a haystack (satisficing)
and
finding the biggest, sharpest needle in the haystack (optimizing)." Nevertheless,
developing and evaluating alternatives, the supervisor must
after
Among
criteria.
the
most prominent bases
make
a choice.
for choosing the best alternative are experi-
ence, intuition, advice, experimentation,
and
statistical
and quantitative decision
making. Regardless of the process, a supervisor rarely makes
a decision that pleases
everyone equally.
EXPERIENCE
When
selecting
from
situations will recur,
certain extent.
hand,
it is
should rely on experience. Certain
and the adage, "Experience
is
the best teacher," applies to a
A supervisor can often decide wisely based on
the experience of
helpful guide,
alternatives, the supervisor
some
and
its
dangerous
personal experience or
other manager. Knowledge gained from experience
importance should not be underestimated.
On
is
a
the other
to follow experience blindly.
When looking to experience as a basis for choosing among alternatives, the supervisor should
examine the
earlier decision. It
on
situation
may be
the previous occasion
then.
More
and the conditions
and
that the decision should
be similar to the one made
often than not, however, conditions change considerably, and the under-
lying assumptions change. Therefore, the
tical
that prevailed at the time of the
that conditions are nearly identical to those that prevailed
to the earlier one.
new
decision probably should not be iden-
CHAPTER
5
Solving Problems: Decision Making and the Supervisor
A manager
3
Experience can be helpful
when supenisors
are called
may be
on
to substantiate their
a defense, but there
is
no
excuse for following experience in and of itself. Experience must always be \iewed
mind. The circumstances of the
\sith the future in
must be considered
realistically if
experience
is
past, the present,
and the future
from
to help superNisors select
alternatives.
INTUITION
At times, supervisors base their decisions on intuition.
Some
supervisors even appear
by subjective means.- However, a deeper search usually
reveals that the so-called intuition on which the supenisor appeared to have based a
decision was really experience or knowledge stored in the supervisor's memon'. By
able to solve problems
recalling similar situations that occurred in the past, supervisors
to reach decisions,
Intuition
with poor
even though thev label doin^ so
may be
particularly helpful
results. If the risks are
not too
when
as
may be
better able
"ha\ing hunches."
other alternatives have been tried
great, a supervisor
may choose
a
new alter-
might bring positive
results. Even if the hunch does not work out well, the super%isor has tried something different. Super\isors will remember doing so and can draw upon those expenative because of an intuitive feeling that a fresh approach
riences in future decisions.
ADVICE FROM OTHERS
.\lthough a super\isor cannot shift personal responsibilitv' for making decisions in
burden of decision making often can be eased by seeking the
ideas and suggestions of employees, other supervisors, staff
experts, technical authorities, and the supervisor's own manager can be of great help
in weighing facts and information. Seeking advice does not mean avoiding a decision because the supervisor still must decide whether to accept the advice of others.
the department, the
advice of others.
The
rarely
169
makes
decision that pleases
everyone.
reasons for making certain decisions. In part, this
I
170
I
PART
2
Supervisory Essentials
In decision making, two
heads can be better than
one.
Many believe that two heads are better than one and that input from others
improves the decision process.'-^ The following four guidelines can help the
supervisor decide whether groups should be included in the decision-making
process:
1.
If
additional information
those
2.
If
who
would increase the
quality'
of the decision, involve
can provide that information.
acceptance of the decision
is critical,
involve those
whose acceptance
is
important.
3.
4.
can be developed through participation, involve those who
need the development opportunity.
If people's skills
If the situation is
not life-threatening and does not require immediate action,
involve others in the process.''*
Generally, the varied perspectives
making
and experiences of others add
to the decision-
process.
EXPERIMENTATION
where many conclusions are based on tests in laboratories,
and accepted. In supervision, however, experimentation is often too costly in terms of people, time, and materials. Nevertheless, there
are some instances in which a limited amount of testing and experimenting is advisIn the scientific world,
experimentation
is
essential
may
it worthwhile to try several different locadepartment to see which location employees
prefer and which location is most convenient for the workflow. There also are
instances in which a certain amount of testing is advisable to allow employees to try
able.
For example, a supervisor
tions for a
new copy machine
find
in the
CHAPTER
new
ideas or approaches, perhaps of their
be vahd from a motivational standpoint,
method of reaching
Solving Problems: Decision Making and the Supervisor
5
own
it
design.
I
171
While experimentation may
can be a slow and relatively expensive
a decision.
QUANTITATIVE DECISION MAKING
Numerous techniques and models of quantitative decision making have received
much attention in management literature and practice. Among these techniques are
and probability and simulation models.
and mathematical approaches often used
wnth computers.'" They require the decision maker to quantify most of the information that is relevant to a decision. For many supervisors, these quantitative decision-making techniques are rather remote, yet many large firms have
management-decision-support systems that help supervisors make nonprogrammed decisions. One desirable feature of quantitative decision making is the
the simulations of business sitabilit)' of the user to perform "what if" scenarios
uations over and over using different data for select decision areas.
With the increasing use of laptops and desktop computers and netvvorks, many
firms can develop programs and information-storage-and-retrieval systems that
linear
programming, operations
These tend to be sophisticated
research,
statistical
—
supervisors can use relatively easily for certain types of decisions, especially
historical
\isors
tems
and
may
statistical
databases are involved. For
some
t)'pes
be able to seek the help of mathematicians, engineers,
analysts,
and computer
specialists, all
when
of problems, superstatisticians, sys-
of whom can bring their tools to bear on
relevant problems.
This procedure can be involved and costly, however, and decisions like those
facing
Shannon O'Neill
cannot be made from
in the
"You Make the
statistical
Calll" section of this chapter usually
or quantitative models.
Quantitative decision
making techniques are
sophisticated statistical
and nnathematical
approaches usually
involving computers.
172
PART
I
2
Supervisory Essentials
FOLLOW UP AND
APPRAISE THE RESULTS
STEP
SUPERVISORY TIPS
7:
After a decision has been made, specific actions
Some Thoughts and Suggestions
are necessar)' to carr\' that decision out. Follow-
Problem Solving
and Decision Making
for Improving
up and
Follow-up and appraisal of
1.
Take enough time to state the problem accurately
2.
and concisely and to identify the objectives you
want to accomplish with your decision.
Whenever appropriate, seek opinions and suggestions from others
who
a decision
can take
the decision, timing,
and other
factors.
For
report or perhaps even by the supervisor's observa-
when
A
major deci-
sion invoking the installation of complex
equipment,
your mind to develop numerous alternapracti-
in contrast, requires close
new
and time-
consuming follow-up by the supervisor, technical
employees, and high-level managers. This tvpe of
decision usually requires the supervisor to prepare
Make your
decision based on objective
numerous detailed, written reports of equipment
performance under varving conditions that are
criteria;
avoid letting personal biases and organizational
political
on
tion or a discussion with employees.
cable.
6.
forms, depending
could be evaluated easily based on a short wTitten
can contribute their
tive solutions; brainstorm with others
5.
are part
example, a minor production-scheduling decision
Before deciding what to do, gather ample facts
and information that will help define/clarify the
problem and suggest solutions.
4. Stretch
many
costs, standards, personnel,
ideas toward solving the problem.
3.
outcome
appraisal of a decision's
of decision making.
considerations direct your choice.
compared
When
implementing and following up your decision, do not hesitate to admit and rectify errors in
the decision, even if doing so causes some personal embarrassment. (Admitting mistakes early is
prudent and builds your integrity with others.)
^^^'^^
for the
closely with plans or expected standards
equipment.
The important point to recognize is that the
task of decision making is incomplete without some
form of follow-up and action appraisal. When the
supervisor establishes decision criteria or objectives
the decision should accomplish,
uate the decision's effects.
When
it is
easier to eval-
the consequences
was sound.
something has gone wTong or
that the results have not been as anticipated, the supervisor's decision-making
process must begin all over again. This may even mean going back over each of the
are good, the supervisor can feel reasonably confident that the decision
When
the follow-up
and appraisal
indicate that
steps of the decision-making process in detail.
sis
The
supervisor's definition
of the problem and the development of alternatives
may
and analy-
have to be completely
revised in view of new circumstances surrounding the problem. In other words,
when follow-up and appraisal indicate that the problem has not been solved, the
supervisor should treat the situation as a completely new problem and go through
the decision-making process from a completely fresh perspective. See the accompa-
nying "Supervisory Tips" box for some specific suggestions for improving your
decision-making process.
PECISION-MAKINC STYLES
identify
and describe various
decision-making
styles.
Decision making
is
influenced by
many
forces,
making
it
difficult to
formulate a
simple "to do checklist" which applies to everv' situation in the same way. Earlier in
we stressed that when supervisors are faced with complex, unusual,
new problems, they must use good judgment, intuition, and creativity in the
decision-making process. What processes do managers actually use when making
this chapter,
or
CHAPTER
decisions?
5
Solving Problems: Decision Making and the Supervisor
I
173
We know from observing others and our own experiences that people make
We have observed the two extremes: some people are like the
decisions differently.
"Waffler" (Skills Application 5-2)
makes
who
a decision; while others like the
quickly;
and
takes forever to study the
"Gunner"
problem and never
pull the trigger (Fire-Aim-Ready)
things don't go the intended way, they fire again, again,
if
and again
until they hit the target (achieve the intended results).
We
feel that
it is
important for supervisors to
know
that different types of deci-
sions require different decision-making styles. Supervisors are continually being
make
asked to
and how they make those decisions is under constant
many people looking over their shoulders, not necessaron how to make decisions but to criticize the decision made.
from the decisions that we made earlier in our careers? How
decisions,
scrutiny. Supervisors have
ily
to get their cues
What can we learn
many times have you heard someone say, "If I had been in that situation, I would
" Our current "scientific" method focuses almost exclusively on
have done
identifying what worked best or what went wrong. Few have studied the process of
When asked to think of words that describe one's decision-making
what comes to mind?
Relying heavily on the Social Styles Model, Mike Lynch and Harvey Lifton
developed the Decision-Making Styles Model to describe how people make decisions.'^ Think of the most recent major purchase that you or someone in your
family made. What process did you or they go through to make the final decision?
decision making.
process,
To help you analyze your decision-making style, see Figure 5.7.
To assist you in understanding how you make decisions, look back
recent decisions. Analyze them from the following perspective:
at
your
What worked?
What
actually
happened
What kind of feedback
What
style
What
didn't
as a result of the decision?
did you receive about the success of a decision?
did you use to
make
the successful decision?
work?
Why didn't it work?
What caused
the differences between the intended
outcome and what
actually
occurred?
What kind of feedback
did you receive about a "failed" decision?
What decision-making
style
did you use to
make
the "failed" decision?
The better you understand the answers to these questions, the better your decisionmaking skills will become. Learning may not be so much what we learn to do but
what we learn not to do in the future.
TIME IMPACTS THE
DECISION-MAKINO PROCESS
In
some
situations, supervisors
may
feel
they lack the time to go through the deci-
sion-making process outlined here. Frequently, a manager, a coworker, or an
employee approaches the supervisor and says, "Here's the problem," and looks to
the supervisor for an immediate answer. However, supervisors cannot afford to
O
Explain
why
should not
a supervisor
make hasty
decisions.
174
I
PART
Supervisory Essentials
2
GROUP COMMANDER
DEEP THINKER
Decisions are made based on the facts
and evidence researched.
• Avoids nsks
•
•
Uses
•
•
Makes
•
decisions valid for
the present and the future
•
cautious and deliberate
•
Has
• Is
great
need
to
be "nght"
•
very concerned with details
•
Uses an organized process
•
Stands behind decisions
are
made
using the
from others.
solid, tangible, realistic
evidence to support decisions
• Is
•
Decisions are
available information without help
•
•
Makes own decisions
Uses power to influence
Seeks control
Overcomes obstacles with
Takes
risks
Prefers to be presented with options
from which
after they
force
Expresses conclusions quickly
Bases decisions on facts and data
to
choose
made
CONVENIENCE SEEKER
Decisions are
made based on
method
easiest
•
Makes
•
Results
the
readily available.
fast decisions
in
many
errors
assign decisions to anyone
Doesn't care about results
• Will
•
•
•
•
•
Has "Not my problem" attitude
Gives no direction
Wishes it would all go away
Doesn't want to be involved
CONSENSUS BUILDER
FREE SPIRIT
Decisions are made that are acceptable
to the group from shared Information
and
feelings
ideas.
•
Incorporates feelings of 'important
•
Sidelines facts
opinions
•
May be
Wants guarantees of results
Wants minimal risk
Needs buy-in from others
•
Takes
•
•
•
Makes
Makes
•
Avoids interpersonal confrontation
•
Looks
•
Likes the comfortable and know/n
•
Uses own and
•
•
• Is
reluctant to
5.7 What
is
people"
others' personal
change
Checks frequently
agreement
FIGURE
for
beliefs
and
logic
creative
risks
frequent mistakes
rapid decisions
for
rewards that are social
and prestige
Uses drama and/or humor
recognition
group
•
make
to
a point
your decision-making style?
Source; Reprinted fronn Training Clips: 150 Reproducible Handouts, Discussion Starters,
©
made based on personal
and the feelings of others.
Decisions are
1998. Reprinted by permission of the publisher:
make
HRD
Press,
Amherst,
and Job
MA (800-822-2801),
Aids, by
Mike Lynch and Harvey
Lifton,
copyright
http://www.hrdpress.com.
decisions without considering the steps outHned here.
Most problems do not
require immediate answers.
Often,
when an employee
brings up a problem, the supervisor should ask ques-
tions like the following:
How extensive
Does the
Who else
is
the problem?
situation
need an immediate response?
(the stakeholders)
is
affected
by the problem?
CHAPTER
5
Solving Problems: Decision Making and the Supervisor
Should they (the stakeholders) be involved
I
175
in this discussion?
Have you (the employee) thought through the problem, and do you have an
idea of what the end result should be?
What do you recommend? Why?
participative supervision and can help to develop the
The supervisor then can better think through the problem, apply the decision-making steps, and make a decision.
Many supervisors get themselves into trouble by making hasty decisions w^ith-
This approach
is
a
form of
employee's analytical
out following
process,
should
if
all
skills.
the steps in the decision-making process. During any stage of the
supervisors
state a specific
tell
other people they "will get back to them," the supervisors
time and act within that time.
When
supervisors
to
make
may
sacri-
fail
decisions or to give feedback to other people by the specified time, they
fice trust.
r
WHAT CALL
Shannon
O'Neill
is
DID YOU MAKE?
in
a difficult situation that
described
in this
chapter
In
particular,
she should
She
consider what other alternatives could allow her to
has a well-defined planning and decision-making
"harmonize" the efforts of her department with
academic and other sen^/ice activities. Since she has
good rapport with her employees, Shannon should
immediately meet with them and make sure they
understand the importance of creating effective
strategies. She should ask each of her direct reports
to submit revised expense projections for the
coming year; this year's budget probably was developed before fuel costs escalated. Shannon should
consider economic trends and other factors that
might impact her department and incorporate
these factors into her recommendations.
A number of alternatives might be suggested,
requires her to
make unpleasant
decisions.
process in place. Her system has been forwardlooking, involves employees in the process, and
provides immediate feedback on performance.
Shannon
is
under
strict
orders from the
new
super-
intendent to develop strategies for reducing her
department's cost of operation. Before she spends
too much time trying to determine exactly what the
new superintendent wants, she should talk to her
immediate supervisor Before various management
levels can begin working on their plans for cost
reduction, the superintendent needs to share her
vision for the school corporation. Shannon might
want to incorporate some of the principles of
Appreciative Inquiry (Al). Working together, members of the management team and various stakeholder groups need to ask the right questions
before beginning the problem-solving process. No
doubt Shannon acknowledged the fact that the
new superintendent only proposed budget-cutting
strategies which, in the short-term, may harm students' growth and education. She knows that the
goal of the transportation services department is to
support those activities that directly enhance student learning. Therefore, Shannon must coordinate
and collaborate with other department heads and
upper-level managers.
Before she decides what to do. Shannon should
review the steps of the decision-making model
including increasing the mileage boundaries for ele-
mentary, junior- and senior-high school students,
shifting extracurricular activity
activity (e.g., sports
charges directly to the
teams must generate revenues
to cover transportation costs), coordinating bus runs
between the various schools and activities (e.g.,
students might have to spend more time on
the bus), freezing employee wages and asking
employees to pay a higher percentage of healthcare
benefits, or developing a gas hedge strategy (i.e,
Southwest Airlines' ability to hedge fuel costs).
As others have picked Shannon's brain on East
some
maybe it is time
them on things that
have done. Shannon O'Neill
Fairfield's
transportation system,
for her to
get
some
ideas from
other school districts
can learn from the experiences of others
learn
what not to do.
—
at least
—
176
PART
I
2 Supervisory Essentials
There
is
no
right or
wrong answer for this
At times
like this,
process.
supervisory decision making requires
a great deal of thoughtful problem solving, perhaps
using
ing,
some
i.e.,
of the principles of creative
Shannon's recommendations are
scenario.
Many organizations are undergoing the same
problem
solv-
just
that
recommendations. The superintendent and the school
board will make the final decision. Once the decision
is
made,
it
must be implemented. She should com-
pare actual results on a daily basis so that adjust-
ments can be made as necessary.
"thinking outside the box."
SUMMARY
A
supemsoty
.\11
activities involve
problem solving
had already been placed into action and consid-
and decision making. Supervisors must find solutions for
problems
that result
from changing
ering their consequences.
situa-
6.
and unusual circumstances. Decision making
tions
number of wanted consequences and
number of unwanted consequences.
based on careful study of information and analysis
of various courses of action
ally
the
is still
most gener-
approved avenue of selecting from among
7.
is
a cooperative
clarifies the difference
and the enNnronment around them. At the heart of
is
a sldll that can
Organizations are gi%ing employees a
in decision
making
today.
A
active role
be.
must
measures or standards of what the super\isor
wants to accomplish with the decision, should be
made tomorrow.
specified. In developing alternatives, supervisors
Supen'isors confront
many decision
situations that
can use brainstorming and creative-thinking tech-
programmed t^'pe at one extreme to
the nonprogrammed t\pe at the other. Decisions for
routine, repetitive-type problems are usually made
var\' fi^om the
niques.
Only
practices.
more
likely to
occur when
the decision has been made, specific
making
appraisal are essential.
2.
process:
Gather
facts
a
and quantitative methods.
Once
actions are necessar)' to carr)'
O The
Define the problem.
and choice,
sonal experience, intuition, advice, experimentation,
super\'isors follow these steps of the decision-
1.
ethical
supervisor can be aided by ethical guidelines, per-
sound judgment and systematic thinking.
Better decisions are
lau^l and
sidered. In the process of evaluation
However, nonprogrammed decisions are
usually one-time, unusual, or unique problems that
require
alternatives that are
within the organizations guidelines should be con-
according to policies, procedures, and standard
^
the decision
gather information. Decision criteria, which are
A decision made today
often sets a precedent for decisions
if
After defining the problem, the supenisor
be learned.
more
necessary
between the way things are
and the way they should
asking questions.
Decision making
may be
not achieving the desired objective.
where, when, and who. Proper problem definition
search for the best in people, their organizations,
is
results.
The super\isor should develop a problem statement that answers the questions of what, how,
visors significantly affect departmental results.
AI
Implement, follow up, and appraise the
Corrective action
making is a choice between two or
more alternatives, and the decisions made by superis
the least
alter-
natives. Decision
Appreciative Inquir\' (AI)
Select the alternative that has the greatest
five
decision-making
sive, abdicator,
and information and analyze the
in
problem.
it
out. Follow-up
stv'les
and
are driver, expres-
anahlic, and amiable. They van.'
emotional intelligence and communication
style.
3.
Establish decision criteria.
4.
Develop
5.
Evaluate alternatives by using the decision crite-
a sufficient
number of alternatives.
Q
Supervisors risk getting themselves into trouble
unless they follow the steps of the decision-making
ria
or by thinking of the alternatives as
if
they
process,
which
is
time-consuming. Most problems
CHAPTER
do not require immediate answers.
It is
valuable to allow subordinates to help
sions.
They may
see the
5
problem from
Solving Problems: Decision Making and the Supervisor
often
make
and they may have information
on the problem.
perspective,
bears
deci-
177
I
that
a different
KEY TERMS
Appreciative Inquin' (AI) (p. 158)
Ethical "tests" (p. 166)
Xonprogrammed
Brainstorming
Fishbone technique (cause-and-
Optimizing
(p.
Decision criteria
164)
effect
(p. 163)
Decision making
(p.
162)
Programmed
Nominal group technique (XGT)
(p. 156)
Decision-making process
diagram)
(p.
(p.
decisions (p. 159)
168)
decisions (p. 159)
Satisficing (p. 168)
(p. 165)
160)
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
Define decision making. Does the decision-making
process van.' depending
supenisor
is
on where
a
manager or
located in the managerial hierarchy?
Re\ie\v the five decision-making st\ies presented in
Figure
a.
Discuss.
proper sequence. WTiy should super\isors
problem statements when defining problems?
pitfalls
should the super\isor avoid
"None of us
is
as
smart
at
make
group
b.
you? Your
\s"ho
invohing an employee
major elements of brainstorming,
and explain
how
a supervisor
can tap into the
knowledge of the indiWdual group members.
Define and discuss the factors a super%"isor should
when developing and
evaluating alterna-
decision-making process. To \Nhat
degree should ethical issues be considered?
knows you
the decision-making
really well to
stx'les
that best describes you. Is
it
and pick the
same as the
the
one you selected? If there are differences,
do you account for those differences?
Your company has
a.
in the decision-making process?
tives in the
someone
ho\s'
a rule prohibiting the use
company computer
Identif)' the
consider
one
con-
better decisions
.\sk
re\"ie\s"
each step?
than an indi\'idual \\ould.
^\^lat are the adAantages to
b.
\sTite
^^^lat
as all of us." Theorists
tend that groups generally
a.
five st)'les best describes
boss? Yovu- instrurtor?
Re\iew the steps of the decision-making process in
their
5.7.
WTiich of the
of the
for personal business.
your boss to expect you to
from conducting personal business on
the company computer?
Is it
reaUstic for
abstain
b.
During a slow period in the work
sider using the
on the
computer
day,
you con-
to surf for information
fantasy football league. Discuss the five
ethical "tests" that
might come into play in your
decision whether to surf or not to
surt".
178
PART
I
2
Supervisory Essentials
SKILLS APPLICATIONS
Your task
is
to
fill
a glass exactly half full
with water.
You do not have access to any measuring devices.
only you, a barrel, and an ample supply of water.
do you do
it?
Source: Reproduced with permission from
Road, Cottonwood,
CA 96022
skills
application
is
Don Dewar,
editor,
7/me/y Tips for Teams, a monthly newsletter from QCI International, 17055 Quailridge
(530-347-1334).
SKILLS
This
It is
How
APPLICATION
5-1: Self-Awareness of Problem-Solving Skills 18
designed to help you identify
key areas where your problem-solving
skills
Directions: Beside each statement, indicate the
number
could be
improved.
Key:
4
2
agreement or
that best describes your
dis-
agreement.
7.
= Strongly Agree
= Disagree Somewhat
3
1
= Agree
= Strongly Disagree
little
8.
1.
I
2.
I
try to
break big problems into man-
solve the
whole problem
at
9.
once.
5.
I
10.
11.
6.
I
I
need
major decision.
when they know more
implement
it
I
do, even
usually takes longer to get
I
usually use brainstorming techniques
When
I
talk to
everyone
have a big problem to solve,
who
I
has knowledge of
who
will
have to
implement the problem, before
up with
12.
solve problems.
their help to
involve others
problem, and those
my area.
Once
I
come
a solution.
a solution
is
implemented,
I
have a follow-up plan to ensure that
involve others in problem solving
when
I
the problem, those affected by the
I
like pareto charts or cause-and-effect
me
the
to generate ideas for solving problems.
usually use problem-solving tools,
diagrams, to help
all
the problem solved.
my
company and elsewhere with whom
discuss the problems in
to have
I
enough data to know exactly
where, when, and under what circumstances the problem occurs.
have a network of contacts within
me
impossible for
though
To determine the cause of a problem,
I
input from others.
about a situation than
gather
4.
is
solve problems with
taking action.
it.
ageable pieces instead of trying to
3.
It's
I
information about a problem before
always ask, "Is this problem worth
solving?" before beginning to solve
During "crunch" times, when time
of the essence,
the solution fixes the problem.
a
Total (add your scores)
CHAPTER
2.
5
Solving Problems: Decision Making and the Supervisor
Interpretation:
36-48: Your problem-solving
12-23: Your present problem-solving
little
skills thw^art
your attempt to reach a solution. Improve your
3.
problem-solving approach by following the sugges-
'
tions in this chapter.
skills
are good.
179
With
a
improvement, they could be outstanding.
Write a one-page paper detailing
tinually look for
solving
24-35: Your problem-solving
skills
I
ways
to
how you
will
con-
improve your problem-
skills.
are satisfactory
but could be improved.
Source: Adapted with permission from
The Mescon Group,
Inc.,
Techniques for Problem Solving: Leader's Guide (Cincinnati, Ohio:
Thomson
Executive Press, 1995). pp. 11-12.
SKILLS
This
APPLICATION
the third in a series of
is
introduce you to the people
difficult as
1.
skills
5-3: Dealing with Difficult
applications that
who might make your
you journey through
left
student
I
at
a
Southwest Tech:
to like
him. I really liked him and thought we might have a
Most of the time he would say, ''That
me think about it and get hack to
you." When pressured, he would say, '7 really don't
future together.
is
a great idea. Let
many
me up
know. Life seems so complicated. There are too
choices; Vlljust
the wall.
go with the flow." That drove
He felt
that he needed to please everyone by
acting as if each persons latest idea was the best he'd
ever heard.
eat,
Whether
it
was going
go or what he wanted
to see,
came up with sounded
heard.
When
sometimes
as he
a movie or out
it
seemed
like it
to
to
but every alternative I
like the best idea
he had ever
given a choice, he took forever,
was debating the
One
Guess what?
and
was torturing him
inside
trip.
listened to all the details
The day we
all
iiTisnriTii^iffl
met
to go,
made
and acted excited about
he never showed up and
Using the Internet, find
This was
like this.
We
ended up at
his apartment,
was one of the kindest, gentlest people Vd ever met, I
knew that Henry would never make a decision. So I
bunch of us decided to go on a campHenry really acted like he wanted to go.
time, a
ing
it.
munching on some popcorn and watching an old
movie. That was the last straw. Even though Henry
options.
He
it.
to
he never had an opinion of where he wanted
a message saying he couldn't make
Henry was always ''on the bubble. " He could not
make a decision to save his life. He never wanted to
take any action or make a choice that might hurt
someone or make someone else uncomfortable. I
recall another time when we needed to decide where
to spend New Year's Eve. Some of our friends wanted
to go to Holly Hall for dinner and dancing while
others wanted to go to the Savoy for dinner and then
to the Rave for a movie. I told Henry that we needed
to make a decision so that reservations could be
made. One person could persuade him that one idea
was the right way, then I could come along, and he
would just "climb to the other side of the fence" and
agree with me. One minute we were going to Holly
Hall, and the next minute, we were going to the
Savoy. Two hours later, it would be Holly Hall again.
life.
had a friend, Henry, who wanted everyone
"Indecisive" Waffler
not the first time he had done something
life
Read the following statement from Kelly Klemm,
People—The
one. I decided I didn't
I couldn't cope with
at least
have a future with him.
him always
sitting
on the fence.
three sources of information for coping with a
"waffler." Carefully review each site for suggestions.
Based on your findings, what suggestions would you have given to Kelly for coping
with Henry?
Write a one-page paper explaining
how
this skill application increased
ing knowledge of coping with the behaviors of the "waffler."
your work-
180
PART
I
Supervisory Essentials
2
SKILLS
A
long-term customer
tells
you
APPLICATION
that
your competitor
can provide the same service you offer
lower price. The customer wants to
5-4:
An
2
at a significant!)
know whether you
Exercise
in
Brainstorming
Meet with three other people and brainstorm as
many options as you can other than cutting the
price that might meet the customer s needs.
can meet or beat that price. You have the authorit)' to
Analyze the brainstorming
reduce prices, but not to the extent the customer
take
implies.
The competitors
price
is
less
than your
activit)'.
more time than working
Did the process
alone? Did the
process enable you to see a variety of options? Did
breakeven point. You promise to give the matter some
the group generate several options you would not
thought, check with others, and get back with an
have thought of on your own?
answer tomorrow afternoon.
1.
Working
What
alone, take a few minutes to
three reasons the customer
may have
least
list at
for
did you conclude from this exercise about
the benefits and limitations of brainstorming?
wanting
a
price reduction.
APPENDIX
THE FISHBONE PROCESS
The fishbone technique, or cause-and-effect diagram
(see Figure 5.4, on page 163), is a process primarily
associated with Step 1 and Step 2 of the decisionmaking model. It facilitates anaMical understanding by
visually depicting a problem and its probable causes.
One
advantage of this approach
uals see
is
that
it
helps individ-
problems on single sheets of paper and per-
ceive significant relationships
between major causes of
the problem.
GUIDELINES FOR USING THE FISHBONE PROCESS
1.
Once
the problem
the head of the
problem reminds
2.
is
fish.
all
defined, print the
problem on
involved that the goal
is
problem
s
various causes must be identified.
tributing causes
to
is
a
requirement of the process.
solve the problem.
Once
The
on the diagram's horizontal
supervisor, independently or with a problem-
these contributors are identified, print
A
lines to
person's brain works
to the appropriate causes.
problem. This can be done by asking, "What are
by association; grouping contributors
reflects the associative
The diagram
them
connect them
solving team, should identify the causes of the
the factors that cause the problem?"
to causes
nature of the information.
should be limited to a number of major causes,
The diagram does not have
to be perfect as long as
usually classified as people, machines or equip-
everyone understands what
it
ment, materials, methods and procedures, com-
pany
policies,
and management
4.
style. Alternatively,
the latter three causes might be classified broadly as
working conditions. The causes are attached
fins
i.
the
Asking the right questions to uncover the con-
Starting the diagram with the
of the
to the
fish.
Because the supervisor or problem-solving team
usually
represents.
After the information has been entered
on the
gram, the major causes of the problem can be
lated
and
circled
diaiso-
on the diagram.
The fishbone technique has gained acceptance
as
many
organizations have encouraged teams of employees to
will
want additional information, contributors
to
become more involved
in the
problem-solving process.
CHAPTER
Solving Problems: Decision Making and the Supervisor
5
The fishbone diagram helps employees understand
how problem causes relate to each other.
Harold R. McAlindon, a leader in innovative management and author of A Pocket Course in Creative
Thinking {Emeryvitie, CA: Parlay International, 1993),
Also see The Mescon Group,
has stated that the art of drawing or sketching "can
Publishing Company/ITP, 1995), pp. 97-106.
stimulate your thinking and
may
Thomson
causes have been investigated and verified,
Important Aspects (Cincinnati: Boyd
3-BY-5
may
ing, the super\isor
or in addition
to,
on
brainstorm-
to see (e.g.,
"How
to the subgroups.
Each subgroup
for
all
overall
can we reduce the number of
6.
quality'
or costs?").
The supervisor gives each team member a stack of
3-by-5 cards. Each person writes down as many
2.
identifies preferred alternatives
and
then expands them.
The subgroup presents
on the board
employee complaints regarding maintenance without adversely affecting
a 3-by-5 card.
The team is divided into subgroups of three to five
people. The 3-by-5 cards are randomly distributed
use the "3-by-5" technique.
^^Tites the goal
Only
one idea per person may be written anonymously
involves the following steps:
The super\isor
Survey of Its
alternatives as possible in the next 5 minutes.
and decision
Assume an employee sur\^ey has revealed a substantial number of employee complaints regarding
inadequate maintenance assistance. The 3-by-5 process
1.
A
& Fraser
TECHNIQUE
have been established, alternative solutions can
of,
Executive Press, 1995), pp. 28-30, and C.
Carl Pegels, Total Quality Management:
After the problem has been defined, contributors to the
be developed. Instead
Techniques for
Problem Solving: Participant's Guide (Cincinnati:
lead to other ideas."
THE
criteria
Inc.,
181
I
its
recommendations
to the
group or team.
The overall group evaluates which alternatives are
most relevant to solving the problem and how to
implement those alternatives. As alternatives are
implemented, contributors to the causes should be
substantiallv reduced or eliminated.
ENDNOTES
1.
Much has been
WTitten about Appreciative Inquir)' (AI)
since David Cooperrider under the guidance of his Ph.D.
ad\isor, Suresh Srivast^'a, laid out the
2.
and
Law Review 697
(2004),
pp. 697-709.
See David L. Cooperrider and Diana Whitney,
For more information on brainstorming and creative
problem sohing,
Publishers, 1999), p. 10. Also see this chapter's
Faickney), Applied Imagination, 3d rev. ed. (Buffalo:
Contemporar)' Issue box.
Creative Education Foundation, 1993). Also see Alan G.
See Harold Koontz and Heinz Weirich, Management^
(New
McGraw-Hill InNin, 2004),
York:
lohn R. Schermerhorn,
York: lohn Wiley
detailed study
on
lames W. Dean,
&
Ir.,
Making
effectiveness of decision
Ir.,
and Mark
Effectiveness,"
(April 1996), pp.
Management, 8th
p. 143.
(New
ed.
Sons, 2004), pp. 59-64. For a
Decision Process Matter?
4.
for AI.
Problem-Sohing," 87 Marquette
Appreciative Inquiry (San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler
11th ed.
3.
framework
pp. 126-27; and Jennifer G. Brown, "Creativity
A
P.
making, see
Sharfrnan, "Does
Study of Strategic Decision-
Academy of Management Journal
368-96.
and
The New
(2001), p. 14. Also see Rita R. Culross, "Individual
Among
Robinson and Sam
Creative Scientists:
York Paradigm," Roeper Review, 26, 3 (Spring 2004),
Osborn (with Alex
Stern, Corporate Creativity:
How
Innovation and Improvement Actually Happen (San
Francisco: Berrett-Koehler Publishers, 1997). For a
ways to disrupt
"Six
Ways
a
brainstorming session, see
Tom
list
of
Kelley,
to Kill a Brainstormer," Across-the-Board
(March/April2002),
p. 12.
Also see the following for ideas on
how
to "think
outside the box:" Micahle Michalko, Cracking Creativity:
Secrets of a Creative
"Harnessing Employee Creati\ity," The Worklife Report
Contextual Variable
see Alex F.
Genius (Berkeley, CA: Ten Speed
Press, 2001);
and lames C. Adams, Conceptual
Blockbusting:
A
Guide
to Better
Perseus Publishing, 2001).
Ideas (Cambridge,
MA:
182
6.
PART
I
Our
Supervisory Essentials
2
students have found that an Internet search for
See also Kris Maher, "Wanted: Ethical Employer,"
Nominal Group Technique (NGT) proNides a more
expanded discussion than any of the contemporary' management texts. A web page provided by Universit>' of
Wisconsin Professor Randall
Durham
Ethical
NGT works best and pres-
pp. Bl, B8. For a
Bostv-n, "The
Dimensions of Decision Processes of Employees,"
),
pp. 87-99.
For excellent discussions on both the theorv- and practice
of sound business ethics, see .Archie B. Carroll and .\nn
L.
Buchholtz, Business, Gcn'emment
& Society: Ethics
organization for developing animated cartoons, story-
and Stakeholder Management 6th ed. (Mason, OH:
South-Westem, 2006); Joseph W. Weiss, Business Ethics:
Stakeholder & Issues Management, 4th ed Mason,
boarding can be especially helpful in generating alterna-
OH: South-Westem,
that has gained
in recent years
is
called
stor\t>oarding. Originally attributed to Walt Disne\-
tives
and
his
(
and choosing among them. Depending on the nature
of the problem,
may be
it
Business Ethics
Up
the team process
and De\-ebpment (]une
Success," Training
or "Putting the Bang Back in Your
,
2nd
2006); Judith Boss, Perspectives in
ed. (Chicago: Irvsin/ McGraw-Hill,
R
2003); and Lisa H. Harter and David
appropriate to use a neutral
when alternatives, ideas,
and other information are listed on index cards and
arranged on "stor\t)oards." For information on stor\boarding, see James M. Higgins, "Stor>' Board Your Way to
manage
part)' to
Call
-
Schmidt, Wake
2nd ed
Classic Cases in Business Ethics,
(Mason, OH: South-Westem, 2004).
10.
Some management
terms
1995), pp. 13-17,
risk
and
theorists distinguish
uncertaint}- in decision
between the
making. .According
to Stephen Robbins, risk involves conditions in
TQM Program," Journal
the decision
maker can estimate the
which
likelihood of certain
for
Quality and Participation (October /November 1995),
alternatives occurring, usually based
pp.
40-45.
other information that enables the decision maker to
One
and leader (supervisor)
maker has no reasonable probabilin- estimates available
and can only "guesstimate" the likelihood of various
See David D. Henningsen, Marv- Lv-nn Miller
Henningsen, and Ian Bolton, "It's Good to Be Leader:
The Influence of Randomly and Systematically Selected
Leaders on Decision-Making Groups," Group Dynamics:
Theory, Research, and Practice, 8, 1 (2004), pp. 96-1 1 1.
Also see Michael Roberto, UTjy Great Leaders
Yes for
altematives or outcomes. See Stephen
11.
Dont Take
efficient
and productive
"The Best Management Ideas
are Timeless," Supen-ision, 65, 6
(
June 2004), pp. 9-11.
Also see Charles W. Prather and Lisa K. Gundrv", Blueprints
How Creative Processes Can Make You and
Company More Competitive (New York: American
Management .Association, 1995); Oren Harari, "Turn
Your Organization into a Hotbed of Ideas," Management
for Innoi'ation:
Your
12.
and
Creati\-it}- in
David T. Ozar, "The Gold Standard for
Ethical Education
and
Effective Decision
Making
in
Healthcare Organizations," Organizational Ethics:
Healthcare, Business,
pp. 58-63.
and
Policy,
1,
1
(Spring 2004),
See Russ Holloman, "The Light and Dark Sides of
Supen-ision, 65, 5
13.
8. In the
practices. See
(New
Sons, 1958), pp. 10-12. Herbert
1989), pp. 33-34. For a recap of the
Organizations (San Francisco:
wake of numerous business scandals, many job
seekers and recent hires are now more concerned about
whether their employers have high ethical standards and
&
problem -solving
approach, see William W. Hull, "What's the Problem?"
(
Complexit)'
G. March and H. A. Simon, Organizations
Decision Making," Supen-isory Mar:agement (Dccemher
i?me^v December 1995), pp. 37-39; Ralph D. Stacey,
Berrett-Koehler Publishers, 1996).
J.
Robbins,
River, NJ:
Simon developed the normative model of decision
making to identifv- the process that managers actually
use in making decisions. .As opposed to the rational decision model illustrated in Figure 5.2, Simon's normative
model is charaaerized by limited information processing, the use of rules of thumb (intuition) or shortcuts,
and satisficing.
(
L. Stanlev',
See
York: John Wilev
an Answer Philadelphia, PA: Wharton School
For guides to creating a more
P.
Managing Today, 2nd ed (Upper Saddle
Prentice-Hall, 2000), pp. 64-65.
Publishing, 2005).
workforce, see T.
historical data or
Uncertaintv' involves a condition in vshich the decision
selection
processes influence group discussion and decision qualit\'.
on
assign probabilities to each proposed alternative.
study reported that the leader's (supervisors)
access to information
7.
),
Journal of Business Ethics (September, 2001
9.
another t\pe of group brainstorming approach
some acceptance
Julv 9, 2002
Roozen, Patrick DePfelsmacker, and Frank
present similar information.
Still
{
factors influencing ethical decision making, see Irene
identifies the
ents the strengths and weaknesses of the approach. Other
sites
Street Journal
study of various socio-demographic, personal, and other
(http:// instruction,
bus.wsc.edu/obdemo/readings/ngt.html
circumstances under which
The Wall
See Jim Perrone,
(May
2004), pp. 5-7.
"Moving from
Telling to
Empowering,"
Healthcare Executive (September /October 2001
pp.
14.
The
),
60-61.
guidelines were adapted from Robert Kreitner
and
.Angelo Kinicki, Organizational Beha\ior, 3d ed.
(Homewood,
IL:
Richard D. In>in, 1995), pp. 312-13.
most recent release, 6th ed., 2004; and
Kreitner, Foundations of Management: Basics & Best
.Also see their
Practices (Boston, NLA: Houghton-.Mifflin, 2005).
CHAPTER
15.
5
Solving Problems: Decision Making and the Supervisor
For a general overview of several quantitative approaches
to decision
making, see Ricky W.
16.
(Boston: Houghton-Mifflin, 2006), pp. 702-21. For a
comprehensive discussion of problem solving and decision
tive
making
that includes a
number of applied
models and examples, see William
1.
Altier,
(Amherst,
17.
quantita-
The
Problem Solving and Decision Making {New York: Oxford
"Computer
The DISCUSS Model of
Simulation as a Research Tool:
Group Decision Making, Journal of Social
(1988), pp. 393-422.
Psychology, 24
Lifton, Training Clips: 150
MA: HRD
Press, 1998), p. 44.
Reproduced with permission from Don Dewar, Timely
Tips for Teams, a monthly newsletter from QCI
International, 17055 Quailridge Road,
Thinking Manager's Toolbox: Ejfective Processes for
University Press, 1999); and G. Strasser,
Mike Lynch and Harvey
Reproducible Handouts, Discussion Starters, and Aids
Management
Griffin,
183
I
Cottonwood,
CA
96022(530-347-1334).
18.
The
"Self- Awareness
of Problem-Solving
reprinted here with permission.
Inc.,
Skills,"
was
The Mescom Group,
Techniques for Problem-Solving: Participant's Guide
(Cincinnati,
pp. 7-8.
OH: Thomson
Executive Press, 1995),
POSITIVE DISCIPLINE
A
Identify disciplinary situations
that violate standards of
conduct and discuss the
need to confront those
A
situations appropriately.
Discuss the disciplinary
process and approaches that
ensure disciplinary action for
just (proper) cause.
f%
Define and discuss the
application of progressive
discipline.
^^
Explain the "hot stove rule"
approach to
^%
discipline.
Discuss the need to
document
disciplinary
actions and to provide
the right of appeal.
^%
Explain the "discipline
without punishment"
approach as an alternative
to progressive discipline.
r^
Robert Brown
is
manager for Kelmer
unionized manufacturer of
the plant
processes, solved our quality problems, and built a
a
we do has been at the
and this one makes me very angry.
want to fire the whole bunch."
Discussion of the web site spread like a wildfire
through the employee ranks. One member of the
management team remarked, "I had several questions about this at a Rotary meeting this morning.
All
could say was that we're looking into it."
In a meeting with Robert, Attorney Adams, and
HR professional, Jessica Salisbury, the nine employees involved in the investigation at first denied any
knowledge of the photographs. Later, during videotaped interviews and with representation from their
union, four of the men accused Richard Ellis and Jay
Bracey of urging them to keep silent about the photographs. Two other employees alleged that Ellis
and Bracey called them repeatedly and urged them
to lie if asked about the event.
Manufacturing,
cement mixers. Kelmer Manufacturing works Monday
through Friday with two
shifts
and a
operational production
fully
third shift supen/ised
by Richard
of Robert's direct reports. The third
shift
Ellis,
one
provides
maintenance, materials handling, and support for the
other two
shifts.
Robert
efficiency of the third
rarely
shift.
has to worry about the
Nevertheless, his
ment by wandering around (MBWA)
manage-
him to
not to spy
style led
—
on each of the shifts
or investigate but to reward and recognize the contributions of employees. The nine third-shift workers are
drop
periodically
a tight
in
fun-loving group,
knit,
who socialize
frequently
off the job.
Richard
Ellis,
a very likeable twenty-year veteran of
Kelmer Manufacturing, was pleased to announce
his forthcoming wedding to Susan Jones on the
solid reputation. Everything
highest
level,
I
I
in
About the same time that President Biggs
anonymous phone call, Ellis stumbled
upon the web site. "We've got problems," Ellis
heaven. Robert, along with most of the manage-
allegedly told Bracey. "They've got pictures on the
ment team and
Internet.
Friday following Thanksgiving. Jones, divorced with
two grown
children,
According to
Ellis,
it
worked
seemed
third-shift
for a local law firm.
like a
match made
employees, attended the
wedding.
What
are
we going to do?"
member of
Biggs contacted each
December, President Gene Biggs
received an anonymous phone call from someone claiming to have seen men taking pictures of
nude women in his plant. Biggs initially dismissed
the phone call as a prank until Carl Simmons, the
In
received the
early
the board of
and familiarized them with the situation. The
good news that the company was expected to
exceed its fourth-quarter earnings estimates was
clouded by the fact that he had to admit that things
directors
hadn't
gone
as expected.
When
Biggs dropped the
members were
"How
vice president of marketing, reported that a cus-
bombshell, the board
tomer had seen Internet photos of nude women at
what appeared to be the Kelmer plant.
Not knowing the specific Internet site or having
could such a thing have happened?" they wondered.
any other
specifics,
Biggs called
his legal counsel,
Loren Adams. Adams' investigation found 97 pictures
on
a
pornographic
web
site
from the Kelmer
Biggs was appalled.
He
relayed the results of the
Brown and other members of
saying, "Any time there are
unauthorized visitors in the plant, it is wrong. Any
time we're talking about nudity in the plant, it's
investigation to Robert
the
management team,
embarrassing.
One
photos to be taken.
of our supervisors allowed these
We have a
major problem, and
need your help to get this thing
three years,
Biggs instructed Robert to work with
resolved.
we have overhauled
In
I
the past
our manufacturing
Adams
(the
corporate legal counsel) and Jessica Salisbury (the
HR
recommend what disciplinary
He concluded by saying, "People are
us, and don't know how we can correct
professional) to
action to take.
laughing at
I
this public-relations
plant.
stunned.
problem."
The union-management contract provisions
give management the right to discipline for just
cause, but Robert has never had a situation
Figure 6.4
in this
Kelmer Company
sat in the
chapter
like this.
a partial listing of the
is
and regulations. As Robert
lot, thinking about the
few days, he remembered his old
rules
company parking
events of the
last
college instructor's words,
right to discipline
"management has the
employees
for just cause, but
PART
186
2
Supervisory Essentials
among the best employees vy/e have. feel
What should we recommend?" YOU
MAKE THE CALL!
there must be a clearly identifiable and justifiable
They
reason for taking disciplinary action." As he turned
like a failure.
the ignition key to drive honne, Robert thought to
hinaself,
"I
trusted those guys, and they did
are
I
this.
THE BASIS AND IMPORTANCE
Discuss the basis
OF POSITIVE DISCIPLINE
and importance of
positive discipline
in
an organization.
The term
discipline
is
used
Discipline
Many supervisors
in several different ways.
cipline with the use of authority, force, or
punishment. In
consider discipline as a condition of orderliness, that
is,
this text,
associate dis-
however, we
mem-
the degree to which
State of orderliness;
the degree to which
employees act according
bers of an organization act properly and observe the expected standards of behavior.
Positive discipline exists
when employees
to expected standards of
the standards of the organization. Discipline
behavior.
follow organizational rules reluctantly or
generally follow the rules and meet
is
negative, or bad,
when they disobey
when employees
regulations
and
violate
prescribed standards of acceptable behavior.
Positive discipline
Condition that exists when
As Chapter 13
discusses,
morale
is
a
composite of the attitudes and feelings that
employees generally
people have toward their work whereas discipline
follow the organization's
However, there
rules
and meet the
is
some
relationship between morale
is
primarily a state of mind.
and
discipline.
Normally, there
when morale is high; conversely, low morale
number of disciplinary problems. However,
are fewer disciplinary problems
organization's standards.
ally
accompanied by
a higher
is
usu-
a high
Morale
degree of positive discipline could be present despite low morale; this could result
A
from
composite of feelings
and attitudes that
individuals and groups of
workers have toward their
work environment.
insecurity, fear, or sheer force.
It is
unlikely,
employee discipline will be maintained
acceptable level of employee morale.
positive
The
best type of discipline
tially regulate
is
however, that a high degree of
indefinitely unless there
is
an
positive self-discipline, in which employees essen-
themselves out of self-interest. This type of discipline
is
based on the
Positive self-discipline
normal human tendency
Employees regulating
follow reasonable standards of acceptable behavior. Even before they start to work,
their
behavior out of
self-interest
and
their
normal desire to meet
reasonable standards.
to
do what needs
to be done, to
do
one's share,
and
to
most people accept the idea that following instructions and fair rules of conduct are
normal responsibilities of any job.
Positive self-discipline relies on the premise that most employees want to do the
right thing and can be counted on to exercise self-control. They believe in performing their work properly; coming to work on time; following the supervisors
instructions; and refraining from fighting, using drugs, drinking liquor, or stealing.
They know it is natural to subordinate some of their personal interests to the needs
of the organization. As long as company rules are communicated and are perceived
as reasonable, most employees will observe those rules.
POSITIVE EMPLOYEE DISCIPLINE
REQUIRES SUPERVISORY EXAMPLE
some employees who, for one reason or another,
and standards, even after they have been informed
from employers nationwide amounts to billions of dollars
added to other forms of employee dishonesty, including
Unfortunately, there are always
fail
to observe established rules
of them. Employee theft
of loss annually."
When
CHAPTER
6
Positive Discipline
I
187
company time by unwarranted absenteeism and
doing personal business, and socializing on company time, the cost of
employee theft, fraud, and abuse in U.S. businesses was estimated to be in the
according to the
about 6 percent of revenues
range of $600 billion in 2002
Association of Certified Fraud Examiners (ACFE). ACFE, in its 2004 Report to
the Nation on Occupational Fraud and Abuse, reported that owners and execuhabitual misuse or "stealing" of
tardiness,-
—
tives
committed
—
12.4 percent of reported fraud. Executive misfeasance costs
—
more than six times the losses
manager misconduct and 16 times more than employee fraud.
The dishonesty problem is amplified by widespread misuse and abuse of
e-mail and the Internet, which is the focus of the accompanying "Contemporary
organizations on average $900,000 per year
-^
attributed to
Issue" box.^
CONTEMPORARY
ISSUE
doubt that increasing access to
and the Internet has magnified opportunities
for various types of abuse and misuse. In early 2005,
There
is little
e-mail
George Stonecipher's ouster
Boeing, Co., and e-mails helped bring
explicit e-mails led to
as
CEO
down
of
Credit Suisse
First
Boston's tech banker Frank
Quattrone and Merrill Lynch & Co's analyst Henry M.
Blodgett as well as senior executives from Enron.
While various Congressional committees have
been debating new legislation, the last significant
update to workplace privacy law was passed by
Congress in 1986. Information technology has come
a long way since that time. Simply stated, the rules
have not kept pace with the technology. Congress
has been considering
NEMA
(Notice of Electronic
ELECTRONIC FUN AND CAMES: EMPLOYEES
BEWARE! YOUR JOB MAY BE ON THE LINE
monitor or
Internet.
"*
restrict
We
employees that
how
employees' personal usage of the
believe that the employer should notify
surveillance devices
may be
used,
they are being used, and the purpose they are
intended to serve. Employees also should be
assured that any information learned from such surveillance
will
be kept
Stellar Internet
confidential.
Monitoring LLC
application that tracks
employee
sells a
web-based
Internet use to the
tenth of a second. Via the Internet, your boss can
log
on from anywhere, and
pull
up graphs
detailing
the time you dedicated to business-related tasks,
eBay, eTrade, or porn
sites.
Not
surprisingly,
employ-
ees can purchase a StealthSurfer that allows them to
cloak their surfing and e-mail activities from work-
Monitoring Act), which would have obligated com-
place monitoring systems such as
and how their computer
usage is being tracked.^ Most of us have become
accustomed to the following conversation: "Thank
you for calling XYZ Organization. All of our service
conducted by EIron Software of
Cambridge, Massachusetts, 85 percent of respondents indicated that they had used e-maii and the
Internet at work for personal reasons. About half
claimed that they had received inappropriate transmissions, such as pornography and sexist and racist
materials, at work. Already there have been numerous
discrimination and harassment lawsuits because of the
inappropriate use of e-mail. Some companies have
paid huge damage claims because of the transmittal
of extremely offensive material on their systems.''
Although the need for some surveillance seems
obvious, it has brought about complaints and con-
panies to
tell
employees
if
representatives are busy assisting other customers.
Your
important to
call is
us,
so please hold
until
the
next available service representative can help you. This
phone
call
may be monitored
to ensure
and improve
our customer service. Thank you for holding."
Today,
it
is
legal for an
employer to use electronic
devices to monitor employees. Only half the companies that monitor their
employees
let
them
in
on the
secret during training or orientation. According to
the American
Management
Association,
in
1997,
only 15 percent of U.S. companies were monitoring
employees' e-mail. Today, that number has risen to
over 50 percent.^ Further, an estimated 64 percent
of companies surveyed have adopted policies to
In
Stellar's.^
a survey
cerns regarding invasion of workers' privacy rights.
According to Jeremy Gruber, an attorney with the
American Civil Liberties Union, only a couple of
states have laws requiring employers to inform
employees if this type of monitoring will take place.
^
188
PART
I
Comments
2
Supervisory Essentials
if
were an
would be extremely hesitant to do any
kind of personal business at work." Some companies
do allow employees to "surf the Web" during lunch
time and after hours, provided they follow strict
Gruber, "Under current law,
employee,
company
I
I
rules
concerning such
work hours and do not engage
activities
in
during
It would appear
have to specify more
lewd, or offensive transmissions.
that
many more companies
will
what is and is not permissible. Regardless,
employees should understand that someone may be
watching them electronically and that they need to
clearly
remain professional or
risk
losing their jobs.
pornographic.
Stephen Baker and Brian Grow, "Scandals- A Painful Lesson: E-Mail is Forever," Business Week (March 21, 2005), p. 36. (2) Bill Leonard,
HR Magazine (July 2005), pp. 34-35. (3) Lucas Conley, "The Privacy Arms Race," Fast Company (July 2004),
pp. 27-28. (4) "Keeping Tabs on Ennployees Online," 6us/ness Week (February 19, 2001), p. 18. (5) Op.cit, Conley, p. 28. (6) Bill Leonard, "e-Mail
@ Work: Ripe for Employee Abuse," HR Magazine (June 1999), p. 28. (7) Michael Stroh, "Workers Beware: Big Browser May Be Watching You," as
Sources:
"New
(1)
Business E-Mail Rules Proposed,"
published
in
the
St.
Louis Post Dispatch (August 18, 1999), pp. El, E4.
supemsors should maintain a balanced permost of their cues for
self-discipline from their supervisors and managers (see Figure 6.1). Ideally, positive self-discipline should exist throughout the management team, beginning at the
top and extending through all supervisors. Supervisors should not expect their
employees to practice positive self-discipline if they themselves do not set good
examples. As we have stated several times previously, a supervisor's actions and
Despite such unfortunate
statistics,
spective since employees at the departmental level will take
behavior are easy targets for employees to either emulate or
reject.
Further,
supervisor can encourage the vast majorit)' of employees in the department to
if
the
show
a strong sense of self-discipline, those employees usually will exert group pressure
on the dissenters. For example, if a no-smoking rule is posted for a building, usually someone in the work group will enforce this rule by reminding smokers to leave
the premises before lighting a cigarette. As a result, the need for corrective action by
the supervisor is reduced when most employees practice positive self-discipline.
Oren Fiarari, a professor and management consultant, has commented that good
employee discipline mostly depends on the supervisor's daily behavior and on decisions being aligned in the same positive direction and with consistency of actions.
FIGURE
6.1
Self-discipline
must
exist
at the supervisory level
before
it
exists at the
employee
level.
CHAPTER
6 Positive Discipline
I
189
He states, "Discipline is the daily grind that makes things happen and lets people
know that you're worthy of your word. In short, it's about honor and integrity."^
IDENTIFYINO AND CONFRONTING
DISCIPLINARY SITUATIONS
e
Identify disciplinary
situations that violate
Because individuals do not always agree on what are acceptable standards of con-
managers must define the standards for supervisors and employees.
In many companies, standards are defined in statements of ethical codes and rules
duct, top-level
standards of conduct and
discuss the need to
confront those situations
appropriately.
of conduct.
ETHICAL CODES
In Chapter
1,
we
POLICIES
discussed ethical considerations, and in the preceding chapter,
introduced ethical
many
AND
tests
and guidelines
making.
for decision
We
mentioned
we
that
organizations have developed statements of ethical standards or ethical
codes.^ Such codes usually outline in broad, value-oriented terms the
norms and
supposed to guide everyone in the organization. Figure 6.2 is an
example of a corporate code of ethics. The nine principles of this code are expanded
on in a policy manual that guides employees concerning the meaning of those prinideals that are
ciples
A
ments
and the importance of comphing with them.
code of ethics alone does not ensure ethical conduct. Some codes are docuthat primarily outline legal requirements
and
restrictions,
only limited guidance for solving moral and ethical dilemmas
at
and they provide
work.' In a survey
of human resources professionals, more than half of respondents stated that during
the previous year they had observed workplace conduct that was unlawful or that
violated the employer's standards of ethical business conduct.
dents further stated that they had been pressured
managers
to
compromise
at
Almost half of respon-
times by other employees or
their organization's business ethics standards to achieve
business objectives.^
FIGURE
CODE OF ETHICS
Corporate
and ethics exist in the individual, or they do not exist. They must be
upheld by individuals, or they are not upheld. For integrity and ethics to be characteristics of the corporation, employees must strive to be:
Integrity
Honest and trustworthy
Reliable
Truthful
in
in all
our relationships
carrying out assignments
and accurate
in
Cooperative and constructive
and considerate
other people
Fair
Law-abiding
in all
in
our
responsibilities
in all
work
our treatment of fellow employees, customers, and
activities
Committed
to accomplishing
Economical
in
using
and
what we say and write
company
all
tasks
in
a superior
way
resources
Dedicated to serving our country and to improving the quality of
in which we live
world
life in
the
all
Ethics
6.1
Code
of
190
I
PART
2 Supervisory Essentials
Because ethical standards and ethical behavior can be interpreted in var\ang
ways,
some
firms have developed their ethical codes and policies with major input
some major firms have estabwhich
employees are encouraged to
lished hotlines or ethics-reporting systems by
from teams of employees and
superx'isors.*^ Further,
whom
report questionable situations or individuals
improperly, or
cally,
illegally.
investigates the allegations
These firms may have
and takes appropriate
a
they believe are acting unethi-
ombudsman" who
"corporate
action.
The person who reported
the alleged wrongdoing, usually called a "whistle-blower," should be afforded
anonymity. There
is
is
supposed
to be
no
retaliation, regardless
substantiated by facts and evidence.'" In this regard,
a hotline or
ment
when
to
it
the system credible, that
both to deal firmly with wrongdoing
is,
reported and, further, to prevent retaliation against a messenger
unwelcome message." Of
delivers an
malice
of whether the report
generally recognized that
an ethics-reporting system requires top-level management's commit-
make
is
it is
may
require a disciplinar\'
unfounded or
response by management.
course, an
In addition to the preceding tools,
some
who
a false report with
firms have developed statements and
policies for addressing conflicts of interest; these statements
may be
part of, or in
addition to, ethical codes. Conflict-of-interest statements usually define situations
and employee behaviors
flicts
of interest. In the
ethical behavior
an individual's primar)' obliga-
that are inconsistent with
tions to the employer. Figure 6.3
is
an excerpt from one
final analysis, a firm's
must go
far
beyond
just
firm's statement
commitment
on con-
to high standards of
codes and policy statements.
An
ethical
commitment requires ever)'one in the organization, especially those in management and supervision, to show daily, by word and deed, that behaving ethically at
work is not optional. There is ample evidence that good ethics means good business, which was stated eloquently by Nicholas Moore, retired Global Chairwoman
of PricewaterhouseCoopers (PWc), as follows:
When companies stand up for what's
impact. Positive in terms of who
it
right,
attracts,
cal environments. It simplifies decision
FIGURE
in
and day out,
it
has a positive
because good people want
making.
to
work
We know what we wont e\'en
in ethi-
think
6.3
CONFLICTS OF INTEREST
Excerpt From a Conflictof-interest Policy
Statement
day
—
Employees are duty bound and obligated to act
lawful and ethical interests of the company.
at
all
times
—
in
the best
Employees are specifically prohibited from using their positions with the company for personal gain, favor, or advantage. For example, this specifically prohibits any unauthorized or personal use of official stationery; news-release
masthead; logo; or any other forms, labels, envelopes, and so on bearing the
name
or logo of the
company
or any of
its
subsidiaries.
Employees are expected to avoid relationships that might interfere with the
proper and efficient discharge of their duties or that might be inconsistent
with their obligations of loyalty to the company. For example, if an employee,
a close relative, or any other person with whom the employee has a close personal relationship has a financial interest in an organization that does business
or competes with the company, a conflict of interest may exist. Also, there
may be a conflict if an employee or a close relative or any other person with
whom the employee has a close personal relationship engages in certain
transactions with; renders services to; or accepts payments, loans, or gifts from
the company, vendors, contractors, or competitors.
CHAPTER
6
Positive Discipline
I
191
in the process, we earn the respect of our competitors, our cHents,
and our people. In the long term, that's very, very important. So ethical behavior is at
the core of the way we do business, and it's the only way we're going to do business.^-
about doing. And,
RULES OF
Not every organization has
a published
CONDUCT
code of ethics or contlict-of-interest statement.
and probably most other firms and organizations,
have some formal statements or lists of rules of behavior to which employees are
However,
virtually ever)' large firm,
expected to conform.
In
Chapter
to cover
many
we
7,
and
discuss the need for policies, procedures, methods,
rules
aspects of ongoing operations. These tools are vital in informing
employees which standards of behavior are expected and which behaviors are
unacceptable.
Most organizations
These
lists
are
give their employees wTitten
sometimes
included in
\dded as separate booklets or as
lists
of rules or codes of conduct.
employee handbooks; sometimes they are pro-
memoranda posted
must
in departments. Super\dsors
ensure that employees read and understand general and departmental rules, which
may
include
and technical
safet)'
regulations,
depending on a department's
Written rules and regulations provide
common
a
basis
acti\it)'.
and standards
that
Some organizations
may include classifica-
should help the super\isor encourage employee self-discipline.
provide
ver)- detailed lists
of rules and infractions; these
lists
tions of the likely penalties for violations. Other organizations, probably most,
prefer to
lations.
their
list
Such
a
major
list
rules
and regulations but not the consequences of rule vio6.4. Regardless of what ty^pe of list is used, the
appears in Figure
FIGURE 6.4
COMPANY
The
efficient
RULES
AND RECULATIONS
Partial List of
operation of our plants and the general welfare of our employees
require certain uniform standards of behavior. Accordingly, the following offenses
are considered violations of these standards.
this
Employees who refuse to accept
guidance subject themselves to appropriate disciplinary action.
Habitual tardiness and absenteeism
Theft or attempted theft of
company
Fighting or attempting bodily injury
or another employee's property
upon another employee
Horseplay, malicious mischief, or any other conduct affecting the rights of
other employees
Intoxication or drinking
sible to
perform work
on the job or being
in
a condition that
makes
it
impos-
satisfactorily
Refusal or failure to perform assigned work or refusal or failure to
comply with
supervisory instructions
Inattention to duties; carelessness
in
performance of duties; loafing on the
job, sleeping, or reading non-work-related material during working hours
Violation of published safety or health rules
Possessing, consuming,
on the premises
selling, or
being under the influence of
illegal
drugs
Unauthorized possession of weapons, firearms, or explosives on the premises
Requests for sexual favors, sexual advances, and physical conduct of a sexual
nature toward another employee on the premises
Kelmer
Manufacturing Rules and
Regulations
'
192
I
PART
2 Supervisory Essentials
supervisor is the person most responsible for the consistent appHcation and
enforcement of company and departmental rules. In fact, the degree to which
employees follow corporate rules in a positive, self-disciplined way is usually more
attributable to the supervisor s role and example than to any other factor.
Rules of conduct and policy statements in employee handbooks and manuals
and change because of legal problems and interpretaWhile the review and revision of employee handbooks are usually the respon-
are often subject to review
tions.
sibility
of
human
resources
staff,
supervisors should be ver)' familiar with the
content of employee handbooks. Super\'isors should not hesitate to suggest revisions
when
those revisions appear justified.'
CONFRONTINO DISCIPLINARY SITUATIONS
Despite their best efforts to prevent infractions, supervisors will
situations requiring
some
t\^e of disciplinar\' action.
at
times confront
Among the most common sit-
uations requiring super\isor)' disciplinary' actions are:
Infractions of rules regarding time schedules, rest periods, procedures, safety,
and so forth
Excessive absenteeism or tardiness
Defective or inadequate
work performance
Poor attitudes that influence the work of others or damage the
firm's public
image
A supervisor ma)' at times experience open insubordination, such as an employee's
work assignment. A super\'isor may even confront dis-
refusal to earn' out a legitimate
stemming from employee beha\'ior off the job. For example, an
employee may have a drinking problem or may be taking illegal drugs. Whenever an
employee's off-the-job conduct affects on-the-job performance, the superx'isor must
ciplinan' problems
be prepared to respond to the problem appropriately. In Chapter
number of wa\'s
to help employees with personal
and
\\'ork-related
Situations that require disciplinan^ action are unpleasant, but the
have the courage to deal with those situations.
when
A
If
13,
we
discuss a
problems.
supemsor must
the super\'isor does not take action
required, borderline emplo\'ees might be encouraged to
tr)'
some of the
supervisor should be unafraid to draw on
similar Wolations.
authority inherent in
it might be easier to overlook the matter or
managers or the human resources department.
Super\dsors who ask the human resources department to assume all departmental
disciplinar)' problems shirk their responsibilit)' and undermine their own authority.
the supervisor)' position, even though
to pass the matter to higher-level
Normally, good supervisors
When
such action
matter
how
O
is
unpleasant the task
action for iust
(proper) cause.
have to take disciplinar)' action infrequently.
may
no
be.
THE DISCIPLINARY PROCESS
AN D U ST C AU S E
J
p°o^« In'dtp^o'irs
that ensure disciplinary
will
necessary, however, the supervisor should be ready to act,
_
Super\'isors
...
.....
.
,
must mitiate any disciphnan' action with
The purpose of disciplinar)'
...
sensitivit)'
,
i
•
j
and sound judgment.
action should not be to punish or to seek revenge but to
improve employees' behavior. In other words, the primary purpose of disciplinar)action is to prevent similar infractions. In this chapter, we do not consider directly
CHAPTER
6 Positive Discipline
Every supervisor
193
I
will
confront situations that
require
some type
of
disciplinary action.
those situations in which union contracts
disciplinary action. Chapter 9
labor unions.
The
may
restrict the
supervisor s ability to take
and Chapter 16 cover the
ideas discussed here apply generally to
special considerations of
most unionized and non-
unionized organizations.
DISCIPLINARY ACTION
SHOULD HAVE JUST CAUSE
Most employers accept
the general premise that disciplinary action taken against an
employee should be based on "just cause." Just cause, or "proper cause," means that
the disciplinary action meets certain tests of fairness and elements of normal due
process, such as proper notification, investigation, sufficient evidence, and a penalty
commensurate with the nature of the infraction. Figure 6.5 lists eight questions
arbitrators ask in union /management disciplinary-type grievance matters. A "no"
answer to one or more of these questions means that the just cause standard was not
fully met. As a result, the arbitrator or court might set aside or modify manage-
ment's disciplinary action.
The preponderance of labor-union contracts specify a just-cause or proper
cause standard for discipline and discharge. Similarly, many cases decided by government agencies and by the courts have required employers to prove that disciplinary actions taken against legally protected employees (discussed in Chapter 14)
were not discriminatory but were for
native dispute resolution
(ADR)
something approximating
ters.'^
it,
just cause.
Even under various forms of alter-
(discussed in Chapter 16), a just-cause standard, or
typically
is
applied in resolving disciplinary case mat-
For a number of years, some U.S. government offices have used a mandatory
alternative dispute-resolution system,
extend mandatory
sectors.'-' If this
ADR for certain
should take place,
and there have been
legislative
proposals to
types of disputes in both the public and private
it
would seem almost
certain that a just-cause
Just cause
Standard for disciplinary
action requiring tests of
and elements of
normal due process, such
as proper notification,
fairness
investigation, sufficient
evidence, and a penalty
commensurate with the
nature of the infraction.
.
194
I
FIGURE
PART
2 Supervisory Essentials
6.5
Eight Tests for Just
EICHT TESTS FOR JUST CAUSE
Cause
Did the company give the employee forewarning of the possible or probable
disciplinary consequences of the employee's behavior? (Give Advance
1
Warning)
Was
2.
the company's rule or managerial order reasonably related to
and safe operation
(a)
company's business and
performance the company might properly expect of the employee?
Expectations - Everyone Needs to Know the Rules of the Game)
orderly, efficient,
of the
the
(b)
the
(Clarify
Did the company, before administering discipline to an employee, make an
discover whether the employee did, in fact, violate or disobey a rule
3.
effort to
or an order of
Was
4.
management?
(Investigate Immediately)
the company's investigation conducted
fairly
and objectively? (Be
Objective)
was there substantial evidence or proof that the employee
charged? (Analyze the Evidence)
After investigation,
5.
was
guilty as
Has the company applied
6.
its
rules, orders,
and penalties evenhandedly and
without discrimination? (Be Consistent, Uniform, and Impersonal)
Was
7.
the degree of discipline administered by the
reasonably related to
(b)
(a)
company
in
a particular case
the seriousness of the employee's proven offense and
the record of the employee's service with the
company? (Punishment
in
Relation to the Offense)
Has the company kept records of the offense committed, the evidence, and
8.
the decision made, including the reasoning involved
in the decision? (Cover
Your Back Side - Be Sure to Document Specifically the Who, What, Where,
When, Why and How)
Source: Presented here with permission from Edwin C. Leonard,
ment: 2Tst Century Challenges (Thomson, 2005),
by arbitrator
Carroll R. Daugherty.
p. 133.
They are included
in
Jr.,
Seven
tests
many
texts
and Roy A. Cooi<, Human Resource Managewere originally adapted from a list suggested
and arbitral citations.
Standard would prevail throughout most firms and organizations. Although the
ramifications of a just-cause standard for disciplinary action can be rather complicated, the guidelines presented in this chapter are consistent with the principles
and
requirements needed to justify any disciplinary or discharge action. The supervisor
who
follows these guidelines conscientiously should be able to meet a just-cause
standard, regardless of whether the case involves a unionized firm, a nonunionized
organization, or a potential area of legal discrimination.'^
PRECAUTIONARY QUESTIONS AND MEASURES
As a
first
undue
consideration in any disciplinary situation, a supervisor should guard against
haste or unwarranted action based
on emotional response. A super\asor
should answer and follow a number of precautionary questions and measures before
deciding on any disciplinary action in response to an employee s alleged offense.
INVESTIGATE THE SITUATION
Before doing anything
else,
the supervisor should investigate what
happened and
why. The questions in the accompanying "Supervisory Tips" box can serve as a
checklist as supervisors consider
what to do.
CHAPTER
For certain gross violations, such as stealing,
illegal
may
substance use, and violence, an organization
call in
law-enforcement authorities to
and take appropriate
gate
action.
s
determine
Checklist of Questions to Ask
During a Disciplinary Investigation
the violations,
particularly in matters involving theft. Polygraph
use,
however, has been restricted by a 1988 federal
law.
This statute prohibits
random polygraph
1.
if
wrongdoing to use
a polygraph
2.
which
may
An
4.
outside private investigator
be hired to conduct electronic surveillance or
cover "employee." The supervisor
However, a recent
to have
an outside
5.
taking
if the
required
if
Did the employee know the rule or standard?
What
is
the employee's disciplinary record, length
and performance
How does
When
tests
one
is
injured
on
Is all
clinic
cerning employee privac)' and
the results
may be
employee
same offense?
If
react
not,
the necessary documentation available
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
the job,
firms require the employee to take a drug-and-alcohol screening
an occupational-health
this
case the matter leads to outside review?
usually are given by a qualified person in the firm's first-aid
at
Does the
is it
similar nature?
6.
an inquir\' could lead to an ad\'erse
an employee
level?
Should the employee receive the same treatment
termination, or job movement.'^
many
intol-
present alleged offense from past offenses of a
or probe alleged
decision against an employee, such as discipline,
the offense (minor, major, or
possible to establish a basis for differentiating the
company intends
part)' investigate
is
others have had for the
workplace or other wTongdoings. Such disclosure
is
serious
or loss of temper?
federal regulation requires
employers to notify w^orkers
is
to criticism?
may or may not
is
direct or circumstantial evidence, or
offense indicate carelessness, absentmindedness,
perhaps become part of the workplace as an under-
place.''
How
of service,
be informed that such surveillance
and are they
can the alleged offense
Does the employee have a reasonable excuse,
and are there any extenuating circumstances?
may even be
of possible wrongdoing requires some form of personnel sur\'eillance.
is,
involved?
3.
decided that investigation
it is
facts available,
Were others involved in or affected by
the offense? Were company funds or equipment
is
situations in
most of the
erable)?
part,
sultation ^\^th legal counsel. There
or
the allegation based merely on suspicion?
do not decide to use a polygraph; such a
made by someone in higher-level management or on the human resources staff after conmost
all
be proved by
test-
certain safeguards are met. Supervisors, for the
decision
Are
reported accurately? That
ing but permits an employer with "reasonable suspicion" of employee
PERVISORY TIPS
u
Some firms employ
who committed
195
I
investi-
consultants to administer poh'graph tests in an
effort to
6 Positive Discipline
where the employee
is
room
test.
treated. Safeguards
test result validation usual!)' are
Such
or by some-
con-
followed although
used as part of management's investigation and decision-making
process.'^
INVESTICATORY INTERVIEWS
As part of the supendsor's investigation of an alleged infraction, it may be necessary
to question the employee involved as well as other employees who may have relevant information. In general, such interviews should be conducted privately and
individually, perhaps with a guarantee of confidentialit)'. These situations are usually less threatening to employees who may other^\'ise be reluctant to tell what they
know. Such situations also help prevent employees from being unduly influenced
by another's version or interpretation.
If a union employee is to be interviewed concerning a disciplinary matter, that
employee may ask that a union representative or coworker be present during the
interview. Normally, the supervisor should grant such a request.
Under
federal
labor law, a union employee has the right to have a union representative present
in
196
PART
2
Supervisory Essentials
during an investigator)' interview
may lead
if
the employee reasonably believes the investiga-
However, a union representative or coworker
cannot disrupt an investigatory inteniew or answer questions for the employee
tion
to disciplinary action,-"
under investigation. Of course,
supervisor
is
if
the employee
is
to have a witness present, the
well advised to have a fellow supervisor present to serve as a super\i-
sory witness to the interview.
nonunion employee
Occasionally, a
will ask that a fellow
worker or another
supervisory witness be present during an investigatory interview. Recent court decisions have generally extended to nonunionized employees the right to have
coworkers present in investigator)' interxiews that
may
W^hen
lead to discipline.
faced with such a request, the supervisor should probably consult with the
human
resources department or a higher-level manager for guidance. Normally, such a
may be
request should be granted, but there
reasons such a request should be
denied and /or the interview voided.-'
Most of
throughout
the principles of interviewing
this text
apply to investigator)'
and effective communication discussed
intemewing. The supervisor should ask
both directive and nondirective questions that are designed to
about what happened and why. Above
judgments
until
all
all,
elicit specific
the super\'isor should avoid
answers
making
final
interviews have been conducted and other relevant information
assembled.
MAINTAINING SELF-CONTROL
Regardless of the severit)' of an employee's violation, a super\'isor must maintain
self-control. This
does not
mean
a super\'isor
halfheartedly or indifferently, but
if
should face a disciplinar)' situation
supervisors
feel in
danger of losing control of
their tempers or emotions, those supervisors should delay the
views and take no action until they regain control.
compromise
investigator)' inter-
A supervisor's loss of self-control
and objective judgment.
Generally, a supervisor should never lay a hand on an employee in any way.
Except for emergencies, when an employee has been injured or becomes ill, or when
employees who are fighting must be separated, any physical gesture could easily be
or display of anger could
misunderstood.
A
defense, normally
supervisor
is
who
fair
engages in physical violence, except in
subject to disciplinar)' action
self-
by higher-level management.
PRIVACY IN DISCIPLINING
When
supervisors decide
on
disciplinar)' actions, they
actions to the offending employees in private.
A
should communicate those
public reprimand not only can
humiliate the employee in the eyes of coworkers but also can erode department
morale or inspire
plinar)' action
is
a grievance.
If,
in the
opinion of other employees, a public
too severe for the violation, the disciplined
disci-
employee might emerge
as a mart)T.
Many union
contracts require that employees
who
are to be disciplined for
infractions have the right to have union representatives present. If this
is
desirable to have
more than one management person
the supervisor's superior,
present
and perhaps the human resources
both management and the union have witnesses to the
when
(e.g.,
is
the case,
it
the supervisor,
director).
As
a result,
disciplinar)' action,
even
that action takes place in a private area.
Only under extreme circumstances should
public. For example, a supervisor s authority
disciplinar)' action
may be
be taken
in
challenged directly and openly
CHAPTER
6
Positive Discipline
I
197
by an employee who repeatedly refuses to carry out a reasonable work request, or
an employee may be drunk or fighting on the job. In these cases, the super\qsor
must reach a disciplinary decision quickly (e.g., send the offending employee home
on suspension pending further investigation). Supervisors may have to act in the
presence of other employees to regain control of situations and to maintain their
respect.
DISCIPLINARY TIME ELEMENT
When
a supervisor decides to
impose
discipline, the question arises as to
the violation should be held against the offending employee. Generally,
how
long
minor or
intermediate offenses should be disregarded after a year or so has elapsed since
those offenses were committed. Therefore, an employee with a record of defective
work might be given a "clean bill of health" by subsequently compiling a good
record for sbc months or one year. Some companies have adopted "point systems"
to cover certain infractions, especially absenteeism and tardiness. Employees can
have points removed from their records if they have perfect or acceptable attendance during
In
some
later periods.
situations,
time
is
of no importance. For example,
caught brandishing a knife in a heated argument
worr)' about the
enough
punishment period or previous
immediate discharge.
at
if
an employee
is
work, the supervisor need not
offenses.
Such an
act
is
serious
to warrant
PRACTICING PROCRESSIVE DISCIPLINE
Define and discuss the
Unless a serious violation, such as stealing, physical violence, or gross insubordina-
application of progressive
been committed, rarely is the offending employee discharged for a first
offense. Although the t)'pe of disciplinary action varies according to the situation,
many organizations practice progressive discipline, which increases the severity^ of
discipline.
tion, has
the penalt)' wath each offense.
The following
stages
compose
a system of progressive
Progressive discipline
Systenn of disciplinary
action that increases the
disciplinan^ action:
severity of the penalty with
each offense.
Informal discussion with the employee
Oral warning including counseling
Written w^arning
Disciplinar)^ layoff (suspension)
Transfer or demotion
Discharge
Figure 6.6 details a company's progressive discipline policy and Figure 6.7
illus-
trates its use.
EARLY STACES IN PROGRESSIVE DISCIPLINE
Many disciplinary situations can be handled solely or primarily by the super\dsor
without escalating those situations to difficult confrontations. In the early stages of
progressive discipline, the supendsor communicates with the employee about the
problem and how
to correct
it.
198
I
PART
2
Supervisory Essentials
FIGURE 6.6
A Hospital's Progressive
Disciplinary Policy
CORRECTIVE ACTION POLICY
Corrective action shall progress from verbal counseling to written reprimand, sus-
pension, and termination.
All
actions shall reference the policy or procedure that
has been violated, the adverse consequence resulting from the violation, the
type of behavior expected
taken
shall
if
in
the future, and the corrective action that
further violations occur.
A copy
of the
will be
completed corrective action form
be given to the employee.
Following are guidelines for the corrective action procedure:
•
—
Verbal counseling shall be given for all minor violations of
and policies. More than two verbal counseling sessions in the
past 12-month period regarding violations of any rules or policies warrants a
Verbal counseling
hospital rules
written reprimand.
•
Written reprimand
—Written reprimands
infractions or for first-time occurrences of
mands
is
•
shall
be given
more
for
repeated minor
serious offenses. Written repri-
be documented on the "Notice of Corrective Action" form, which
shall
signed by the department head or supervisor and the employee.
—
Suspension An employee shall be suspended without pay for one to four
scheduled working days for a critical or major offense or for repeated minor or
serious offenses.
•
pital rules
—
An employee may be terminated for repeated violations of hosand regulations or for first offenses of a critical nature.
Termination
INFORMAL DISCUSSION
If the offense is relatively
and informal
minor and the employee has no disciplinarv' record, a friendly
up the problem in many cases. During this talk, the super-
talk will clear
visor should try to determine the underlying reasons for the
employee s unacceptable
conduct. At the same time, the super\isor should reaffirm the employees sense of
responsibility
FIGURE 6.7
A disciplinary-action
program often begins
talk. With
with informal
repeated offenses,
penalties
severe.
become more
and acknowledge previous good behavior. Regardless of the
offense, the
CHAPTER
6 Positive Discipline
I
199
FIGURE 6.8
Supervisors should
record information on a
regular basis.
We
suggest you begin
with a blank sheet of
paper and answer the
following questions.
supenisor should "date, place, and time group'' the incident.
incident, their
names also should be noted. See Figure
6.8 for
If
an
others witnessed the
illustration
of the
tx-pe
of information the supenisor should record.
ORAL WARNING
If a friendly talk
does not take care of the situation, the next step
is
to give the
employee an oral warning (sometimes kno\vn as verbal counseling). Here the superWsor emphasizes in a straightfonvard manner the undesirabilit)' of the employee s
repeated \iolation. While the super\isor should stress the preventive purpose of discipline, the supervisor also
more
oral
should emphasize that unless the employee improves,
serious disciplinan- action
warning
is
made
\\ill
be taken. In some organizations, a record of this
in the emplo)'ee's
given
on
frle.
Alternatively, the super\isor
book
wTite a brief note in a supervisor)^ log
a particular date. This can be
to
document
important e\'idence
that
if
may
simply
an oral warning was
the employee
commits
another infraction.
At times, a supenisor
may believe
be put in writing so that the message
is
that the substance of \erbal counseling should
documented and, more
likely, is
the employee. In such a situation, the supenisor ma)' resort to what
is
impressed on
called a letter
Such a letter should clearly state that it is not a formal disciplinary
document and that its priman' purpose is to reiterate to the employee \vhat was communicated verbally by the supenisor. In general, letters of clarification tend to apply
of
clarification.
200
I
PART
2
Supervisory Essentials
most often when dealing with minor employee infractions in the early stages of progressive disciplined^ If oral warnings and letters of clarification are carried out skillfully, many employees will respond and improve at this stage. The employee must
understand that improvement is expected and that the supervisor
employee can improve and is ready to help the employee do so.
believes the
WRITTEN WARNING
A
written warning contains a statement of the violation and the potential conse-
quences of future violations.
It is
a formal
document
becomes
that
a
permanent part
of the employees record. The supervisor should review with the employee the
nature of this written warning and should once again stress the need for improve-
ment. The employee should be placed on notice that future infractions or unacceptable conduct will lead to
more
serious discipline, such as suspension or
discharge.
Written warnings are particularly necessary
in
unionized organizations because
they can serve as evidence in grievance procedures. Such documentation also
important
if
the employee
is
a
member
of a legally protected group. The employee
usually receives a duplicate copy of the written warning,
the
human
is
resources department. Figure 6.9
is
and another copy is sent to
warning used by a super-
a written
market chain. This form even provides space for the supervisor to note if the
employee refuses to sign it.
Even at this stage in the disciplinary process, the supervisor should continue to
express to the employee a belief in the employee's ability to improve and the supervisor's willingness to help in whatever way possible. The primary goal of disciplinary
action up until discharge should be to help the employee improve and add value.
ADVANCED STAGES
IN PROGRESSIVE DISCIPLINE
Unfortunately, not every employee responds to the supervisor's counseling and
warnings to improve job behavior. In progressive discipline, more serious disciplinary actions may be administered for repeated violations, with discharge being the
final step.
DISCIPLINARY LAYOFF (SUSPENSION)
If
an employee has offended repeatedly and previous warnings were of no
avail, a
disciplinary layoff would probably constitute the next disciplinary step. Disciplinary
layoffs involve a loss
of pay and usually extend from one day to several days or
weeks. Because a disciplinary layoff involves loss of pay, most organizations limit a
supervisor's authority at this stage.
mend
a disciplinary layoff.
The
agers after consulting with the
Most supervisors can only initiate or recommust then be approved by higher-level man-
layoff
human
Employees who do not respond to
resources department.
oral or written
warnings usually find
a disci-
The layoff may restore in them the need to
and regulations. However, managers in some
disciplinary measures. They believe that laying
plinary layoff to be a rude awakening.
comply with the organization's rules
organizations seldom apply layoffs as
off trained employees will hurt their production, especially in times of labor short-
managers reason that the laid-off employees may return in an
even more unpleasant frame of mind. Despite this possibility, in many employee
situations, disciplinary layoffs are an effective disciplinary measure.
ages. Further, these
CHAPTER
6
Positive Discipline
I
201
FIGURE 6.9
EMPLOYEE CORRECTIVE ACTION NOTICE
name
Employee's
Wntten Warning Used By
^ Supermarket Chain
Date of notice
Job
Store Address
This notice
Dept.
Store #
First
is a:
Second warning Third warning
warning
D
Reason
n
Classification
for corrective action:
Final
D
D
warning
D
(Check below)
Z
Cooperation/interest
Cash
register
D
Insubordination
discrepancy
D
Quality/quantity of work
Z
Dress code
D
Time-card violation
n
Tardiness/absenteeism
Z
Disregard for safety
Z
Other cause(s)
(Explain)
accompany reason checked above:
Explanation must
HEREBY SIGNIFY THAT HAVE RECEIVED A FULL EXPLANATION OF MY FAILURE TO PERFORM AS EXPECTED. THE COMPANY AND UNDERSTAND THAT
FURTHER FAILURE ON MY PART WILL BE DUE CAUSE FOR DISCIPLINARY
ACTION UP TO, AND INCLUDING, DISCHARGE.
I
I
I
Employee's signature
Date
Supervisor's signature
Date
Store manager's signature
Date
REFUSAL OF EMPLOYEE TO SIGN THIS NOTICE SHOULD BE SO NOTED HEREON.
Note: Prepare original and four copies. Send original and one copy to the
Send one copy
to the store
manager and one copy to the employee.
Retain
human
resources director.
one copy.
TRANSFER
Transferring an employee to a job in another department t^-pically involves no loss
of pay. This disciplinar)' action
to
be experiencing
difficulty
is
usually taken \shen an offending employee seems
working for
a particular supervisor,
rent job, or associating uith certain employees.
the employee
When
jobs with the
the
if
the employee adjusts to the
transfers are
new
made
The
transfer
working
in a cur-
may markedly improve
new department and the
ne^\•
supervisor.
primarily to give employees a final chance to retain their
company, those employees should be told
job or be subject to discharge.
Of
that they
course, the supervisor
must improve
who
in
accepts the
transferred employee should be informed of the circumstances surrounding the
transfer. This
information helps the supervisor
the transferred employee.
facilitate a successful transition for
202
I
PART
2
Supervisory Essentials
DEMOTION
Another disciplinary measure, the value of which is questionable, is demotion
(downgrading) to a lower-pa)ing job. This course of action is likely to bring about
dissatisfaction and discouragement because losing pay and status over an extended
period is a form of ongoing punishment. The dissatisfaction of the demoted employee
also can spread to other employees. Therefore, most organizations avoid demotion as
a disciplinar)' action.
Demotion should be used only
or discharge
is
is
in
unusual situations in which disciplinary layoff
not a better alternative. For example,
when
a long-ser\'ice
not maintaining the standards of work performance required
employee may accept a demotion
and other accrued benefits.
as
employee
in a certain job, this
an alternative to discharge to retain seniority
DISCHARGE (TERMINATION)
The most
form of disciplinar)' action is discharge or termination. The disall seniority and may have difficult)' obtaining emplo\Tnent
elsewhere. Discharge should be reserved only for the most serious offenses and as a
drastic
charged employee loses
last resort.
A discharge involves loss and waste. It means having to train a new employee
and disrupting the makeup of the work group, which may affect the morale of other
employees. Moreover, in unionized companies, management becomes concerned
about possible prolonged grievance and arbitration proceedings. Management
knows
that labor arbitrators are unwilling to sustain discharge except for severe
offenses or for a series of violations that cumulatively justify the discharge. If the
discharge involves an employee
agement
will
who
is
a
member
of a legally protected group, man-
have to be concerned about meeting appropriate standards for nondis-
crimination.
In this regard, slightly
more than one-half of human
responded to a survey said their firms had been named
resources professionals
who
one or more employmentlawsuits
related lawsuits. Overwhelmingly, these
had been filed by former employees
who alleged they were terminated or discriminated against unlawful!)', which led to
their exit or removal from emplo)Tnent.--^ Because of the serious implications and consequences of discharge, many organizations have removed the discharge decision from
super\isors and have reser\'ed it for higher-level managers. Other organizations require
that any discharge recommended by a super\isor must be reviewed and approved by
higher-level managers or the human resources department, often with the advice of
in
legal counsel.-"*
Because of
legal
and other concerns, the
may be conducted by
discharged employee
department.
When
final
a
termination interview with the
member
of the
human
resources
supervisors conduct the termination interview, however, they
should be careful to focus on the reasons for the termination and to respond to the
questions of the employee being terminated.
engage
tional control or
decision.
With
The supervisor should not
lose
emo-
about the fairness of the termination
be able to close the termination interview by
in a heated debate
luck, the supervisor will
suggesting avenues or options the discharged employee should consider for possible
employment
elsewhere.-"
of the preceding considerations should be observed, even by
employers who traditionally have had the freedom to dismiss employees at will, at
any time, and for any reasons, except for unlawful discrimination, union activity, or
where contracts, policy manuals, or some form of employment agreements impose
Generally,
all
CHAPTER
6
Positive Discipline
203
FIGURE 6.10
EMPLOYMENT-AT-WILL POLICY
may resign from
bank may discharge an employee
at any time, for any reason, with or without notice. Nothing in this handbook or
any other manual or policy adopted by Mercantile in any way alters the at-will
nature of Citizens Bank employment.
The separation decision is not to be made without serious consideration by
either the employer or employee. Generally, an employee choosing to leave will
give appropriate notice, and discharges are not likely to occur precipitously.
Citizens
Bank
the bank
if
is
an
at-will
employer. This means that employees
they choose to
do
so. Similarly, the
been called emploNTnent-at-will, and it still is generally considered applicable from a legal point of Wew.-^ Figure 6.10 is an emplo\Tnent-at-\N'ill
polio' statement from a bank's employee handbook.
restrictions. This has
Employers who primarily
on the emplo)Tnent-at-\\ill principle to termiState and federal
courts have found various exceptions to emplo^Tnent-at-will, and a number of
states have passed laws or are considering legislation that would restrict the at-will
relationship in emplo)Tnent. As stated before, most employers recognize that a discharge action should have a rational basis, such as economic necessity', or should
be for just cause or at least for good cause, as it has been sometimes called. When
employers follow the principles of progressive disciplinar)' action and couple them
\N'ith good superxisoF)' practices, those employers usually do not have to resort to
emplo}Tnent-at-will to decide whether to terminate an employee who has not performed acceptably.
nate employees
may
Sample Employment-atWill Policy From a Bank
rely
find themselves facing legal difficulties.-
Employment-at-will
Legal concept that
employers can dismiss
employees at any time
and for any reasons,
except unlawful
discrimination
and
contractual or other
restrictions.
-'^
APPLYING THE HOT STOVE RULE
Explain the "hot stove rule"
Taking disciplinan' action
Disciplinan' action
is
may place the supenisor in a strained or difficult position.
resentment. To help the super\isor apply the disciplinan' measure so that
least
it
wi^ be
resented and most likely to withstand challenges from various sources,
authorities have advocated the use of the
a hot stove %sith experiencing discipline.
1.
Advance warning
1.
Immediac}'
3.
Consistency'
4.
Impersonalit)'
approach to
some
hot stove rule. This rule equates touching
Both contain the following four elements:
Hot stove rule
Guideline for applying
discipline analogous to
touching a hot stove;
advance warning and
consequences that are
immediate, consistent,
and applied with
impersonality.
Everyone knows what happens
Someone who touches
if
they touch a red-hot stove (advance warning).
a hot stove gets
burned
right away, with
no questions of
cause and effect (immediacy^. Ever\' time a person touches a hot stove, that person
gets
burned
treats all
(consistenc\'l. \\Tioever touches a hot stove
is
burned because the stove
people the same (impersonalit)'). The supenisor can apply these four
ments of the hot
discipline.
an unpleasant experience that tends to generate employee
stON'e rule
when maintaining employee
discipline.
ele-
204
I
PART
2
Supervisory Essentials
ADVANCE WARNING
For employees to accept disciplinary action as
their expectations as well as rules
they must
clearly that certain acts will lead to disciplinary action.
Many organizations
entation sessions, employee handbooks, and bulletin-board
employees about rules and
how
know
in advance
and regulations. Employees must be informed
fair,
use ori-
announcements
to
tell
those rules are to be enforced. In addition, super-
visors are responsible for clarifying
any questions
that arise
concerning rules and
their enforcement.
Some
firms print their rules in employee handbooks that all new employees
As part of orientation, the supervisor should explain to each new employee
the departmental rules and the rules that are part of the employee handbook. We
believe strongly that organizations should require employees to sign documents
stating that they have (a) received, (b) read, and (c) understood the company handreceive.
book and
that they are willing to
comply with the rules and regulations contained
numerous legal and performance problems
therein. For example, because of the
many firms give their employees detailed information about the firm's policies and procedures for dealing with employees who are
found to have alcohol or drugs in their systems. Such policies and procedures may
specify information and warnings that spell out the firm's intentions regarding testassociated with substance abuse,
ing, treatment,
and
disciplinary responses, including possible termination.-"^ The basic
premise requires that you have written documentation to prove that the employees
have been forewarned. ''^
When
an employee violates a company policy or when
his
or her behavior does not meet expectations, you note information rather than rely
on your memory. Review Figures
detail in these
Unfortunately, in
may be
It
is
important that
employees be
clearly
informed that certain
acts will lead to
discipinary actions.
some
a rule prohibiting
enforced.
6.8
and
6.9 for the information that
you should
preliminary discussions.
Of course,
it is
organizations rules are not enforced. For example, there
smoking
improper
in a certain area that the supervisor has not
for the super\'isor to
suddenly decide
it is
time to
I
CHAPTER
enforce this rule
strictly
and
to try to
6 Positive Discipline
I
205
make an example of an employee found smok-
ing in an unauthorized area by taking disciplinary action against that employee. That a
been enforced does not mean
it can never be enforced. To enforce
must warn the employees that the rule will be stricdy
enforced from a certain point onward. It is not enough just to post a notice on a bulletin board because not all employees look at the board every day. The supervisor must
issue a clear, written notice and supplement that notice with oral communication.
certain rule has not
such a
rule, the supervisor
IMMEDIACY
After noticing an offense, the super\dsor should take disciplinary action as promptly
At the same time, the supervisor should avoid haste, which might lead
unwarranted reactions. The sooner the discipline is imposed, the more closely it
will be connected with the offensive act.
There will be instances when it appears that an employee is guilty of a violation,
but the supervisor may doubt to what degree a penalty should be imposed. For
as possible.
to
example, incidents such as fighting, intoxication, and insubordination often require
immediate responses from the supervisor. In these cases, the supervisor may place
on temporary suspension, which means being suspended pending a
final decision. Temporarily suspended employees are advised that they will be told
about the disciplinar\^ decision as soon as possible or on a specific date.
the employee
Temporary suspension in itself is not a punishment. It protects both management
and the employee. It gives the supervisor time to investigate and to regain control.
When an ensuing investigation indicates that no disciplinary action is warranted, the
employee is recalled and suffers no loss of pay. When a disciplinary layoff is applied,
the time during which the employee was temporarily suspended constitutes part of
the disciplinary-layoff period. The advantage of temporary suspension is that the
supervisor can act promptly, but this action should not be used indiscriminately.
CONSISTENCY
Appropriate disciplinary action should be taken each time an infraction occurs. The
supervisor
who
employees no
doubts
as to
feels
inclined to be lenient every
now and
favor. Inconsistent discipline leads to
then
is,
in reality,
employee anxiety and
doing
creates
what employees can and cannot do. This type of situation can be comtraffic police officer in an area where
pared to the relations between a motorist and a
enforced only occasionally. Whenever the motorist exceeds the
the speed limit
is
speed
motorist experiences anxiety knowing the police officer can enforce
limit, the
the law at any time. Most motorists would agree that it is easier to operate in areas
where the police force is consistent in enforcing or not enforcing speed limits.
Employees, too, find it easier to work in environments in which their supervisors
apply disciplinary action consistently.
Because of the numerous
difficulties associated
absenteeism and tardiness policies,
many
firms have adopted no-fault attendance
policies, especially for blue-collar employees.^'
any unscheduled absence or tardiness
as
with inconsistently enforced
A no-fault attendance policy counts
an "occurrence," and the accumulation of
occurrences or assessed points during designated timeframes
gressive discipline ranging
from warnings
to suspension
is
and
used to invoke profinally termination.
Super\dsors often prefer a no-fault approach because they do not have to assess or
determine the legitimacy of an employee's unscheduled absence. A firm's no-fault
attendance policy may provide for rewarding good attendance and may designate
No-fault attendance
policy
Policy under which
unscheduled absences
and tardiness are counted
as occurrences and their
accumulation is used in
progressive discipline.
P
.
206
I
PART
2 Supervisory Essentials
certain absence exceptions.
These provisions are spelled out so that employees and
supen'isors have a well-understood and consistent framework by which absences
and tardiness are evaluated and handled.'- Figure 6.11 is an excerpt from a manufacturing firm's "Absenteeism and Tardiness Poliq'," which is a no-fault system that
applies to this firm's unionized plant employees.
FIGURE
6.11
ABSENTEEISM AND TARDINESS POLICY
Excerpt From a
Manufacturing
Plant's
employees are expected to report to work in sufficient time to receive job
assignments as scheduled and to work their scheduled hours and necessary
overtime. Employees will be charged with "absence occurrences" when they
fail to report for scheduled work hours. Employees will be considered tardy
and charged with "partial absence occurrences" when they report to work
past their scheduled starting times. Similarly, workers who leave early will be
charged with partial absence occurrences.
1
All
2.
Partial absence occurrences will be combined so that for every three partial
absence occurrences an employee will be charged with one absence occurrence.
3.
be allowed two nonchargeable absence occurrences supin a 12-month period. To activate these allowances,
the employee must notify the human resources department in advance.
No-Fault Attendance
Policy
Each employee
will
ported by reasonable excuses
4.
Absences for which employees will be charged with occurrences consist of
ure to work a scheduled shift, except for the following exclusions:
•
Jury or military duty
•
Work-related
•
Scheduled time
fail-
injuries or illnesses
off for vacations
•
Disciplinary suspension
•
Temporary
•
Approved union business
and holidays
layoff
•
Court-ordered appearances
•
Authorized bereavement leave
days due to non-work-related illness and
be treated as one occurrence. Nonconsecutive partial occurrences related to the same medical or dental condition also will be
treated as one partial occurrence with pre-notification to the company. The
employer has the right to require a worker to submit a doctor's note or to
undergo a physical examination to verify a claim of illness or injury.
Absences
lasting several consecutive
injury of the
5.
employee
will
Accumulation of four occurrences in a 12-month period (not a calendar year)
will result in an oral warning. The fifth occurrence will elicit a written warning;
the seventh, a 1-day suspension; the eighth, a 3-day suspension; and the
ninth, a 10-day suspension. Employees who are charged with ten occurrences
in a 12-month period will be subject to discharge. The human resources
department will provide counseling at each step of this progressive procedure
and will refer employees for outside counseling and assistance in dealing with
medical, physical, or personal difficulties related to their attendance problems,
employee to offset absence and partial absence occur4-week attendance period in which that employee has no occurrences will entitle the employee to removal from the attendance file of the
oldest occurrence, whether a full occurrence or a maximum of three partial
occurrences, sustained in one attendance period during the prior 12 months.
if
necessary. For an
rences, each
CHAPTER
Positive Discipline
6
207
I
Applying disciplinary action consistently does not necessarily mean treating
all situations. Special considerations surrounding
everyone in the same manner in
an offense
may need
to be considered, such as the circumstances, the
productivity, job attitudes,
and length of
service.
The
employees
extent to which a supervisor
can be consistent and yet consider the individual's situation can be illustrated with
the following example. Assume that three employees become involved in some kind
of horseplay. Employee A just started work a few days ago. Employee B has been
warned once before about this type of behavior, and Employee C has been involved
in numerous cases of horseplay. In taking disciplinary action, the supervisor could
decide to have a friendly, informal talk with Employee A, give Employee B a written warning, and impose a two-day disciplinary layoff on Employee C. Thus, each
case is considered on its own merits, with the employees judged according to their
work histories. Of course, if two of these employees had the same number of previ-
ous warnings, their penalties should be identical.
Imposing discipline consistently is one way a supervisor demonstrates a sense of
fair play, but it may be easier said than done. There are times when the department
is particularly rushed and the supervisor may be inclined to overlook infractions.
When
Perhaps the supervisor does not wish to upset the workforce or does not wish to lose
imposing
the output of a valuable employee at a critical time. This type of consideration
is
impersonality can help
the
reduce the employee's
paramount, especially when it is difficult to obtain employees with the
offending employee possesses. Most employees,
however, accept exceptions as fair if they know
why the exception was made and if they consider
the exception justified. However, employees must
feel that any other employee in the same situation
would receive similar treatment.
IMPERSONALITY
All
employees
who commit
same or
same way.
the
offense should be treated the
a similar
Penalties
should be connected with the offense, not with the
offending employee. It should make no difference
whether the employee is white or black, male or
female,
young or
old, or a
member
of any other
group. The same standards of discipHnary expectations
and actions should apply uniformly.
a supervisor is imposing discipline,
When
impersonality can help reduce the
resentment that
is
likely to
be
felt
amount of
by an employee.
At the same time, supervisors should understand
that
employee reactions to discipline v^ vary, just
who get burned touching a hot stove
as individuals
One person may shout, another
may cry, another may reflexively inhale, and one
may "push away" from the point of stimulus of
react differently.
pain with the opposite hand. Regardless of the
individual, there v^ll always be a reaction to being
burned.
The optimal
reaction to discipline
is
accept-
ance of responsibility for the wrongdoing and a
skills
a supervisor
is
discipline,
resentment.
208
PART
2
Supervisory Essentials
change
effects,
of the
in
behavior by the employee to the desired standards with no severe side
such as loss of morale, disruption of other employees, or a negative portrayal
company
Making
to
customers or external business associates.
a disciplinary action
by the employee, but
it
impersonal
may
difficult to predict
is
reduce the
level
of resentment
an employee's reaction.
acceptance of authority, the job situation, and circumstances of the offense
A super\isor may have
into an
employees
tions
they are detrimental. However, assuming the employee
if
reactions.
to deal with
felt
Personality',
all
factor
an employees reacs
reactions are not
employee the same before and after the
tion and disciplinary action, without apologizing for what had to be done.
severe, the supervisor should treat the
infrac-
DOCUMENTATION AND THE
RIGHT TO APPEAL
Discuss the need to
document
disciplinary
actions and to provide
the right of appeal.
Documentation
Records of nnemoranda,
documents, and meetings
that relate to a disciplinary
action.
Right to appeal
Procedures by which an
employee may request
higher-level
management
to review a supervisor's
disciplinary action.
Whenever
a disciplinary' action is taken, the super\'isor must record the offense
and the decision, including the reasoning involved in the decision. This is called
documentation, and it may include keeping files of the memoranda, minutes of
meetings, and other documents that were part of the case handling. Documentation
is necessan' because the super\isor may be asked to justify the action, and the
burden of proof is usually on the supervisor. It is not prudent for the super\'isor to
depend on memory alone. This is particularly true in unionized firms where grievancearbitration procedures often result in challenges to the disciplinary actions imposed
on employees.
The right to appeal means it should be possible for an employee to request a
review of a supervisor's disciplinary action from higher-level management. If the
employee belongs to a labor union, this right is part of a grievance procedure. In
most firms, the appeal is first directed to the supervisor's boss, thereby following
the chain of
command. Many
large firms have hierarchies of several levels of
management through which appeals may be taken. The human resources department may become involved in an appeal procedure. Complaint procedures in
nonunion firms and grievance procedures in unionized organizations are discussed
in Chapter 16.
The right to appeal must be recognized as a real privilege and not merely a formality. Some supervisors tell their employees they can appeal to higher-level management but that doing so will be held against them. This attitude reflects the
supervisors' insecurity. Supervisors should encourage their employees to appeal to
higher-level
management
if
the employees feel they have been treated unfairly.
weaken their positions as
department managers. For the most part, a supervisor's manager will be inclined to
support the supervisor's action. If supervisors do not foster an open appeal procedure,
employees may enlist outside aid, such as a union would provide. Management's failure to provide a realistic appeal procedure is one reason some employees resort to
Supervisors should not
feel
that appeals threaten or
unionization.
imposed or recommended by a
The supervisor's decision might be reversed because the supervisor imposed disciplinarv' action
inconsistently or failed to consider all the facts. Under these circumstances, supervisors may become discouraged and feel their managers failed to back them up.
During an appeal, the
supervisor
may be reduced
disciplinar)' penaltv'
or reversed by the higher-level manager.
CHAPTER
Although
this situation
is
unfortunate,
it is
Positive Discipline
209
I
better for the super\asor to be disheartened
than for an employee to be penalized unjustly. This
is
not too high a price to pay to
pro\ide ever)- employee the right to appeal. Situations
when supenisors adhere
6
closely to the principles
and
like these
can be avoided
steps discussed in this chap-
ter before taking disciplinan.' action.
DISCIPLINE
WITHOUT PUNISHMENT
Explain the "discipline
A
growing number of companies have adopted disciplinary' procedures called discipline without punishment. The major thrust of this approach is to stress extensive coaching, counseling, and problem sohing and to avoid confrontation. A
significant (and controversial) feature is the paid "decision-making leave," in which
employees are sent home for a day or more with pay to decide whether they are willing to commit to meeting performance standards previously not met. If an
employee commits to impro\ing but fails to do so, the employee is terminated.
In general, this approach replaces warnings and suspensions with coaching sessions and reminders by supervisors of expected standards. The decision-making
leave with pay is posed as a decision to be made by the employee, namely, to
improve and stay or to quit.
Organizations that have implemented this approach successfully have reported
various benefits, particularly reduced complaints and grievances and improved
employee morale. It is questionable whether discipline-without-punishment programs will be adopted extensively because it is unclear that these programs are all
that different in concept and outcome from progressive disciplinary' action as discussed in this chapter.
What
is
clear
approach requires commitment from
supenisors
r
—
if it is
is
all
without punishment"
approach as an alternative
to progressive discipline.
Discipline without
punishment
Disciplinary
approach
and
that uses coaching
counseling as preliminary
steps and a paid decision-
making leave that allows
employees to decide
whether to improve and
stay or to quit.
that a discipline-without-punishment
management
levels
—
especiallv
from
to be carried out successfully.''
WHAT CALL
DID YOU MAKE?
For plant supervisor Robert Brown, just the sound
of the word discipline conjures up unpleasant
memories. It has been the least favorite of his supervisory responsibilities. Typically,
he has used
disci-
pline as a positive process that allowed him to correct
causes of ineffective performance. But this is clearly
not the situation here. Robert recognizes that following the principles discussed in this chapter is
sometimes easier said than done. It is doubtful that
even the most effective manager could have anticipated this crisis, hlis first task is to define the real
problem, clarify the standards of performance that
were violated, and ascertain the additional investigation that might be needed. Clearly, President
Biggs has thrown the ball into Robert's court and
wants him to work with legal counsel Loren Adams
and HR representative
disciplinary
Jessica Salisbury to
make
a
recommendation.
There are many factors that Robert needs to consider. A careful review of the material provided in this
chapter is a good starting point. The situation
requires the three individuals to review the evidence
was collected during the investigatory process.
may want to talk again with all nine
employees on the third shift to reaffirm their testimonies of the events of that night and anything else
regarding the alleged cover-up. Working closely
with the human resource professional and the cor-
that
Then, Robert
porate counsel, Robert should review the relevant
rules
and regulations of the company (Figure
6.4),
past practices, the union-management contract.
210
PART
I
2
Supervisory Essentials
and the company handbook so
that
others are clear concerning the rules.
he and the
He
also
may
want to review the attendance and past work performance of all nine third-shift employees.
As Robert reviews the company's stated expectations (Figure 6.4), he does not see one specific
standard that covers this incident. "Loafing on the
job" and "malicious mischief," if taken liberally, might
be grounds for discipline. As he looks
for just
cause (Figure
he
6.5),
at the eight tests
convinced that the
is
employees' behavior impeded the
orderly, efficient,
and safe operation of the plant. While Kelmer
Manufacturing does not have a specific rule prohibiting what Ellis allowed to happen on his watch,
common
sense (the
rule of reason) says that reason-
known
able people should have
that
what they were
using the services of the corporate counsel and
in
this
chapter, Robert should conclude that there are a
of options
be answered
open
to him, Loren
Among
are: (a)
Adams, and
the questions that must
Does the
incident warrant dis-
punishment is warranted, what punishment should be levied? (c) Do all employees
cipline?
(2)
If
share equal culpability
how
the incident?
in
different are their offenses?
likelihood that the union
will file a
(e)
(d)
What
If
is
not,
the
grievance over
any disciplinary action the employees receive?
(f)
is
a chal-
lenge. Nine employees were involved even though
degrees of involvement varied. Several of the
employees lied during the initial investigation.
You may be wondering why Richard Ellis and Jay
Bracey were not immediately suspended as soon as
the investigation revealed their degree of involve-
We
wondered the same thing! Ellis is a
management team and is not represented by the union. We would have suspended
ment.
member
of the
him without pay pending the completion of the
investigation. That would mean that Robert would
have to appoint someone as interim third-shift
supervisor.
that disciplinary actions often lead
to legal actions. Jessica Salisbury, the
HR
profes-
and corporate counsel Adams should be
able to help him protect his legal interests by
ensuring that the policies and rules are fairly
enforced and maintaining documentation of the
sional,
proceedings.
Because of the complexity of this You Make the
we have added a skills application (see Skills
Application 6-1) that adds other dimensions to this
Call!,
incident.
Postscript:
If
punishment includes suspension or even termination, how will the third shift be adequately covered? These are but a few of the issues that Robert
might have identified. Did he review the questions
posed in the Supervisory Tips box? If not, it would
be a good idea to review them with Loren Adams
and Jessica Salisbury.
First, the events did occur as alleged. Second,
be
will
their
He knows
After a careful review of the material
number
professional. Third, disciplinary action
warranted. Managing this process
doing was wrong.
Jessica Salisbury.
HR
the
when he
first
One
was stunned
of the authors
heard about
this
situation
from a
former student. As farfetched as this case seems,
the facts are worse than reported here. The names
of the individuals, the organization,
have been disguised
in
and
its
setting
order to preserve the
vacy of select individuals.
We
with the actual incident
early 2005.
in
first
became
pri-
familiar
President Biggs properly investigated the incident
SUMMARY
A Employee
standards. Supervisors should set positive examples
discipline can be thought of as the
degree to which employees act according to
expected standards of behavior.
is
If
employee morale
high, discipline will likely be positive
will likely
be
less
and there
for their
A Many
in
need for the supervisor to take
most employees want to do the
Positive self-discipline
tially
est
regulate their
and
their
means
own
that
behaviors out of self-inter-
normal desires
to
meet reasonable
ethical
policies usually include procedures for reporting
right thing.
employees essen-
employers have codes of ethics that describe
broad terms their enterprise values and
requirements. Ethical codes and conflict-of-interest
disciplinary action. Supervisors should recognize
that
employees to emulate.
possible violations.
A
Most organizations have written
rules
tions with definitions of infractions
and regula-
and possible
CHAPTER
address areas of attendance, work scheduling, job
matters.
safetv-,
When
infractions occur, supenisors
ignored, problems
Progressive discipline
improper behavior, and other
take appropriate disciplinary action.
must
When
Positive Discipline
211
I
proper discipline throughout the department.
penalties for infractions. Rules of conduct ty^pically
performance,
6
A
is
also desirable
though not required,
ble,
and applica-
for at-will employees.
Taking disciplinary action can be unpleasant for
both the employee and the supervisor. To reduce
do not go away.
the distasteful aspects, disciplinar)' action should
Super\'isors should take disciplinar)' action with
fulfill
as
much
as possible the
requirements of the
the objective of improving employees' behavior.
hot stove
Before disciplining, the supervisor must
warning, immediacy, consistency, and impersonality.
first
investigate the situation thoroughly. Disciplinar)'
actions should be for just (proper) cause. Emotional
A Documentation
is
and physical responses should be avoided. The
super\'isor should determine whether there is sufficient e\idence to conclude that the
about the rule or standard and,
The supervisor should consider
employee knew
in fact,
Wolated
action. This
is
and other
management through
of progressively severe disciplinary
from an informal
and discharge,
ing, a suspension,
talk to a
are
open
warn-
sor's
to
and nature of the
purpose
is
complaint
procedure gives the employee
infraction.
The
may be
A The
review process
disciplinar)' deci-
sustained, modified, or set aside.
discipHne-without-punishment approach uses
extensive coaching and counseling as preliminary
steps. If there
supervi-
in taking disciplinary' action
a
is
no improvement
in the
employee s
to a
super\isor as choices, depending on the circumstances
a grievance or
through which the supervisor's
necessan.^
should be administered in private.
actions, ranging
especially important if there
it.
sion
^ A number
is
appeal of the disciplinar)' decision to higher-level
the severit)' of the
relevant factors. If disciplinary action
it
of a super\isor's disciplinar)' action
important to substantiate the reasons for the
procedure. In the interest of fairness, an appeal
\iolation, the employee's service record,
normally
These requirements are advance
rule.
should be
improve the employee's behavior and to maintain
performance, a paid decision-making leave
may be
imposed on the employee to force the employee to
decide whether to commit to improving or to be
terminated.
KEY TERMS
Morale
Discipline (p. 186)
Discipline without
Documentation
(p.
punishment
209)
208)
Employment-at-will
Hot
(p.
(p.
(p. 186)
No-fault attendance poUcv'
(p.
205)
Positive discipline (p. 186)
203)
Positive self-discipline (p. 186)
stove rule (p. 203)
Progressive discipline (p. 197)
Right to appeal
Just cause (p. 193)
fp.
208)
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
Discuss the relationship between discipline and
ment. What
morale. Evaluate the following statement: "The best
WTiat should he do differently?
t)'pe
2.
of discipline
is
positive self-discipline."
Ever)' supervisor will confront situations that
require
some
t)'pe
of disciplinary action. Carefully
review the text photo that accompanies this state-
is
the male supenisor doing right?
Why?
WTiat are the differences bet\veen a code of ethics, a
conflict-of-interest policy,
and written
rules
and
regulations? Wliat are their respective purposes?
212
I
Who
PART
do you
2 Supervisory Essentials
trust?
that 51 percent of
Why should
USA
"Watson Wyatt's Work
2004 Survey shows
workers said
they have trust and confidence in their bosses
com-
meant
pared with 44 percent in 2002. The 2004 survey
also reported that the percentage of workers
beheve what management
from 37 percent
in
a.
How would
b.
In your opinion, are bosses really doing a better
you account
What
they occur?
is
should have just
Define and evaluate each of the following elements
of the hot stove
to 50 percent in 2004."'^
2002
when
by, "Disciplinary action
cause"?
who
them jumped
tells
super\'isors be unafraid to confront
disciplinar)' situations
rule:
a.
Advance warning
b.
Immediacy
c.
Consistency
d.
Impersonality
for the increase?
job of communicating with workers or are there
other factors
c.
What
is
at
work?
Why or why not?
the relationship between high percep-
tions of trust
and the disciplinary process?
Explain.
SKrLLS
SKILLS
ROLE PLAY
APPLICATION
6-1:
This chapter's You
APPLICATION
Kelmer Manufacturing: Role-Play Exercise
Make
variants that instructors
li
that
we have found
the Call! can be used as a role-play exercise. There are
may
use to introduce this role play.
We have
many
suggested one
to be effective. Procedure for the role-play exercise could include
the following:
1.
The
instructor should assign five students the following roles: Robert
(plant super\isor), Loren
Adams
Brown
(corporate counsel), Jessica Salisbun'
(HR
pro-
Gene Biggs (president); and the union grievance committee person.
Other class members should act as observers of the role play.
fessional),
1.
The
three students that are assigned the roles of the plant supervisor, the corporate
counsel,
and the
HR professional
collectively decide
3.
on
should be given adequate notice so that they can
a course of action.
Remember: Their charge is to make a disciplinary recommendation to President
Biggs. The group, with the union grievance committee person present, should
make their recommendations to President Brown.
make
4.
President Biggs must then
5.
The observers should identify things that the group did well, things that
should have been done that weren't, and things that should not have been
the final decision regarding disciplinary action.
done.
6.
After you have covered Chapter 9 (Labor Unions)
Conflicts),
you may wish
and Chapter 16 (Resolving
and complete the
to return to this Skills Application
following:
a.
Have the union grievance committee person and other members of the union
executive committee (these can be appointed later) prepare a grievance chal-
lenging the company's actions.
b.
The corporate counsel and
the
HR
professional should assist Robert
preparing a rebuttal to the grievance.
Brown
in
CHAPTER
SKILLS
APPLICATION
when employees
major supervisory concerns are issues associated with informal dress and appearance standards in
the workplace. Employee dress and appearance have
many
for supervisors for
years,
Positive Discipline
213
I
Employee Dress and Appearance Standards
6-2:
Among
been problems
6
ii).
difficult areas for disci-
plinary policies. This concern
is
retail stores,
and
There also
restaurants.
concern about individual rights because
but they
have become one of the most
banks,
deal directly with the public, such as
ethnic,
and other
differences can cause
racial,
is
gender,
problems or
potential issues of favoritism or discrimination.
especially important
Identify an organization you are familiar with
for
employees as
Give
it
might appear
and write
in that organization's
a dress /appearance
code
employee handbook.
two examples of attire and appearance for which some disagree-
at least
ments about acceptability could
arise,
and propose how you would handle such
disagreements.
How would you
propose handling repeated violations of the dress /appearance
standards?
obtain the employee
If possible,
your model.
a
If this
handbook
for the organization
you have used
as
firm does not have a dress /appearance code, try to obtain such
code from another firm whose employees would be performing similar job
duties as those
you
identified.
What
and differences between
are the similarities
your dress /appearance code and your proposals for handling violations and those
Can you
of the firm?
INTERNET ACTIVITY
explain the reasons for these differences?
Using the Internet, search for examples of problems that organizations have been
having regarding appearance standards in the workplace. Write a one-page paper
in
which you
(b) present
SKILLS
Many organizations
ethics.
Some,
like
APPLICATION
established ethics offices. Visit TI's
ethics, or
own code
today publish their
read
more about
web
of
site (http://
the company's values
how the company handles
argument
TI's policy
1.
3.
What
is
code or
Conduct and Codes of
training
by
Ethics
visiting the online version of the article
Kathr)Ti Taylor,
"Do
the Right Thing,"
(February 2005), pp. 99-102,
at
by
HR Magazine
http://www.shrm.org/
hrmagazine/OSFebruary.
ethics
its
promote
ethical
conduct?
What
is
regarding positive discipline?
the company's "Ethics Quick Test"?
Search for other
at
for a rigorous dress
organizations should not adopt dress codes.
How does the company work with employees to
1.
INTERNET ACTIVITY
why
6-3: Rules of
Texas Instruments, Inc. (TI), have even
wwnv.ti.com) to learn
and
either (a) present a persuasive
an argument for
company codes of ethics on
the
Web. You
will find links to several
the Centre for Applied Ethics (http://www.ethics.ubcca/resources/business).
Then, write your
own code
of ethics for the workplace.
ENDNOTES
1.
See "Hard Core Offenders,"
HR Magazine (December
2004) for a discussion regarding employees
who
continue
to stretch the rules. In a 1999 survey of almost 1,500
"anonymous employees"
at
eleven restaurant chains,
respondents admitted stealing an average of $218 in food
and property annually, compared
to an average of
$96 a
214
PART
I
year earlier.
The most
frequently cited offense was unau-
{September
Programs Prove
Al.
14, 1999), p.
Employee absenteeism reached a 7-year high in 1998,
rising 25 percent from 1997. Some of this was attributed
off.
to feel
"more
Absenteeism
in
now
is
almost
at
For a religious-based presentation on the topic of
workplace
Wall Street Journal (September 21, 1999),
statistics
were reported by Robert
"Executive Discipline,"
level as
p.
Workplace
2005),
threatened." For sample language outlining executive ter-
Beer
The Wall
male coworkers,
"Humor
The
p.
in
filed suit.
See T.
Some Workplaces
Fort Wayne, IN
Is
Shawn
Taylor,
No Laughing
Hot Lines Tap
News- Sentinel {]\Ay 29, 2002),
12.
Management Accounting June
U.S.
Street Journal
From Nicholas
(March
14, 1994), p.
G. Moore, Ethics: The
Way
News and World Report
25, 2002), p. 25.
and what some employers are doing
Web
abuses
in response, see Bill
Roberts, "Filtering Sofhvare Blocks Employees'
Web
HR
Magazine (September 1999), pp. 1 14-20.
Also see Albert R. Karr, "Companies Crack Down on
the Increasing Sexual Harassment by E-Mail," The Wall
(Septemher 2\, 1999),
p.
Al.
The Enron Corporation
scandal,
analysis, see
Zellner,
In a survey of large employers in the United States, 60
percent of those surveyed indicated that they had codes
and
a third
provided training on ethical
business conduct. See "Boost in Ethical Awareness,"
Magazine (February 1995),
is
in
generally attrib-
Wendy
John A. Byrne, Mike France, and
for Abuse,"
et al.
(Februar)' 25, 2002), pp.
1
14-5.
Also as related to the Enron and other corporate scandals,
accountants and the accounting profession have been
HR
p. 19.
of Trust,"
Not
practices. See Bill
To^fly ( Februar\' 22, 2002), pp.
surprisingly,
1A-2A.
"worker attitudes toward their
bosses had been declining until 2002 in the wake of corporate scandals. Watson Wyatt's
51%
that
dence
in their bosses
who
Work USA 2004
compared with 44%
in 2002.
sur\'ey also reported that the percentage of
believe what
37 percent
in
Sur\'ey
of workers said they have trust and confi-
shows
on Searching the Corporate Soul," The Wall
Street Journal (]une 18, 1999), p. Bl. If a firm only gives
USA
and
Enron Crash Erases Years
Sternberg, "Accounting's Role in
2004
J.
9.
Week (February 25, 2002), pp. 1 18-20; Marcia
"The Betrayed Investor," Business Week
(Februar)' 25, 2002), pp. 104-15; and Michael J. Mandel,
"A New Economy Needs a New Morality," Business Week
Mckers,
McCarthy, "An Ex-Divinity Student
See Michael
Business,
which resulted
"The Environment Was Ripe
severely criticized for unethical lapses
From Oren Harari, "U2D2: The Rx for Leadership
Blues," Management Re^'ie^^' {August 1995), pp. 34-36.
in place,
Do
Business
For an expanded discussion of so-called
of ethics
to
published pamphlet of his Sears Lectureship in Business
agers and associates. For an excellent summar>' and
13, 2001), p. 53;
Street Journal
A14.
uted to the greed and ethical lapses of the firm's top man-
and Stephen H. Wildstrom,
"Stamp Out Smutty Spammers," Business Week (Februar)'
Abuses,"
1993),
(
and Marc)' Mason, "The Curse of Whistleblowing,"
thousands of investors and employees,
(August
More Than
the financial collapse of this firm and financial ruin for
Also see Dana Hawkins, "Lawsuits Spur Rise in
Employee Monitoring,"
into
Ethics at Bentley College (February 9, 1998), p.
Matter,"
4B.
VV^orks
Maguire Group
For example, see Debra R. Meyer, "More on
Whistleblo\s'ing,"
here,
group of
Effort at
63-66.
p. 26;
a
"Team
Weight," The
p. Bl.
Wrongdoing," HRMagazine (November 1995), pp. 79-85.
Than Women?" You will not hear the 25 reasons
but the punch line has already cost Chevron
among
Now Carr)' More
lO. See Kate Walter, "Ethics
Is
Corporation $2.2 million after four female employees,
7.
Skills, Integrity
Better
offended by a series of jokes traded
1998), p. 12. For another per-
Hymowitz, "Middle Managers Find
See Man,- G. Rendini,
pp.
11.
Why
).
Leads to Ethics Policy," HR^lagazine (April 1995),
article at
http://www.shrm.org/hrmagazine/05August.
Did you hear the one about "25 Reasons
9.
Christian Ethics in the
Pressured to Cut Ethical
Wall Street Journal (July 30, 2002),
"A supervisor's obligation
is to conduct a full investigation no matter where it takes
them. You can't look the other way or feel personally
Philip H.
L. Hilgert,
L. Truesdell,
From "Many Workers Feel
Concerns," HRNews (May
Their
that,
mination for cause, see the online version of this
Raymond
Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 2001
(St.
spective, see Carol
Al.
HR Magazine (August
Grossman contents
p. 48.
8.
Grossman,
J.
ethics, see
Lochhaas, and James
of
"Work Week," The
physical illness. See Albert R. Karr,
These
same
the
Management Review {]une
2002), p. A14.
absenteeism has tripled since 1995; as the reported reason
for absenteeism, stress
Ineffective,"
Flounder: Ethics, Inc.," The Wall Street Journal {]u\y 30,
entitled" to take
stress as a cause
minimal, the result
Also see Gordon Marino, "The Latest Industry to
to
1999 eased slightly (dowTi
about 7 percent from 1998). However,
is
1999), p. 9.
See "Work Week," The Wall Street Journal (May
25, 1999), p. Al.
6.
may be worse
than to have no ethics program. See "Lip-Service Ethics
days
5.
technical train-
Gibson, "Restaurant-Employee Theft Rises," The Wall
burnout, work-family conflicts, and tight labor markets,
4.
its
ing for employees
which influenced workers
3.
and
"lip ser\'ice" to its ethics policies
thorized meals for themselves or friends. See Richard
Street Journal
i.
Supervisory Essentials
2
management
tells
2002 to 50 percent
The
workers
them jumped from
in 2004." See
Ann
CHAPTER
Pomeroy, "Senior Management Begins Regaining
for a
13.
MO: AAIM Management
15.
Re\'ie^v (Januar)' 1999), pp.
HRNnvs
56-57.
Edward Herman,
Collective Bargaining
28. See Matt Siegel, "Yes,
and
(Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Prentice-Hall, 1998), pp. 316-31; or Arthur A. Sloane
and Fred Whitney, Labor Relations, 9th ed. (Upper Saddle
17.
(October 26, 1998),
29. See
.
.
They Can
Fire You," Fortune
p. 301.
HR Magazine (August 2005), pp.
Is
tests annually.
and Other
Federal agencies spent S16.1 million in
Workplace Investigations," HRMagazine (January- 1995),
pp. 90-95.
The
Journal (]une
U.S.
"Some Employers Are .\larmed About
lost producti\'it>'.
tests
on
conduct random and other drug
also
their employees, especially federal
mandated by the Drug-Free
contractors and employers as
how
and procedures
that
.
.
.
more
times
and
Testing,"
20. This
is
2,
1994), p.
6.
called a unionized employee's
and
and
Weingarten
rights,
Rights in
Workplace,"
Settings,"
Labor Law Journal (^\lnter
30.
2001), pp. 195-201.
One
Weingarten Rights to Nonunion Workers,"
p. 13;
HR Xe\vs
LiRNews
(Unu2ir\- 2002), p. 9;
Misconduct,"
Disciplinary' Alternative,"
HRMagazine
(August 1999),
In a
1997-1998
(cover your
CYR,
see Jared Sandberg,
May Save
sur\'ey of several
hundred firms
in the St.
and
service
Association), p. 42.
For an expanded discussion of no-fault and other employee
ACA
p. 13.
33.
SHRM
CYR
Street Journal (June 8, 2005), p. Bl.
Excessive Absenteeism
Coleman, Conducting Lawful Terminations
(Alexandria, VA:
8.
heard the term
student in 1958. For a recent dis-
attendance policies, see
More Than Half of Employers Have
HRNews
24. See Francis T.
whUe an ROTC
(AAIM Management
32.
"Survey Reveals
Been Sued,"
first
personnel. See 1997-1998 Personnel Practices Survey
(August 1999), pp. 134-40.
23. See
Termination,"
(April 1998), p.
policies for their production, maintenance,
8.
expanded discussion of the technique and appHca-
A
vs.
in the
reporting firms indicated they had no-fault attendance
Nonunion Weingarten
tions of letters of clarification, see Paul Falcone, "Letters
of Clarification:
are
Louis, Missouri metropolitan area, about one-third of
and Margaret M. Clark,
in
Case," HRNe^vs (July 2002), p.
22. For an
of the authors
Your Job," The Wall
31.
"High Court Rebuffs Appeal
and
1998), pp. 81-87;
"Covering Yourself is Counterproductive But
Margaret M. Clark, "Nonunion
in Investigating
"Drugs
HR Magazine (Februar)^
cussion on the advantage of
See Victoria Roberts, "Court Upholds Extending
(December 2001),
compensation
also are t\vo-thirds as productive
Management Re^ie^^^
rear)
Employers Face Charges
in on-the-iob accidents,
likely to file a workers'
or Louisa \Vah, "Treatment
/McGraw
113-5; Martha B. Pedrick, "Weingarten
Non-Union
be involved
said that
miss \vork, 3.6
likely to
high. Also see Jane Easter Bahls,
L.
Da\'id A. DUts, Cases in Collective Bargaining
Industrial Relations, 10th ed. (Boston: Irwin
Hill, 2002), pp.
new detection
costs along to employers.
responsible for healthcare costs that are three times as
based on a U.S. Supreme Court decision. See Ra)Tiiond
Hilgert
They
more
and
As new drug-masking products
and they pass the
likely to
5 times
claim.
Week (May
and drug
hidden costs
The .American Council on Drug Education
wiU be taken, safeguards, and possible
penalties for violations. See "Testing
Business
cost:
drug abusers are 10 times more
usually have policies
tests
also shouldered
enter the market, test labs have to develop
technologies,
Companies
Employers
The newest
government
Workplace Act of 1988.
oudine
says that alcohol
related to tardiness, absenteeism, health-care benefits,
turnover.
Many companies
Department of Labor
abuse costs American businesses roughly $81 biUion in
1999), p. Al.
1,
a
29, 32.
This article purports that Quest runs over 7 million drug
Disclosing Employee Investigations," The Wall Street
21.
HRNews
2004 under the Federal Drug-Free \\brkplace Program.
18. See Albert R. Karr,
19.
Compensable,"
Diane Cadrain, "Helping Workers Fool Drug Tests
Big Business,"
243-72, 445-50.
See James G. Mgneau, "To Catch a Thief.
is
(Februar)' 1999), p. 8.
ed.
River, NJ: Prentice-HaU, 1997), pp.
of At-Will Job
27. "Loss
cedures, particularly as related to discipline /discharge
Labor Relations, 4th
Phillips,
pp. 12-13.
(April 1999), p. 14.
For expanded information on grievance-arbitration pro-
cases, see E.
J.
Polarized Debate
See "Accountability Board Urges Greater Use of Dispute
Resolution,"
16.
"Toward a Middle Way in the
Over Emplo\Tnent at Will," American
Business Law Journal (November 1992), pp. 441-83, or
Kenneth Gilberg, "Employers Must Protect Against
Employee Lawsuits," Supen'ision (November 1992),
26. See Michael
Association
4, 6.
See Milton Bordvvin, "Do-It-Yourself Justice,"
Management
Johnson, Christie A. King, and John G.
L.
"A Safe Termination xModel for Supervisors," HR
Magazine (May 1996), pp. 73-78; and Gar)' Bielous,
"How to Fire" SupenHsion (November 1996), pp. 8-10.
See "Rexiew Employee Handbooks," News-Yoii-Can-Use
(February 1996), pp.
Dennis
215
I
Kurutz,
16
complete discussion.
Letter (St. Louis,
14.
25. See
HR Magazine (February 2005), p.
Employee Trust,"
Positive Discipline
6
Foundation, 1995).
M. Michael Markowch, "When
Grounds
Is
for Disciplinarv' Action?"
Ne^^'S (July/August 1998), pp.
36-39.
For a thorough discussion of the pros and cons and appHcations of discipline-without-punishment approaches,
216
I
PART
2
Supervisory Essentials
see Dick Grote, Discipline without
Punishment (New York:
differently
from another;
American Management Association, 1995). See also Dick
Grote, "Discipline without Punishment," Across-the-Boani
from what documented
(September/October 2001) pp. 52-57; and Jathan lanove.
Managing to Stay out of Court (Berrett-Kohler, 2005).
in different
Janove reaffirms that the following
will likely
in court: acting inconsistently, treating
land you
one employee
ments
34.
conflict with
As reported
treating
employees differently
policies require; letting
one another; or
treating
docu-
one person
ways over time.
in
Ann Pomeroy,
"Senior
Begins Regaining Employee Trust,"
(February 2005),
Management
HR
Magazine
p. 14.
(
:^^"i
PART
CASES
Barry Automotive's Glendale Plant's annual picnic was well attended, as usual. It
was a well-planned, day-long family affair for all employees of the firm, giving them
an opportunity to get together informally. At the picnic, Charlene Knox, one of the
supervisors, had a long chat with her boss, Jim Cross, the general manager. They
spoke about many things, including some work problems. Cross greatly emphasized
the need to cut costs and generally tighten the company's finances. He told Knox
that he had already received a number of written suggestions and plans from some
other supervisors. He highly praised their efforts as appropriate and helpful.
Three weeks after the picnic, Charlene Knox received a memo from her boss
asking her why her "report in reference to cost cutting had not yet arrived." At first,
she wondered what Jim Cross was referring to, and then she remembered their talk
at the picnic. She realized that was the only time Cross had discussed with her the
need to cut costs. Knox pondered what her response should be.
CASE
2-1
Barry Automotive's
Glendale Plant: The
Picnic Conversation
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
Is
it
appropriate for a supervisor to give a directive to a subordinate in a social,
off-the-job setting?
Why or why not?
Was Charlene Knox at fault for failing to understand what
the picnic? Was Jim Cross at fault? Were both managers at
3.
her boss told her
at
fault?
What should Knox do? Why?
John Jacobs
is
supervisor for the electronics department of Appliances Galore, a
chain of large superstores specializing in appliance sales to
customers. The
activities.
In
company has a
the company
fact,
retail
and commercial
reputation for extensive involvement in
strongly promotes family values
community
and has sponsored
various family-oriented activities throughout the years. In addition, the
provides financial and other incentives to employees
who
company
volunteer their time in
and other service activities. Andy George, manager of marketing operhe had heard "through the grapevine" that
Steve Shepard's wife and two children appeared last night at the local women's-andchildren's shelter. George also indicated that Shepard's wife was reported to have been
badly bruised and that this was not the first time the family had sought refuge. Steve
Shepard is one of Jacob's outstanding salespeople. Last year, Shepard won the company's award for the most sales. George suggested to Jacobs that he should investigate the matter and make a recommendation about what the company should do.
not-for-profit
ations, has just confided to Jacobs that
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
Shepard's job performance was not affected by his personal
If Steve
life,
should the company become involved in any way? Discuss.
became public knowledge and
on the image and reputation of Appliances Galore, should the company take any action?
If Steve
Shepard's alleged actions off the job
reflected
What would you recommend
that Jacobs
and George do? Consider
alternatives.
CASE 1-2
Abusive Rumors
218
I
PART
CASE
The
Supervisory Essentials
2-3
Little
Add
2
Things
Up!
Lynda Heredia has worked for Economy Parcel Service (EPS), a large package
company, for the past 22 years. She knows that pleasing the customer is
key to operating a successful business. She is extremely proud of the "Employee of
delivery
Month" awards
the
she has received. Several times before, Heredia has been
offered various supervisory positions, but she has always turned
them down
because she does not want the extra duties and responsibilities that
come
with
advancement. Management considers her the "ideal employee." She rarely needs
to be told what to do and never misses work. Her work is always done the right way
the first time. Operations manager. Josh Simpson, has been overheard to remark,
"I wish we could figure out a way to clone Lynda. She's by far the best employee
we've got."
Heredia works the 1 1:00 p.m. to 7:30 a.m. shift. Her position is vital because she
sorts packages on both sides of the master conveyor belt and directs them onto
assorted belts where others load them into bins and then into delivery vehicles. Due
to a downturn in the economy and increased competition, EPS's business recently
dropped off drastically. The company cut overhead and significantly reduced its
number of employees. Business had picked up in recent months such that the
number of packages handled daily approached previous levels, but those employees
who remained after the cutbacks were expected to get the same amount of work
done with fewer people and resources and increase productivity, tighten delivery
schedules, and accept no pay raises. The last item was especially difficult for Heredia
because she is principal caregiver for her elderly mother. All her mother's Social
Security income went for medical costs and other essentials. Heredia's weekly paycheck usually covered all other expenses, but nothing was left over for recreation or
investment. "The harder I work, the behinder I get," Heredia lamented.
Heredia came into work promptly one day, as always, and told her immediate
supervisor, Tony Lehman, that she had to leave by 6:30 a.m. because her mother had
an 8:00 a.m. appointment at the hospital for some much-needed medical tests.
Lehman responded, "Fine. Just remind me later." Lehman had been Heredia's
immediate supervisor for the past seven months, but they have known each other
for about fifteen years. Heredia's previous supervisor had been downsized, and
Lehman's duties had been expanded to cover several additional areas, including the
one in which Heredia worked. Unlike Heredia's previous supervisor, Lehman failed
to tell his employees what he expected them to do and rarely gave them positive
feedback. It might have been because he was expected to do more with less.
At 5:30 A.M., Heredia reminded Lehman about the appointment, and Lehman
asked the operations manager if he had an employee to cover the hour of Heredia's
shift because she had to leave. The operations manager's response was, "No, 1 don't
have anyone. In
fact,
we're so short of people right
meet the delivery schedule.
If
I
now
that
would have known sooner,
I
I
don't
know
if
we'll
might have been able
to find coverage for you."
When Lehman told her she would be unable to leave early, Heredia immediately
began to fume. "So
all,
I
asked
like the
my
this is the
supervisor
handbook
says,"
at
way they
and
if
I
loyal employees. After
could leave early
Heredia lamented to anyone willing to
until her regular quitting time,
result, several
treat dedicated
the beginning of the shift
but her
full
attention
listen.
—
just
She stayed
was not on her work. As
a
mistakes occurred.
home, hustled her mother into the car, and
left for the hospital. While waiting for her mother to finish her tests, the psychologically "down and out" Heredia, in her dirty work attire, kept playing the day's
scenario over and over in her mind. "I don't ask this company for much, and I bend
After punching out, Heredia rushed
Cases
over backward to get the job done.
how
I'll
show them:
I'll
call in sick
tomorrow and
I
219
see
they appreciate the inconvenience."
About
15 minutes before her assigned shift the next day, Heredia called her
it might be that new
you tomorrow evening
and let you know how I'm feeling because I'm also scheduled to work tomorrow
evening." Heredia still had several sick days and personal days left, and company
policy only required employees to report their sicknesses at least 15 minutes before
supervisor and said, "I'm not feeling well this evening.
strain of flu,
and
I'd
hate to spread
to
it
anyone
else.
thrink
I
I'll
call
the start of their shifts.
Of course, the employee assigned to perform Heredia's duties lacked the skill or
knowledge to do the job in a correct and timely fashion. Additionally, that employee
feared making mistakes, so every package was checked and double-checked to
ensure that it got onto the right conveyor. Work-in-progress backed up, and many
trucks did not get loaded until mid-morning. In short, many customers received
their packages late.
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
1.
What
at
are your initial observ'ations about the
1.
\Vhat could
3.
Using the
the
4.
5.
problems
that
must be addressed
EPS?
Lehman have done
ABC
way she
analysis (see
to prevent or
Chapter
minimize those problems?
4), discuss
why
L)Tida Heredia behaved
did.
Lynda Heredia now has a negative attitude. What suggestions would you make
to Lehman to change Heredia's outlook? To what extent should Lehman
involve upper management in the solution?
How
did mistrust and lack of
common
courtesy add to the complexit)- of the
situation?
6.
Someone once said, "Learn from the mistakes of others. You'll never live long
to make them all vourself." How can EPS use this situation as a case
enough
study for the entire organization?
7.
What
Note to
did vou learn from this case?
We have
found this case to be an excellent opportunity' for a
one student to play the role of L)Tida Heredia and
another to play the role of Lehman. For role-play purposes, assume that Lynda
Heredia's performance shows a steady decline and that she repeatedly calls in several minutes before her assigned shift, claiming to be "not feeling well." Heredia is
w^orking the employee handbook to the maximum and is using all her allotted perInstructor:
role-play situation. Assign
ROLE PLAY
sonal davs.
Speeding through the rolling Piedmont hills on his motorcycle, Vance Patterson
could barely concentrate on the road. Instead, his thoughts were on his business,
Patterson Fan. Things had not been going well.
Founded
Bhthewood,
and coolers, had
in 1989, the
South Carolina-based company, which makes industrial fans
once been fun, energized, and profitable. Now at least a third of Patterson's sixty
employees seemed to be in a state of constant disgruntlement, complaining
about everything. Productivity and
desperate.
sales
were plummeting. Patterson was getting
CASE 1-4
Disgruntled Workers
Can Drive You Crazy
220
I
PART
2 Supervisory Essentials
He thought back to the company's early days. It was exactly the kind of place
where he had always wanted to work. He supplied sodas and popcorn and hosted
quarterly cookouts where employees danced to mariachi and steel-drum bands.
Each holiday season, he would hand out bonuses and fat profit-sharing checks. In
2000,
when
sales hit a record $8.5 million, those
checks ranged from $7,000 to
$35,000.
But after a decade of steady growth, revenue slipped to $7.2 million in 2001.
Even so, Patterson had about $200,000 in profits to share, but the checks came in
smaller amounts than many employees had expected, which led to grumbling. And
as the business climate continued to worsen, so did morale.
Employees seemed to be gossiping more about one another and the company.
Sales reps began accusing colleagues of encroaching on their turf. Soon, careless
errors became alarmingly commonplace. In one case, workers reported that they
had performed some routine maintenance on the spinning machine that made the
housing for fans. When the device broke dou-n, it became clear that the maintenance had never been completed.
Patterson had to contract with a manufacturer in Indiana, adding high freight
costs that hammered the company's bottom line. Customers began complaining
about flawed products, including fans with backward blades or missing bolts. The
company's hardworking employees were affected as well. "People w^ere going around
saving, 'Slow down, don't listen to so-and-so,' " said lames Ballentine, the company's
capacit)' planner. "It was bringing the whole company down."
Patterson responded by becoming the kind of manager he'd always loathed. He
demanded that salespeople begin making 45 to 60 calls a day, and managers monitored them by pouring over phone records. When he noticed things like eBay pages
on computer monitors as he roamed the halls, he installed computer-monitoring
software. And when he saw workers arriving late and leaving early, he installed time
clocks
both on the factor)' floor and in the business office. "We were spending all
our time in meetings talking about bad employees," he says.
By August 2004, Patterson felt as if he was spending every day trying to fix his
employees' bad behavior. Driving to work on his Harlev- one morning, he tried to clear
his head. Somewhere between drinking a thermos of coftee at the Kings .Mountain
State Park and pulling into the parking lot of the Blvthewood factory, he started to
imagine what would happen if he iust fired all of the grousing, underperforming
employees. He had to admit, it was a prettv' appealing daydream.
The next day, Patterson had his weekly meeting with his three most trusted
managers. He strode in and shut the conference room door behind him. "Let's get
rid of the bad employees and replace them," he said. Thomas Salisburv-, the com-
—
pany's vice-president of operations,
slammed
the table with enthusiasm.
The other
two were more skeptical and asked for some time to think it over. But by the following week's planning meeting, the entire team was onboard.
Fortunately, the high season had just ended, making it a logical time to cut back.
Patterson asked his sales manager to draw up a list of reps with bad attitudes or poor
performance. He came back with six names. The production supervisors came back
with eleven. Patterson did a review of the business office and was shocked to discover
that over the previous
two
years,
an employee had charged some $10,000
in personal
corporate credit card. That employee had two supervisors, and
products to
a
were added
to the
list,
which now totaled 20
all
— one-third of the workforce.
three
Patterson planned for the firings to take place over the next two months.
first
round began the
first
week of September. The dismissed workers were
The
offered
Cases
about two weeks' severance for every year served. Then they were asked to gather
their personal belongings, hand over their keys, and leave the premises. The next
round of dismissals began two weeks later.
It was a tough couple of months, not only for Patterspn and his managers but
also for the company's forty other employees, some of whom began to fear that their
jobs also were at stake. Patterson reassured people in informal individual meetings,
but he never made a big speech about the effort. "I sound kind of cold, but I'd gone
so long dealing with these folks, trying to make everybody happy, that I didn't care
how people felt," he said. "My attitude was just 'Deal with it, we're doing it, and it's
going to be better.'"
Because the layoffs took place in the off-season, they were not particularly disruptive. Surprisingly,
no one threatened
to sue. Patterson
immediately although he changed his hiring
45-day probation and a 90-day review;
up
didn't live
began
filling
the positions
Now, new employees face a
fired a couple of new hires who
policies.
he's already
to expectations.
All told, Patterson estimates
he paid about $100,000 in severance, but he has no
Fan
regrets. Since the layoffs,
he
ees agree.
work environment now,"
"It's
a different
says, "Patterson
more like a team."
supervisor. "It feels
a
is
happy
place."
Many employ-
says Robert Lane, a shop-floor
Patterson unplugged the time clocks and started
ignoring the computer-monitoring software. Productivity
is
up. Last year, the
com-
pany had forty people on the manufacturing floor, and shipments sat for as long as
four weeks before being sent. Now eighteen people are managing the same number
of orders, and shipments go out the next day. He's rewarded the most productive
workers by raising their wages.
But for Patterson, the real proof that he made the right call came in April 2005
when
the
company
held
its
quarterly meeting.
It
turned into a raucous, '60s-themed
Employees donned costumes while a 130-pound pig, replete with apple in its
mouth, roasted in a pit in the courtyard. Firing a third of his employees was drastic,
party.
Patterson says, but
"I
got rid of the
it
turned out to be the best way to encourage those
unhappy people," he
said, "to
Source; Case reprinted here with permission. Hands
Patterson crazy,"
Inc.
Magazine
make room
On Case
for the
who
remained.
good ones."
Study: "Disgruntled workers were driving Vance
(July 2005), pp. 42-3.
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
1.
2.
What
techniques of performance
management
are illustrated
by
this case?
Using the concepts discussed in Chapter 3 (communication), Chapter 4
(motivation), Chapter 5 (problem solving), and Chapter 6 (discipline), how
might the problems experienced at Patterson Fan have been avoided or, at
least, minimized such that the drastic action of termination did not have to be
taken?
3.
What
else
could Vance Patterson have done prior to firing the
disgruntled /underperforming employees?
4.
5.
What
roles should the supervisors have played in turning around employee
performance before Vance Patterson made the decision to fire?
How do you believe the
ahead?
6.
What
remaining employees
Why?
did you learn fi"om this case?
will
perform
in the
months
I
221
222
I
PART
2
Supervisory Essentials
Dave Harris
CASE
2-5
To Accept or Not to
Accept
a newly hired information services (IS) supervisor for Cedan-ille
is
(CWSADC). He
Wholesale Supply and Distribution Center
months ago
after a ten-year stint
joined the firm three
with Washington Insurances office of information
owned Washington Insurance, CWASDC is
enterprise. The owner of the firm has instituted
services. In contrast with the publicly
family-owned, S30 million
number of personnel policies, including a "no-gift,
the owner has issued the no gift, no gratuity policy to
throughout the organization
tickets,
cials,
that,
a
no-gratuity" policy. Although
all
employees,
it is
well
known
over the past year, the owner has received
gifts,
vacation trips, and other perks from vendors, customers, government offi-
and the
like.
Stewart Clark, the operations vice president, asked Dave Harris to join
a
a
vendor-sponsored golf outing to be held
at a
him
in
prestigious country club. Harris
played on his college team, and won several men's amateur golf tournaHe decided to participate in the golf event, believing it to be acceptable
under company policy. However, at dinner following the golf festivities, the
likes golf,
ments.
was announced as the winner of
South Carolina. The final name drawn
was Dave Harris, and he was summoned to come forward and accept a new
35-inch television set. As Harris walked to the award stand, he contemplated his
vendor had
a
a door-prize giveaway. Stewart Clark
four-day golf trip to Hilton
Head
Island,
alternatives.
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
INTERNET ACTIVITY
1.
Use the Internet
cies.
W^
The Aggressive
Perfectionist
to find
two companies
that have
"no
What
are the purposes of these companies' "no
3.
If \^ou
were Dave Harris, what would vou do? Whv?
is
gift,
no
gratuity" poli-
are their similarities? W^hat are their differences?
1.
Cynthia
CASE 2-6
What
gift,
no
gratuit)'" policies?
the proof department supervisor for Middletoun National
reports directly to the vice president of Internal Ser\'ices. She supervises
personnel relative to assigning work and following up to
erly completed.
She also supervises the night-shift
make
super\'isor,
Bank and
all
day-shift
work is propassisting and advising
sure
as required. Typical functional responsibilities include:
Allocates
work assignments and follows up
to ensure the
work
is
completed on
schedule.
Resolves any problems referred by subordinates and /or upper management.
Sees that equipment
is
properly maintained and in good working order, inter-
facing with the vendors for proper service as required.
Interviews and hires
Reviews
all
new members of the department.
makes recommendations for pay
all employees on the day shift.
Evaluates and
transfers, for
all
increases, promotions,
and
job evaluations and personnel recommendations for the night
shift
personnel.
Assists, advises
and
trains night shift supervisor in the handling of employees.
Cases
I
223
Makes recommendations regarding improved methods of handling certain
and redesign of specific documents to increase efficiency.
types of transactions
Oversees the gathering, preparation, and analysis of various Proof Department
reports designed to establish standards
and measure productivity.
Performs any other duties as required or assigned for the efficient operation of
the Proof Department.
Cynthia loves words, and uses her large vocabulary^ extensively. This morning, her
boss was under stress and needed to vent. In a private meeting with C)Tithia, he
"You use big words to make yourself sound better than other people, and you
your intelligence." Q-nthia was shocked and (would
you believe) apologetic. In her most recent performance assessment, several subordinates described her as an aggressive perfectionist. At the time, she wondered what
she had done to warrant that description.
said,
tr\'
to intimidate people with
Source; Case adapted with permission from Edwin C. Leonard,
Management
21st Century Challenges (Mason,
and Roy A. Cook, Human Resource
Jr.,
OH: Thomson Custom
Publishing, 2005), p. 118.
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
1.
Would you
2.
C)Tnthias problem
like to
work
for
not
is
Qnthia?
Why or why not?
uncommon. What
are the syinptoms of
mismanagement?
Using the Internet, find
3.
\v4th
at least tAvo
sources that detail techniques for dealing
someone who might be described
one-page paper describing
4.
What would you do
5.
In
no more than
if
forts^
how a
you were
as
ijMtrjzi^w^mtmT^
an aggressive perfectionist. Write a
subordinate might cope with the situation.
C\Tithia?
words, describe what vou learned from this case.
For almost a decade, John Stephens has been the sen'ice-department supenisor for
Jentag
Commercial
Sales
and Appliance Repair
at its
small office in Fort Wa)Tie,
company headquarters are
Stephens is the only local company
Indiana. This office serves as a regional office since the
Because he works in a small office,
and he reports to the manager of the sales and parts division in the
Cincinnati office. Reporting to Stephens are Karen Mullens, the ser\dce department
dispatcher; Ben Griggs, the parts facilitator; and several appliance repairmen.
Stephens's responsibilities usually are split bet^veen his supen'ison,' duties and outin Cincinnati.
super\-isor,
side
customer-senice tasks with large industrial accounts.
An
integral part of the service department's success resides in having parts in
stock to complete repairs in a timely fashion. Griggs has held his position for about
Griggs has always been rather quiet, but he has done a commendable job,
and most customers like him. Stephens has told upper management that Ben Griggs
has the ability' and experience to be promoted to some larger office, but management has not yet found another position for him.
Recently, Mullens confided to Stephens that on several occasions when Stephens
was out of the office, she has heard Griggs cursing customers and continuing to
five years.
CASE 1-7
Fear or Exaggeration?
224
I
PART
2
Supervisory Essentials
curse loudly
when hanging up
the phone. She said she has seen Griggs throw small
items during his tirades. Mullens said she
is worried that one day she might be the
one to anger Griggs, and she fears that she could be physically harmed by him.
Mullens also said that because she is the only person to have seen Griggs's tirades, if
Griggs were confronted about this, he would know who passed on the information.
Stephens assured Mullens he would look into the situation and take appropriate
action.
Later, as
Stephens
sat in his office privately,
he reflected on the
fact that
on some
occasions, Mullens has tended to exaggerate problems and issues. Stephens
is concerned that something really could be amiss, but because Stephens has never seen
Griggs lose control with anyone, he is unsure what he should do.
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
1.
As a supervisor, what should John Stephens do to investigate and correct
situation? How can he identify the facts?
2.
Assuming that John Stephens determines that Karen Mullens s
factual, what should he do to correct the situation?
3.
Assuming
that
this
allegations are
John Stephens determines that Karen Mullens s allegations are
exaggerated, what should he do?
4.
Should any or all of these events be reported to higher corporate management? Why? Why not?
Georgia Mason
CASE 2-8
is
supervisor of the laundry
at
Pine Village
Community Medical
One of her
Center (CMC). Most of the time, she supervises eight to ten people.
widow with
Community Medical
employees
Center: Preferential
good worker, but she is almost always late for work in the morning. Mason had
spoken to Whisler numerous times about her tardiness to no avail. Just last
Wednesday, Whisler assured Mason that she tried hard to be at work on time, but
she "just did not seem to be able to make it" by 6:30 a.m. because she had to get her
children off to school. She argued that she worked twice as hard as anyone else and
that she stayed over in the afternoon to make up for the time she lost in the mornings. There was little doubt in Mason's mind that Whisler produced as much as or
more than anyone else and that she did stay later in the evening to make up the time
Treatment
is
Paula Whisler, a
five
school-age children. Whisler
is
a very
the morning.
morning,
however, Paula Whisler's tardiness was holding up a job
One Monday
that had to be finished by noon. Regardless of how hard Whisler might work during
the morning, it would be difficult to finish the job on time because the items had to
dry for three hours before they could leave the department. While some other
worker could have performed the operation, Georgia Mason felt that Whisler was
she lost by being
late in
most qualified
do
to
it.
However, should she arrive late again, the entire operation's
off. All of this was going through Mason's mind when she
schedule would be thrown
heard one of the workers say to another worker, "Whisler
treatment.
Sure enough, Paula Whisler arrived 45 minutes
that the situation required action
should be.
is
getting preferential
Why should she be given any favors, like she's better than
on her
late.
the rest of us?"
Georgia Mason realized
part, but she did not
know what
that action
Cases
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
Explain
how
the principles of the hot stove rule discussed in Chapter 6 were
applied improperly by Georgia
Mason
in this case.
Should Georgia Mason consider Paula Whisler s
to maintain departmental standards?
home
situation
when
trying
Why or why not?
Can the conflict between organizational demands and employees' personal
problems be reconciled and still have the objectives of the organization
accomplished? If so, how?
4.
What
action should
not solved quickly?
Mason
take?
What
alternatives are
open
if
the problem
is
I
225
PLANNING AND ORCANIZINO
SUPERVISORY PLANNING
AFTER STUDYIN6 THIS CH
YOU WILL BE ABLE T
A why
Define planning and explain
all
nnanagement
depend on
functions
planning.
^^
Explain the concept of
strategic planning
and
its
relationship to mission
statements and visioning.
^^
Describe the supervisor's role
in
f%
organizational planning.
Discuss the need for well-
defined organizational goals
and objectives,
particularly as
they relate to the supervisor.
^^
Explain
management by
objectives (MBO).
^k
Identify the major types of
standing and single-use
plans and explain how these
plans help supervisory
decision making.
^%
Describe
how
the supervisor
plans for efficient and
A
effective resource use.
Explain the key concepts of
quality planning.
f%
Recognize the importance of
planning for the unthinkable:
crisis
management.
YOU MAKE THE
r^
Joan McCarthy
is
CALL!
supervisor of the "hottest"
project design group
new
an original equipment
manufacturing (OEM) company employing over
15,000 people. She has ten years' experience with
company
the
in
at several locations,
including the
past seven years with the company's engineering
facility.
Joan's strengths are her communication
and leadership skills. "Give me a direction and
authority, and I'll be able to get it done!" has
always been her motto. Although some people
thought that Joan was not technical enough for her
last job, she was always able to compensate with
many
of the supervisory functions to Barton. Barton
would be able to expedite various supervisory tasks,
including training new employees in the computer
and telephone systems. Carefully designed metrics
were developed to evaluate product-change decisions. Existing team members trained new employees, and responsibilities were to be shared by team
members and handed back and forth. As a result,
Joan was generally free to travel and to meet with
customers
at their locations,
which she did often.
project design group, or team, which was
developed from Joan's interactions with her coworker
Bryan Barton; her manager, Lyie Hasaka; and a consulting firm, was to have one supervisor and six
employees. Joan was instrumental in gaining support for the program from senior management.
Barton worked with several functional areas
through all the internal systems to implement the
She always made sure to keep in contact with the
team while away.
Problems began to arise only a few months after
the group's launch. Team members who had been
on the team from the outset had grown dissatisfied.
Two of the team members usually ended up doing
more work than the rest of the group combined. A
number of unforeseen changes had caused a great
deal of extra work for the team. Updates typically
were not completed until the last possible moment.
The newest employee, Lois Hunter, who had been
hired from outside the company, still was not working up to speed and could not really contribute.
Barton claimed he could not help Hunter until other
team members gave her some basic orientation and
new
training.
human
her
skills. In
addition to her appointment as
new group, Joan was selected as
"Top 100 Employees" in the company
supervisor of the
one of the
for this
year
The new
project
When
team processes.
came time
to launch the group, Joan
was the obvious choice
for supervisor. Barton filled
the
first
it
reporting position. Others were selected as
first
that clearly violated the team's previous operating
and
outline for operations
was
was to
the decision metrics already
rules.
The
vice president's ideas
without merit, but team
rely
on the
team to gather data, make deciand direct the flow of changes in the new
ordering and design systems. Joan's role would be to
provide guidance where necessary and provide the
"big picture" perspective. She decided to delegate
expertise of the
sions,
requested. The team had been struggling to use
was the
It
she looked forward to the opportunity.
The
when Joan
president had
a supervisory position,
responsibility. This
in
vice
laid out; now they were
going to have to use some data and procedures
workforce were taken for the project team.
whole new world of
to decline
a
they were found. Only the best from the available
time Joan had served
Team morale really began
some changes a
instituted
were not completely
members argued
that they
should be allowed to refuse the vice president's
mandates.
Joan knows her team has made some strides
first few months, but clearly she must now
act to improve her team's functioning. WHAT CALL
over the
WOULD YOU MAKE?
230
PART
I
Planning and Organizing
3
MANAGEMENT FUNCTIONS
why
all
management
depend on
functions
Management
planning.
BEGIN
WITH PLANNING
Define planning and explain
scholars
and practitioners disagree about the number and designation
is that the first, and probably the
of managerial functions. However, the consensus
most
crucial,
managerial function
Planning means deciding what
is
is
planning.
to be
done
in the future.
It
includes analyzing
a situation, forecasting events, establishing objectives, setting priorities,
and decid-
ing which actions are needed to achieve those objectives. Logically, planning pre-
cedes
all
other managerial functions because every manager must project a
framework and
example,
How
how
a course of action before trying to achieve desired results. For
can a supervisor organize a department's operations without
a plan?
and lead employees without knowing which
avenues to follow? How can a supervisor control employee activities without standards and objectives? All managerial functions depend on planning.
Planning is a managerial function every supervisor must perform ever\' day. It
can a supervisor effectively
staff
should not be a process used only occasionally or when the super\'isor
engrossed in daily chores. By planning, the supervisor
is
not
realistically anticipates
and
analyzes problems and opportunities, anticipates the probable effects of various
and chooses the course of action that should lead to the most desirable
plans alone do not bring about desired results, but without good
planning, activities w^ould be random, thereby producing confusion and inefficiency.
alternatives,
results.
Of course,
THE STRATEGIC-PLANNING PROCESS
Explain the concept of
strategic planning
and
its
relationship to mission
statements and visioning.
Strategic planning
The process of establishing
goals and making
decisions that enable an
organization to achieve
long- and short-term
objectives.
its
in economic conditions and technolog)', coupled with
and international competition, have forced organizations to
plan more thoroughly and systematically. As the first function of management,
planning must start at the top level of management and permeate all levels of the
organization. For the organization as a whole, this means top management must
develop an outlook and plans that guide the organization. VV^e call this process
strategic planning, which essentially means establishing goals and making decisions that enable an organization to achieve its long- and short-term objectives.
For many years, noted management scholar Peter Drucker stressed that every
organization must think through its reasons for being and constantly ask the
question, "What is our business?" Only by asking this question can an organization set goals and objectives, develop strategies, and make decisions that lead to
success. Drucker emphasized that answering this question has to be done by that
Turbulent and rapid changes
increasing domestic
part of the organization that can see the entire business, balance
tives
and needs against tomorrow's needs, and
all
current objec-
allocate resources to achieve key
results.'
CEO
Linda Yates and director Peter Skarzynski of Strategos, a global strateg)'
own emphasis on
innovation firm, have echoed Drucker's assertions with their
innovation as the guiding principle for
all
companies
in the future.
They
write:
requires companies and their leaders to be couraGetting to the future first
geous and farsighted. The company that wins the race to the fiiture is driven by
.
innovation.
.
.
Not an innovation, but a
conscious, built-in, contitnious process of
CHAPTER
intwvation that keeps a
7
Supervisory Planning
I
231
company on a pathbreaking streak. Innovation must
of twenty years ago, the right and responsibil-
like the quality revohition
become,
of every individual in a company, not the pet project of the executive suite.
Companies that eat and breathe innovation never suffer from prosperity-induced
ity
slumbers. They are not predicting the future; they are inventing
it.^
In most organizations, top-level managers are primarily responsible for developing
and executing strategic or long-term plans. However, once strategic goals and plans
have been identified, middle managers and supervisors must be involved in the corresponding planning activities of the organization.-' These employees must plan
their work units' policies and activities to achieve the organization's overall goals.
A super\dsor, like Joan McCarthy in the "You Make the Call!" section of this chapter,
likely becomes involved in developing and carrying out certain overall strategic
plans for the corporation. Perhaps Joan
ital
McCarthy will not be part of strategic capbecome involved in planning issues that
budget decisions, but she certainly will
relate directly to the operations
of the project design group and that help
carr)'
out
the mission of the firm.
Strategic
planning need not be a burdensome, voluminous undertaking.
much as they do to major
The lack of strategic planning is often a serious obstacle for smallbusiness owTiers. The benefits of strategic management in directing the organization
Strategic planning principles apply to small businesses as
corporations.
as a \vhole are just as
important to small business. Regardless of the
size
or nature
of the organization, managers must be involved in strategy formulation because
their participation in the strategic-planning process
ment
for the
chosen directions and
MISSION STATEMENTS
commit-
development of a mission statement
philosophy and purpose of the organization as defined by
that reflects the
An
essential to gaining
AND VISIONINO
Effective strategic planning usually begins with the
leadership.
is
strategies.
organization's mission
is
its
top
usually understood to be the purpose or
reason for the organization's existence. Figure 7.1
is
a mission statement
from
it
better.
There
is,
The
vision can
become
all
of a tlrm's
activities.
of course, some overlap in vision statements and mission statements.
one organization's vision statement. Notice
"Values and Belief Statement" and that a number of its
See Figure 1.7 (page 23) in Chapter
that this
the foundation for
document
is
titled
items resemble those in Figure
1
for
7.1.
Visioning and vision statements should not be mere "advertising slogans" that
primarily laud the organization and
reflect the firm's
its
accomplishments. Rather, visioning should
core values, priorities, and goals, which can be translated into con-
and actions.^
As mentioned previously, \isioning should not be thought of as solely the responsibility of top management. In fact, effective supervisors use visioning to guide their
crete plans
statennent of the
organization's basic
philosophy, purpose,
a
major supermarket chain. This statement hangs in ever\^ store and office of the firm.
The supermarket's entire management team is responsible for providing the leadership that sets the desired patterns of employees' behaviors. As such, the mission
statement serves as a springboard or basis for assessing the company's performance
and results.
The concept of visioning goes beyond that of a mission statement. Visioning is
the process of developing a mental image of what the firm or organization could
become; it seeks to define what it is that distinguishes the organization and what will
make
Mission statement
A
and reason
for being.
Visioning
Management's view of
what the company should
become; reflects the firm's
core values, priorities, and
goals.
232
PART
I
FIGURE
3
Planning and Organizing
7.1
MISSION STATEMENT
Mission Statement for
NATURE OF BUSINESS
Sanders Supermarkets,
Inc.
committed to excellence as an innovative retailer of
quality foods, drugs, consumable products, and services. We focus on providing
value through quality, variety, service, competitive pricing, and friendliness.
Sanders Supermarkets
is
CUSTOMERS
Customers are our most important asset and must receive our
total effort
toward
their satisfaction.
FINANCIAL OBJECTIVES
We
must achieve
profits
above the industry average
to maintain leadership
and
provide for growth.
ASSOCIATES
We
employ and promote only competent people of high integrity with
strong work ethic. We are committed to having a diversified workforce.
will
a
BUSINESS CLIMATE
We
conduct our business by treating all customers, associates, suppliers, and
the communities we serve with honesty, fairness, and respect.
will
parts of the organization. For example, in the "You
chapter, supervisor Joan
McCarthy should
project group's operations but also for continuous
direction of the group
staff in visioning
ization
who
in visioning
by
and
the Call!" section of this
services for years to
improvement
that shapes the
come. McCarthy can involve her
from them as well as fi-om others in the organby and use the group's services. Widespread participation
soliciting ideas
are affected
is
its
Make
not only for improvement of her
strive
crucial to realizing the vision.
Many CEOs credit their organization's
recent accomplishments to clearly defin-
ing what they want to be, identifying their competitive edge, and involving employ-
improvement efforts. It appears clear that those organizations that
work to eliminate ineffective processes and implement customer-first
quality improvement programs are increasing their chances for success. This chapter's first Contemporary Issue box illustrates how one organization repeatedly inteees in quality
diligently
grated quality awareness throughout
its
culture.
and we hope you
a very interesting story,
Our
students have found this to be
will also.
ALL MANAGERIAL LEVELS PERFORM
Describe the supervisor's
THE PLANNING FUNCTION
role in organizational
planning.
Planning
is
the responsibility of every manager, whether chairperson of the board,
However, the magniwhich those plans are carried out.
president, division manager, or supervisor of a department.
tude of a manager's plans depends on the
Planning
at
the top level
top-level executive
is
is
more
level at
far-reaching than
it is
at
the supervisory level.
The
concerned with overall operation of the enterprise and
CHAPTER
CONTEMPORARY
ISSUE
A Iberto Wisbeck's task was to turn around the worst
/^production facility in the company. When Alberto
Wisbeck arrived at Siemens' 350-person transformer
factory in Jinan, China (STC Jinan) in 2001, he knew it
was the company's worst factory and that Siemens was
considering closing the plant because of its poor performance. Production capacity was a dismal 400 MVA
(mega volt amps), and 67 percent of its revenue was
spent to acquire raw materials. Numerous bottlenecks
impeded production. The plant was both wasteful and
inefficient. Many people would have walked away from
the opportunity, but not Wisbeck.
"We needed to focus on improving quality and
meeting customer needs for both our external and
internal customers," said Wisbeck. He knew the
Chinese culture presented unique challenges. "In
China, there is a very strong concept of 'face' the
desire to maintain one's standing in the eyes of
others. A worker is extremely nervous to shed light on
a problem in his own work area, in part because companies are very quick to punish," Wisbeck added.
Wisbeck had worked with Philip Crosby
Associates (PCA) before and believed that a relentless implementation of the Crosby philosophies,
methodologies, and tools could turn the factory
—
What was his plan? "Remove the culture
was allowing the factory to be last and install a
culture that would enable it to be first," said
Wisbeck. He continued, "PCA takes the blame out
of the discussion by forcing employees to identify
the processes and procedures that cause the probaround.
that
lem. This
is critical
to success
in
China with the
7
Supervisory Planning
233
I
MISSION IMPOSSIBLE?
Seven members of this group became resident
instructors who, in turn, would train the workforce.
Wisbeck set up an additional requirement for his
In order to get a graduation certificate,
each must complete a project that saves the company at least 1,000 RMBs (Si 20 USD). Even more
challenging, the problem solved had to be in the
individual's work area.
According to Wisbeck, "the results were t>eyond
our wildest dreams. One worker used his Crosby education to identify a problem that management would
not have seen and to develop a solution that management would not have created. In doing so, he saved
the company 80,000 RMBs (S10,(X)0 USD) annually"
"What should that tell managers? Do not underestimate your workers; train them, educate them,
invest in them. They are the only ones who can
make that type of difference," Wisbeck said.
By mid-2005, STC Jinan had increased its
output threefold and expected to reach its goal of
1 ,500 MVA. The 67 percent spent on raw materials is
down to 61 percent due to all the waste that was
removed. What is the next step?
workers.
Out of the 340 employees
that finished projects,
35 were selected for additional training and responsibility. While the initial projects dealt with the workers' immediate work environment, the 35 employers
were charged with focusing on cross-functional
problems. Those with the best advanced projects
be selected for Six Sigma black belt training.
Wisbeck stresses that this is only the beginning,
will
"We
achieved remarkable results with
a never-ending process.
PCA
already.
We want to
strong cultural tradition of saving face. PCA's focus
But quality
on processes and organizational culture builds an
environment where managers and workers are jointly
accountable for performance and continuous
improvement."
The plant started its Crosby implementation with
a strong foundation of education for top managers.
better at finding and scoping improvement projects
Source: Adapted with permission from Christine Johansen, "Siemens Plar:
and
at
making sure we break big projects
7,
"
:<e Ten Minutes, Issue 23
new
..-vw.Dhilipcrosby.com fo'
2005). Visit
long-range planning for
new
facilities
:
;:
;
=
-
zations. Also
level,
see H.
£\-5-iber2005).
and equipment, new products and
markets, and major investments. At the super\asory
services,
the scope
is
nar-
rower and more detailed. The supenisor is usually concerned \sith day-to-day
plans for accomplishing departmental tasks, such as meeting production quotas
for a particular day.
get
into smaller,
more manageable bits. We want to see what Six
Sigma can do for our plant. We are not stopping
now. The employees at STC Jinan know their future
depends on it."
www.thomsonedu.com/management/lec
Philip Crosby concepts have been used to bring about a radical and positive :
Dragon Flexes Its Muscles: Shanghai is set to become China's quality leade-
Capacity Group, July
is
p. 12.
--
z
eve
Ja.'r.es
Irscy Associates The
.£:-3*ions
on how the
Harrington,
'A Quality
234
I
PART
3
Planning and Organizing
ERVISORY TIPS
How
1.
Create a vision.
2.
Develop a mission statement.
to Reach Your Goal
9.
3. Involve others in setting
Establish
feedback controls and monitor
progress.
SMART^
goals/objectives:
10.
Make changes,
if
necessary.
Stretching, yet attainable.
Measurable by expressing
a quantity.
in
it
Accountable by identifying the individual
responsible for accomplishment.
Realistic, set in light of past
performance,
organizational resources, states of nature,
and the competitive environment.
Time limited. This is often accomplished by
expressing the objective
in
terms of the
be achieved by a
time. What is to be done
conditions or results to
specific point
in
by when.
4.
Communicate goals/objectives
to
all
those
who
must know.
5.
Develop plans/strategies
for reaching the
goal/objective.
6.
Put the plan
7.
Secure commitment to the plan.
8.
in
writing.
Put the plan into action. Assign responsibility,
accountability,
and
authority.
early editions of this text, we advocated that objectives be specific, measurable, attainable, realistic to organization resources, and time
The authors would like to thank Mike Lynch and Harvey Lifton for introducing us to the notion of evaluating objectives by applying their
SMART criteria. See "Training Clips: 150 Reproducible Handouts: Discussion Starters and Job Aids," HRD Press (1998), p. 118.
Note;
(1) In
limited.
While planning always involves looking to the future, evaluating the past should
be part of managerial planning. Every manager can learn to plan more effectively by
evaluating previous plans and trying to benefit from past successes and failures.
While there is no recipe that guarantees success, the guidelines in the accompanying
"Supervisory Tips" box are recommended for increasing the probability of reaching
the intended target.
In formulating plans, a supervisor
may
find that certain aspects of planning
implementing employment policies, computer and accounting procedures, or technical know-how. In such areas, the super-
call for
specialized help, such as for
visor should consult with specialists in the organization to help carry out the
required planning responsibilities. For example, a
human
resources staff special-
can offer useful advice concerning policies involving employees. A supervisor
should use available help in the organization to plan thoroughly and specifically.
This includes consulting with employees for their suggestions on how to proceed
ist
in certain situations.
Employees
like to
be consulted, and their advice
may
help
the supervisor develop day-to-day plans for running the department. In small
CHAPTER
Supervisory Planning
7
FIGURE
I
7.2
Planning requires
answering these
questions.
firms, expertise
may
not be readily available, so the supervisor
on personal contacts outside the
may want
sonally responsible for planning (see Figure 7.2 for a
list
draw
to
firm. In the final analysis, each supervisor
is
per-
of questions to ask before
developing plans).
PLANNING PERIODS
For
how
long should a manager plan? Usually, a distinction
is
made between
long-
range and short-range planning. The definitions of long-range and short-range plan-
ning depend on the manager's
enterprise,
level in the organizational hierarchy, the type
and the kind of industry
in
managers define short-range planning as
of
which the organization is operating. Most
that which spans less than one year. Most of
means a
amount of work that is
the time, super\isors devote their attention to short-range planning. This
supervisor must take time to think through the nature and
assigned to the department. Very short-range planning
scheduUng
Many
is
production run or staffing an end-of-summer
supervisors prefer to do this t)npe of planning
of a week
ities,
a
when
at
involved, for example, in
sale in a
department
the end of a day or
they can evaluate what has been accomplished. There are
at
store.
the
some
end
activ-
such as preventive maintenance, for which the supervisor can plan several
months
in advance.
The plans
a supervisor
makes should be integrated and coordi-
nated with the long-range plans of upper management. These long-range plans stem
from the vision and mission of the firm and are often called the strategic plan.
Supervisors who are well informed about an organization's long-range plans are
better positioned to integrate their short-range plans with overall corporate plans.
By the same token, each supervisor should bear
in
mind
that
employees are affected
by plans. VVhenev^er possible, a supervisor should explain to employees in adv^ance
what is being planned for the department. At the very best, well-informed employees appreciate that they have been kept informed and that they need not look to the
grapevine for information about their future.
Long-term planning, which goes beyond a year and may involve a span of three,
five, ten, or more years, is usually done by higher-level management. The organization's ability to plan has been hampered by economic uncertainty and the rapidly
Strategic plan
Long-term plans
developed by top
management.
235
—
236
I
PART
3
Planning and Organizing
changing competitive environment. Regardless of such challenges,
develop long-range plans. Ask yourself these questions:
Where do
What
Who
As
will
be doing?
I
I
be doing
illustrated in
on which
important to
see myself in five years?
I
will
it is
it
Chapter 5
with?
(see Figure 5.1,
page 157), "Before individuals can decide
must determine where they want to
"Always begin with the end in mind."
direction to go, they
author Stephen Covey
says,
get to," or, as
ORGANIZATIONAL COALS
AND
Discuss the need for well-
defined organizational
goals and objectives,
particularly as they relate
to the supervisor.
A first,
major step
in planning
is
OBJECTIVES
to develop a general statement of goals
that identify the overall purposes
and
results
toward which
all
and
objectives
plans and activities are
is a function of top-level management, which must define
and communicate to all managers the primar\' purposes for which the business is
organized. These overall goals usually reflect upper-level managers' vision for such
things as the production and distribution of products or services, obligations to the customer, being a good employer and responsible corporate citizen, profit as a just reward
for taking risks, research and development, and legal and ethical obligations. Figure 7.3
is a statement of corporate goals and objectives, sometimes called a mission statement.
While some firms make a distinction between the terms goals and objectives, we
use these terms interchangeably. Some firms define a goal as any long-term target
that is, one that will take more than a year to achieve
and an objective as a shortterm target
that is, one that will take less than a year to achieve.
The goals formulated for an organization as a whole become the general framework for operations and lead to more specific objectives for divisional and departmental managers and supervisors. Each division or department must clearly set
forth its own objectives as guidelines for operations. These objectives must be within
the general framework of the overall goals, and they must contribute to the achievement of the organization's overall purposes. Sometimes these objectives are estabthat is, some may depend on certain resources or
lished on a contingency basis
directed. Setting overall goals
—
—
—
may
reflect
changing
priorities.
is to be accomplished and when.
by when" statements are more specific than the
broadly stated objectives of the organization. While the higher-level goal may be "to
provide quality maintenance services for the entire organization," the maintenance
supervisor's objective might be "to reduce machine downtime by 12 percent by year
Objectives are usually stated in terms of what
In general, a department's "what
end." While the supervisory-level objectives are
more
specific than the broadly
stated objectives of an organization, they are consistent with,
and give direction
to,
departmental efforts to achieve organizational objectives.
Whenever
possible, objectives should be stated in measurable or verifiable
terms, such as "to reduce overtime by 5 percent during the month," "to increase
output per employee-hour by 10 percent during the next quarter," "to achieve a 10percent increase in employee suggestions during the next year," and so on. This
enables a supervisor to evaluate performance against specific targets. This approach
is
an essential part of management-by-objectives programs, which have been imple-
mented by many organizations
as
ways to plan and
attain results.
CHAPTER
Supervisory Planning
7
FIGURE
QWIK HOME CENTER AND LUMBER
COMPANY, INC.
I
237
7.3
Statement of Corporate
Objectives
Inc. depends ofi the respect and supemployees, (3) shareholders, and (4) the
public, which includes the citizens of each community in which we do business.
For us to have a satisfactory future, we must continuously earn the support,
respect, and approval of all four of these groups. We believe in fostering an environment that encourages superior products, service, and performance. This
requires each employee to clearly understand our corporate objectives.
Qwik Honne Center and Lunnber Company,
port of four groups:
(1) its
customers,
(2)
CORPORATE OBJECTIVES
1.
We
by September
will,
1,
become
200X,
the low-cost provider of lumber
products.
2.
We
will
reduce the number of customer complaints
chandise returns) by 10 percent
4.
We will
We will
5.
We
6.
A program
3.
two
reduce accounts receivable by 50 percent
develop plans
measured by mer-
for revitalizing one-third of
in
the next
six
months.
our stores during the next
years.
will institute
the next
7.
(as
this year.
six
of
a profit-sharing plan for
our employees by the end of the year.
Customer Retention Management (CRM)
will
be
instituted
in
months.
Our long-term same
a year for
to
store sales growth is expected to increase by 7 percent
each of the next three years, while cost of goods sold are reduced
below the industry average.
This continuing long-term growth
in
earnings and record of financial stability
expected to attract to our organization the
support its growth.
capital
is
—equity and debt— required to
MANAOEMENT
BY OBJECTIVES— A SYSTEM
FOR PARTICIPATIVE MANAGEMENT
Management by objectives (MBO)
is
a
management approach
supen'isors,
and employees
evaluated.
a management system that
commitment to organizational
requires
It is
full
in \vhich
managers,
which performance is later
involves participative management. MBO
jointly set objectives against
objectives, starting with top-level
man-
agement and permeating throughout all levels. MBO is also called "managing by
results" or "managing for performance.""^
As Figure 7.4 shows, an effective MBO system has four major elements. The
determination of specific, measurable, and verifiable objectives is the foundation of
the system. The other three elements are 1 ) the inputs, or resources, needed for
goal accomplishment; (2) the activities and processes that must be carried out to
accomplish the goal; and (3) the results, which are evaluated against the objectives.
While MBO emphasizes results rather than the techniques used to achieve them, an
Explain
management by
objectives (MBO).
Management by
(MBO)
A process in which the
objectives
supervisor and
jointly set the
employee
employee's
objectives and the
employee receives
rewards upon achieving
those objectives.
(
effective
MBO
system
is
constructed such that
ments are integrated and support the
all
four of the aforementioned ele-
others.
(
238
PART
I
Planning and Organizing
3
FIGURE 7.4
Elements of the
MBO
Approach
4.
3.
i
Results
Activities
and
processes to achieve
f
objectives
2.
Inputs: Resources
needed
to achieve objectives
1.
Joint determination of specific, measurable,
and
WHY
t
i
USE
verifiable objectives
MANAGEMENT
i^
BY OBJECTIVES?
many firms have adopted the MBO approach. The folamong the most important. First, MBO is results-oriented. It requires thor-
There are numerous reasons
lowing are
ough planning, organization, controls, communication, and dedication on the part of
an organization. Properly implemented MBO motivates and encourages commitment
to results among all employees. In addition, MBOs provide a sound means of appraising individuals' performance by emphasizing objective criteria rather than vague personality characteristics. Finally,
MBO
provides a
more
rational basis for sharing the
rewards of an organization, particularly compensation and promotion based on merit.
With or without
MBO,
managers recognize the importance
effective high-level
of delegating authority and responsibility to managers, super\'isors, and employees
if
goals
and
generally be
more motivated
to try to
goals" rather than "their goals."
ties
together
shown that employees will
meet these objectives because they are "our
objectives are to be achieved. Research has
many
The advantage of a formal MBO system is that it
and coordinates activities that oth-
plans, establishes priorities,
erwise might be overlooked or handled loosely in day-to-day business operations.
A
sound MBO program encourages the contributions and commitment of people
toward common goals and objectives.
TYPES OF PLANS
Identify the nnajor types of
standing and single-use
plans and explain
how
these plans help supervisory
After setting major goals
and
objectives,
all
levels
of management participate in the
design and execution of additional plans for attaining desired objectives. In general,
such plans can be broadly
classified as (a)
decision making.
be used over and over as the need
standing or repeat-use plans, which can
and
arises,
(b) single-use plans,
which focus on
one purpose or undertaking.
STANDING PLANS
Standing plans
Policies,
procedures,
methods, and
that can
rules
be applied to
recurring situations.
Many of a
and decisions are guided by the use of soAlthough terminology varies, these types
procedures, methods, and rules. All these
supervisor's day-to-day activities
called standing plans, or repeat-use plans.
of plans typically are
known
as policies,
CHAPTER
7
Supervisory Planning
I
plans should be designed to reinforce one another and should be directed toward
and work-unit objectives. Top-level mancompany-wide standing plans; supervisors formulate the necessary
subsidiary standing plans for their work units.
the achievement of both organizational
agers formulate
POLICIES
A
policy
a general guide to thinking
is
when making
decisions. Corporate policies
managers and supervisors in
within which those staff must stay as they
are usually statements that channel the thinking of
specified directions
,
make
,
.
and define the
limits
nnakinq decisions.
.
.
decisions.^
promote consistent decision making throughout an entermanagers find it easier to delegate authority, because the
decisions a subordinate supervisor makes are guided by policies. Policies enable
supervisors to arrive at about the same decisions their managers would or to at least
make decisions within acceptable parameters. While policies should be considered
guides for thinking, they do permit supervisors to use their own judgment in
making decisions, as long as those decisions fall within the parameters of policy.
For example, most companies have policies covering employee conduct and
other work-related issues. Many organizations provide for the education and training of their employees. To this end. Figure 7.5 is an example of one organizations
Effective policies
prise.
Once
policies are set,
tuition-reimbursement policy. Full-time employees
tuition for courses that are job-related or are
degree.
bility
Note
may
receive 100 percent of
needed to complete
a job-related
that this policy statement does not spell out the supervisor's responsi-
while others will clearly specify the supervisor's approval role.
Major company-wide policies are originated by top-level
managers because policy making is one of their important responsibilities. Toplevel managers must develop and establish overall policies that guide the thinking
of subordinate managers so that organizational objectives can be achieved. Broad
policies become the guides for specific policies developed within divisions and
departments. Departmental policies established by supervisors must complement
and coincide with the broader policies of the organization. In this regard, a firm's
policy manuals should not become too excessive in concept, design, and detail. One
corporate executive expressed his disdain for "bloated policy manuals" by replacing
a multivolume manual at his company with two pages of "clear yet flexible guidelines." In his view, this turned his supervisors into decision makers who knew their
responsibilities and acted accordingly.^
Small firms tend to have fewer policies than their large counterparts. On the one
Origin of Policies.
hand, the absence of policies gives the supervisor greater
situations as they occur. For example,
many
flexibility in
dealing with
small firms do not have policies for
drug or alcohol use; they prefer to handle problems on an individual basis if and
when such problems occur. On the other hand, the absence of policies may cause
inconsistent supervisory practice
tion.
area
and lead
to charges of unfairness or discrimina-
Information concerning the kinds of policies and practices that
—
especially those involving
Policy
standing plan that
^^''y^^ as a guide to
A
employee matters
—
is
exist in
usually available through
surveys conducted by employer associations. Such survey data can be helpful
management wants to make comparisons and perhaps adjust its
practices to align more closely with those of most area employers.^
In addition to policies formulated by top-level managers, some
firm's
imposed on an organization by external
forces,
an
policies
if a
and
policies are
such as government, labor unions.
239
240
FIGURE
PART
3
Planning and Organizing
7.5
Example of
a Policy
TOPIC: TUITION
and
Procedure Statement
REIMBURSEMENT
The company intends to substantially support employees in pursuing training and
education that will enhance the development of additional job-related skills and
knowledge.
REQUIRED ATTENDANCE
A
super\/isor
may
require a subordinate to attend seminars, conferences, or
classes or to enroll
specific courses. All fees
in
and related expenses shall be paid
for reimbursement will be han-
by the company. Authorization and approval
dled through normal disbursement procedures.
for
VOLUNTARY ATTENDANCE
1.
employees, upon securing the necessary approval, may receive
reimbursement as follows:
All full-time
tuition
a.
The company
will
pay 100 percent of
ably job-related and/or are
b.
2.
Courses must be taken
Tuition will
a.
at
needed
tuition for courses that are reason-
to attain a job-related degree.
an accredited
institution.
be paid as provided:
Before attending classes, the employee must submit a tuition-reimbursement
request form that identifies the school, course(s) to be taken, reason for
taking the course(s) (for a degree),
amount
of tuition,
and
starting
and
completion dates of course(s).
b.
The request requires the written approval
sor and a vice president or above.
c.
Evidence of a passing grade (C or
grade is given.
d.
The
individual
is in
of both the employee's supervi-
better), or
the employ of the
completion of course(s)
if
no
company upon completing the
course(s).
3.
The company
will
not:
a.
Pay tuition
in
b.
Grant time
off to
c.
Reimburse
advance.
attend classes or do research.
for books, travel expenses, meals,
trade groups, and accrediting associations.
and so on.
The word imposed
indicates
compliance
with an outside force that cannot be avoided. For example, to be accredited, schools,
must comply with regulations issued
by the appropriate accrediting agency. Government regulations concerning minimum wage, pay for overtime work, and hiring of people without regard to race, age,
and gender automatically become part of an organization's policies. Any policy
imposed on the organization in such a manner is known as an externally imposed
policy, and everyone in the organization must comply with it.
universities, hospitals,
and other
institutions
Written Policy Statements Promote Consistency. Because policies are guides to
decision making, they should be clearly stated and communicated to those in the
organization who are affected by them. Although there is no guarantee that policies
always will be completely followed or understood, they are
lowed consistently
written form;
if
more
they are written. Few organizations have
some have few or no
all
likely to
be
fol-
their policies in
written policies, either because they simply never
CHAPTER
get
around
them or because they would
to writing
7
Supervisory Planning
!
241
rather not state their poHcies
pubHcly. However, the benefits of well-stated written policies usually outweigh the
The process of writing policies requires managers to think through
more thoroughly and consistently. Super\dsors and employees can refer to a
written policy as often as they wish. The wording of a written policy cannot be
changed by word of mouth; when there is doubt or disagreement, the written policy
disadvantages.
issues
can be consulted. Additionally, written policies are available to supervisors and
who
employees
new
are
in the organization so
they can quickly acquaint themselves
with the policies. Ever)' policy should be reviewed periodically and revised or dis-
carded as conditions or circumstances warrant.
Supervisory (Departmental) Policies.
If a
department
exist
is
Supervisors seldom have to issue policies.
extremely large or geographically dispersed, or
within the department, the supervisor
mental
it
is
on
to apply existing policies in
stand the policies and learn
supervisor
if
several subunits
appropriate to write depart-
making
policies, the super-
is, most
and explain policies.
supervisors must under-
decisions. That
the supervisors role to interpret, apply,
Because policies guide supervisors in
A
it
For the most part, however, instead of writing
policies.
visor will be called
of the time,
may find
how
many daily decisions,
to interpret
and apply them.
may occasionally experience
a situation for \\hich
no
polic)' exists
or seems applicable. For example, suppose a group of employees asks the supervisor for permission to visit the user of their product to better understand
product
used. To
is
make an
should be guided by a policy so that the decision
sions regarding time
that higher-level
away from work.
If,
management has never
—
a guide for thinking.
as well as in the future so that there
ticular
department but
supervisors
who may
upon
will
be in accord with other deci-
investigation, the supervisor finds
issued a formal polic)' to cover such a
and should ask
is
consistency not only in the supervisor's par-
also across the organization. After consulting with other
have stakes in the issue, the supenisor
suggested policy and present
many such
instances will
it
to the
may want
manager. In large firms,
happen because
top-level
must use good judgment
to determine
when
to
it is
management
ered the major policy areas. In small firms, where fewer policies
when
the
his or her manager to issue
The supervisor can then apply the poUcy in this case
request, the supervisor needs guidance
a polio'
how
appropriate decision in this matter, the supervisor
make
to draft a
unlikely that
usually has covexist,
super\isors
decisions themselves
and
to consult their managers.
PROCEDURES
A
procedure,
like a policv',
is
a standing plan for achieving objectives.
It
derives
more specific. Procedures essentially are guides to action, not
guides to thinking. They define a chronological sequence of actions that c^rvf out
the terms and objectives of a policy. They promote consistency by listing the steps
to be taken and the sequence to be followed. At times, procedures are combined
with or incorporated into policy statements. Figure 7.5 is one firms combined
from
policies but
is
and procedure statement concerning tuition reimbursement.
Another ver\' common example is a company policy that requires super\isors to
use the human resources department in the preliminary steps of hiring. This poHcy
may contain several guidelines designed to meet nondiscriminaton,' hiring goals. To
carr\' out this policy, management develops a procedure governing the selection
process. For example, the procedures to be followed by a super\isor who wants to
polic)'
Procedure
A
standing plan that
defines the sequence of
activities to
be performed
to achieve objectives.
242
I
PART
3
Planning and Organizing
word processor might include completing
hire a
a requisition
form, specifying the
job requirements, interviewing and testing potential candidates, and other such
procedure
actions. In this way, the
details exactly
comply with the company's hiring
do to
same procedure.
what
policies. All
must do or not
supervisors must follow the
a super\'isor
must often develop procedures to
enough to have
only highly skilled employees to lead, they depend on the employees to a great extent
to select efficient paths of performance. However, this situation is uncommon. Most
employees look to the supervisor for instructions on how to proceed.
One advantage of preparing a procedure is that it requires an analysis of work
to be done. Another advantage is that once a procedure is estabhshed, it promotes
more uniform action, reduces the need for much routine decision making, and
encourages a predictable outcome. Procedures also give the super\'isor standards
for appraising employees' work. To realize these advantages, a super%'isor should
devote considerable time and effort to devising departmental procedures to cover
as many phases of operations as practical, such as work operations and work flow,
scheduling, and personnel assignments.
At the departmental
determine
how work
is
level,
the supervisor
to be done.
When
supervisors are fortunate
METHODS
Method
A standing
Like a procedure, a
plan that
details exactly
an operation
performed.
is
how
to
than a procedure.
is
method
is
a standing plan for action, but
concerned with only one operation or one
be
step
is
it is
even more detailed
A procedure shows a series of steps to be taken whereas a method
step,
and
it
indicates exactly
to be performed. For example, a departmental procedure
may
how
that
specify the
chronological routing of work in the assembly of various components of a product.
At each subassembly point, there should be a method for the work to be performed
in that step.
For most jobs, there are usually "best methods," that is, the most efficient
ways for the jobs to be done given existing technology' and circumstances. Again,
when a supervisor can rely on skilled workers, the workers often know the best
method without having to be told. For the most part, however, the supervisor or
someone in management must design the most efficient method for getting the
job done. Much time should be spent devising methods, because proper methods have all the advantages of procedures. In devising methods, the supervisor
may use the know-how of a methods engineer or a motion-and-time-study specialist if such individuals are available in the organization. These are specialists
who have been trained in industrial-engineering techniques to study jobs systematically to
make
those jobs
more
efficient.
When
such specialists are unavail-
and input from experienced employees actually
to design work methods that are appropriate for
able, the supervisor's experience
doing the work should
the department.
In
some
suffice
activities, a super\'isor
need not be overly concerned with devising pro-
cedures and methods because employees have been trained in standard methods or
procedures. For example, journeyman machinists are exposed to many years of
education and training, during which proper procedures and methods of performing certain tasks are emphasized. Similarly, in the super\'ision of a department of
highly skilled or professional employees, the supervisor's
main concern
is
to ensure
approved procedures and methods are carried out in professionally
accepted ways. However, most supervisors have employees who are not well trained
and for whom procedures and methods must be established.
that generally
CHAPTER
7
Supervisory Planning
243
I
There should be no
deviation from this rule!
RULES
A
rule
is
ing plan that
because
is
from a policy, procedure, or method although it is also a standhas been devised to attain objectives. A rule is not the same as a policy
different
does not guide thinking or leave discretion to the involved parties.
it
related to a
procedure insofar
must not be done. However,
for a time
sequence or a
set
as
a rule
is
of steps.
enforced wherever applicable.
a guide to action
it is
When
and
not a procedure because
A
rule
is
a rule
is
a directive that
is
a
it
it
A rule
what must or
does not provide
must be applied and
a specific guide for the behavior of
employees in a department, the super\dsor must follow that
wherever
states
rule,
without de%dation,
equipment must be worn in posted areas"
means exactly what it says, and there are no
Rule
A
directive that
must be
applied and enforced
wherever applicable.
I
applies. For example, "Safet)^
common
organizational rule.
It
exceptions.
Occasionally, super\dsors
must devise
their owti rules or see to
it
that the rules
defined by higher-level managers are obeyed. For example, rules concerning employee
meal periods usually specify a certain amount of time employees can be away
from their jobs for meals. Usually, high-level managers develop these rules, but
often a supervisor must formulate departmental rules concerning the actual scheduling of meal periods. Regardless of who develops the rules, it is each supervisor's
dut)' to apply and enforce all rules uniformly as those rules relate to each area
of responsibility.
SINOLE-USE PLANS
As discussed in the preceding sections, policies, procedures, methods, and rules are
knowTi as repeat-use, or standing, plans because they are followed each time a given
situation
is
encountered. Unless they are changed or modified, repeat-use plans are
used again and again. In contrast to repeat-use plans are plans that are no longer
needed or are obsolete once the objective is accomplished or the period of applicabilit)' is over. These plans are known as single-use plans. Single-use plans include
budgets, programs, and projects. Major budgets, programs, and projects are usually
Single-use plans
Plans to accomplish
a
specific objective or to
cover only a designated
period.
244
PART
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Planning and Organizing
3
the concern of high-level managers, but supervisors also help develop
ment
and imple-
single-use plans at the departmental level.
BUDGETS
Budget
A
plan that expresses
anticipated results
in
Although budgets are generally part of the managerial controlling function, a budget
is first and foremost a plan. A budget is a plan that expresses anticipated results in
numerical terms, such as dollars and cents, employee hours, sales figures, or units
produced.
It ser\'es
financial,
terms for a
stated period.
and an
tually translated into monetar\' terms,
the entire firm.
one year. All budgets are e\enbudget is developed for
over, the budget e.xpires; it has sened its
as a plan for a stated period, usually
numerical, usually
When
the stated period
is
overall financial
and is no longer valid. For this reason, a budget is a single-use plan.
As a statement of expected results, a budget is associated with control. However,
the preparation of a budget is planning, and this again is part of ever)- manager s
responsibilities. Because a budget is expressed in numerical terms, it has the advantage of being specific rather than general. There is a considerable difference between
iust making general forecasts and attaching numerical values to specific plans. The
figures that the super\isor finds in a budget are actual plans that become standards
usefulness
to
be achieved.
The Supervisor's Role
in Budgeting.
budget, they should help prepare
monly called
it.
Because supervisors must function within a
Super\isors should participate in what
grassroots budgeting. Grassroots budgeting
means
is
com-
that super\isors should
have the opportunit)* to propose detailed budgets for their departments or
at least to
managers before departmental budgets are
Super\isors must substantiate their budget proposals with their managers,
participate in discussions with higher-level
finalized.
when budgets are being finalized.
more concerned about the expense side of the budget
held accountable for % ariations. There are numerous types of budgets in
and possibly with
their financial managers,
Generally, super\isors are
and are
which supenisors can play a part. For example, super%isors may design budgets in
which they plan the work hours to be used for jobs in their departments. Supervisors
also may prepare budgets for materials and supphes, wages, utilit)- expenses, and
other departmental expenditures.
Most organizations have interim monthly or quarterly reviews
compared to actual results. Therefore, a budget is also a control
device. If necessary-, the budget is re\ised to adjust to results and forecasts. This
topic is discussed further in Chapter 15. Super\isors should carefully study and anah-ze significant variations fi'om the budget to determine where and why plans went
wrong, what and where adjustments need to be made, and what the revised budget
should reflect, including new factors and any changes in the department. When an
annual budget is about to expire, it becomes a guide for preparing the next year's
budget. Thus, the planning process continues from one budget period to the next
Budget Re\iew.
when
the budget
is
in a closely related pattern.
PROGRAMS AND PROJECTS
Program
A
major single-use plan
for a large undertaking
related to accomplishing
the organizations goals
and
objectives.
A program
major undertaking related to the organiand objectives. A major program ma)- ha\-e its own policies, procedures, and budget, and it may take several years to accomplish. Examples of major
programs are the e.xpansion of a manufacturing plant or office and the addition of newfacilities in a hospital. Such expansion programs usually in\'olve plans for architectural
is
a single-use set of plans for a
zation's overall goals
CHAPTER
Supervisory Planning
7
245
I
Expansion programs
usually involve plans for
architectural design,
new equipment
or
technology, financing,
employee recruitment,
and publicity, all of which
are part of the overall
program.
design,
plete,
new equipment
or technology, financing, employee recruitment, and public-
of which are part of the overall program. Once the expansion program
ity, all
its
plans will not be used again. Therefore, a program
Supervisors are typically
more involved
be part of an overall program,
it is
in
is
is
com-
a single-use plan.
planning projects. While a project
an undertaking that can be planned and
a distinct entity, usually within a relatively short period. For example, a
a public-relations department to acquaint the public with the
new
may
fulfilled as
brochure by
facilities
Project
A
single-use plan for
accomplishing a specific,
nonrecurring activity.
of a hos-
program would be a project. Arranging construction financing for
the building expansion would be another project. Although connected with a major
pital-expansion
program, these projects can be handled
separately.
An example of a project at the supervisory level is the design of a new inventorycontrol system by a warehouse supervisor. Another example
is
a research project
conducted by a marketing department supervisor to determine the effectiveness of
a series of television commercials. Projects like these are a constant part of the
ongoing activities at the departmental level. The ability to plan and carry out projects
is
another component of every supervisor's managerial effectiveness.
SUPERVISORY PLANNING
FOR RESOURCE USE
Describe
efficient
Because supervisors are especially concerned \vith day-to-day planning, they must plan
for the best use of all their resources.
These include physical and
human
how
the
supervisor plans for
resources.
EFFICIENT SPACE USE
Supervisors must always plan for space allocation and use. They should determine
whether too much or too little space is assigned to the department and whether that
space is used efficiently. In most organizations, space demands typically far exceed
and effective
resource use.
246
I
PART
3
Planning and Organizing
the available office or plant space.
engineers
who
must assume
When
Some
firms have
facilities
managers or
industrial
can help the super%'isor allocate space. Most super\isors, however,
this responsibilit)'.
planning space use, a floor-layout chart can be drawn and analyzed to deter-
mine whether
there
is
sufficient space for the
space has been laid out appropriately.
If
work
to
be performed and whether the
the chart indicates a need for additional space,
the supervisor should include with the space request a thorough analysis of
space
is
currently allocated. Chances are that the super\'isor must
how
the
compete with other
departments that also need more room. Unless the super\'isor plans thoroughly, the
space request has
little
chance of being granted. Even
visor's plans are useful.
They
alert the
if the
request
some of
supervisor to
is
denied, the super-
the conditions under
which employees are working and where improvements might be made.
USE OF
OTHER MAJOR PHYSICAL RESOURCES
Supervisors must plan for the efficient use of their departments' other major physical
and
resources, such as tools, machinerv-, computers,
and various
tv^^es
of equipment
furniture. Usually, these resources represent a substantial investment.
When
these items are poorly maintained or are inefficient for the jobs to be done, operating problems arise
and employees' morale degrades.
A
supervisor does not always
have the most desirable or advanced equipment, but any equipment, when adapted
and properly maintained, usually
ing
new equipment,
suffices to
supervisors should
using their tools and equipment properly.
do the
first
job. Therefore, before request-
determine whether employees are
Many
times,
when employees complain
about poor equipment, they are operating that equipment incorrectly. Therefore,
supervisors should periodically observ^e their employees using equipment and ask
those employees whether the equipment serves their purposes or needs improvement.
The supervisor
is
responsible for working closely v\ith the maintenance department to
plan the periodic maintenance of tools, equipment, and machinery. Poorly maintained
Properly maintained
equipment can minimize
breakdowns.
^^1
CHAPTER
7
Supervisory Planning
equipment may be blamed on the maintenance department in some cases, but superblame if they have not planned or scheduled maintenance with the
maintenance department. The maintenance department can do only as good a job as
visors share in the
other departments allow
it
to do.
The supervisor may sometimes decide that equipment must be replaced. In
making this request, the supervisor should develop and submit to higher-level management a plan for disposing of the inefficient equipment. To determine when a
major physical resource should be replaced, supervisors should review trade journals, listen to what salespeople say about new products, read literature circulated by
distributors and associations, and generally keep up with field developments. When
supervisors thoroughly study the alternatives and prepare to make recommendations based on several bids and models, they make stronger arguments to higherlevel managers. Facts are more likely than emotions to persuade higher-level managers
to support the supervisor's position.
Even when supervisors recommend equipment changes that are supported by
well-documented reasons, higher-level managers may turn down those changes
because they are not economically feasible. While supervisors should support those
decisions, they should not hesitate to point out the shortcomings in productivity
and morale by failing to replace the equipment in question.
In the long term, a supervisor's plans for replacing or buying equipment probably will be accepted in some form. Even when they are not, the supervisor will be
recognized as being on top of the job by planning for better use of department's
physical resources.
USE
AND
SECURITY OF MATERIALS, SUPPLIES,
MERCHANDISE, AND DATA
Another supervisory responsibility is to plan for the appropriate use, conservation,
and security of materials, supplies, and merchandise. In most departments, substantial quantities of materials and supplies are used and maintained in inventory.
Even if each item represents only a small value, the items together add up to sizable dollar amounts in the total budget. Many employees do not realize the magnitude of money tied up in materials and supplies, and sometimes they use these
items carelessly. The supervisor should remind employees that using all resources
economically is to their advantage ultimately; whatever is wasted cannot be used to
raise wages or improve working conditions.
A major problem in recent years has been the loss and theft of materials, supplies, merchandise, and other company property, sometimes by employees. Such
losses to U.S. businesses have been estimated to be in the billions of dollars annually. Some experts claim that the United States has the highest rate of employee theft
and dishonesty in the world. To prevent such losses, supervisors must make sure
that adequate security precautions are taken to discourage individuals from theft
and to make it difficult for items to be lost or stolen. For example, many supplies
can be kept locked up, with someone assigned the responsibility for distributing
them
as needed. If the firm has
its
own
security force, the supervisor should
meet
with security personnel to plan and implement security devices and procedures that
are suited to the department. In retail establishments, this
may mean removing
the
opportunity for theft and training employees to pay attention to customers' bags,
clothing, carts,
and boxes. Increased attention can often deter
lent return or exchange.
A
supervisor
police or a private security agency.^
may
a theft or a fraudu-
even request such assistance from local
I
247
248
'.
PART
3
Planning and Organizing
In recent years, another major concern of many firms has been the theft of data
and information, mostly associated with computer break-ins and related thefts. A
recent study of major corporations, government agencies, and universities revealed
that 24 percent of senior managers had received e-mail or in-person threats, and
17 percent of employees had intentionally and maliciously downloaded computer
viruses.'" As a result of these and other potential problems, 60 percent of U.S. companies monitor their employees' incoming and outgoing e-mail." Supervisors may
work very closely with IT specialists to plan for limited access to certain data and to
protect important hardware and software.
While a supervisor's plans for the use and security of materials, supplies, merchandise, and data cannot eliminate all waste and loss, such planning usually reduces
waste and loss and promotes a more efficient and conscientious workplace.
SAFE
WORK ENVIRONMENT
Most managers and supervisors recognize
work environment is one of
their major responsibilities because such an environment is essential for employees'
welfare and productivit)'. Safet)' data have long indicated that, due to carelessness,
poor attitudes, inadequate training, and many other reasons, employees cause accidents more often than do faulty tools and equipment. The super\isor shares a major
responsibility, ethically and legally, to do everything possible to see that the safest
possible work environment is maintained. Of course, some job categories, by their
very nature, are
more hazardous than
construction, and
that a safe
others. For example, supervisors in mining,
heaw manufacturing
major challenges in working to reduce
By contrast, super\'isors in the generally comfortable surroundings of an office usually do not have to worry about
major injuries. Nevertheless, the potential for accidents exists in any situation if
employees are not fully trained and reminded to follow safe work habits.
According to the most recent report from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS),
"American workers remain safer than they were just a few years ago. The 2003 BLS
the potential for serious injuries
data
show
and
face
fatalities.
that the fatal injur)^ rate held steady at 4.0 per 100,000
workers
—
identical
and the lowest rate recorded since 1992.'- While the number of reported
workplace accidents and injuries has declined, the BLS figures still show a disturbing
picture. Deaths as a result of violent acts actually rose from previous years and now
account for 16 percent of all fatal occupational injuries. The BLS defines workplace
violence as violent acts, including physical assaults and threats of assault, directed at
emplovees at work or on duty.
to 2002
Workplace violence
An act or threat of assault
directed at another
employee.
OBSERVANCE OF OSHA AND OTHER SAFETY REGULATIONS
Both before and since the passage of the Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA)
of 1970, supervisors have been expected to devote major attention to reducing and
preventing injuries and accidents on the job.
scope and administration of safet)' programs
OSHA
in
has significantly impacted the
many organizations.
the responsibilit)' of the supervisor in planning for
It
has expanded
and bringing about
a safer
work
environment.
Regardless of the size of the firm, super\'isors must plan to meet with managers,
as well as with
essary, to
employees, union leaders, and even with government
do everything possible to maintain compliance with
officials,
all safet)'
it
nec-
regulations.
SAFETY COMMITTEES
If
they are not already in place, supervisors should endeavor to establish and par-
ticipate in safety
committees.
Many unionized firms have safety committees that are
CHAPTER
7
Supervisory Planning
I
249
sponsored by management and the union(s). The purpose of a safety comis to help the supervisor develop safer work areas and enforce safety regulations. The supervisor and the safety committee can plan for periodic meetings
and projects to communicate to employees the importa-nce of safe work habits
jointly
mittee
and
attitudes.
in asserting their concerns that safe work environments and safe work practices are monitored closely. Joint union -management
safety committees invariably involve supervisors, and usually there is a concerted
effort to reduce accidents and injuries. The impact of proactive safety committees has
been well documented. Many safety committees have ongoing safety meetings and
site walkthroughs in which safety committee representatives identify and correct various problems. To reinforce workers' awareness of proper safet)' practices and use of
safety gear, superxdsors and workers hold weekly "toolbox" safety meetings in which
they discuss such subjects as storing tools and equipment to avoid tripping accidents,
proper lifting techniques, the need for protective safety gear, and other areas over
which employees have direct control.
The supervisor's constant attention to safety is mandatory if a safe work environment is to be maintained. Most accidents reported on the job are caused primarily by human failure (see Figure 7.6). The supervisor must emphasize safe work
habits in daily instructions to employees and ensure that all equipment in the
department is used properly and has ample protective devices.
Labor unions have been quite vocal
A common
program is the responsibility of the safety
However, without the full support of supervisors
and diligent super\dson,' observance of employee work practices in ever)' department, almost any safety program will fail. Safet)' planning and safet}^ in practice are
half-truth
department or the
is
that a safety
safety engineers.
everyone's responsibility.
FULL USE OF
HUMAN
Our perspective throughout this book is
that
RESOURCES
employees are a firm's most important
uppermost in every supervi-
resource. Planning for their full use should always be
sor's
mind. Using the workforce
fully
means
getting employees to contribute to
their fullest capabilities. This requires:
FIGURE
7.6
Inattention
commonly
causes accidents.
250
I
PART
3
Planning and Organizing
Developing plans for recruiting, selecting, and training employees
Searching for better ways to arrange activities
Training employees
proper and safe use of the materials associated with
in the
their jobs
Supervising employees with an understanding of the complexities of human
needs and motivation
Communicating
effectively
wdth employees
Appraising employees' performances
Recognizing achievement
Promoting deserving employees
Adequately compensating and rewarding employees
Taking
just
and
fair disciplinary
actions
These actions are ongoing aspects of a supervisor's plans for the
full
use of
human
resources.
Planning to use employees
fully
is at
the core of effective supervision.
It is
men-
tioned here again only briefly because most chapters of this text are concerned in
some way with
this overall
primary objective of supervisory management.
In addition to employees, another importance resource
time.
is
the supervisor's time.
money" applies equally to the supervisor's and
Suggestions for managing time appear in the appendix to this
The adage "time
is
the employee's
chapter.
EMPLOYEE WORK SCHEDULES
To plan
effective
work schedules
for employees, supervisors should operate
premise that most employees are willing to turn
in a fair day's
from the
work. Supervisors
all employees to work continuously at top speed. They should
work schedule based on an estimate of what constitutes a fair, rather than
a maximum, output. Allowances must be made for fatigue, unavoidable delays, personal needs, and a certain amount of unproductive time during the workday. Some
should not expect
establish a
may be able to plan employee time with the help of a specialist, such as
motion-and-time analyst. Even without such help, most supervisors have a good
idea as to what they can expect, and they can plan reasonable performance requirements their employees will accept as fair. Such estimates are based on normal,
rather than abnormal, conditions. In this regard, it may be unadvisable for a supervisor to schedule a department to operate at 100 percent capacity, which would leave
supervisors
a
no room
bility
is
for emergencies or changes in priorities and deadlines. Because some flexineeded to operate, only short periods of 100 percent capacit)' should be sched-
uled. Also, several rest periods are usually included in
employee work schedules.
OVERTIME AND ABSENCES
Occasionally, supervisors find
it
necessary to plan for overtime, although overtime
primarily should be considered an exception or an emergency measure. As a general rule, supervisors
should anticipate
productivity from employees
excessive overtime
is
when
a
reduction of between 5 and 10 percent in
they work overtime.
If a
supervisor finds that
required regularly, then alternative methods of doing the work
should be found or additional employees should be scheduled or hired.
Supervisors also must plan for employee absences.
Of course,
a supervisor can-
not plan for ever)' employee absence due to sickness, injury, or personal problems.'^
CHAPTER
However, the supervisor can plan
for holidays, vacations,
7
Supervisory Planning
temporary layoffs, and other
types of leaves or predictable absenteeism. Planning for anticipated absences ensures
smooth functioning of the department.
In recent years, a growing number of firms have established "group emergency
time pools." These pools are time-sharing plans by which employees can donate
some of their vacation days to a company pooled account, and an employee who is
on an extended sickness or disability leave can draw on this account to receive
income while off work. This t)q?e of arrangement is usually cost-effective for the
employer, and it is a morale and team builder for the employees.'"* However, it can
the
complicate a supervisor's vacation-scheduling task.
ALTERNATIVE
Many organizations
WORK SCHEDULES
have adopted various work schedules for their employees, such
as flextime, part-time
work, job sharing, telecommuting and other work-at-home
arrangements, and unconventional hours. Alternative work-schedule plans are diverse.
In
some
organizations, employees are scheduled for or
week, which
form of
is
may opt to work a 4-day work
The most common
which employees can choose,
usually a 4-day, 10-hour-per-day arrangement.
alternative
work scheduling
is
flextime, in
within certain limits, the hours they would like to work. Flextime usually involves
permitting certain employees to select different starting and ending times within a
5-day work week. Alternative work arrangements are becoming more
common,
which an employee s work is not closely interdependent
or interrelated with that of other employees or departments.^-^
Supervisors have found that alternative work schedules create problems when
tPtdng to cover workstations and job positions and that it may be difficult to exerparticularly in situations in
cise
supervisory control
who work
and
at
certain times of the workday. Nevertheless, supervisors
with alternative work schedules learn to adapt within their departments
in their relations
with other departments.
of different work groups on different days and
Some
supervisors
at different
may be
in charge
times of the day as a result
of flexible work scheduling. This situation requires supervisors on different
and
in different
departments to coordinate their
activities if
shifts
they are to achieve
overall organizational effectiveness.
Telecommuting and other work-at-home arrangements present a number of
problems for supervisors. In general, time scheduling is not that important
because work-at-home employees tend to make their own work schedules. However,
supervisors must plan well in advance and communicate with these employees concerning such items as project work to be completed, deadlines, budget constraints,
productivit)' expectations, and customer requirements. Some firms are making special efforts to train supervisors to manage "telecommuters" and other work-atdifferent
home
employees.'*'
Most
work schedule plans have concluded that employees
work schedules. Further, flexible
work schedules usually are associated with improvements in absenteeism rates, tardiness rates, retention, morale, and productivity.^^
studies of alternative
generally appreciate the opportunity to select their
PART-TIME
AND TEMPORARY EMPLOYMENT
The number of part-time employees is increasing. Retailers, service establishments,
and healthcare centers, in particular, often have large numbers of part-time workers. Scheduling part-time employees requires considerable planning to match the
needs of the department or business operation. Part-time work arrangements must
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Planning and Organizing
be developed and monitored
Some
if
they are to benefit employees and management.
part-time employees are content to work limited schedules. Other part-time
employees are eager to work as many hours as possible, and they also hope to obtain
full-time emploNTnent. Supers'isors must plan work schedules carefully to accom-
modate part-time workers' special interests and needs without creating scheduling
problems with full-time employees and departmental work requirements.
Another complicating factor for super\isors in work scheduling is the growing
phenomenon of temporary' employment. For the most part, temporar)' employees
fall into two basic categories. The first t\pe includes employees who are hired by
agencies and are "farmed out" for short-term work assignments with various
employers. Companies tvpically contact agencies to obtain individuals who have
certain skills, and those companies pay the agencies for each employee who works.
A supervisor who uses this type of temporary employee must schedule the employees with the sponsoring agency. The second ts^pe of temporar\- employee, called an
interim employee, is hired directly by a firm for a specific need or project. Interim
employees clearly understand that there is no guarantee of emplo)Tnent when the
company's hiring need or project ends. Typically, the interim employee is paid a
wage or salarx' with limited or no benefits.
While temporan' employees are often justified to meet short-term staffing needs
and cut costs, super\isors must be prepared to address their associated problems.
These problems include a lack of commitment to the firm, especially as the project
or interim period of employment nears completion. Temporary' employees often
leave jobs prematurely for other opportunities. They take with them knowledge and
training, which can demoralize permanent employees, and they can leave companies
in difficult situations.''^ For the most part, supervisors should tv)' to give temporar)employees job assignments they can do uithout disrupting the regular workforce.
The super\isor should not treat temporary' employees as "second-class citizens."
Instead, supervisors should view temporar)- employees as staff
members who can
help attain the departments objectives. Temporary employees can show
b\'
their
performance that they are worthy of consideration for full-time positions. Therefore,
temporar)' work situations can ser\'e as trials that allow supervisors to determine
whether temporary employees should be offered full-time
IMPROVEMENT
IN
status.'*^
WORK PROCEDURES
AND METHODS
Supenisors often are so close to the job that they may not recognize when work
procedures and methods need updating. Therefore, supervisors should periodically
tr)' to look at departmental operations as strangers entering the department for the
first
time might view them. By looking
each operation from
at
view, the supervisor can answer such questions
Is
a
detached point ot
as:
each operation needed?
What
is
the reason for each operation?
Can one operation be combined with another?
Are the steps performed
in the best
sequence?
Are there any avoidable delays?
Is
there unnecessary' waste?
Improvement generally means any change in the way the department is doing
something that will increase productivit)', lower costs, or improve the qualit)' of a
CHAPTER
7
Supervisory Planning
I
253
ser\ice. Improvement in work procedures, methods, and processes usumakes the supenisor's job easier. Besides personally looking for ways to improve
operations, the super\'isor should solicit ideas from employees. Employees usually
know their jobs better than anyone else in the organization,, Alternatively, the super-
product or
ally
\isor
may be
able to enlist the help of a specialist, such as an industrial engineer or a
systems analyst,
if this tv-pe
of person
is
available in the organization.
When
studying
areas for improvement, a super\asor should concentrate on situations in which large
numbers of employees are assigned; costs per unit are unacceptably high; or scrap
figures, waste, or injur)' reports appear out of line. A good reason to concentrate on
such areas is that it will be easier for the supenisor to con\ince employees and
higher-level managers that recommended changes wall bring about considerable
improvement, sa\ings, or other benefits. This process was essentially followed by
Alberto Wlsbeck as illustrated in this chapter's first Contemporary' Issue Box.
Organizations must more proactively meet the pressures of increasing competition. Ever)' supers'isor should consider the benefits of a methods-improvement
program, perhaps in conjunction with a firm's employee suggestion system if one is
in place. At all times, a supervisor should urge employees to look for better ways to
do
their jobs.
The super\'isor sometimes can apply work-sampling techniques to cut costs, save
and increase employee efficienc)'. Broadh' stated, \vork sampling involves inspecting a small amount of work ft-om a job to determine areas for improvement. Generally,
work-sampling techniques are the tools of the industrial engineer.-" However, in
small firms, supervisors usually perform this role. While work sampling is useful,
time,
even.' effort
should be made to ensure that the sample
tv'pifies
the whole.
i
PLANNING INVENTORY
Maintaining large inventories of component parts and finished goods
requires warehouse space that
requires workers to store
ing large inventories,
must be rented or bought,
and track the
many
materials.
and
heated,
is
costly. It
lighted.
It
also
To reduce the costs of maintain-
firms use inventor)'-control techniques that better plan
the inflow of materials needed for production.
A just-in-time
and components of production
when needed. This system
to work, suppliers
must be
willing
and able
and
its
is
a system
to arrive at the firm
avoids having to stock large
JIT requires close coordination between the firm
amounts of items.
suppliers. For the system
to supply parts
on short notice and
in
small batches. Also, so that suppUers can plan their production efficiently, the firm
must keep suppliers well informed about
its
system
A
system for scheduling
materials to arrive precisely
(JIT) inventory-control system, also called kanban,
for scheduling the raw^ materials
precisely
Just-in-time (JIT)
inventory control
when they
are
needed
in
the production process.
Kanban
Another name
for a just-in-
time (JIT) inventory-control
system.
projected needs for their products.-'
SCHEDULINO AND PROJECT PLANNING
Much
super\'isor\'
time
must be done, which
must be done, who is
is
spent planning projects. Supenisors must consider what
must be undertaken, the order in which activities
do each activit^^ and when activities are to be completed.
This process of planning acti\ities and their sequence is called scheduling. Two
well-known project planning tools are Gantt charts and PERT.
A Gantt chart is a graphic scheduling technique that shows the relationship
between work planned and necessar)' completion dates.-- Gantt charts are helpful in
projects in which the activities are somewhat independent. For large projects, such
as a complex qualit}' improvement program, PERT is more applicable.
actiWties
to
Gantt chart
A graphic scheduling
technique that shows the
activity to be scheduled
on the vertical axis and
necessary completion
dates on the horizontal axis.
254
PART
I
3
Planning and Organizing
Program evaluation
and review technique
(PERT)
A
managing
large programs and
projects that shows the
flowchart for
necessary activities with
estimates of the time
needed
activity
to complete each
and the sequential
Program evaluation and review technique (PERT) has been used
in
many major production and
construction undertakings.
diagram showing the sequence of
time associated with each.
PERT
PERT
needed to complete
activities
is
successfully
a flowchart-like
a project
and the
goes beyond Gantt charts by clarifying the interre-
latedness of the various activities.
PERT
helps a supervisor think strategically.
clear statement of goals serves as the basis for the planning process.
PERT
A
begins
with the supervisor defining the project in terms of not only the desired goal but
also
all
the intermediate goals on which the ultimate goal depends.
PERT
relationship of activities.
ning for
is
a helpful
large,
planning tool because
it
requires systematic thinking
and plan-
non-routine projects. The development of PERT networks by hand
time consuming, but use of Gantt charts and
proliferation of commercially available
PERT
is
likely to increase
computer software packages
is
because of the
that
can
assist
supervisors in planning, decision making, and controlling.
Explain the key concepts of
quality planning.
PLANNINO FOR QUALITY IMPROVEMENT
AND KNOWLEDOE MANAGEMENT
In recent decades, successful firms have
ity.
management (TQM)
organizational approach
involving
all
shown an emerging commitment to qualmanagement (TQM) and continuous
qualitv' traditionally meant inspecting the
firms have turned to total quality
improvement. In manufacturing firms,
at the end of the production process. Today, the notion of total quality
management means that the total organization is committed to quality everyone
is responsible for doing the job right the first time. TQM means a total effort toward
product
Total quality
An
Many
employees
—
continually improving
meeting customer needs and satisfaction by planning for qualitv', preventing
defects, correcting defects, and continuously building increased qualitv^ into goods
goods and
and
to satisfy customers by
services.
services as far as economically
Although not
as widely
known
and competitively
as
feasible.-^
TQM, many firms
ha\'e
been involved
in plan-
ning and carrving out short- and long-term strategies for more effective "knowledge
management." The "knowledge explosion," driven by computer technology, requires
Total quality
management
requires input
and
commitment by
everyone.
CHAPTER
more
b.
and sharing of information in ways
Knowledge management has been defined as:
conducive to desired
Adding actionable value
results.
255
to information
by capturing,
filtering, synthesizing,
Knowledge
management
The systematic storage,
summarizing, storing, retrieving, and disseminating tangible and intangible
retrieval,
knowledge
and sharing of information.
Developing customized profiles of knowledge so individuals can get
kind of information they need when they need
c.
I
systematic storage, retrieval, dissemination,
that are
a.
Supervisory Planning
7
at
dissemination,
the
it
Creating an interactive learning environment where people transfer and share
what they know and apply it to create new knowledge.^'*
many firms have planned and implemented a variety of approaches,
and techniques that, according to a recent survey, have improved customer and employee satisfaction levels and contributed to product or service innovations.-"' Some of these approaches have been within, or similar to, other quality
To
this end,
processes,
management efforts.
The increased emphasis on higher product and
servdce quality has led
firms to follow guidelines or criteria developed by others.
many
The process of identify-
on the best practices of the leaders in the industry or related
benchmarking. Some executives even advocate benchmarking using
"best-in-the-world" comparisons.-^ All of us have used benchmarking. When we
evaluate the performance of our favorite sports team, we look to see how well that
team is doing compared with the top team. We analyze the attributes of players of
the top team, coaching styles, and so forth and conclude that our team could be just
as good
if not better
if the owners /managers would change and copy the successful practices of top-team leaders.
The essence of benchmarking is to be as good as, or better than, the best in the
field. Benchmarking follows these steps:
ing and improving
fields
is
called
—
practices of leaders.
—
1.
Determine what to benchmark (e.g., a process or procedure,
customer sendee, employee development, compensation).
2.
Identify comparable organizations within
3.
Collect comparative performance data.
4.
Identify performance gaps.
5.
Determine the causes of the
6.
Ascertain the
Once these
Benchmarking
The process of identifying
and improving on the best
management
and outside the
quality, costs,
industry.
differences.
practices of the best.
steps are completed,
management can develop
plans for meeting or beat-
ing "best-in-the-industry," or even "best-in-the-world," standards.
In recent years, many firms have given serious attention to ways to achieve qualimprovements. See our web site for information on the quality^ standards established by ISO 9000 and the Baldrige Quality Award.-' Firms that want to compete
internationally must produce products and ser\dces that conform to quaHt)' stanity
dards only the best can meet.
CRISIS
e
MANAOEMENT:
PLANNING REQUIRED
Crisis
planning has become integral to every organization's long- and short-term
planning.
The
recent past
is
replete \vith crises that can appear suddenly: a robber
brandishing a gun enters a bank; a ladle of molten
steals
Recognize the importance
of planning for the
from
a church; a distraught
spouse carries a
steel falls
bomb
on workers;
a
bookkeeper
into the workplace; a
CEO
is
unthinkable:
crisis
management.
256
I
PART
3
Planning and Organizing
involved in a financial scandal; an unsafe product
uted; a class-action lawsuit arises
Not
due
to racial
is
designed, produced, and distrib-
harassment in the workplace.
surprisingly, almost eighty percent of corporate executives report that
puter securit}'
is
now
com-
the single most critical attribute of corporate networks. "The
worldwide impact of cyber attacks has grown steadily from $3.3
estimated S12 billion in 2003.
The
sabotage, espionage, or accidental mistakes."-** Such crises
1997 to an
billion in
greatest \ailnerability appears to be
from
internal
must be addressed
timely fashion. Clearly, the unthinkable will continue to take place in our
in a
societ)'. All
and personal life will undergo major changes, as illustrated
in this chapter's second Contemporary Issue Box. Today, more so than at any time in
recent memor\', super\isors must prepare for the unexpected.
aspects of organizational
CONTEMPORARY
ISSUE
RISK
IS
A FOUR-LETTER WORD
Clearly, the definition of crisis varies depending
on people's perspectives and perceptions. Consider
the following:
We
heard the thunder and saw the lightning, but
the storm would strike so close
we never thought
to
home.
Four of the five costliest natural disasters in
history have occurred in the past 12 years. As
a result, a number of insurers have gone out
of business while some major carriers have
severely restricted or even stopped writing
insurance altogether in certain areas. The premiums for many policyholders have increased
dramatically, even though they have not had
a claim.'
We
face
all
For
crisis situations
some people,
things
each and every day.
like
not hearing the
alarm clock go off
lights on, or
are the
in the morning, leaving the car
being forced to take a detour to work
most serious
crises of their lives. In retro-
We watched the Weather Channel and CNN as
they warned us that Hurricane Katrina was
coming and might wreck havoc on the
Mississippi, Alabama, and Louisiana Gulf Coast
communities.
spect, these crises are minor.
For other people, an equipment failure during an
important production run, not getting a desired job,
or getting laid off have
been major
crises.
Consider
New
Orleans had received warnings years ago that the
levees would not withstand a Category 4 hurricane.
—
was a crisis that wasn't just foreseeable it
was foreseen. The loss of life, the tens of thousands of homeless evacuees, and the increasingly dire economic implications for the nation
It
the father
who must
tell his
children that their
mother has a terminal illness or that their younger
was killed in an auto accident. In each of
sibling
these examples, the directly affected parties can
often be heard to exclaim,
"I
can't believe
it
hap-
pened to me!" Others who are, at best, remotely
connected to the people involved say, "Gosh, that's
tough!" What one person views as a crisis is not nec-
someone
those directly
involved, each of the preceding events is perceived
essarily a crisis to
as a
crisis
that
else. For
must be addressed.
become
manage
the perfect case study for
a
weeks
Five
how
not to
crisis.^
after the floods of Hurricane Katrina
devastated portions of
New
Orleans, city
offi-
mapping out a picture of what
reconstruction needs to be done. About 74% of
cials
the
are finally
city's
housing suffered damage.-
CHAPTER
We
didn't
know
it
massive earthquake shook the India-Pakistan
border, reportedly killing tens of thousands.
The U.N. estimated that 2.5 million people would
What can you do to ease the pain?
Make sure you know that your organization has
shelter."*
wake of the 9/1 1 attacks on the World
Trade Center and the Pentagon, government
officials and medical professionals have
In
trade
in their
terrorists
might
low-tech box cutters for the stuff
of Michael Crichton novels: biological and
chemical weapons.^
events
(1)
"The Risk Factor:
How
Risks
and
Houses," The Wall Street Journal (October
pp. A1, A3, A9.
"Are
(5)
Werbeck, "Masked
Rising Costs Affect Your Rates,"
News & World Report (September
We
Gunmen
7,
&
2005), pp. B1-2.
(4)
"Asian Quake's Grim
Toll
Mounts," The Wall Street Journal (October 10, 2005),
(6) Andy Gamill and Ryan
to effectively deal with a crisis
injected cyanide into Extra- Strength
is
The unthinkable occurred
Tylenol™ capsules. In
deaths were linked directly to cyanide-laced Tylenol capsules.
more than 30
USAA Magazine (May/June 2002), pp. 28+. (2) "Special Report:
Corey Dade, "New Orleans May Need to Bulldoze at Least 50,000
Prepared for the Unthinkable?" The Wall Street Journal (September 18, 2001), pp. 81, 86.
Rob, Flee Waynewood Inn, "The Fort Wayne, IN Journal Gazette (June 15, 2002), p. CI.
Johnson's (J&J's) Tylenol crisis of the 1980s.
when someone
those described here. Constant monitor-
12, 2005), pp. 12-39. (3)
The most recognizable example of how
Johnson
like
and learning about what is happening in the world and how others have coped
must be done. Making new plans and actions to deal
with the unthinkable has never been more important.
Two men wearing masks and brandishing handguns entered the Waynewood Inn and ordered
Hurricane Katrina," U.S.
plans
ing of strategic plans
Are we prepared for the unthinkable?
Sources:
257
I
and procedures for crises. Be sure you and your
employees know what to do when the unthinkable
happens. Remember, too, that strategic planning is
certainly one of the major tools advocated by major
corporations and management theorists. However,
strategic planning alone is not the panacea for
the
expressed concern that the
Supervisory Planning
twenty customers and employees to the floor
while they stole an undetermined amount of
money from the store's cash register.^
was coniing!
A
need
7
all,
eight
The company recalled
million bottles of the product, with an estimated retail value of over
recall was the first example of a corporation voluntarassuming responsibility for its products. Because J&J's credo taught managers to
focus on the company's responsibility to the public and to the consumer, the decision to recall was easy; the corporation's values were clear. J&J survived the crisis
$100 million. This voluntary
ily
with
its
reputation enhanced.-^
Many companies
have proactively approached crisis management; others are
The Firestone tire-tread separation on the Ford Explorer sports utility vehicle (SUV) is a classic case of crisis mismanagement. Both companies took out fullpage ads in the Wall Street Journal and other business publications extolling the
virtues of their products and pointing fingers at the other side. Since the 9/1 1/2001
terrorist attacks, more companies may be prepared for the unthinkable, but their
degree of preparedness varies widely. Unfortunately, it appeared that no one was
prepared for Hurricane Katrina. Maybe, the lessons learned from analyzing what
went wrong can be applied in the future.
Every organization faces potential crisis situations. As the second Contemporary
Issue box suggests, crises come in various sizes and shapes. Regardless of the size or
nature of the organization, supervisors must be involved in crisis-management planning. Ever)' member of the management team, utilizing concepts as suggested in
waiting.
-^°
is primarily a mental process
what must be done as well as to adjust to
priorities. It is not an understatement to assert
Figure 7.7, should plan for the unthinkable. Planning
that enables the supervisor to anticipate
changing circumstances and shifting
that effective planning
is
required for supervisors to succeed.
i^i.
.
258
I
FIGURE
Crisis
PART
3
Planning and Organizing
7.7
Management
1
Identify the unthinkables.
What
are your areas of vulnerability?
What has
been happening to or in other organizations? Become a learning organization, and learn from the experiences of others. It must be made clear that
every employee is responsible for reporting potential areas of concern and
to do so promptly. "Everyone knew Hurricane Katrina was coming. So why
couldn't the disaster have been avoided or at least the damage minimized?"
Planning
2.
Develop
do
it?"
Ask "What if?" queshappens, what should be done, and who should
a plan for dealing with the unthinkables.
For example,
tions.
"If this
good indications of what
be the company's spokesperson in
occurs. Speak with one voice to ensure consistent and uni-
Learn from the mistakes of others. They are
not to do. Plans should include
the event a
crisis
who
will
Plan
A does
form information.
3.
Develop contingency
done?
4.
Form
go at
5.
plans.
not work, then what should be
teams. Have a team of qualified, well-trained individuals ready to
notice. The events of 9/1 1/2001 and the experiences with
Hurricane Katrina in August 2005 pointed out the need to have several
backup teams ready to go into action as soon as there is an indication that
something might transpire.
crisis
a
moment's
Simulate
school
crisis drills.
As
a child,
your school probably had
may have never experienced
The exercise was repeated so
6.
If
that
a
all
fire,
fire drills.
Why? The
but the potential for one existed.
knew what
to
do
if
the
crisis
occurred.
Respond immediately, if not sooner. Create a culture in your organization
that empowers employees rather than compels them to send memos or
e-mails and await approval. Many organizations have retreated when unthinkable situations arose. Supervisors must share all they know as soon as they
know it. Management Professor James O'Toole contends, "You can't get into
trouble by admitting what you don't know or by giving people too much
information."
7.
Do
not be afraid to apologize. Think about how you would like to be
if something unthinkable happened to you. What would make it
right? In many situations, nothing will make it right, but the right step is to
apologize sincerely and to offer to make amends. As Professor Gerald
Meyers says, "If you win public opinion, the company can move forward and
get through it."
treated
8.
Learn from the experience of others. Learn from your own mistakes. Ask
what you have learned from past crises and how you can integrate that
knowledge into the planning process.
9.
Plan now! There
Sources:
Adapted from
is
no "rewind" button when
a crisis occurs.
"Special Report: Understanding Katrina," U.S.
2005); pp. 18-39; "Special Report: Lots of
Blame— But
It's
No Game,"
News & World Report (September 12,
News & World Report (September
U.S.
Can Bring Better Ways to Conduct Business," The Wall
"Be Prepared," The Wall Street Journal (September 24,
2001), p. A24; Elizabeth Hlotyak, "Crisis Communications," Westchester County Business Journal (September 25,
2000), pp. 13-14; Norman Augustine, "Managing the Crisis You Tried to Prevent," Harvard Business Review
(November-December 1995), pp. 147-58; John A. Byrne, "Here's What to Do Next, Dow/ Corning," Business Week
19, 2(X)5); pp. 26-38; Carol
Hymowitz, "Managing
Street Journal (October 23, 2001), p. B1
(February 24, 1992), p. 33; and
(December
23, 1985), pp. 74+.
;
Howard
in
a Crisis
Paster,
"How Companies Are
Learning to Prepare for the Worst," Business
Week
CHAPTER
r
WHAT CALL
McCarthy has a situation that needs some
and decision making if the functioning of the project design group is to improve
and live up to its potential. In retrospect, it appears
that far too little attention was devoted to planning
careful planning
number of important aspects of the project
design group's ongoing operations and relationships even though there had been detailed planning for some technical processes.
such as
Joan must address the group's concerns realistically
and win their consensus and support. Employee
involvement usually is the key to any TQM and continuous improvement system. She should ask her
employees to help her create a vision for the group
and to define their responsibilities and objectives.
She should ask them such things as:
What does the company expect of this group
now and in 3 to 5 years?
What essential services will we be expected to
provide?
•
What
will
management be
willing to
pay
for
our services?
Answers to questions
like
these
will
make
diate plans to
will
be those
help guide
Some imme-
Joan's continuous-improvement efforts.
within the team,
how
to give
259
new employees
orientation
and
each employee's
skills and abilities should be developed; these statements should be revised to reflect the procedures
and systems followed in practice.
training. Role
statements that
Planning also
for a
•
I
DID YOU MAKE?
Joan
•
Supervisory Planning
7
dures,
reflect
means looking
at policies, proce-
and methods. Are they needed? Should some
be refined or discarded? For example, how should
requests/demands from upper management (e.g.,
the vice president) be handled, especially if they are
burdensome and not feasible?
Joan may want to determine whether such planning devices as Gantt charts and PERT could improve
her team's project scheduling. Perhaps
some type
of
MBO
approach could define each team member's
specific targets and accomplishments and relate
them to a performance-based compensation system.
Finally, Joan may need to reevaluate her management style. Has she created resentment by letting the
team more or less supervise itself? While she wanted
to empower her team, do they consider her a handsoff, uninvolved supervisor who prefers traveling and
visiting customers rather than managing? As Joan
rethinks her situation, she should remember that
whatever continuous-improvement plans she and her
group develop, those plans must complement the
and strategic plans of the entire corporation.
vision
SUMMARY
A
Planning
is
mines what
the managerial function that deteris
to be done.
It
defines
are
needed to achieve
Planning
is
executive to the supervisor. Without planning,
A
is
no direction
Strategic
to organizational activities.
planning involves making decisions that
enable the organization to achieve
long-term objectives.
It
may
its
short-
and
involve developing a
A
process of developing a mental image of what the
organization could become. Top-level
management
and
achieving parts of
objectives.
The organization
for devel-
strategic plan,
it.
Effective supenisors create
mental images of their departments in the future.
Plans that
greater
the
goals
supervisors direct their work-unit plans toward
and purpose of the
is
the organization
oping and executing the overall
The
enterprise. Visioning goes
vision so that ever)'one in
While top-level managers are responsible
mission statement that identifies the philosophy
beyond the mission statement. Visioning
its
knows where
develops plans based on the vision.
a
function of even' manager, from the top-level
there
company
and deciding what actions
objectives.
articulates
intends to be. \lsioning can thereby help focus
situation, forecasting events, estabUshing objectives, setting priorities,
and
the enterprise
includes analyzing the
complement
vision,
this vision are
when shared
meaning
Planning
is
\\ith
developed.
employees, gives
to employees' work.
the responsibilit)' of even- manager.
Often, the supervisor must consult with others to
develop plans that are consistent with those of
PART
260
upper-level
Planning and Organizing
3
management. Supervisors devote most
of action, and provide a means of appraising
of their attention to short-term planning. The
employees' work.
supervisor's short-term plans should be integrated
^
In addition, the supervisor will be called
design and follow methods and rules, which are
fashion.
directive that
Setting objectives
is
the
first
Although overall goals and
essentially guides for action.
more
are
by objectives (MBO) approach relies
on participative setting of objectives and using those
objectives as the primary basis for assessing performance. The four-step process in Figure 7.4
A
terms.
budget serves
enables the supervisor to compare results achieved
during the budget period against the budget plan.
Superv^isors at times play a role in organizational
programs and
projects,
which are single-use plans
designed to accomplish specific undertakings on a
one-time
A
Planning
basis.
human and physical resources
how best to use a firm's
and human resources is essential.
ser\'es to
use
and
material, capital,
verifiable objectives. This step serves as the
foundation for determining necessary resources, the
and the
results
MBO ties planning
activities together, establishes priorities,
and pro-
Supervisors must plan for the efficient use of the
department's space and major physical resources.
Such planning may include
called other things, usually involve
objectives being agreed
upon by employees and
supervisor. Periodic reviews ensure progress
made. At the end of the appraisal period,
is
their
being
results are
evaluated against objectives, and rewards are based
on
this evaluation. Objectives for the next
then
To
set,
and the process begins
A major problem
plans
must be
devised. Top-level
and single-use
managers
and
rules; supervisors
Many
policies,
work
which are guides
and
the
is
to decision
taken to discourage individuals from misusing or
stealing items.
Supervisors should have a general understand-
and
Planning for the
full
initiatives
use of employees
and
is at
the
schedules for employees includes establishing reasonable performance requirements and anficipating
overtime requirements and absences.
and temporary work schedules.
one of the supervisor's most valued
native, part-time,
Time
time
use
sequence of actions that guide employees toward
The supervisor often develops procehow work is to be done. The
dures to determine
is
is
it.
must be done, promote uniformity
same amount of it,
not the problem; the problem
is
so
how we
Therefore, supervisors must plan and
manage
their
own
time
if
they are to be effective.
Planning to improve work procedures and meth-
ods means looking for more
objectives.
advantages of procedures are that they require
Many organi-
zations are experimenting with various t\T3es of alter-
resources. Every^body has the
Procedures, like policies, are standing plans
analysis of what
programs help planning
core of professional supervision. Planning work
they are written.
for achieving objectives. Procedures specify a
objectives.
safety
bring about safe work environments.
to interpret, apply,
when making decisions for
department. Policies are more likely to be folif
must
ensure that adequate security precautions are
stay within policies
lowed consistently
property. Supervisors
units.
making, originate with high-level management. The
supervisor s primary concern
company
typically
formulate the necessary
subsidiary standing plans for their
other
ing of all safety requirements. Safet)' committees
develop company-wide policies, procedures, methods,
staff.
has been the loss and theft
of materials, supplies, merchandise, data, and
period are
again.
attain objectives, standing plans
close coordination with
the maintenance department and /or other
vides coordination of effort. MBO-t\'pe approaches,
which may be
numerical
in
as a control device that
to their potential. Planning
out,
a
is
must be applied and enforced wher-
begins with the development of specific, measurable,
must be carried
worked toward.
rules
rule
Supervisors should help establish budgets,
A A management
that are to be
A
detailed than procedures.
which are single-use plans expressed
top-level
activities that
Methods and
to
ever applicable.
step in planning.
objectives are deter-
management, supervisors
formulate departmental objectives, which must
be consistent with organizational goals and objectives. Objectives should state what should be done
and when.
mined by
A
on
and coordinated with the long-term plans of upperlevel management. Supers'isors must communicate
to employees what is being planned in a timely
ways
to
do
efficient
ways to achieve
Encouraging employees to look for better
their jobs
and evaluating periodic work
CHAPTER
samples
may
for
materials, just-in-time (JIT) inventory-control systo ensure that materials
when needed. Gantt
nents arrive
good
,
and compo-
charts
and PERT
surprisingly, various
quality-improvement
management (TQM) means planning
as or better
than the best in the world strive
must be developed to establish, maintain, and increase product and service quality.
Quality improvement does not just happen; it
must be planned.
dards. Plans
networks are graphic tools to help supervisors plan,
concepts relate directly to planning. Total
261
to attain national or international quality stan-
organize, and control operations.
A Not
I
improving on the best practices of others, precedes
plan development. Organizations that want to be as
organization.
tems attempt
Supervisory Planning
Benchmarking, the process of identifying and
result in substantial savings for the
To reduce inventory costs and better plan
7
A
qualit)'
Planning helps supervisors anticipate possible
unthinkable events and their consequences. Crisis
for quality,
preventing defects, correcting defects, and contin-
management has become
uously improving quality and customer
organization. Being prepared for the unthinkable,
tion.
satisfac-
Knowledge management, which involves
and
requires that the supervisor identify potential crisis
disseminating information, has increasingly
efforts to
and
part of
situations
many organizational
improve customer and employee
and chaotic world,
especially in today's uncertain
systematically planned approaches to storing
become an important
a necessity for every
and develop plans
threats. Supervisors
getting
ser\'ices
for
must use
responding to the
their information-
and information-giving
help
skills to
employees prepare for and address
satisfaction.
crises.
KEY TERMS
Benchmarking
Budget
(p.
(p.
Method
255)
(p.
Procedure
control system (p. 253)
(p.
Program
253)
Knowledge management
(p.
255)
Management by objectives (MBO)
(p.
(p.
Standing plans
231)
237)
(p.
(p.
(p.
238)
Strategic plan (p. 235)
Policy (p. 239)
253)
Just-in-time (JIT) inventory
Kanban
Single-use plans (p. 243)
242)
Mission statement
244)
Gantt chart
(p.
Strategic planning (p. 230)
241)
Total quality
244)
management (TQM)
254)
Program evaluation and review
technique (PERT) (p. 254)
Visioning
Project (p. 245)
Workplace violence
Rule
(p.
(p.
(p.
231)
(p.
248)
243)
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
1.
Define planning.
acti^^ty rather
2.
Why is planning primarily a mental
than a "doing" type of function?
Why should a first-line
supervisor understand the
organization's objectives?
Wliy
is
this
knowledge
important to planning?
3.
If
you were
to
procedure.
Develop
a
crisis-management policy and proce-
dure statement.
b.
TQM pro-
how would you go about developing a plan
improve the company's production processes?
gram,
with developing a crisis-management policy and
had
few policies and procedures and you believed that
Community
(CMC) emergency room charged
are the supervisor of Pine Village
Medical Center's
a.
a supervisor in a small firm that
the organization needed to pursue a
You
Identify crises that
may occur
in the
emergency
room.
c.
Outline
how the
policy and procedure statement
could be used to handle the
crises successfully.
262
PART
I
Planning and Organizing
3
SKILLS APPLICATIONS
SKILLS
APPLICATION
Look
1.
7-1: Thinking
the nine dots to the
at
drawing only four straight
Outside the Box
Your assignment
left.
is
to connect
all
of them by
lines.
Rule #
1:
You must draw only four
Rule #
2:
You must not
Rule ^
3:
Once you begin drawing, you may not remove your
straight lines.
retrace a line previously drawn.
pencil or pen from
the page as you draw.
Your instructor
2.
will
provide you with the correct
strateg)' for
completing
this skills
application.
Given
3.
that "success requires
you
to think outside of the box," write a
paper describing what you learned from
APPLICATION
SKILLS
Someone once
said,
"Nothing
is
more
venturing into the unknown. There
effectively to reach the
1.
exciting than
a
3.
need to plan
unknown."
Need
for a Vision
List the
interim events that must be attained to
reach your five-year vision.
4.
Develop
a timetable for achieving the things that
will lead
you
Describe
how you
Close your eyes for a few seconds. Visualize what
you would
1.
is
7-1:
Write
a
like to
be doing
five years
from
today.
5.
paragraph describing your vision. Assume
that this vision
is
a goal
you want
one-page
this skills application.
to
your xision.
will periodically
check your
progress toward your objectives, making necessary
corrections and adjustments.
to attain, so con-
clude by writing specific objectives ("what" by
"when") and statements
today,
I
SKILLS
This
is
(e.g.,
"Five years from
").
will
APPLICATION
7-3: Dealing with People that
the fourth in a series of Skills Applications that
introduces you to people
who might make your
life
difficult.
Make Your
Life Difficult— "The
Backstabber'
research findings. Several of the things Brutus
in the face of Paul's research and made
appear
incompetent.
Paul
found flew
dont trust Brutus. He is very controlling,
and driven by his hunger for power. He is
always behind the scenes, maneuvering and
manipulating to get what he wants. Brutus knows
just what to do to get the work done and always
I
1.
Read the following statement from Joe Jordan, an
employee at Barry Automotives' Jonesboro plant:
Working with Brutus sure is frustrating. He has
uncanny ability to pull off any work assignment given to him. Not long ago, Brutus was on
my project team to develop an electrical harness
the
system for a
new
classic car.
Paul had been given
the assignment of researching other successful
efforts so that
we didnt spend all our time "reinAt the meeting when Paul pre-
venting the wheel."
sented his findings, Brutus waited until just the
right
moment
before jumping in with his
own
greedy,
has his owfi agenda.
He
never volunteers sugges-
tions or ideas to the group's
planning meetings. If
the meeting includes people from corporate, Brutus
is
really great at sabotaging the group's plan.
always seems
pocket
to
to
have a plan or two
spring on the group. His surprises
you always have
to
He
in his hip
be on your guard.
mean
CHAPTER
I've learned not to turn
is
my back
always spreading rumors and
ruin your career to promote
his.
your guard with him. His team
but he steps forward
to
in
minimal,
is
any
excuses for
but Brutus
successes.
Using the Internet, find
teammates for personal gain
any missed work. We work
an organization where the rewards aren't great,
and make
You're always on
spirit
263
I
He'll double-cross
will try his best to
take credit for
nszsnscsoss
He
on Brutus.
Supervisory Planning
7
to
is still
there, trying to figure
out a
way
"work the system.
three sources for coping with a backstabber in the
at least
workplace. Carefully review each
site for
suggestions for dealing with this ty^e of
behavior.
Based on your findings, what suggestions would you give to Joe Jordan for coping
with Brutus?
Write
a
how
one-page paper explaining
this skill application increased
working knowledge of how to cope with the behaviors of this type of
your
difficult
person.
SKILLS
SKILLS
This
is
the
Chapter
first
of two
Skills
DEVELOPMENT MODULE
Development Modules
Before viewing the video
you take
that
at
7.
a trip
DEVELOPMENT
clip,
we
Caribou Coffee Has a Mission
7-1:
more rewarding
for
through Caribou Coffee s web
the view." Blending the highest
quality coffee with unparalleled service, Caribou
suggest
site
Coffee
tries to
make your day
The second-largest
http://www.cariboucoffee.com.
pany opened
The driving force behind Caribou Coffee is the
view that "The more challenging the climb, the
better.
U.S. specialty coffee
its first store in
com-
1992 and now
has
hundreds of stores and more than 4,000 employees.
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
A
mission statement
reflects the
philosophy and
Puckett s original vision for Caribou relate to
where Caribou
purpose of the organization. After viewing the
video clip and reviewing Caribou s
web
site, wrrite
is
Using the points
3.
today?
in this
.
.
.
should be tomorrow?
chapters Supervisory Tips
what you think should be Caribou's current mis-
box, discuss the relationship between
sion statement.
and
The Supervisory Tips box
SKILLS
This
Skills
How does
DEVELOPMENT MODULE
Development Module
please review the discussion in the Skills
Module
7-1
and
visit
Caribou's
web
7-2: Caribou Coffee's
clip,
Development
site at
if
any,
goals
Commander
would you make?
Why?
also depicts
Caribou Coffee. Before you view the video
Dempsey s
were the Supreme
of Caribou, what changes,
for this chapter provides
guidance for reaching your goal.
his plans. If you
http://wrww.
Strategy—Worth More than Beans
cariboucoffee.com. Explore the
site to
find informa-
on the company's mission and values, leadership
teams, and community involvement. Find and take
tion
the "store tour."
264
PART
I
Planning and Organizing
3
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
2.
Coffee's
apparent?
are
some of the
Caribou
steps that
taking
is
before embarking on an aggressive growth strategy?
Assume
We contend
Caribou.
"build
an individual you should
that as
upon your
strengths."
What do you
organizations.
The same
true for
is
Caribou
see as
that
with the end in mind." Effective time
plish
many
tasks if they are not in line with
our
Each of us has the same
finite
amount of time.
have you heard someone
say, "I
wish
had more time?" By working smarter, one can better
use time; no one has yet found a
store
it
tips for
way
to "save time" or
for another day. Following are
managing
practical
time:
the most important
those that support your objectives.
afraid to ask your boss if a
new
Do
Using the questions identified
of
in five
in Figure 7.2
MORE EFFECTIVELY
Use common-sense organizational and timemanagement techniques. For example, handle
papers only once, keep your desk or workstation
clear, finish
one job before
distractions,
and say "no."
If
starting another, avoid
someone
asks you for a
minute on a non-life-threatening matter, tell that
person you want to give the matter your undivided
attention
It is
and ask
acceptable to
to schedule a brief
tell
someone you
meeting
wasting valuable time
is
Enable subordinates
be the best they can
to
later.
will call back;
not acceptable.
be.
make
Do
decisions they can make.
not
let
sub-
Delegate. See Chapter 12 for tips
on delegating
successfully.
of your regular duties most directly
which
the
list.
Make
this
Get the most from meetings. See Chapter 8 for
tips
on managing meetings.
relate to
departmental objectives.
and prioritize
to
not be
task takes priority
Clarify duties with a time-use chart. Identify
do
Commander
Caribou Coffee
ordinates pass these decisions to you.
over other assignments.
List duties
see
Encourage subordinates to take responsibility and
Determme priorities. Focus on
tasks,
some
you are the Supreme
Where do you
Deal with interruptions.
goals?
How many times
that
your guide, develop a plan for getting there.
USE TIME
we always "begin
management
requires knowing that where we are going and why we
want to go there is more important than how fast we
go. In other words, what does it matter if we accomAuthor Stephen Covey suggests
years?
as
HOW TO
APPENDIX:
I
major strengths? What weaknesses are
Currently, Caribou operates in only a few states.
What
your to-
Overcome procrastination. Plan habitually and conand
tinuously, break difficult tasks into small
doable units, and work on unpleasant tasks immelist.
Know your prime
you are most
most
time. This
alert,
effectively.
is
the time of day
when
think most clearly, and work
Schedule your most complex tasks
diately.
Use the 2-hour
problem
for
rule. If
you have been working on a
more than
explaining a problem to
for this period.
2 hours, get help. Often,
someone
else,
you get
a
different perspective.
Refer
to
your to-do
list
regularly.
Schedule routine duties at times when you have low
Follow the 80/20 principle. Eighty percent of
achievement comes from 20 percent of time
energy.
spent.
Schedule time at the end of the day
row's to-do
make tomor-
Remember, always begin with
the
end
in
mind.
list.
need major attention. Write everything in a small
web site (www.thomsonedu.com/
management /leonard) for detailed information on
notebook. Document what, when, who, and where.
these suggestions.
Use a pocket or desk calendar
W9m
to
to
note activities that
See our
by
CHAPTER
265
Supervisory Planning
7
ENDNOTES
1.
See Peter
F.
Ambi
Drucker, Management: Tasks,
Responsibilities,
1974), p. 61
1.
and
Practices
(New
York: Harper
&
Row,
Also sec Drucker, The Practice of
Management (New
Modern
Office Technology
Peter F.
Drucker
as
February
York: Harper Brothers, 1954), pp.
Now
62-65, 126-29; Drucker, "Plan
Your
for the Future,"
7.
(March 1993), pp. 8-9, and
quoted in the article by Mike
Johnson, "Drucker Speaks His Mind," Management
3.
Linda Yates and Peter Skarzynski,
articles discuss strategic
human
manage-
Digman,
Strategic
tain
Management {Uipper
Management: Competing
Information Age (Mason,
Publishing, 2007); Peter
in the
Ginter, Strategic
of Health Care Organizations
(New
Global
Planning:
Timothy
1998), p. 51;
York: Blackwell
Merrick,
(February 1999),
A
list
"How to
& Co.,
Some
"MBO Means
of them,
Thief.
Just a Goal,"
MBO,
a
Manage (September
see
more
L.
companies.
theft recovery
retailers
still
lost
and
over
more information about
Hayes International,
Inc., visit
L.
Florence,
Jill
.
.
efforts, see
Management {September
A. Fraser, "Prevent
p. 39;
Derk
J.
"The Sure Hand of
2001),
Employee Theft,"
Inc.
James G. Vigneau, "To Catch a
and Other Workplace
HR
Investigations,"
issues
of
"Network
is
Now
Street Journal
Security:
a
Online (June
Managing
the
Risk and Opportunity," http://www.business.att.com/
emea/insights/whitepaper/, (July 2004).
S.
— Not
1992), pp. 8-11,
11
and
Kathy Gurchiek, "Workplace Violence on the Upswing,"
HR Magazine (July 2005),
html.
MBO
retail
Maher, "Snooping E-Mail by Software
View of MBO," Public Personnel Management (Fall
1990), pp. 59-62. Authors note: much of what has
application in
27 U.S.
Workplace Norm," The Wall
Fatal
its
ascer-
visit
10 Pui-Wing Tam, Erin White, Nick Wingfield and Kris
David Halpern and Stephen Osofsky, "A Dissenting
been written about
just
and loss-prevention
30, 2005). Also see
George
Goal and Plan
members. To
your view,
Magazine (January 1995), pp. 90-95; and other
Security Management.
1998), pp. 33-36.
Having
from Jack
(February 1993),
Practical Visionary,"
For additional information on
2004 by
in
Surveillance," Security
Inc.,
Mark Hendricks, "Go Forth and
Multiply," Entrepreneur (May 2002), pp. 46-47. Also see
James B. Lucas, "Anatomy of a Vision Statement,"
Management Review (February 1998), pp. 22-26, and
A
for
17th Annual Retail Theft Survey reports that
Boss and Douglas
a long time. See
Odiorne,
The
types of security
mission statements and visioning, have been around
Management Review [March
SHRM
htm. For information and suggestions concerning various
Union Management
trends.
of the reports are available to
what might be available
pp. 87-91;
management
Some
relations.
retail theft
p. 45.
Gail Dutton, "Wanted:
working conditions, employment, and
http://retailindustry.about.eom/od/lp/a/bl_hayes_theft.
Avoid These Seven
of current management tools by Bain
includes sixty-six
like
1999), p. 13.
$4.7 bilHon to shrink. To access
C. Hoerr, "Strategic
Strategic Planning Pitfalls," Credit
Inc.,
Anyway?"
Research periodically conducts var-
apprehensions were up, these same
The Seven Foundations of High-Performing
Bill
SHRM
Is It,
While both shoplifting and employee
Organizations," Agency Sales Magazine (January 1999),
pp. 27-28; and
"Whose Decision
resource policies and practices covering pay,
apprehended
Management
Pages or Less," Nonprofit World (November/
December
pp. 66-72.
than 750,000 shoplifters and dishonest employees were
Publishers, 2002); Terrence Fernsler, "Strategic Planning
in 150
),
http://www.shrm.org/surveys.
9.
OH: Thomson Custom
M.
Also see Betty Sosnin, "Packaging
Magazine (July 2001
both the general public and
David Hunger and Thomas
Essentials of Strategic
on Office
Free- Lance Star,
ious surveys and issues reports, which cover current
"How Do Companies
Saddle, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2007); Lester A.
5.
For example,
employee
Wheelen,
HR
Management Review iJAnuary
8.
1999), p. 17.
J.
Policy
(chairman and CEO, Ingram Micro,
Jerre L. Stead
benefits,
ment. For example, see
4.
14, 2002).
Policies,"
Get to the Future FIRST?" Management Review (January
Numerous books and
"Many Firms Lack
Santa Ana, CA),
Review {Ocloher 1995), pp. 11-14.
2.
Biggs,
Romances" (Fredricksburg, VA: The
iif/oshafoil.htm
in recent years discusses
12
government and non-for-profit
pp. 27, 32. Also see Census of
Occupational Injuries (CFOI), http://stats.bls.gov/
John Henshaw,
and http://www.osha.gov/oshstats/work.
"New Workplace
Fatality Data,"
OSHA
Statement, http://wvvrw.osha.gov (September 22, 2004).
organizations.
13
6.
We have
found
that
most small firms lack personnel
policies, a finding confirmed in a 2002 study by SHRM
and CareerJournal.com. These sources found that most
companies, regardless of size, had no policies for workplace romance,
and more than half did not police
it.
See
Studies of absenteeism rates are inconsistent.
The Bureau
of National Affairs, Inc. reported that employee absenteeism during 1986-2003 in the United States was slightly
under
2 percent of scheduled workdays.
While the
survey reported rates ranging from a low of
1.9
CCH
percent
266
PART
I
in
Planning and Organizing
3
2003 to a high of 3.25 percent
in 1998, the
CCH
Management (Upper
2005); or Lee
2.40 percent with an annual cost per employee of $610.
Operations Management; Strategy and
Remember,
(Reading,
these are unscheduled absences. For every
employee with
perfect attendance, another
employee
21.
misses 12 days of work per year. Those are days that he or
she
is
Can Be
Off,"
15.
a Cost-Effective
Way
HR Magazine (December
"Working 24/7 may be good
it's
to
bad
Time Pools
Life!"
are helping
975-84; Caron H.
Purchasing
and
how some
employees balance work /life
is
flexibility
1991), pp.
"The
."
.
.
60-61; A.
Potts,
Machine Under Item
(November 2001 ), pp.
John and Kirk C. Heriot, "Small
a Single
St.
& Materials Management (Winter
40-50; and
"Determining the
accord-
Satish
Critical
i?e\'ieiv'
(Januar)'-Februar)'
Elements of Just-In-Time
Implementation," Decision Sciences (Januar)'-Februar)'
8,
1992), pp. 160-73. For a contrary opinion
see
offered
"some kind of flexible scheduling." See John M.
Human Resource Management, 7th ed.
(Boston: McGraw-HQl, 1998), p. 488.
Tell," Transportation
Ivancevich,
pp. 18-23; R.
Mary Aichlma)T, "The Future of JIT
vfith
Workers' Schedules," The Wall Street
J.
Denton, "Using Flextime to Create
a
Competitive
(April 1997), pp.
HE
Effects," Business Insurance (April 28,
A New
23.
in
demand
(
Six
(Volume
25,
Number
2,
March
1993),
PERT.
TQM
and continuous
Sigma Last (and Work)," Ivey Business
77-81; Donald
Super\'ision
(May
"Is Qualit)'
Dead?" Quality Digest (December 2000),
L. Hilgert,
p. 14;
"Understanding and Managing Temporar\' Employees:
W.
J.
2000), pp. 3-5; A. Blanton Godfrey,
Duncan and
According to Deming:
Observations and Insights from a Case Study," a paper
J.
G. Van Matre, "The Gospel
Is It
Really
New?"
Business
Horizons (July-August 1990), pp. 3-9; and Richard M.
the meetings of the Business /Society/
Hodgetts, Implementing
Government Division of the Midwest Business
Administration Association (MBAA) (March 1998).
Organizations:
A
a
Aquilano, Operations
TQM in Small and Medium-Sized
(New York: AMACOM
Step-by-Step Guide
Division of American
20. For information on work-sampling techniques, see
Management
Association, 1996). For
complete overx'iew of Six Sigma, see "Six Sigma: Quality
Sourcebook," Qualit}- D;^C5f Januar)- 2006), pp. 65-77.
(
Management
for
Competitive Advantage,
1
1th ed.
24.
(Boston: McGraw-Hill Irwin, 2005), pp. 181-205; or
Lee
J.
Krajewski and Larry
P.
Ritzman, Operations
S.
Miller, "Q-u-a-1-i-t-y: Realities for Supervisors,"
for temporar)- workers,"
J.
on PERT networks,
Wilhelm, "A PERT-
Januar)'/ Februar)' 2002), pp.
Al. For more in-depth analysis of
Richard B. Chase and Nicholas
E.
Quality Digest (March 2006), pp. 22-26; George Eckes,
"temp agencies pre-
temporary employment, see Ra)Tnond
Wilbert
For additional information on
"Making
15, 1997), p. 28.
18, 2001),
2006); or google Gantt
improvement, see Laura Smith, "The Six Sigma Cure,"
Look," Business Week
Street Journal reported that
Wang and
Transactions
Journal
at
(Mason,
pp. 88-103, or google
65-70; or Michael Mandel,
Jobs:
an increase
Andrew
on Gantt
Based Paradigm for Modeling Assembly Operations,"
May
1997), p. 30; Linda Stockman Vines, "Make Long-Term
Temporary Employees Part of the Team," HR Magazine
"Nonstandard
charts, see
see Li-Chih
Douglas McLeod, "Risks from Hiring Temps
presented
Brandon,
Essentials of Management, 7th edition
Charts. For additional information
1993), pp. 29-31.
Have Long-Term
DuBrin
OH: South-Western Thomson,
Workplace," Industrial Management {]anuar}-¥ehTuary
(September
(December 2001),
Larr)- D.
(March 1993), pp. 26-29.
22. For additional information
Journal (Januar>' 13, 1994), pp. Bl, B6, and D. Keith
dict
JIT,
Just-in-Time Inventories," National Public Accountant
For example, see Sue Shellenbarger, "More Companies
The Wall
& Distribution
Anthony Inman and
on
— Time Will
"An Undesirable Effect of JIT," Production and Inventory
Management Journal (First Quarter 1992), pp. 55-58;
or Gene H. Johnson and James D. Stice, "Not Quite
From Lin Grensing-Pophal, "Training Super\'isors to
Manage Teleworkers," HR Magazine (Januar)' 1999),
(September
1993), pp.
Mehra and Anthony Inman,
of 1,000 U.S. employers, 67 percent of respondents were
18. See
E.
"Scheduling of
2001), pp. 34-55. In a study conducted in the mid-1990s
Experiment
FDM
Transactions
Revolution?" Han'ard Business
organizations
issues.
Dead?"
11-16; Paul H. Zipkin, "Does Manufacturing Need a JIT
pp. 67-72.
19.
"Is JIT
Suppliers and JIT Purchasing," International Journal of
Fortune (November 28, 2005),
ing to "Time to Plan Your Life," Ne^vsweek (January
17.
HE
1998), pp. 104-8.
for the organization, but
emerging attitude toward work
16.
Customized Jobs on
Availabilit)',"
pp. 108-124, for illustrations of
ed.
30-33; Norman Bodek, "Kaizen:
T&D (January 2002), pp.
Give Workers Paid Time
for employee's health." See Jody Miller
Matt Miller, "Get a
Raymond,
see Art
Gerodimos, C. A. Glass, and C. N.
See Carla Shore, "Time Share: Emergency
3d
Tactics,
For information on just-in-time (JIT) inventor)' systems
KaZam!"
uled to work 250 days per year.
Ritzman,
P.
Addison-Wesley, 1993), pp. 268-71.
(Januar)' 2002), pp.
sched-
is
Krajewski and Larry
J.
MA:
and kanban,
scheduled to work and, for whatever reason,
chooses not to show up. The average employee
14.
Saddle, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall,
reported that the 2004 employee absenteeism rate was
From Louisa Wah, "Behind the Buzz: Knowledge
Management Has Become a Red-Hot Buzzword in
CHAPTER
Management
Circles,"
pp. 17-26. Also see
Management Review (AprW
that help clients gain the benefits
1999),
Glenn Schulz, "Information Drives
tion.
Management," Manufacturing Engineering
), p. 200, and "Do You Know What You
Know? New Study Reveals Top Knowledge Management
Information
is
available
by
267
I
of ISO 9000 registra-
calling 1-800-555-2928.
James, "Lessons from the Trenches:
Asset
Also see Derrell
(September 2001
Lean and Six Sigma Tools can counteract the disadvan-
Strategies," Business
full
executive
summary
of
this study, visit
http://www.
25. Ibid.,
the World?" Fortune
as
(December
Good
6,
asks
you
to learn
Of the 64
management
st)'les,
29.
and
(September 2005),
p. 10.
Also see William A. Stimson, Meeting the Challenge of
ISO 9000:2000 (Chico, CA: Paton Press, 2004). Also see
other Paton Press and QCI International Publications:
How to Audit ISO 9001:2000; Internal Quality Auditing
and How to Audit ISO 9001:2000—A Handbook for
Auditors. Also see InsideQualit)'.com for information
Security:
Managing
proactive, consumer-oriented response to the
& Johnson
became one of the
most respected companies. See Robert
Managing
8;
Ian
I.
Mitroff and Gus Anagnos,
2001); and
Matthew
Boyle,
"The Shiniest
Reputations in Tarnished Times," Fortune (March
organizations have used qualit)' principles to
We also suggest the following for
4,
2002), pp. 70-82.
30.
Much had been
written about crisis
before 9/1 1/2001.
Two
Business
management, even
Week
articles are at the
top
recommended reading list. See John A. B\Tne,
"Here's What to Do Next, Dow Corning," (February 24,
1992), p. 33, and "How Companies Are Learning to
of our
Prepare for the Worst," (December 23, 1985), pp.
on
Hartley,
F.
(London:
Successes, 7th ed.
They Happen (New York:
Crisis Before
AMACOM,
manufacturing company received additional evaluations.
improve performance.
its
Wiley, 2002), chapter
21 health
companies, three small businesses, and only one
how various
to
Management Mistakes and
care organizations, eight educational institutions, three
in Quality Digest,
Due
world's
organizations that applied for the 2005
As reported
and "Network
Tylenol scare, Johnson
from them.
Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award,
ser\^ice
(July 16, 2004);
emea/insights/whitepaper.
Also
2006), pp. 46-50. Colvin identifies 12
future leaders, analyzes their
Corporate
the Risk and Opportunity," http://www.business.att.com/
see Geoffrey Colvin, "Catch a Rising Star," Fortune
(February
for
Networks," AccountingWcb http://www.accountingweb.
as the Best in
13, 1993), p. 95.
Top Concern
28. See "Sun'ey: Security
com
Sherman, "Are You
and budget," Quality Digest
(October2004), pp. 25-28.
Wah.
26. Stratford
S.
tages of a small workforce
Wire (lanuary 24, 2000). To view the
benchmarkingreports.com/knowledgemanagement.
27.
Supervisory Planning
7
Also see Ian
Before They
I.
74-I-.
Mitroff and Gus Anagnos, Managing Crises
Happen (New York:
Hymowitz, "Managing
AMACOM, 2001
in a Crisis
Can Bring
);
Better
Carol
Ways
your reading: Handbook of Quality Standards and
to
Compliance (Waterford, CT: Bureau of Business Practice,
2001), p. Bl; Jeffrey R. Caponigro, TIte Crisis Counselor:
1992). Also see Frank Voehl, Peter Jackson,
Step-by-Step Guide
Ashton, ISO 9000:
An
and David
Implementation Guide for Small
Mid-Sized Businesses (Delray Beach, PL:
St.
to
Lucie Press,
Kemper Registrar Services, a division of Kemper
Risk Management Services, is one of several companies
1994).
Conduct Business," The Wall
to
Street Journal
Managing a Business
York: Contemporar}' Books, 2000);
Crisis in Organizations:
the
(October 23,
Crisis
A
(New
and Laurence Barton,
Managing and Communicating
Heat of Chaos (Cindnnatr. South-W^estern, 1993).
in
iMMUM
SUPERVISORY OROANIZINO AT
THE DEPARTMENTAL LEVEL
AFTER STUDYING THIS CHAPTER.
YOU WILL BE ABLE TO:
^k
Identify the organizing
function of
^%
management.
Discuss the impact of the
informal organization
and
informal group leaders and
how
supervisors should deal
with them.
A command
Explain the unity-ofprinciple
and
its
applications.
^%
Define the span-of-
management
principle
and the factors that
influence
^^
its
application.
Describe departmentalization
and alternative approaches
for grouping activities and
assigning work.
^%
Explain the advantages of
the project managementtype organizational
structure.
^%
Identify why a supervisor
should plan for an "ideal"
departmental structure and
work toward
this objective.
#!% Define and discuss
organizational tools that
are useful
in supervisory
organizing efforts.
^%
Define downsizing
(restructuring)
its
and
implications for
organizational principles.
(^
Identify the major factors
contributing to organizing
effective meetings, especially -a
the supervisor's role.
§
^-
-"^'^
r
David
Simms
the store
is
restaurant that
is
manager of a
local
part of a nationwide chain
of popular restaurants. According to company
policy, all supervisors
moted from
and managers are
within the corporation.
to
be pro-
David knows of
a few situations in which stores hired qualified
people from outside the company, but this practice
is generally frowned upon by top management
because management believes in promoting their
own employees and giving them goals. David always
has prided himself on his dedication to this policy.
Many of his employees attained supervisory positions, and several received their own stores. David
also is proud of his abilities as a store manager The
store he manages has a reputation for being prof-
and relatively problem-free. David's
employees and supervisors get along quite well,
and employee turnover is the lowest in the area.
However, during the past week David has faced a
itable, stable,
perplexing problem.
June Teevers, the weeknight supervisor,
two weeks her husband is
being promoted and transferred across the country. Teevers apologized for the short notice, and
she explained that she and her husband had no
Last week,
notified David that in
choice but to accept this "once-in-a-lifetime"
Therefore, Teevers
will
be supervising her
offer.
week. David never expected, and has
for, such an occurrence.
In the past couple of days, he has tried to find
someone who could fill Teevers's position, but he
has reached only dead ends. David contacted his
regional manager and explained his situation. She
informed David that there was not a store in the
area that could spare a supervisor or a supervisory
trainee. Because the labor market is very tight, David
expected such an answer.
The only other option he can think of is to promote an employee named Margo James, who is
in
about
done
a
little
to prepare
a great server
when
and who has helped occasionally
supervisors were sick or on vacations. However,
David has heard that while James
server,
visor.
she
is
James's coworkers complained that she was
and extremely autowhenever she was a temporary supervisor.
David does not think that promoting Margo is prudent, but he also knows that he is supposed to promote from within, so he has a difficult set of decisions
to make.
What options does David Simms have? Can he
promote Margo James and maintain employee
morale and stability? How can he prevent another,
similar problem? YOU MAKE THE CALU
cratic
last shift
As one of the five major functions of management, organizing requires ever)' manager to be concerned with building, developing, and maintaining \\orking relationships that \\nW help achieve the organization's objectives, .\lthough organizations
may
operate in
many
kinds of emironments, the
fundamental principles of organizing are universal.
A
manager's organizing function consists of designing a structure
activities
and assigning them
to specific
work
a well-liked
belligerent, a "control freak,"
ORCANIZINO AS AN ESSENTIAL
MANAGERIAL FUNCTION
ma)- have varied objectives and
is
a thoroughly disliked temporary super-
units
(e.g.,
— grouping
departments, teams).
Organizing includes establishing formal authorit)- and responsibiht)" relationships
among actiWties and departments. To make such a structure possible, management
O
Identify the organizing
function of
management.
PART
270
3
Planning and Organizing
Organization
Group structured by
management
to carry
out designated functions
and accomplish certain
objectives.
must delegate authority throughout the organization and estabUsh and clarify authority relationships among departments. We use the term organization to refer to any
group structured by management to carry out designated functions and accomplish
certain objectives.
Management should
design the structure and establish authority relationships
sound
principles
based on
and organizational concepts, such as unity of command,
span of supervision, division of work, and departmentalization. In Chapter 2, we
briefly discussed managerial authority and the process of delegation. In Chapter 12,
we expand on those concepts, which reflect how management establishes authority
and responsibility relationships in organizational structures.
While organizing the overall activities of the enterprise is initially the responsibility of the chief executive, it eventually becomes the responsibilit)' of super\isors.
Therefore, supervisors must understand what it means to organize. Although the
range and magnitude of problems associated with the organizing function are
broader
at
higher managerial levels than for supervisors, the principles are the same.
ORGANIZATIONS ARE PEOPLE
Throughout
this chapter's discussions of the
concepts and principles of organizing,
never forget that people are the substance and essence of any organization, regardof
less
how
the enterprise
is
structured.
Managers and supervisors may become so
preoccupied with developing and monitoring the formal structure that they neglect
the far
more important
For example,
aspects of relationships with
major survey of
a
a large cross-section
and among
their employees.
of employees revealed that 70
percent of "core workers" said they were committed to the success of their firms,
but only about half felt that their organizations really cared about their job
workers claimed that their sense of
tion. Significantly, too, these
firms had been threatened by their dissatisfaction with the
satisfac-
loyalt)' to their
many
organizational
changes they had experienced.'
Organizational success
is
happen when employees are truly given
managers and supervisors.- Our focus in this chap-
more
likely to
by their
on building the sound organizational structures that can be the building
blocks and foundations that support the mutual goals of effective work performance
and high job satisfaction. Following good and accepted organizational principles
does not ensure organizational success, but it usually means preventing many problems and irritations.
top-priority' attention
ter
is
INFORMAL OROANIZATION
Discuss the impact of the
informal organization and
informal group leaders and
how
supervisors should
deal with them.
Ever)' enterprise
is
affected
by a
known as the informal organization,
organization." The informal organization reflects
social subs)'stem
sometimes called the "invisible
the spontaneous efforts of individuals and groups to influence their environment.
Whenever people work together, social relationships and informal work groups
inevitably arise. Informal organization develops
informal organization
tact,
Informal gatherings of
people, apart from the
formal organizational
arrangements. Their contacts
structure, that satisfy
members'
social
other needs.
and
when people
are in frequent con-
but their relationships are not necessarily a part of formal organizational
may be
part of or incidental to their jobs, or they
may
group member.
At the heart of informal organization are people and their relationships whereas
the formal organization primarily represents the organizations structure and the
flow of authority. Supervisors can create and rescind formal organizations they
stem primarily from the desire to be accepted
as a
CHAPTER
8
Supervisory Organizing at the Departmental Level
I
271
have designed; they cannot eliminate an informal organization because they did not
establish
it.
Informal groups arise to satisfy the needs and desires of members that the formal
organization does not
satisfy.
Informal organization particularly
needs by providing recognition, close personal contacts,
social
members'
companion-
satisfies
status,
Groups also offer their members
and support. Further, they provide convenient access to the informal communications network, or grapevine (see Chapter
3). The grapevine provides a communication channel and satisfies members' desires
to know what is going on. Informal organization also influences the behavior of individuals in the group. For example, an informal group may pressure individuals to
conform to the performance standards to which most group members subscribe. This
phenomenon may occur in any department or at any level in the organization.
and other aspects of emotional
ship,
other benefits, including protection,
satisfaction.
securit)',
THE INFORMAL ORGANIZATION
AND THE SUPERVISOR
At different times, the informal organization makes the supervisor's job easier or
more
difficult.
Because of their interdependence, the attitudes, behaviors, and cus-
toms of informal work groups
affect the
formal organization. Every organization
work groups, which can
impact departmental operations and accomplishments.
operates in part through informal
Numerous
positively or negatively
research studies have demonstrated that informal groups can influ-
ence employees to strive for high work performance targets or
and
to cooperate with or
work
restrict
production
against supervisors, to the point of having those
supervisors removed. Supervisors
must be aware
that informal
groups can be
v^ery
strong and can even shape employee behavior to an extent that interferes v\ith supervision. So-called organizational negativitv^ has
many
organizations.-
The negative
become
a
major area of concern for
attitudes that lead to negative behavior patterns
Informal work groups
can constructively or
negatively influence a
department's operations
and accomplishments.
272
I
PART
3
Planning and Organizing
work groups
that influence their members to conform to the
groups' norms. The pressures of informal groups can frustrate the supervisor trying
are often traced to the
managers expect.
To influence the informal organization to play a positive role, the supervisor first
must accept and understand it. The supervisor should group employees so that those
most likely to compose harmonious teams work on the same assignments. Moreover,
the supervisor should avoid activities that would unnecessarily disrupt those informal
groups whose interests and behavior patterns support the department s overall objecto get the resuhs that higher-level
tives.
Conversely,
if
an informal group
extent that the department
is
influencing employees negatively, and to the
is
seriously threatened, a supervisor
work assignments or
things as redistribute
adjust
work
may have
to
do such
schedules.
AND INFORMAL
SUPERVISING
WORK CROUP
LEADERS
Most informal work groups develop their own leadership. An informal leader may
may assume leadership by being a spokesperson for the
group.^ Work-group leaders play significant roles in both formal and informal
be chosen by the group or
organizations; without their cooperation, the supervisor
ling the
performance of the department.
A
may have
difficulty control-
sensitive super\'isor, therefore, will
make
every effort to gain the cooperation and goodwill of informal leaders of different
groups and
will solicit their
cooperation in furthering departmental objectives.
When
approached properly, informal leaders can help the superxdsor, especially as
channels of communication. Informal leaders may even be viable candidates for
supervisor understudies. However, it is questionable whether these people can fijnction as informal leaders once they have been designated as understudies.
Instead of viewing informal leaders as "ring leaders," supervisors should con-
them employees who have influence and who are "in the know" and then tr)'
work with them. For example, to try to build good relationships with informal
leaders, a supervisor may periodically give them information before anyone else or
ask their advice on certain problems. However, the supervisor must be careful to
sider
to
avoid having informal leaders lose status in their groups because the leaders' close
association with the supervisor
tively
by employees.
is
being observ^ed and could be interpreted nega-
Similarly, the supervisor should not extend
to informal leaders as this could
undermine
unwarranted favors
their leadership. Rather, the supervisor
should look for subtle approaches to have informal groups and their leaders dovetail
their special interests with the department's activities.
We discuss this
and other
aspects of work groups in Chapter 13.
UNITY OF
command
and
its
principle
applications.
COMMAND AND
AUTHORITY RELATIONSHIPS
Explain the unity-of-
The
chief executive groups the activities of the organization into divisions, depart-
ments, services, teams, or units and assigns duties accordingly. Upper-level manage-
ment
Unity-of-command
Principle that holds that
each employee should
directly report to only
managers and supervisors
in
charge of divisions and departments and
must know exactly who their managers and subordinates are. To arrange authority relationships this way, management
normally follows the unity-of-command-principle, which holds that each employee
should report directly to only one immediate supervisor. That is, there is only one
person to whom the employee is directly accountable. While formal communication
defines their authority relationships. Supervisors
principle
supervisor.
places
one
CHAPTER
and the delegation of
chain of
command,
8
Supervisory Organizing
at
matrix organizational structure, which are discussed
and
273
I
normally flow upward and downward through the
authorit)'
there are exceptions, such as in functional authority'
task forces, project groups,
the Departmental Level
special
and the
later in this chapter. Similarly,
committees may blur the uniu -of-command
concept. Committees and problem-soKing groups are discussed in later chapters.
Having more than one super\'isor usually leads to unsatisfacton- performance
by the employee due to confusion ot authority. When the unit\'-of-command principle is violated, conflicts or confusion usually result. Therefore, a super%'isor should
make certain that, unless there is a valid reason for an exception, only one super\'isor should direct an employee.
THE SPAN-OF-MANACEMENT PRINCIPLE
Define the span-of-
Departments and managerial levels are not solutions; they are the source of numerous difficulties. Departments are expensive because they must be staffed by supervisors and employees. Moreover, as more departments and levels are created,
communication and coordination problems arise. Therefore, there must be valid
reasons for creating levels and departments. The reasons are associated with the
span-of-management principle, which holds that there is an upper limit to the
number of employees a supervisor can manage effectively. Often, this principle is
called "span of super\ision" or "span of control" (see Figure 8.1).
Because no one can manage an unlimited number of people, top-level managers
must organize di\isions and departments as separate operating units and place
middle-level managers and supervisors in charge. Top-level managers then delegate
authorit)' to those middle-level
managers,
who
management
principle
and the factors that
influence
its
application.
Span-of-management
principle
Principle that there
an upper
number
limit
is
to the
of subordinates
a supervisor
can manage
effectively.
delegate authorit}' to supenisors,
who, in turn, supervise the employees. If a manager could super\ise 100 or more
employees effectively, each of the 100 employees would report directly to that manager and their different actiNities ^\'ould not have to be grouped into departments.
Of course, such a uide span of management is impractical.
FIGURE 8.1
A manager can
effectively
supervise a limited
number
of employees.
274
I
PART
3
Planning and Organizing
The
principle that a
employees
is
manager can
as old as recorded history.^
subordinates a manager should have.
upper
number of
how many
there is some
effectively supervise a limited
However,
It
is
it is
impossible to state
only correct to say that
number. In many industries, a top-level executive has from three
subordinate managers, and the span of management usually increases the
limit to this
to eight
lower a person descends in the managerial hierarchy. A span of management
between 15 and 25 is not uncommon at the first level of super\'ision.
There has long been a question concerning the link between organizational size
and organizational performance. The economic "law of diminishing returns" has been
applied to suggest that organizational efficiency can be impacted by
size.
However, the
"optimal size" for a firm has never been defined; the answer remains elusive.
FACTORS INFLUENCINO THE SPAN
OF MANACEMENT
The number of employees one person can supervise effectively depends on a
number of factors, such as the supervisor's abilities, the types and amounts of staff
assistance, employees' capabilities, employees' locations, the kinds of activities,
the degree to
and
which departments have objective performance standards.
SUPERVISORY COMPETENCE
Among
the most significant factors influencing the span of
supervisor's training, experience,
and know-how
—
management
are the
in other words, the supervisor's
competence. Some supervisors can handle more employees than others. Some are
good management principles, have more experience, and are
For example, what a supervisor does with time is important.
The supervisor who must make decisions on every departmental problem takes more
time than the supervisor who has established policies, procedures, and rules that simplify decision making on routine problems. Comprehensive planning can reduce the
number of decisions the supervisor must make and, hence, increases the span of man-
better acquainted with
better
managers
overall.
agement. Therefore, the number of employees a supervisor can supervise
depends
to
some degree on
effectively
the supervisor's managerial capabilities.
SPECIALIZED STAFF ASSISTANCE
Another factor on which the span of management depends is the availability of help
from specialists in the organization. If numerous staff experts are available to provide specialized advice and service, then the span of management can be wider. For
example, when a human resources department helps supervisors recruit, select, and
train employees, supervisors have
sors are obligated to
to
managing
do
all
more time
for their departments.
When
supervi-
or most of these activities, they cannot devote that time
their departments. Therefore, the
amount and
qualitv'
of staff
assis-
tance influence the span of management.
EMPLOYEE ABILITIES
The span
employees
a supervisor
in the
can handle also depends on the
abilities
and knowledge of
department. The greater employees' capacities for self-direction, the
broader the feasible span. Here, of course, the employees' training and experience are
important. For example, the span of management could be greater with fully qualified
tence
mechanics than with inexperienced mechanics. However, employee compemay be offset to some degree by the locations of the employees and by the
nature of the
activities.
CHAPTER
8
Supervisory Organizing at the Departmental Level
When
275
I
ennployees are
close to each other
and
to the supervisor, the
supervisor can observe
and communicate v\/ith
them
LOCATION OF EMPLOYEES
The locations and proximities of employees to a supemsor can factor into the span
of management. When employees are close to each other and to the supervisor, as
they are when they are in the same office, a supervisor can super\ise more employees because obsen'ation and communication are relatively easy. WTien employees
are widely dispersed, as they are when thev work in different stores, work at home,
or work in outdoor crews throughout a metropoUtan area, the span of management
mav be somewhat limited because communication and coordination are difficult.
NATURE AND COMPLEXITY OF ACTIVITIES
The amount, nature, complexity, and predictabilit)' of activities influence the span
of management. The simpler, more routine, and more uniform the work acti\ities,
the greater the number of people one supervisor can manage. \\'hen tasks are repetitious, the span may be as broad as twent)'-five or more employees. When acti\-ities are varied or interdependent, or when errors would have serious consequences,
the span
may
unpredictable
be as narrow as three to
acti\'ities,
five.
In departments engaged in relatively
such as nurses in an intensive-care unit of a hospital, spans
tend to be narrow. In departments completing
assembly
line or a
fairly stable acti\ities,
such
as
an
word-processing center, the span can be broader.
OBJECTIVE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
Still
another factor influencing the span of management
is
whether
a
department
has ample objective standards for guiding and measuring employee performance.
When
each employee knows exactly what standards are expected, such as a certain
number of sales
units each
week or the production of
a specific
amount each
day,
the supenisor need not have ft-equent discussions with employees about performance. Therefore,
good standards support
a
broader span of management.
easily.
276
I
PART
3
Planning and Organizing
WEICHINO THE FACTORS
is no set number of employees a supervisor can manage
The span-of-management principle indicates only that an upper limit
exists. In most situations, there must be a weighing, or balancing, of the factors just
discussed to arrive at an appropriate span of management for each supervisor. Such
weighing is, for the most part, the responsibility of high-level management, although
As
stated previously, there
effectively.
supervisors often will be asked to express their opinions concerning what they
believe
is
an appropriate span of management for their departments.
HOW MANAGERIAL
LEVELS AND SPAN
MANAGEMENT ARE RELATED
When
top-level
managers conclude
or department
that the
OF
span of management for a certain activ-
may decide
to divide the span into two or three
groups and to place someone in charge of each group. By narrowing the span, the
manager creates another organizational level because a supervisor or "lead person"
ity
Lead person
Employee in charge
of other employees
who performs
limited
managerial functions
is not considered
but
part of
management.
is
too broad, they
must manage each smaller group.
supervisor,"
is
A
lead person, sometimes called a "working
not usually considered part of management, especially in unionized
firms. While the authority of these individuals is somewhat limited, particularly in
employee evaluation and discipline, they perform most managerial functions.
Other things being equal, the narrower the span of management is, the more
managerial levels are needed in organizational design. Stated another way, organizational structures tend to be taller when spans of management are narrower, and
when spans of management are wider, especially at the
supervisory level. Of course, this may van' because of other organizational considerations. Adding or reducing levels of management may or may not be desirable.
structures tend to be flatter
For example, adding
decision making.
agement
On
levels
can be costly and can complicate communication and
may widen the spans of manbecome overburdened and cannot maintain
the other hand, reducing levels
to the extent that supervisors
adequate control of employees and departmental activities. There is a tradeoff
between the span and the number of levels.
The managerial problem is to decide which is better: a broad span with few
levels or a narrow span with more levels? This important question often confronts
upper management. A first-line supervisor does not normally confront this question, but supervisors should understand how it influences the design and structure
of their organizations.
OROANIZATIONAL CHANCES FROM RESTRUCTURINC
In recent decades, many firms have undergone major downsizing and restructuring.
There have been numerous reports about the wholesale reductions of middle management and supervisory positions. However, assertions that there has been a total
demise of middle management and supervision have been exaggerated. According to
a
number of studies,
the
number of managers per
slightly in the past decade. Therefore, while
it is
100 employees has declined only
true that thousands of middle
man-
and supervisors lost their jobs and many organizations flattened, major opportunities for line managers and professional staff managers opened due to changes in
technology, operations, and marketing.'' It would appear that the overall impact of
organizational restructuring on middle managers and supervisors perhaps has been
more on where they are placed rather than on their numbers. The impact of organiagers
zational downsizing
is
discussed in
more
detail later in this chapter.
CHAPTER
8
Supervisory Organizing
at
the Departmental Level
277
I
DEPARTMENTALIZATION
Describe
Organizational structure
is
work
compo-
influenced largely by the principle of division of
(specialization). This principle holds that jobs can be divided into smaller
nents and specialized tasks to increase efficiency and output. Technological advances
and increasing complexit)' make it difficult for employees to keep current with their
work or specialty responsibilities. Dividing work into smaller tasks allows employees
to specialize in narrower areas of their fields. Employees can then master these
smaller tasks and produce more efficiently. For example, as cars become more complex and diverse, it becomes more difficult for a mechanic to know how to fix everything on every type of car. As a result, specialty' repair shops, such as muffler shops,
oil-change services, and foreign-car specialists, have sprung up. Even in shops that
do many types of repairs, mechanics often speciahze. By specializing, employees can
become expert enough in their areas to produce efficiently.
Departmentalization is the process of grouping activities and people into organizational units, usually known as departments. A department is a set of activities
and people over which a manager or supervisor has responsibility' and authorit\^
The terminolog)' organizations use for this entity varies. A department may be
called a division, an office, a senice, or a unit. Most organizations have departments
because division of work and specialization enhance efficiency and results.
The formal organizational structure is based on a company's number and
types of departments, positions and functions, and authority' and reporting relationships. Whereas major departments of an organization are established by toplevel managers, supervisors are primarily concerned with activities in their own
areas. From time to time, supervisors confront the need to departmentalize their
areas, so they should be familiar with the alternatives for grouping activities. These
are the same options available to top-level managers when those managers define
the company's major departments. Departmentalization is usually done according
to function, products or ser\ices, geographic location, customer, process and equip-
ment, time, or matrix design.
There
is
in the
way business
is
to organize. Organizational theorists
strateg)'.
sumer
its
conducted. Pick up a copy of Fortune, Business Week, or The
how one
organization or another
leading
article, ascertain
is
announcing
organizational structure. WTiy? Intense competition for the con-
dollar, rising resource costs, globalization,
profitabilit}' is
contend that
In recent years, there has been significant change
Wall Street Journal and read about
plans to modify
many
and
a search for ways to restore
organizations to alter their strategies. As you read the
how the organization
has changed
its strategy^.
To the consternation
of your authors, most top managers have forgotten a fundamental principle: structure should change to
fit
the strategic change.
WORK ASSIGNMENTS AND
ORGANIZATIONAL STABILITY
much more frequently by the problem of how and to
work than by the problem of how to organize departments. The
former always involves differences of opinion. Nevertheless, the assignment of work
should be justifiable and e.xplainable on the basis of good management rather than on
personal likes and dislikes or intuition. The supervisor is subject to pressures ft'om
different directions. Some employees are willing and want to assume more work while
Supenisors are challenged
whom
to assign
and alternative approaches
for grouping activities and
assigning work.
Division of worl<
(specialization)
Dividing work into
components and
specialized tasks to
improve efficiency
and output.
Departmentalization
The process of grouping
activities and people into
distinct organizational
units.
Department
An organizational
for
which
unit
a super\/isor
has responsibility and
authority.
Formal organizational
structure
Departments, positions,
functions, authority,
and
reporting relationships
as depicted
on
a firm's
organizational chart.
no one best way
structure should follow
departmentalization
PART
278
Planning and Organizing
3
FIGURE 8.2
Work should be
assigned equitably, but
supervisors sometimes
rely too much on certain
employees.
Others believe the)' should not be burdened by additional duties.
One
of the super\'i-
most important responsibilities is to assign work so that everybody has a fair
share and all employees do their parts equitably and satisfactorily. (See Figure 8.2.)
As emphasized previously, a super\dsor s task of assigning departmental work is
easier when the supervisor consistently uses the strengths and experiences of all
employees. However, supervisors are often inclined to assign heavier and more difficult tasks to capable employees who are most experienced. Over the long term, it
is advantageous to train and develop less experienced employees so that they, too,
can perform difficult jobs. When supervisors rely too much on one employee or a
few employees, a department weakens because top performers can call in sick, take
promotions, or leave the enterprise. The principle of organizational stability advocates that no organization should become overly dependent on one or several key
"indispensable" individuals whose absences or departures would disrupt the organization. Organizations need enough employees who have been trained well and have
flexible skills. One way to develop such flexibility is to assign employees to different
jobs in the department temporarily, such as during vacation periods or employee
absences. In this way, there is usually someone to take over any job if the need arises.
At times, a supervisor may have to hire temporary employees to meet workload
demands for a project or other needs. As discussed in Chapter 7, temporar)' employees can be helpful when given work assignments they can complete and when they
do not cause disruptions or disagreements with permanent employees. Some temporar\' employees prove themselves so competent that supervisors want to hire
them for permanent positions.
sor s
Principle of
organizational
stability
Principle that holds
that
no organization
should
become
overly
dependent on one
or
several "indispensable"
individuals.
AUTHORITY AND OROANIZATIONAL STRUCTURES
Once management
ships
rial
among and
establishes departments,
it
must
authority and the process of delegation.
establish
we
2,
Line authority
The right to direct others
and to require them to
conform to decisions,
policies, rules, and
objectives.
tures.
12.
Every organization has
clarify relation-
briefly defined
We
The following discussion serx^es as a
ment establishes authority and responsibility relationships
Chapter
and
manageexpand on those concepts in
basis for discussing how manage-
within the departments. In Chapter
a vertical, direct line
in organizational struc-
of authority that can be traced
from the chief executive to departmental employees. Line authority provides the
right to direct others and requires them to conform to company decisions, policies,
rules, and objectives. Super\'isors directly involved in making, selling, or distributing the company's products or services have line authority. Refer to Figure 8.5, on
CHAPTER
8
Supervisory Organizing at the Departmental Level
I
279
page 284, for an example of a line organization that has a clear chain of command.
Line authorit)- establishes who can direct whom in the organization. A priman.^ purpose of line authority'
is
to
make
With organizational groulh,
the organization
activities
work smoothly.
tend to become more specialized and
complicated. Line superxisors cannot be expected to direct subordinates adequately
and expertly in all phases of operations without some assistance. Line super\'isors,
to perform their managerial functions, need the assistance of specialists who have
been granted staff authorit)'. Staff author itv' is the right and dut)' to provide counsel, adxice, support, and senice regarding policies, procedures, technical issues, and
problems in a persons areas of expertise. Certain specialists are granted staff authorit)'
because of their positions or specialized knowledge. Staff people
members of
assist
other
Staff authority
The
right to
provide
counsel, advice, support,
and service
in
a person's
areas of expertise.
human
the organization whenever the need arises. For example,
resource specialists often screen candidates for line managers to inter\'iew. While
human
ments
resource managers can direct the work of employees in their outi depart(line authorit)'),
human
they can only ad\'ise managers in other departments in
resource matters (staff authoritv).
Most organizations of appreciable
structure. Certain departments, such as
size
use a line-and-sta£f-t)'pe organizational
human resources
(personnel) and accounting,
examand pro-
usually are classified as staff since they mainl)- support other departments. For
ple,
human resource managers are responsible for seeing that
certain policies
cedures are carried out by the line departments. For the most part, staff supenisors
lack the direct authorit)' to order line emplo)'ees to
dures.
They primarily counsel and
ad\ice, alter
line
it,
or reject
supenisors
it,
adx'ise.
to policies
combines
departments
and incorporates line and
Structure that
line
and
staff
staff authority.
and proce-
Line super\isors can accept the staff persons
but because the
usuall)' accept,
conform
Line-and-staff-type
organizational structure
staff person
and even welcome, the
is
usuall)' the expert in the field,
staff
person s
adx'ice.
most organizations, the day-to-day usefulness and effectiveness of staff units
like a human resources department depend primarily on the units' abilities to
develop close working relationships with line managers and supervisors. The qualit)' of these line /staff relationships, in turn, depends on how clearly top-level managers have defined the scope of actix-ities and authorit)' of the staff.
In
THE PROJECT MANACEMENT-TYPE
ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE
Explain the advantages of
the project management-
The need to coordinate acti\'ities across departments has contributed to the development of the project management-t)pe organizational structure, also called
"matrix structure." The project management-t)'pe structure, which is superimposed
on the line-staff organization, adds horizontal dimensions to the normally vertical
(top-down) orientation of the organizational structure. It is a hybrid in which both
regular (functional) line and staff departments coexist with project teams or group
assignments across departmental
Many high-tech
firms
lines.
employ project
structures to focus special talents
from
dif-
departments on specific projects for certain periods. Project structure enables
managers to undertake several projects simultaneously, some of which maybe of relferent
Each project is assigned to a project manager who manages the
from inception to completion. Employees from different functional departments are assigned to work on each project as needed, either part time or full time.
Although the complexity' of project structure varies, a basic matrix form might
resemble the chart in Figure 8.3. This chart illustrates how some managers have
atively short duration.
project
type organizational
structure.
Project
management-
type organizational
structure
A
hybrid structure
in
which regular, functional
departments coexist with
teams made up of
people from different
departments.
project
280
I
FIGURE
PART
Planning and Organizing
3
8.3
Basic Project
Management-Type
President
1
Organizational Structure
Department
Department
Department
supervisor
supervisor
supervisor
Junction.X_
fa"^Q" Y
funmyni
Manager
project
A
nvlanager
project B
been given responsibility for
specific projects in the firm while
visors are primarily responsible for supervising
ments. Project managers
A and B are responsible
employees
departmental super-
in their regular depart-
for coordinating activities
on
their
designated projects. However, the project managers must work closely with the
departmental super\'isors of functions X,
Y,
and
Z.
The employees who work
in
these departments report directly (functionally) to the departmental supervisors,
but their services are used under the authority and responsibilit)' of the project
managers to whom they are assigned for varying periods.
Several problems are associated with the project-t)pe organizational structure.
The most frequent is direct accountabilitv-. The matrix structure violates the principle of unity of command because departmental employees are accountable to a
departmental supervisor and project managers (see Figure 8.4). Other problems
FIGURE 8.4
One disadvantage
project
type organization
it
is
that
violates the unity-of-
command
mmi
of the
management-
principle
CHAPTER
Supervisory Organizing at the Departmental Level
8
I
who are assigned to several projects. These problems
minimized, by planning properly and clarifying author-
involve scheduling employees
can be avoided, or
ity
at least
relationships before the project starts.
Despite such problems, this structure
tions find
it
is
increasingly
common because organiza-
advantageous. The success of a project management-tv^^e arrangement
SUPERVISORY TIPS
Getting
Home
with Project
Management Teams
A good
project team design enables
employees to be the best they
can be so they can achieve both
high performance and satisfaction
in their work
1.
You reach
•
first
that can
•
•
vision.
Know
ted to
•
•
•
the importance of getting people to buy
their fullest
when
brain-
•
4.
Implement the plan and control work-inShare information, resolve
conflicts,
support
•
•
Break the project into steps or units and set
for each step or unit.
2).
priately recognized.
Develop
a plan.
Be an enabler (see Chapter
You score when the goal is accomplished and
both team and individual performers are appro-
storming alternative strategies.
performance standards
working
and encourage teamwork.
project.
objectives.
Use employee SKAs to
is
progress.
vision to everyone.
and commit to the
company
You reach third base when the team
together on the project.
•
You reach second base when you have a wellqualified, well-trained employee group commit•
3.
be measured.
Communicate the
into
2.
base when you create a
Define the project and set project objectives
Complete and evaluate the project.
Learn from the experience and make suggestions for future projects.
•
Celebrate the
victory.
281
282
I
PART
Planning and Organizing
3
depends primarily on the willingness of project managers (sometimes referred to as
project team leaders) and departmental supervisors and their employees to coordinate activities and responsibilities to complete projects. Such coordination is vital
to work scheduling, and it is imperative to employees' performance appraisals.
Consider the suggestions in the accompanying "Supervisor)' Tips" box when managing project teams. Employees must recognize that they remain directly accountable to their departmental supervisors,
appraisals
and
of employees' work. These are discussed
e
Identify
why
should plan for an
,
I
.
ideal
,
.
at
length in Chapter 11.
PLANNING THE IDEAL"
DEPARTMENTAL STRUCTURE
a supervisor
departmental structure and
..
^,
work ,toward this objective.
who, when they conduct performance
on project managers' evaluations
salary reviews, rely to a great extent
r
r
i
•
i
i
i
•
i
•
i
i
i
i
has orten been said that the organizational
structure is not an end but the means
o
to an end. The marriage of Hewlett-Packard (HP) Co. and Compaq Computer
It
Corp. in 2002 created a high-tech giant with annual
pronged
with
strategic challenge: to offer
sales
of $82 billion and a two-
breadth of products and services to compete
IBM while fending off such specialty and low-cost producers as Dell Computer
many obstacles, starting with how to
Corp. The new, combined company faced
integrate the
two workforces and
distinctly different corporate cultures.
To cut
costs,
the giant laid off an estimated 15,000 employees. Another 9,000 employees were
bought out. ^ For a multitude of reasons, including the inability of the marriage to
produce expected profits and market-share gains, CEO Carly Fiorina was shown the
door three years later. One can only imagine the burden that fell on front-line
supervisors, who were charged with designing and managing the production operations. Unless HP makes a dramatic upturn, the survivors can only wonder when
they
may be
laid off.
Lincoln National Corp. acquired competitor jefferson-Pilot Corp. in
2005 for $7.5 billion
companywide while
ing,
it is
too early to
in cash
be eliminated.
in recent years
stock. Lincoln
where the newly combined company's estimated annual
Many
come from. Obviously, some overlapping
of the employees are skeptical
has focused on increasing
annual Lincoln Financial Battle
almost $140 million to
Financial Field.
late
employs about 5,200 workers
Jefferson-Pilot has 4,400 workers. At the time of this writtell
savings of $180 million will
will
and
name
at
its
name
positions
at best. Lincoln's strategy
recognition by sponsoring the
the Bridges Golf
Tournament and paying
the Philadelphia Eagles football stadium Lincoln
'^
we have found that restructuring and reorganization decisions
on who is left after downsizing. Rather than ask, "How should we organize this department based on the people we have?" the question should be, "What
organizational structure will efficiently and effectively allow us to achieve our objectives and strategies?" In short, organizational structure decisions should follow
Unfortunately,
are based
strategy choice.
While some supervisors will have opportunities to structure new departments,
most are placed in charge of existing ones. In either case, supervisors should think of
an ideal departmental structure
the department's objectives.
—
a structure the supervisor believes
The supervisor should plan
based on sound organizational principles, not personalities.
qna
can best achieve
the departmental structure
If
the organization
is
CHAPTER
8
Supervisory Organizing
at
the Departnnental Level
I
283
planned primarily to accommodate current employees, shortcomings will likely
persist. When a department is structured around one employee or a few, serious
problems can occur when key employees are promoted or leave.'" When depart-
and functions, the company can seek
on one or two
key, versatile employees, the department will suffer if one or both of these employees leave. Conversely, if a number of weak employees do not carry their share of the
load, the supervisor may assign too many employees to certain activities to comments
are organized according to activities
when
qualified employees. For example,
a supervisor relies heavily
pensate for the poorly performing individuals. Therefore, supervisors should design
structures that best serve departmental objectives; then, employees can be best
matched with
This
is
tasks.
easier said than done,
however.
small departments, that employees
tions, the supervisor
fit
It
frequently happens, particularly in
the "ideal" structure poorly. In
most
situa-
placed in charge of a department without having had the
is
chance to decide its structure or to choose its employees. In these circumstances,
the supervisor can adjust gradually to the capacities of employees. As time goes on,
the supervisor can
ment toward
make
the personnel
and other changes
that will
the supervisor s concept of an "ideal" structure. In
the supervisor's primary focus
still
move the depart-
all this,
of course,
should be finding, placing, and motivating the
best employees.
ORGANIZATIONAL TOOLS
AND THEIR APPLICATIONS
Define and discuss
organizational tools that
and employees do not understand how their positions
and responsibilities relate to the positions and responsibilities of other employees.
Organizational charts and manuals, job descriptions, and job specifications can
reduce the confusion. These tools clarify the organization's structure and help
supervisors understand their positions and the relationships among various departments of the enterprise. The obligation to prepare a firm's overall organizational
chart and manual rests with top-level management. However, supervisors usually
develop and maintain these tools for their departments.
Some managers,
are useful
supervisors,
in
supervisory
organizing efforts.
DEPARTMENTAL OROANIZATIONAL CHARTS
In planning their organizational structures,
charts for
all
or parts of their operations.
trayal of organizational authority
An
many
firms develop organizational
organizational chart
is
a graphic por-
and responsibility relationships using boxes or
The graphic elements of organizational charts are usually interconnected to show the grouping of activities that make up a department, division,
or section." Each box normally represents one position category although several
other depictions.
or
more employees may be included
shows
nurses.
in a position category. For example. Figure 8.5
a position called "nurses." This
By studying the
is
one position, but there may be many
anyone can readily deter-
vertical relationships of categories,
mine who reports to whom. Although different types of organizational charts are
used, most are constructed vertically and show levels of organization arranged in
some type of pyramid.
Organizational chart
Graphic portrayal of
a company's authority
and
responsibility
relationships.
284
I
PART
3
Planning and Organizing
inistrator'
CEO
fVP nursing
I
services
Department head
C
Nursing
Ward
assistants
secretaries
Nurses
FIGURE
8,5 Organizational Chart
A
a
for the Nursing Services
supen'isor gains a
Department of
number of advantages from
departmental organizational chart.
the departmental structure.
tify duplicate efforts
a Hospital
When
First,
it
and maintaining
and analysis of
the super\isor might iden-
establishing
requires careful study
preparing the chart,
or inconsistencies in certain functions or
acti\ities.
A
chart
might enable the supervisor to spot where dual-reporting relationships exist (that
is, where one employee is reporting to tvvo supervisors) or where positions overlap.
The chart also may suggest whether the span of management is too wide or too
narrow.
new employees with the
want to know
employees
structure of the department and the enterprise. Most
where they stand and where their supervisor stands relative to higher-level manOrganizational charts are convenient ways to acquaint
agers. Organizational charts also
tionships; they
do not
reflect the
show formal
authority and responsibility rela-
informal organization discussed earlier in this
chapter.
Of
date. All
changes should be recorded promptly because
course, these charts are limited, especially
chart outdated.
if
they are not kept up to
failing to
do
so
makes the
CHAPTER
JOB DESCRIPTIONS
AND
8
Supervisory Organizing
at
the Departmental Level
285
I
JOB SPECIFICATIONS
Job descriptions are often included in an organizational manual, or they can be
obtained from the
human
resources department.
A
job description, sometimes
called a "position description," identifies the principal elements, duties,
of authority' and responsibility of a job.
Some
and scope
job descriptions are brief; others are
Job description
Written description of the
principal duties
and
responsibilities of a job.
on information obtained both from employand from those employees' superxisors. Some firms include
lengthy, lob descriptions are often based
ees
who perform
the jobs
certain expectations in job descriptions, such as the availability to
to travel.
Some even
indicate specific productivity' or qualit)'
must be attained
that
In practice, there
tion.
after a training period.
is
some
work evenings or
performance standards
'-
overlap in the terms job description and job specifica-
Generally speaking, a job description describes the major duties of a position
—
skills, capacities, and qualities
personal
needed to perform the job adequately. As Chapter 1
mentions, these personal qualities are sometimes called SKAs (skills, knowledge,
and abilities). Many organizations include the job specification as part of each job
whereas
a
job specification refers to the
qualifications
—
that are
Job specification
Written description of the
personal qualifications
needed
to perform a job
adequately.
description.
When
department lacks job descriptions or job specifications, or when jobs
are created, the super\'isor should ensure that such documents are produced. If help
with this task is needed, the supersisor should ask the human resources department, which usually has the experience and know-how to facilitate this task. We discuss this more in Chapter 10.
Supervisors should be thoroughly familiar with their own job descriptions.
Often, the job description will define and describe the scope of their authority; their
responsibilities; and the formal channels for obtaining information, assistance, or
certain decision-making authorit)-. Supervisors should periodically review their
own job description and those of their direct reports.
a
ORCANIZATIONAL PRINCIPLES IN AN ERA
OF OROANIZATIONAL DOWNSIZINOS
Among
Define downsizing
(restructuring)
and
its
implications for
the most publicized aspects of corporate business in recent years has been
organizational principles.
and permanent elimination of thousands of jobs in many
major companies. Many companies have eliminated large segments of their workthe large-scale reduction
forces. This process, called
downsizing, restructuring, or right-sizing, has been
accomplished through such things as plant and office closings, the sales of divisions,
extensive employee layoffs, attrition,
management
and
early retirements.
and
become more efficient and competitive. Noted author, H. James Harrington contends that employment securitv' is one of the most critical and complex issues facing
top management. According to Harrington:
Ty-pically,
restructures to reduce costs, streamline operations,
Downsizing
(restructuring,
right-sizing)
Large-scale reduction
and elimination of jobs
in
a
company
that usually
reduces middle-level
managers, removes
organizational levels,
"Corporate America has been on a downsizing kick since the late 1980s. The
answer
down and
off, with the hope of
raising stock prices, but that doesn't work. Large layojfs produce sullen, substan-
tial
to business
pressure has been to slow
lay
stock gains because the effects of a reduced workforce
dont immediately
reach
and the savings from reduced wages make the organization appear
more profitable than it really is. But in the long run, downsizing has a negative
the customer,
effect."''
and widens the span
of
management
for
remaining supervisors.
286
PART
I
Planning and Organizing
3
Frank Poppoff, CEO of Dow Chemical put it this way: "Layoffs are horribly
expensive and destructive of shareholder value." Dow Chemical estimates that it
costs between $30,000 and $100,000 to lay off technical and supervisory personnel.'''
Interestingly, research has
of their employees during the
(profitabilityturn.'''
found
last
and stock price-wise)
The companies
companies
that
that cut 15 percent or
more
recession performed significantly below average
downdamage
for the three-year period following the
that are repeatedly restructuring
do
particular
because employee productivity declines dramatically. Even layoff survivors
feel no
added security or commitment. Consider the recent headlines reported in this
chapter s "Contemporary Issue" box.
One major organizational impact of downsizing is a reduction of middle-level
managers and the removal of one or more organizational levels. For supervisors and
other managers who survive downsizing, the span of management usually widens.
Many supervisors are stretched because they are required to add unfamiliar departments or functions to their responsibilities.'^
Some middle-level management and staff positions have been eliminated
because information technology (IT) has made it possible for higher-level managers
to acquire data and information quickly and to keep in close touch with operations.
Not surprisingly, the authors are familiar with many situations where the IT function has been off-shored to India or another lower-cost country. As a result, supervisors and employees usually have to become more knowledgeable about more
aspects of operations. Noted management scholar Peter Drucker contends that the
knowledge /information explosion requires restructured organizations to depend
on remaining employees throughout the firm, rather than on traditional "command-and-control structures," to make decisions.''
The firms that have downsized most effectively appear to be those that have
planned for it systematically and have tried to harmonize, as much as possible, previous and new organizational structures and operations in ways that are compatible and
acceptable to those who remain. Usually, this means involving human resources staff
specialists early in downsizing plans. Workforce planning, training, and skills assessment, and widespread communication of what will happen throughout the organization, are typical areas that require the human resources department s skills and major
participation.'^ Additionally, ideas about authority and the use of authority must be
reshaped to give supervisors and employees greater decision-making responsibility.'"^
Even with a weakened organizational structure, most individuals need clear lines of
accountability for their performance to be evaluated. These lines are vital if reward
systems are to be meaningful and motivational.^"
Some
and
'
..
,
managed) work
teams (SDWTs)
When employee
groups
empowerment. Empowerment,
and considerable authority
,
I
_j
.^
'
^
jj^|)y
make
Reengineering
Concept of restructuring
firm based on processes
an cus omer nee s
and services rather than
on departments and
make
a
decisions and
number of places
in this text, essen-
become more involved
in achieving organizational objectives.
i
employee groups are given wide
i
•
latitude
-j
j
i
and considerable authority
to
empowerment is associated with the creation of self(self-managed) work teams (SDWTs). We discuss team concepts further
job-related decisions,
directed
jj^
as identified in a
^neans delegating sufficient authority to employees to allow those employees to
When
functions.
,,
firms there will be radical restructuring. If so, organizational struc-
and practices may conflict with time-honored organizational principles.
Proponents of downsizing and restructuring have typically advocated employee
are given wide latitude
.
some
tures
,
job-related
decisions.
ii-i
organizational theorists predict that downsizing will continue indefinitely
that in
Chaoter 13
Some
firms have tried reeneineerine, whereby they restructure based
,
process
(e.g.,
function
i
^
j
more on
j
meeting customer orders and requirements) than on department or
(e.g.,
sales
and production). Reengineering requires supervisors and
CHAPTER
CONTEMPORARY
When Toyota Motor Co.'s
Supervisory Organizing at the Departmental Level
ISSUE
Toyoda
Eiji
8
STREAMLINING ORGANIZATIONS^
"Delphi Presses for Cuts." Implications: Delphi
Robert S. "Steve" Miller asked the UAW to
agree to cut wages and benefits so that Delphi
could be competitive with other U.S. auto-parts
makers. He said this in the same breath as he
visited U.S.
CEO
more than 50 years
ago, Toyota was producing 40 cars a day. Ford Motor
Company was making 8,000. The gap was enormous.
With Shigeo Shingo and Tajjchi Ohno, Toyoda developed a system whose objective was minimizing the
consumption of resources that added no value to the
finished product. The system became known as the
autonnobile nnanufacturers
announced that Delphi would award cash bonuses
and extend the severance package to 18 months for
600 Delphi executives.''
"Toyota Production System," a business practice that
allows workers to identify waste
in
"Bankrupt Delphi Plans to Shed U.S. Plants."
operations and to
Implications: Delphi
focus on tasks that add value to the product.^ Clearly,
Toyota and others have taken the battle to Ford,
It
GM,
29, 2005, Ford
long-term agreements with select strategic suppliers
Johnson Controls, Learn, Magna,
and Yazaki. In this first phase of the Aligned
Business Framework effort. Ford expects to reduce
by approximately 50 percent the number of suppliers it uses. Tony Brown, senior vice president.
Visteon,
the founda-
We've
worked with our key suppliers on several programs
to take out waste, increase economies of scale,
improve quality and customer satisfaction, and
create a framework for stronger relationships."-^
"In "A Day in the Life," John Lennon captured
the sense of resignation generated by the daily diet
of doom and gloom fed to us by broadcasters and
tion for this action over the past several years.
ter.'
at
some
of U.S. plants.®
Implications: Ford will continue to restructure
its
manufacturing operations.
WHERE DO WE GO FROM HERE?
The authors believe
of the aforementioned
and consolidations and
negatively impact the U.S. economy. Is there an
that
all
articles will result in layoffs
will
answer?
newspapers."'^ Let's rewind a seven-day period,
October 6-12, 2005, and look
number
"Ford Plans Shake-Up." Ford Chief Executive
William Clay Ford, Jn said that Ford needed to get
the right people to work together as a team. Ford
sold large numbers of vehicles during the second
quarter of 2005 but at deeply discounted prices.
Ford's North American operations, which consists of
19 assembly plants and eight stamping plants,
reported a $907 million before-tax loss for the quar-
Autoliv, Delphi,
laid
the largest U.S. auto supplier.
divestiture of a significant
announced new
Global Purchasing, said, "Ford has
is
has over 50,000 U.S. employees. The bankruptcy
protection plan includes the consolidation and
and Daimler Chrysler Consider the following:
On September
287
I
We
believe so!
It
begins with creating a
vision for the organization that
headlines:
goes outside the condevelop proactive
ventional. All organizations should
"Economy, Budgets Could Set Stage for Gloomy
Toy Story." Implications: In the midst of higher
gasoline prices, the war in Iraq, and the effects of
Hurricane Katrina, there may be fewer toys under
strategies
All
is
about laying
expected to be keen.^
"US Airways
to achieve lofty goals.
embrace the concepts of
off
people.
It
is
organizing to use resources
is
not
about planning and
more
efficiently.
Streamlining production and cross-training employ-
New Way to
Merge." Implications:
While officially merged, US Airways and America
West Airlines cannot yet sell tickets on each other's
flights because they run separate reservation systems
and operate separate ticket counters at 38 airports.Tries
them
organizations should
"lean manufacturing." Lean manufacturing
the tree this Christmas. Price competition amongst
retailers
and then design an organizational structure
that allows
ees so that they can do multiple tasks is usually part
of the system. All employees, from the chief execusweeper, must rethink how they
work and must eliminate nonvalue-added time.
tive to the floor
is also called "lean production" to include service-related businesses. To ensure flexibility, employees have greater
making production decisions based on customer needs. (2) Adapted from Robert Green, "Bare Bones Production," Quality Digest
(February 2002), p. 23. (3) "Ford, Key Suppliers Roll Out Innovative Business Model," Ford Motor Company Press Release (September 29, 2005). (4)
As quoted from George Melloan, "I Read the News Today, Oh Boy" The Wall Street Journal (October 11, 2005), p. A17. (5) Anne D'Innocenzio,
"Economy, Budgets Could Set Stage for Gloomy Toy Story," Associated Press as reported in the Fort Wayne, IN Journal Gazette (September 12,
2005), pp. IE, 6E. (6) Scott McCartney, "US Ain^rays Tries New Ways to Merge," The Wall Street Journal (October 11, 2005), p. D7. (7) See Jeffrey
McCracken, "Delphi Presses for Cuts," The Wall Street Journal (October 1 1 2005), pp. A3, A6; McCracken, Lew Hawkins, Jr, and Kris Maher, "Delphi
Bankruptcy Filing Expected," The Wall Street Journal (October 8-9, 2005), p. A3; and Alan Murray, "Delphi Faces Reality Now It's GM's Turn," The
Wall Street Journal (October 12, 2005), p. A2. (8) "Bankmpt Delphi Plans to Shed U.S. Plants," Associated Press as reported in the Fort Wayne, IN
Journal Gazette (October 12, 2005), p. 6E. (9) Op.cit., Jeffrey McCracken (October 11, 2005).
Sources:
(1)
authority
in
Lean manufacturing
,
—
288
I
PART
3
Planning and Organizing
employees to focus on customer needs and senices rather than on their owti funcand specialties. Focusing on the customer may enhance a firm's efforts to be
more efficient and competitive in the marketplace, but it also can mean blurring
tions
line
and
staff functions
and
roles.
Some authorities have suggested that reengineerwho will manage key processes and whose
ing will require "process managers,"
broadened
levels.-'
responsibilities will cut across line
A number
and
and organizational
staff functions
of major corporations already have restructured parts of their
organizations along customer-process dimensions.
When
carried out, reengineer-
Horizontal corporation
ing could create what has been called the horizontal corporation, in which organi-
A very flat firm
zational structures flatten
resulting
from restructuring by
customer process and
markedly and managerial
Perhaps the most extreme forecast about the corporate organization of the
organizational structure.
future
is
the \irtual organization, in which companies could
Virtual organization
partners or netsvorks that share
Companies
to exploit various opportunities.
linked
temporarily to take
skills,
become temporary'
employees, and access to the other's markets
A virtual
corporation, which would have no orga-
nizational chart or hierarchy, could be considered the ultimate project-tN^pe organ-
advantage of marketplace
opportunities.
authorit)' relationships are
minimal. --
At the end of the collaboration in a project or market opportunity-, virtual
ization.
partners would separate and have no permanent relationship.
corporation would require
member companies
Of course,
a virtual
to netAvork with firms with
whom
they share a high level of trust and collaboration. In this arrangement, one concern
is that firms might lose control over their o\\ti operations. Although a number of
companies have moved in this direction in certain t\pes of ventures, at this writing,
the virtual organization
is
far
more theory than
\Vhether radical company restructurings
reality.-'
will
become common
is
speculative.
It
from what many firms tr\'
to concentrate on, wdth or without downsizing. What seems likely is that organizational principles will always be part of supervision and that any organizational
change will require super\isors to understand how to apply and adapt certain orgais
also unclear
whether reengineering
differs significantly
nizational principles.
®
OROANIZINO FOR EFFECTIVE
MEETING MANAGEMENT
Identify the major factors
contributing to organizing
effective meetings,
especially the
supervisor's role.
Electronic message systems are not the complete answer to effective supervision.
More
is
needed to ensure the
ft-ee
flow of communication and understanding in ways
that are necessar)' for people to carr\' out their jobs.
Whether
it is
clarifying expec-
no substitute tor
bringing together the people who make it happen. There are other ways to supply
the information people need to perform their jobs and to receive ideas and opinions, but meetings can be an effective way to achieve these objectives.
Many work teams have experimented with meeting facilitators. In this case, the
group leader or the supervisor does not conduct the meeting. This role falls to the
facilitator, a function that is often rotated among team members. This approach
allows the supervisor, for example, to observe, listen, and ask probing questions of
team members. In addition, team members gain leadership experience. A downside
of this approach is that all team members must be adept at meeting management.
Further, the note-taking responsibilit)- is rotated among team members.
tations, analyzing
problems, or communicating policies, there
Meetings should be called only when necessary.
meeting
is
necessary-,
When
is
a super\isor decides a
however, the topic and issues should be communicated to
meeting participants, and the participants'
roles
should be
clarified.
CHAPTER
Supervisory Organizing at the Departmental Level
8
289
I
The accompanying "Supervisory Tips" box
outlines guidelines for planning, organizing,
and
s
u
p
V
R
E
1
O
$
R Y
T
1
P S
leading a meeting.
The meeting chairperson or
skilled at
cessful
their
facilitator
keeping the meeting focused.
must be
Many
and Leading
work teams have adopted ground rules for
Suggested ground rules might
meetings.
include the items in Figure
The meeting chairperson
is
ultimately respon-
of questions to consider
who will bring knowledge
and expertise to the meeting.
Notify participants well in advance of the
1. Select participants
8.6.
sible for the meeting's effectiveness. Figure 8.7
Guidelines for Planning
a Meeting^"
-r
suc-
2.
pro-
meeting.
when
and an agenda.
3.
Have
4.
Begin the meeting on time.
crucial.
5.
should be
accepted without judgment, and ever^'one should
Present the problems and issues to be discussed
and the meeting's objectives.
6.
vides a useful
list
planning and organizing
a
meeting.
The chairpersons general approach
is
contribution
everyone's
Initially,
feel free to participate.
The chairperson may have
7.
Allow
is
9. Try to stay
avoided.
communication
in
Chapter
3,
get information or to
open discussion on
as necessary.
summary
of
is
^533=^^^^^====
a particu-
supervisor might want to ask the
on the subject and adjourn on time,
make adjustments
the meeting (minutes) and actions to be taken.
responsible for giving and getting information. To
lar topic, the
consensus and areas of agreement
10. Follow up, including distributing a
discussion of
the super\isor
time for participants to offer
before voting on the proposal.
but
may remember from our
sufficient
8. Strive to find
can be ans\vered with a simple yes or no should be
As you
group members to participate
all
the discussion.
information and discuss alternative proposals.
sometimes done by asking
provocative, open-ended questions that use words
like who, what, why, where, and when. Questions that
participation. This
Encourage
fully in
to
ask controversial questions to start the discussion
and
a plan
\\''
questions
— what,
w^here, w^hy,
when, and who, before getting to the how. For example, the chairperson could use
questions to get and keep the discussion going, such as "What is the relationship
between quaHt)' and machine setup times?" "Hank, what would be your suggestion?" "\Vhere did the problem occur?" "Why is that important to you?" "When
will we have the new machine online?" "Who might have the experience to handle
such an assignment?" "\\Tio would like to comment on Wally's question?" and "How
can we exceed the customer's expectations?"
one side of the conference table and ask memon the problem in turn. While this approach forces
ever)'one to participate, it discourages spontaneous participation and allows the rest
of the group to sit back and w^ait until called on. This approach also may cause some
individuals to take a stand on an issue before they are mentally prepared to do so.
.\nother technique
is
to start at
bers to express their thoughts
FIGURE 8.6
be candid and
Everyone
will
Everyone
will
have
Everyone
will
stop what they are doing and
specific.
Suggested Meeting
Ground Rules
a say.
listen carefully to
other team
members' comments.
All
team members must support
No one
We
will
are a
their opinions with facts.
be allowed to interrupt another; we
TEAM —working
Together Everyone
will
will
hear each other out.
Achieve More.
290
I
PART
3
Planning and Organizing
FIGURE 8.7
What
What
Questions to Consider
When
Planning a
the purpose (goal) of the meeting?
is
are the opportunities, threats, conflicts, problems, concerns, issues, or
topics that should
Meeting.
be considered?
What information must be disseminated before the meeting?
What information must be gathered before the meeting?
What preparation is needed on the part of the participants?
What work must be completed before the meeting?
What additional resources will be needed to accomplish the purpose?
What are the ground rules for conducting the meeting?
Who
Who
Who
is
involved with the concerns, issues, or topics?
must do advance work or make decisions regarding the agenda?
should be invited because they can provide information needed for
problem solving or discussing the issue?
Who will develop and distribute the agenda?
Who must attend?
Who will facilitate the meeting?
Who will be assigned as the note-taker?
How much time do we need to allot to each topic?
How should the meeting room be arranged?
How do we strive to find consensus and areas of agreement?
How do we stay focused on the subject(s)?
When and where should the meeting be scheduled?
When should the meeting end?
When and how should the meeting be evaluated?
When and what follow-up is needed to the meeting (e.g., distribute a summary
of the meeting and the actions to be taken)?
As
a general rule, the chairperson
should appoint someone to record and sum-
marize what happened during the meeting. Subsequently, the chairperson should see
to
it
that the wTitten summar)', called the
provided to
personnel
ever)' participant.
who
have a need to
meeting action summar\' or minutes,
The summar\'
also should be distributed to
know what took
place or
who
all
are essential in
plishing the necessar}' action. In short, the meeting action summar\'
lists
is
other
accom-
the actions
by the group, assigns accountability (who will do what by when), and
becomes a record for follow-up and feedback.
The chairperson may have the scribe orally summarize the chosen action before
adjourning the meeting so that all participants have a chance to review what took
place. The written summary serves as a permanent record or guideline for future
to be taken
situations involving similar issues. If some matters are
left
undecided, the
summary
can provide a review of the alternatives that were discussed and can help to
lize
cr)'stal-
the thinking of participants. For permanent standing committees, such as an
it is advisable to use the summary to announce
when the group will next meet.
Remember: None of us is as smart as all of us! A group of individuals exchang-
organization's safety committee,
and experiences will usually develop a better solution to
a problem than could any one person who thinks through a problem alone. While
meetings at the departmental level are important, supervisors often will meet with
others to discuss, plan, and decide on issues and to determine what actions must be
carried out. The meeting management tips and suggestions offered here should
ing information, opinions,
become
mm
a part of ever\' supervisor's toolbox.
CHAPTER
r
WHAT CALL
David Simms
first
8
Supervisory Organizing at the Departmental Level
DID YOU MAKE?
must analyze the problem and
base his decisions on facts and information. He
should review the problem-solving and decisionmaking concepts in Chapter 5. Then, with the facts
and information he now has, he should contact local
employment and temporary-help agencies to determine the availability and cost of filling the position
with external candidates. David also might explore
his network of personal contacts. He should find out
if supervisors hired from outside the company have
been successful and how the managers who hired
those candidates were evaluated. This information
will
help him decide whether to follow the
company
policy of promoting from within.
Next, David should review and apply the basic organizational principles discussed in this chapter.
He
probably not yet qualified to be a permanent
supervisor, but David should recognize that this
is
employee promoted from
usually the case for any
within to a supervisory position.
someone from
is trained and qualimight decide to hire a
temporary supervisor. If he finds a temporary supervisor through an agency or an employment service,
he should closely monitor how the temporary
person performs and not rule out the possibility of
keeping that person. David should document his
decision-making process and communicate it to his
boss as something to consider for other locations.
David Simms must review the organizational
Until
within
fied to take the job, David
structure
and
clarify
the
line authority
impacting
the supervisor's position. Then, he should inform
management, and
employees. Also, David should continually remind
his employees that their jobs require them to maintain a customer focus.
Probably the most important lesson for David to
learn from this experience is how to prevent this
type of situation from happening again. It is impor-
authority
David should not
in
supervision.
rely solely
on the grapevine
assessing supervisory potential.
He should
review the performance evaluations of
all
his
employees to assess their skills and potential. The
grapevine feedback about Margo James as a temporary supervisor probably should not be ignored.
However, it might be possible to promote James
and still maintain employee morale because James
is an excellent server, and she has had some supervisory experience. However, her performance suggests that she may be deficient in the supervisory
and human-relations skills needed to maintain
desirable performance, morale, and stability. If
David promotes Margo James, he will need to
spend long hours training her in the skills and
behaviors needed to be an effective supervisor. She
must learn that the things she does to be a successful server differ from the things she must do
as a supervisor. If David concludes that employee
organizing function of
management
design a structural framework
assign activities to
work
—
to
is
authorit)' relationships
to
group and
areas so as to achieve the
and departments.
among managers,
tant to establish a plan for
long before that plan
supersd-
is
filling
all
various positions
needed. Davids problem
arose because no qualified supervisory candidates
were ready to step in when June Teevers resigned.
He now should give much attention to developing
select employees by giving them opportunities to
learn and practice supervisory skills. Rotating certain servers as temporary supervisors to cover
absences and vacations could enable those servers
to learn supervisory management skills, and it can
give David a number of potential supervisory candidates. Then, the next time a supervisor leaves the
company, David should be ready to
fill
the position
with a qualified internal employee.
SUMMARY
A The
desired objectives. Organizing includes establishing
sors,
morale and stability are his top objectives, then promoting Margo James now is questionable. She is
should consider the unity of command, span of
when
A The
291
I
informal organization interacts with, yet
is
apart from, the formal organizational structure.
It
can positively or negatively influence departmental
work performance. To use
positively, super^'isors
the informal organization
should become famihar
^^^th
informal groups and their leaders and determine
PART
292
how
A
3
Planning and Organizing
to enlist their cooperation
AA
when promoting
places managers in charge of project teams
Normally, an organization should adhere to the
members
unity-of-command
principle. This principle
employee
tains that every
tion flows through the chain of
^ The
multiple projects
more
a matrix structure
span-of-management principle should be
without disrupt-
efficiently
may
create
problems of priorit)'
scheduling and employee accountabilit}-, both for
obser\'ed
supervisors.
Also
or the span
of control, this principle recognizes that there
is
an
departmental super\isors and project managers.
A When
organizing a department, the supervisor
number of employees a supervieffectively.
The span of managesor can manage
ment is determined by such factors as the
should envision the ideal arrangement based on
competence of the supervisor, the training and
employees with
experience of employees, employees' work loca-
able employees
upper
limit to the
and the amount and nature of work
tions,
the assumption that
employees are
all
required and qualified
Because there are seldom
available.
all
the desired qualifications, avail-
must be
fit
to be
make changes
performed. Other things being equal, the narrower
management is, the more levels of
management that are needed; the broader the
span of management is, the fewer levels that are
structure should follow strateg)', as strategy'
activities
is
fied appropriately.
AA
according to function, but
graphic
product or
line,
is
it
new departments,
must
assign activities
customer, process
supervisors most often
and employees
To perform
have
authorit)'.
authority
direct
is
power
who,
to
delegated from
in turn, delegate to their
to
employ-
supervisors must be delegated appropriate
authorit)' to
In their
manage
own
staff-authority positions furnish counsel, guidance,
and
service in a specialized field. Staff
supervisors with specialized knowledge and
They often
skills
take responsibility for
large-scale enterprises.
norm
who
must adapt organizational
employees more latitude in decision making. To
empower employees, supervisors should structure
their departments to allow for more employee
participation. Various changes, such as restructuring,
SDWTs,
and
compa-
lean manufacturing, horizontal,
virtual organizational structures, can help
and be
flexible in
meeting cus-
tomer demands.
^ The
success of any meeting depends largely
on
effective leadership. Super\isors usually call
together the people
a
in
is
who
no
meet-
and
substitute for bringing
are responsible for solving
problem or discussing an
and
uniformly and consistently carried out. Line-andorganizational structures are the
of management. Super\isors
solve problems. There
ensuring that certain policies and procedures are
stafi^-t^'pe
levels
ings to disseminate information or to discuss
support line managers and others throughout the
organization.
and
nies reduce costs
their departments.
departments, supervisors have line
authority to direct their employees. Employees in
advice,
Downsizing usually involves eliminating job posi-
widening the span of management and giving
discusses, managerial
others. Authority
The
principles to the changes. This usually includes
stabilit)'.
managers through mid-level managers
superx'isors,
ees. All
As Chapter 2
A
survive downsizings
manager, a super\'isor must
the legitimate or rightful
is
and lead
top-level
as a
job
requirements for qualifying for or performing a job.
tions
to existing
departments to achieve efficiency and
own
job description and job specifications identify the
and equipment, or time. Rather than being able to
design
a picture
descriptions and those of their direct reports.
most often done
can be done by geo-
service,
is
Supervisors must be cognizant of their
distinct organizational
Departmentalization
units.
departmental organization chart
of authorit)' and responsibility relationships.
the process of grouping
and people into
ideal structure. Because
changes, structures should be reviewed and modi-
needed.
Departmentalization
move
to
the department toward
its
Over
to the structure.
time, the supervisor should
the span of
^mm
whose
different departments.
ing regular departmental arrangements. However,
command.
when assigning employees to
known as the span of super\ision
drawn from
departments. This structure uses employees on
directly accountable to
is
are
Line supervisors manage the employees in regular
main-
only one super\'isor and that formal communica-
A
project or matrix-type organizational structure
departmental objectives.
issue.
Numerous
tips
suggestions are available to help super\isors
achieve group participation and
more productive and
relevant.
make meetings
CHAPTER
8
Supervisory Organizing at the Departmental Level
293
I
KEY TERMS
Department
(p.
277)
Departmentalization
Job specification
Lead person
277)
(p.
Division of work (specialization)
(p.
Line authorit)^
277)
Reengineering
285)
(p.
right-sizing) (p. 285)
Organization
Formal organizational structure
(p.
278)
Informal organization
(p.
288)
(p.
270)
(p.
Project
273)
Unit\'-of-command principle
283)
(p.
Principle of organizational stability
Horizontal corporation
work
286)
Span-of-management principle
(p.
(p.
(p.
Staff authority (p. 279)
270)
Organizational chart
277)
286)
teams (SDWTs)
structure (p. 279)
(restructuring,
(p.
Self-directed (self-managed)
Line-and-staff-type organizational
Downsizing
(p.
(p.
(p.
276)
272)
Virtual organization (p. 288)
278)
management-type organiza-
tional structure (p. 279)
Job description (p. 285)
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
1.
Define the organizing function, unity of
command,
and span-of-management principle and explain
how they relate.
2.
What
an informal organization?
How does
organizational charts
b.
job descriptions
c.
job specifications
What
the
meant by downsizing
is
(restructuring)? Are
informal organization affect the formal organiza-
downsizing and radical restructuring
tion? Discuss the approaches the supervisor can
render organizational principles obsolete? Discuss.
take to foster cooperation wath informal groups
Why is
and
3.
is
a.
their leaders.
tive
likely to
the ability to conduct effective
and produc-
meetings important for a supervisor?
What
Define and discuss the application of the following
steps should supervisors take to ensure that the
organizational tools
meetings they participate in or chair succeed?
at
the supervisor)' level:
SKILLS APPLICATIONS
SKILLS
APPLICATION
8-1: Thinking Outside the
This diagram shows one side of a chimney. Note: Only
whole bricks were used,
as
no bricks were cut
1.
Box
How many bricks were required to build all four
How did you arrive at that conclusion?
sides?
in half.
2.
What
tion
is
the relationship between this
skills
and the organizing principles found
applica-
in this
chapter?
3.
Write a one-page paper detailing what you learned
from
Source: This Skills Application
(Januar>-2005).
was reprinted with permission from QCI
this skills application?
International's Timely Tips for Teams, a
monthly Internet newsletter
"
294
PART
I
3
Planning and Organizing
APPLICATION
SKILLS
First,
8-2 What Are Your Expectations?
think about the person that deans the classroom.
Then, make an item-by-item
If possible,
your instructor
1.
You should
find a current
Answer the following questions:
provide you with a
a.
for that person.
from another
3.
Look
at
copy of a job description
b.
4.
c.
local organization.
(DOT)
to get a
What SKAs
How does
are required?
the listing of what the incumbent
most important duties and respon-
d.
What
duties
with the job description?
and
responsibilities are consis-
general description of this job and the duties per-
tently listed across
formed
lege's
Then,
in a variet)'
click
of settings.
in
an educational
Finally, ask
this
f.
if
one or more of the custodians,
what
their job entails.
What
are the five
important things they have to do? (Note:
If
it is
Source: This Skills Application was adapted with permission
Resource Management: 21st Century Challenges (Mason,
APPLICATION
SKILLS
This
is
the
fifth in a series
duces you to people
Bill
Allen
is
at
the
management
Why do you think there are
from
thinks
so.
differences of opin-
life difficult.
2-4:
Conducting
Make Your
Life Difficult— "The Boss's Favorite"
customer-feedback reporting system
Allen might say.
it
"I'll
is
a good idea,
do everything possible
To say that
or at least upper
His supervisors always find
Bill
is
agreeable
is
an understate-
through because other employees must honor his
commitments. Allen, however,
is
first in line to take
credit
do special favors for Harding. Last summer,
feedback. These supervisors have been overheard
heard about was
"warm and supporting. " Allen
always gets his work done promptly and often
one of the supervisors on other sales orders.
Allen excels at flattery. He is adept at making
clothes, house, wife,
and talents) a workplace event. Allen does
who hears his praise, as long as they have
grandkids,
not care
authority. According to Allen, everything that
from
the owner's
mouth
is
comes
the best thing said. Allen's
compliments are almost always directed toward the
owner. "Oh, Mr. Harding,
Tm glad you
think that
when
things go
well,
and he
how Allen was
is
always willing
all
to
we
building a deck on
Harding's lake cottage.
However, Allen
offers
to help
life (e.g.,
make
ment. Problems arise when he does not follow
service meetings. Allen excels at giving his super\nsors
every detail of the boss's
to
work.
that he contributes significantly during customer-
describing Allen as
Human
a )ob Analysis,"
Publishing, 2005), p. 44.
Harding Hardware:
—
you
this skills application.
from Ed Leonard and Roy Cook, "Case
OH: Thomson Custom
of Skills Applications that intro-
model employee
How do
not
Read the following statement from Steve Vincent,
an employee
by DOT)?
Write a one-page paper detailing what you learned
7.
8-3: Dealing with People that
who might make your
cited
and the job performed?
jani-
them
or six most
or housekeepers in your building. Ask
and those
are the major differences?
ion between what others expect a janitor to do
you need permission
tors,
What
descriptions (your col-
account for those differences?
job
setting.
your instructor
to interview
e.
all
job description, those of another
organization,
on http://www.hrnext.com/tools and
button to "custodian" to learn more about
1.
expected of a janitor in your educa-
sibilities align
follow the links through the job descriptions
5.
is
cites as the
the description for janitor found in the
Dictionary of Occupational Titles
What
tional setting?
for the custodian /janitor/housekeeping-type posi-
tion
may omit
this step.)
6.
will
copy of the job description
possible to conduct the interview, you
of the duties and
list
responsibilities for that position.
1.
"
is
chilly to
someone lower than him on
any
request from
the corporate ladder.
This presented a problem for Bessie Colicho, one of
our timid
flyer.
and Allen were
colleagues. Colicho
sible for putting together the
Somehow, Allen was always
with more important projects,
orient to the
had
new
respon-
monthly advertising
like
too busy helping
helping Harding
inventory-control system. Colicho
tried to talk to
Harding about the problem, but
she was told that Allen was the model employee
and
CHAPTER
that her perceptions of him were unrealistic. I
that
when George Sutherland
retires,
Supervisory Organizing
8
know
the Departmental Level
first in line for his job. It's
at least
I
295
not fair! He'll get the pro-
motion not on merit but by being the
Allen will be the
Using the Internet, find
INTERNET ACTIVITY
at
boss's favorite.
three sources for coping with a boss's favorite.
Carefully review each site for suggestions for dealing with this type of behavior.
Based on )'our findings, what suggestions would you give to Vincent for working
\Nnth Allen?
Write a one-page paper explaining
how
this skills application increased
your work-
ing knowledge of coping with the behaviors of this type of difficult person.
APPLICATION
SKILLS
To complete
this project, see Figure 8.5,
8-4: Departmental Organizational Chart Development
which
is
an
lines of authorit)'
Recognize that Figure 8.5 was simplified for demon-
Develop
a
departmental organizational chart for a
department of a firm or
for
lines for the flow
any organization for
which you can obtain the required information and
assistance. If you are currently employed, ask your
2-
for this project.
Keep the chart
Use rectangles
a.
show an organizational unit
or a position.
Place the
b.
title
3.
sponding rectangle. The
title
(e.g., sales
Welcome
that
get
you
DEVELOPMENT MODULE
an oversiew of how
Getts'
Museum
creativit}'
We
8-1:
Machado &
suggest
can be expressed.
enjoy reading about
got a fresh face.
student support web
site at
management /leonard, and
Module 8.
Then
visit
how the
our
\N'\\^v.thomsonedu.com /
click
Identify what
you believe
to be the
most important
DEVELOPMENT
http://www.machado-silvetti.com to
We think that you will
Fio\v would the chart change if the organization
mandated a 20 percent reduction in workforce?
should describe
to the \s"orld of creative design.
\isit
Identify departmentalization options in the
manager). Vertical
SKILLS
SKILLS
authorit)'.
concepts concerning the organizing function of
of each position in the corre-
the job function
of functional
chart.
b.
to
the top center
the
Review your organizational chart and answer the
as
simple as possible.
a.
at
following questions:
supersisor for permission and help in using your
work department
at
bottom center,
except for supenison,' assistants and horizontal
relationships. Use solid vertical and horizontal
lines for the flow of line authorit)' and dotted
stration purposes.
1.
should enter
of a rectangle and leave
organizational chart for a hospital department.
on
Skills
Development
Machado and Silvetti Associates is a forty-person
architecture and urban design firm known for its
Silvetti— Building the Business of Business
distinctive spaces
and unique architecture works. It
Award in Architecture by the
has received the First
American Academy of Arts and
years of boldly conceived
and
urban projects." In addition
practice, principals Rodolfo
Silvetti
Letters for ''twenty
brilliantly executed
to their architectural
Machado and Jorge
both teach at Harvard University's Graduate
School of Design.
296
PART
I
Planning and Organizing
3
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
Define organizational structure, and explain
Machado
Analyze
how
Discuss
& Silvetti's structure developed.
how Machado &
its
use the project
Silvetti's
how Machado &
Silvetti's
culture might influence the firm
organizational
s ability
to achieve
objectives and, ultimately, satisfy the client.
management-t)pe organizational structure. Be sure
to discuss the limitations and advantages of this
approach.
ENDNOTES
Seventy-five percent ot
all
employees are looking
for
new
shop steward should apply
job opportunities, according to the 2004 U.S. Job
Recovery and Retention Sunvy.
Many
report they are
5.
leaving their current positions for better career opportu-
and /or
nities
(December
by
15, 2004).
SHRM,
Inside Training Newsletter
6.
The authors have found
that
attitudes. Contrast the
SHRM 2005 Job Satisfaction
tors
which
7.
"Senior
Begins Regaining Employee Trust,"
(Februar)- 2005), p. 16;
HR
and Elizabeth
J.
HP,
9.
(September 2003), pp. 8-12; Andrew Molinsky & Joshua
Margolis, "Necessary Evils and Interpersonal Sensitivity
Academy of Management
"Attacking the Negativit)- \^rus,"
S.
Re\'iew
Topchik,
Management
Re\-in\'
we
discuss supervisory relationships with
the departmental union steward where a labor organization represents employees in a firm.
Some
of the same
types of super\'isory considerations that apply to a union
^¥91
8c Scott
Thurm, "Married
8,
2002), pp. Bl, B4. .Also usit the
at Last,
HP web
site to
See Sherr)- Slater, "Lincoln Buys Rival Insurer for S7.5
IN Journal Gazette (October
1
1,
2005), pp. lA, 3A. Informarion also gathered from various
LNC
employees
who
are former students of one of the
web
authors. See the Lincoln National Corporation
to get updated acquisition information
LNC's
strateg\"
lO. This tv'pe of
zation should
its
site
impact on
and organizational structure implications.
problem
organizational
and
is
inherent in the "principle of
stabilit)',"
become
that no organion the talents/
which advocates
overly dependent
of one indiNidual or a few individuals. That
no one should be indispensable to the enterprise.
abilities
11.
For a detailed look
at
is,
the organizational charts and other
organizational aspects of
more than 200 major
U.S. cor-
porations, see the Organization Chart Collection, 2004-
2005
Edition, published
by the Conference Board,
Inc.
Charts can be ordered indixidually and /or in any quantitv.
For ordering and other information,
http://\v^\'\v.conference-board.org. For a
(September 1998), pp. 61-64.
In Chapter 9,
Tam
It's
76-77;
Face Real Test," The Wall Street Jounuil
Billion," Fort \Va\Tie,
(Boston: Har\'ard Business School Press, 1998).
Gregor)' Smith, "Attitude Counts," Career World
and Can,-
Compaq
17, 2002), pp.
organizational restructuring.
Garrett
Equation: Building Profits by Putting People
(April 2005), pp. 245-268;
"HP and Compaq:
Hawk &
"The Best Management Ideas are
in Organizations,"
Park,
(May
Academy ofManagemait Exeaitive (May 1999), pp. 37-48.
This article was adapted from the book by Jeffrey Pfeffer,
First
Andrew
re\iew various press releases that deal with the continual
Veiga, "Putting People First for Organizational Success,"
P.
8c
and Pui-\Mng
Graham, "Seven Ways to Differentiate Your Company
that Makes a Difference to the Customer," Supen-ision
(August 2005), pp. 14-16; and Jeffrey Pfeffer ad John P.
Human
Edwards
Showtime," Business Wee^- (June
Timeless," Supervision (June 2004), pp. 9-11; John R.
The
Magazine
Magazine
Sheridan, "The Right Staff: Are Your Core Workers
Happy?" Management Re\'ie\v (June 1999), pp. 43-48.
L. Stanley,
HR
Management
J.
See T.
See Kent Blake, "She's Just a Temporarv,"
8. Cliff
Your Employee s Morale," Supen'ision (May
Ann Pomeroy,
Robust," The Wall Street Journal
(August 1998), pp. 45-51.
with their jobs (http://\N^\^v.shrm.org/hrnews/
2005), pp. 8-10;
It
identifies fac-
important to overall job satisfaction and found that
for
of
(September 25, 1995), pp. A1-A6.
achieve). Also see, Jacqueline Gish, "Taking Responsibilit)'
stor\'
See Alex Markels, "Restructuring Alters Middle-Manager
above study with the
Siin'ey,
39 percent of surveyed employees said they were very
satisfied
See "Exodus," Chapter 18, in The Bible for the
Role But Leaves
survey data often presents different pictures of worker
morale and
work group
Moses and Jethro. Jethro has been called the "\\x)rld's
first management and organization consultant."
dissatisfaction with opportunities at a cur-
rent job. Reported
to an informal
leader.
view of trends that
structures
and
will likely
the W'eh
impact organizational
Maureen Minehan,
Task Force." HR Magazine {1998
practices, see
"SHRM— Futurist
visit
50th Anniversary Issue), pp. 77-84.
at
comprehensive
CHAPTER
1i.
See
J.
E.
Supervisory Organizing at the Departmental Level
8
Do More Than
Management {Fehruary
Danny G. Langdon & Kathleen S.
Osborne, "Job Descriptions
2001), pp. 1-2; K.
1992), p. 8, or
Organizations,"
HR
Work
'"^
Magazine (May 1996), pp. 97-101.
Ethan A. Winning, "Building the lob Description,"
(Spring 1996), pp. 6-11.
You Think," Quality Digest
site at
21.
http://wvvw.
as reported in
& Co.,
Vincent
Boston consulting firm,
a
Wa)Tie (IN) News-Sentinel /Business
&
Rick
Business Process Outsourcing,
L. Click, Essentials
(New
Surprising Turnaround
& David
Kohn
it
&
does not appear that that
cess
La Plana, Strategic
& Alliances (Westport, CT:
(New York: Oxford
22. See
during
"GM
Plans to
The Wall
Not surprising
Street
to us,
GM has enjoyed much suc-
this century.
John A. Byrne, "The Horizontal Corporation,"
Business
Praeger, 2003);
see,
'08 in Restructuring,"
2005), pp. Al, A6.
8,
of
York: John Wiley
Week (December
20, 1993), pp.
76-81, and
"Organize for Efficiency," Supervision (October 2004),
Frank Ostroff, The Horizontal Corporation: Wliat the
Wayne F. Cascio, "Downsizing: What Do We
Know? What Have We Learned?" Academy of Manage-
How It Delivers
Organization of the Future Actually Looks Like and
pp. 25-26;
ment Executive (February 1993), pp. 95-104, or Alex
& Matt Murray, "Call It Dumbsizing: Why
Markels
Some Companies
Journal
(May
Peter F.
Drucker
as cited
I
Shrunk the Company,"
40-45. See also C. K.
1999), pp.
Prahalad, "The Art of Outsourcing," The Wall Street
Journal (June
8,
2005), p. A14; and Stephanie Crane,
Week (February
8,
1993),
Challenges (Published by the Council on Competitiveness,
7,
Press, 2004).
Kuczynski, "Help!
Ronald Ashkensas, The Boundless Organization
pp. 98-99, 100-103; and Roger Nagel, as quoted in
June 1993),
& Anthony Heskitt,
The Mismanagement of Talent: Employability and Jobs in
the Knowledge Economy (New York: Oxford University
HR Magazine (June
Customers (New York: Oxford
Virtual Corporation," Business
(
Brown
to
(San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1995); "The
by Jennifer Reingold, "The
1999), p. 17. Also see Philip
18. Sherr)'
23. See
Al, A6.
14, 1996), pp.
Value
University Press, 1999).
Regret Cost-Cutting," The Wall Street
Power of Cosmic Thinking," Business Week June
19.
Barrabba, Surviving Transformation: Lessons
Journal (June
Restructuring for Nonprofit Organizations: Merger,
Integration
B. Blaha,
Manage Processes," HR Magazine
109-10. Our students have found
Cut 25,000 Jobs by
Sons, 2005); Amelia
Journal
Gurus," Business Week (August
44-47, 50-52, and Robert
To contrast Barrabba's contentions
3,
2001), p. 9B.
Thomas N. Duening
New
Hammer," ACA
University Press, 2004) to be most interesting reading.
The Fort
Monday (September
P.
From GM's
Robert Dodge, "Has Lean-and-Mean
Strategy Cut Businesses Too Near the Bone?"
17.
See "Management's
(June 1993), pp.
The study by Bain
HR
"Forget Functions,
14. Ibid.
16. See
Interview with Michael
31, 1992), pp.
harrington-institute.com.
15.
A. K.
20. See Sandra O'Neal, "Reengineering and Compensation:
An
web
&
Freemand,
Magazine (June 1995), pp. 52-58.
See H. James Harrington, "Rightsizing, Not Downsizing:
(July 2005), p. 12. Visit his
J.
Brooks, "Managing a Horizontal Revolution,"
http:// wwav.ewin. com /articles /jdq.htm.
Layoffs are Costlier than
S.
Managing Contradictions," Academy of Management
Executive (August 1991), pp. 57-73; and Susan Sonnesyn
in
For information about developing a job description, see
13.
Cameron,
Mishra, "Best Practices in White Collar Downsizing:
Describe Duties," Supervisory
Whiteside, "Redefining Jobs and
S.
297
I
24.
p. 4.
said, "the best way to get the most from a
- don't go!" Unfortunately for most of us that
is not an option. For discussions on meeting management tips and skills, see T. L. Stanley, "Making Meetings
Someone once
meeting
is
Count," Supervision (August 2004), pp. 6-8; Bryan R.
Fisher, "Listen to What's Really Going On," Supervision
(August 2004), pp. 9-11; Jann Dyer, "Meetings,
(May
"Outsourcings Newest Niche," Business Week online
Meetings, Meetings," Chartered Accountants
(June 11,2004).
pp. 64-65; Craig Harrison "Meeting Monsters," Executive
See James C. Cooper
ing
&
May Already Be on
Kathleen Madigan, "Manufacturthe
Mend,"
Business
Week (May
30, 2005), pp. 25-26; Lin Grensing-Pophal, "Re-Structure,"
Credit Union
Jeff Higley,
Management (September
2002), pp. 34-37;
"La Quinta Restructures to Increase Growth
Rate," Hotel
and Motel Management (November
18,
2004),
Excellence (January 2004), p. 18; Jerome Finnigan, "Is
This Meeting Necessar}'? Ten Questions to
Make
Meetings More Productive," Supervision (November
2001), pp. 6-8; and Eric Matson, "The Seven Sins of
Deadly Meetings," Fast Company {April 1999),
p. 122.
iMMUM
CHAPTER
LABOR UNIONS
AND THE SUPERVISOR
AFTER STUDYING THIS CHAPTER
YOU WILL BE ABLE TO:
^%
Explain why and how labor
unions continue to affect
organizations and the
supervisory position.
^k
Identify the aspects of
management
good
that are likely
to deter a union organizer's
appeal.
^%
Outline procedures for
supervisors to follow
when
confronted by a unionorganizing effort.
#^
Discuss the importance of
good union-management
relationships
and the
supervisor's key role
in
maintaining those
relationships.
^%
Discuss the limited but
important role of the
supervisor in negotiating
the labor agreement.
^^
Discuss the major role of the
supervisor
in
interpreting
and applying the labor
agreement at the
departmental level.
^%
Describe the nature and
importance of a good
relationship
between
a
supervisor and the union
steward.
m«i
YOU MAKE THE
Louise
Knight
is
supervisor of the dietetics, nutri-
and food
tional,
CALL!
service operations at the Pine
Connmunity Medical Center (CMC). Recently,
Francis Hospital and acquired
one of the smaller area hospitals. While the newspapers reported that the merger was one of equals,
Village
CMC merged with St.
in
practice,
the
responsibilities
of
CMC
most
administrators, including Louise's, were expanded.
Dietetics and nutritional responsibilities were
added, and Louise picked up food service responsibilities at two additional sites. Her span of management quadrupled.
CMC
became one
pitals in
of the largest not-for-profit hos-
the tri-state area. During Louise's eleven
had never been an
attempt to unionize the employees. But in the past
four years, there had been three serious but unsuccessful attempts to unionize the hourly employees of
St. Francis hospital. These attempts had been made
by outside union organizers attempting to obtain
years as su