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(A) MAKLUMAT PELAJAR
STUDENT INFORMATION
Nama
Name
:
TIRUNAVAKARASU A/L
AMIRATHARAJU
Jantina
Gender
:
MALE
No. Matrik
Matric No.
:
U2103554/1
No. Telefon
Telephone No.
:
+601137654079
Alamat Email
E-Mail Address
:
u2103554@siswa.um.edu.m
y
Program
Program
:
Bachelor of
Science in
Physics
Fakulti
Faculty
:
Faculty of Science
Tahap Pengajian
(Sila Tandakan (✔) Yang
Mana Berkenaan)
Level Of Study
(Please Tick (✔) The
Appropriate Box)
Pelajar Baharu
New Student
Tahap Pertengahan
Middle Level
Tahap Awal
Early Level
Tahap Akhir
Final Level
Tahap Pengajian
Level of Study
Pelajar Baharu/New Student
Tahap Awal/Early Level
Tahap Pertengahan/Middle Level
Tahap Akhir/Final Level
Nota / Notes :
Bilangan Kredit yang
telah disempurnakan
Number of Credit
Completed
< 35 credit
36 to 75 credit
> 76 credit
(B) GARIS PANDUAN AM
GENERAL GUIDELINES
1. Bahasa: Bahasa Inggeris atau Bahasa Melayu
Language: English or Bahasa Melayu
2. Panjang laporan bertulis adalah sekurang-kurangnya 5 muka surat untuk Bahagian C
The written report should be at least 5 pages in Part C
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3. Spesifikasi Teknikal
Technical Specification
●
●
●
●
●
Abstrak tidak melebihi 300 patah perkataan (Abstract should be within 300
words)
Gunakan tulisan Arial bersaiz 11(Use Arial font size 11)
Gunakan jarak 1.5 antara ayat (Use 1.5-line spacing)
Laporan hendaklah di antara 30-40 halaman termasuk rujukan dan lampiran.
The report should be between 30 - 40 pages including references and appendix
Rujukan sekurang-kurangnya 30 (Minimum of 30 references)
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(C)
REFLEKSI AKTIVITI
ACTIVITY REFLECTION
1.
Laporan bertulis
Written report
Hasil daripada aktiviti kajian harus dijelaskan dalam refleksi ini. Pelajar diharapkan dapat berkongsi
hasil penemuan kajian pada minggu 14 dalam laporan bertulis. Pelajar juga adalah diharapkan untuk
berfikir tentang hasil, kemahiran yang diperoleh dan sumbangan/kesan/aplikasi dari program/aktiviti
penyelidikan yang telah dilaksanakan.
The outcome of the research activities should be described in this reflection. Students are expected to
share the result of the research findings in week 14 in a written report. Students are also expected to reflect
the outcome, skills acquired and the significant contribution/impact/possible application from the completed
research activities/programs.
Laporan kajian adalah termasuklah:
The research report includes:
1.
Tajuk kajian (Research Title)
2.
Abstrak (Abstract)
3.
Pengenalan/ (Introduction)
3.1 Latar belakang kajian (Background of the Study)
3.2 Pernyataan masalah/hipotesis/kerangka konseptual
3.3 (Problem statement /hypothesis/conceptual framework)
3.4 Persoalan kajian (Research questions)
3.5 Matlamat kajian (Aim of the study)
3.6 Objektif kajian (Objective(s) of the study)
3.7 Kepentingan kajian (Significance of the study)
3.8 Skop kajian (Scope of the study)
4.
Kajian literasi (Literature review)
5.
Metodologi (Methodology)
5.1 Reka bentuk eksperimen (Experimental Design)
5.2 Populasi/Saiz Persampelan/Kaedah persampelan (Population/Sample Size/ Sampling Techniques)
5.3 Kaedah Pengumpulan data (Instrumentation for data collection)
5.4 Teknik menganalisis data (Data analysis technique)
6.
Penemuan & Perbincangan (Findings & Discussion)
7.
Kesimpulan (Conclusion)
8.
Batasan dan cadangan untuk penyelidikan masa depan (Limitations and suggestion for
future research)
9.
Rujukan (References)
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10.
Lampiran (jika ada) (Appendices (if any))
1. Research Title
The Applications of Quantum Physics in real life.
2.
Abstract
The primary objective of the project is to identify the application of one of the major branch
in Physics, Quantum Physics in real life. Only when described abstractly, the difficult but
well-developed mathematical framework of quantum mechanics is often more
understandable and intuitive. Thus, the real-life application of this complex perspective of
physics is often overlooked as it is generally difficult to comprehend. However, as the years
unfolded from the proposition of this idea back in early 1900’s. many brilliant physicist and
engineers applied the theory and mathematical framework of quantum physics to further
advanced the technology in various fields such space exploration, electronics, optics,
medical sector and the list goes on.
This study evaluates the application of quantum physics on these various fields and how it
adds more values in terms of technology, efficacy and future plans. This study mainly relied
on published journals, articles and thesis papers regarding quantum physics by many
physicists around the world. Quantum physics textbooks used as secondary source to
further understand the mathematical workings and explanation of the specific theories. For
instance, quantum tunnelling by electrons in sophisticated electronic components.
This study showed that indeed there are many applications of quantum physics being
applied actively in numerous and diverse sectors which play major role in our daily life. So
many studies and research were put into on how to apply the quantum physics theories,
thus the real-life applications utilized the concepts to the highest potential. Each of the
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application is definitely showed to be a huge advantage to these fields, allowing
technological companies or organizations to take a giant leap in the world of industrial
science, thus shaping the future of humankind.
In a nutshell, this independent research concluded that applied quantum physics is a
revolution which drastically changing the scientific aspect of the world that we live in. We
can conclude in future, that quantum physics will be regarded as the fundamental principle
and will be the basis in explaining every phenomenon. In addition, it creates opportunities to
engineer the highest level of technology of science can ever dream to achieve.
3. Introduction
3.1. Background of the study
The quantum theory of modern physics is founded when German physicist Max Planck
published his revolutionary research of the effect of radiation on a blackbody object. Planck
showed through physical experiments that energy can, under some conditions, exhibit
properties of physical matter. According to classical physics theories, energy is a singular
continuous wave-like phenomenon that is unrelated to the properties of physical matter.
According to Planck's hypothesis, "quanta," which resemble tiny particles, make up radiant
radiation. The hypothesis assisted in explaining a number of previously puzzling natural
phenomena, including how heat behaves in materials and how light absorbs at the atomic
level. Planck won the physics Nobel Prize in 1918 for his research on blackbody radiation
(Mann. A, 2022)
Planck's theory was developed by other scientists throughout 19th century, including Albert
Einstein, Niels Bohr, Erwin Schrodinger, and Paul M. Dirac. Quantum mechanics, a
mathematical application of the quantum theory, maintains that energy can be both matter
and a wave, depending on a number of factors. In direct contrast to classical mechanics,
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which assumes that all precise features of objects are, in theory, calculable, quantum
mechanics adopts a probabilistic perspective on nature.
But there is a vast quantum riddle hidden beneath all of these real-world issues.
Fundamentally, quantum physics makes very weird predictions about the behaviour of
matter that are entirely at odds with the way reality appears to operate. Quantum particles
can operate like particles when concentrated in a single location or like waves when
dispersed throughout space or present in multiple locations simultaneously. We are left with
a fundamental paradox about the nature of fundamental reality as their appearance seems
to depend on the method of measurement we use, and prior to measurement they appear to
have no discernible features at all. Modern physics is based on the union of quantum
mechanics and Einstein's theory of relativity (A. Anil, 2020).
This ambiguity gives rise to apparent paradoxes like Schrödinger's cat, in which a cat is left
both dead and alive simultaneously to an ambiguous quantum process. That's not all,
though. Even when they are far apart, quantum particles appear to be able to instantly affect
one another. Entanglement, or "spooky activity at a distance," is the name of this genuinely
perplexing occurrence. Einstein, a fierce opponent of quantum theory, invented the concept.
Although these quantum abilities are entirely alien to us, they serve as the foundation for
new technologies like ultra-secure quantum cryptography and extremely fast quantum
computing.
But no one is sure what it all means. Some people believe that we should embrace the fact
that quantum physics describes the material world in ways that are incommensurable with
what we observe in the larger, "classical" world. Others believe there must be a more
accurate, logical theory out there that we haven't yet found. Many scientists such as Dr.
Michio Kaku are actively involved in the pursuit unified field theory, It is the attempt to merge
many fields of physics such as classical and quantum to come up with overall theory and
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equations which will reconcile the contractions between these different field of physics
(Siegfried. T, 2022). Figure 1 shows the relationship between the fields in modern physics
and the appropriate constraints that will determine what theory should be used to explain a
specific scenario.
Figure 1 shows the relationship of important fields in physics
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_mechanics
3.2. Problem statement
The following problem statements this research aims to answer are:
1. What are the practical applications of quantum physics in real-life ranging from the
application in other subjects of science and concrete applications in various industrial fields?
2. How does applying quantum physics theory and quantum mechanics mathematical
framework in other fields the solves the problems arose in that particular field?
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3.3. Research questions
1. How does the use of quantum mechanics in diverse industries advance technology and
promote industry growth?
2. How do the intricate quantum mechanics theories and concepts, which serve as the
foundation for the operation of these actual industrial applications, work?
3. How do quantum mechanics applications differ from classical mechanics applications in
terms of benefits and drawbacks?
3.4. Aim of the study
The aim of the study is to evaluate the real-life industrial applications of quantum physics by
reading relevant textbooks, articles, published research papers, journals and thesis from
reliable and valid publication websites.
3.5. Objectives of the study
1. To identify the applications of quantum physics and quantum mechanics in
real-life.
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2. To determine the specific quantum physics theories, concepts, principles and
mathematical frameworks used in each application of quantum physics in real
life.
3. To determine the advantages of quantum physics application compared to
classical physics.
3.6. Hypothesis/conceptual framework- if applicable
Not applicable
3.7. Significance of the study
The aim of this study is to compile a detailed documentation of several quantum physics
applications in practical settings, namely in various sorts of enterprises. The study will
provide a thorough understanding of how specific theories and mechanics are used to
enhance the technologies now used in the sectors. As a result, the study will serve as a
fantastic resource for learning how to apply the theoretical and mathematical underpinnings
of quantum mechanics for positive results in different industries. Finally, the study will
contrast and compare how quantum mechanics is used with how classical mechanics is
applied, allowing for a better understanding of the most appropriate physics sector
application for different businesses.
3.8. Scope of the study
The study is limited to all the research papers, journals and articles published by scientist
and researches all over the world in publication websites like research gate, Public Library
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of Science, science direct and so on. In addition, quantum mechanics textbooks for
undergraduate students is also used to refer on the complex theories and abstract
mathematical working of quantum mechanics to evaluate on how these theories are applied
in real life.
4. Literature review
Schrödinger equation
The Schrödinger equation, which defines what a system of quantum objects, such as
atoms and subatomic particles, will do in the future depending on its current state, is
one of the cornerstones of quantum physics. Newton's second law and Hamiltonian
mechanics are the classical analogues, which forecast what a classical system will do in
the future given its existing configuration. Despite the Schrödinger equation being
published in 1926, many physicists still do not completely understand the equation's
origins, according to the authors of a recent research. Figure 2 shows the general
Schrödinger equation.
where
Figure 2: Schrödinger equation that relates potential and kinetic energy of a system.
Source: Introduction to Quantum Mechanics by David J. Griffiths, Darrell F. Schroeter (2018)
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Perhaps a river can be compared to how the time-dependent Schrödinger equation
began. Despite the fact that signals may indicate that spring has officially begun, it is
frequently difficult to pinpoint it specifically. Typically, a number of bubbling brooks and
streams abruptly come together to form a large river. In the case of quantum mechanics,
there are so many compelling experimental findings that the topic of the origins of the
Schrödinger equation is not actually motivated by many of the major textbooks. Instead,
they frequently only hypothesise the classical-to-quantum laws with the justification that
it functions. Perhaps even the majority of scientists do not even consider the
Schrödinger equation's beginnings in the same way as Schrödinger did. It is common
knowledge that momentum and energy should be substituted by time and spatial
derivatives, respectively (J.Griffith, 2018).
And the Schrödinger equation results when you plug this into a Hamiltonian for the
classical dynamics of particles. It's unfortunate that we don't spend more time inspiring
and teaching some history to our pupils; as a result, many students are unaware of the
roots. Schrödinger was pioneering uncharted territory and pulled off the herculean feat of
finding the correct equation. The correct equation itself matters less than how you
arrived at it. He then made a fantastic job of obtaining the wave function of the hydrogen
atom and many other things. Did he know what he had, then? Yes, he was definitely on
point. By examining things from all angles and arriving at our conclusions in various
ways, we hope to better comprehend how classical and quantum mechanics relate to
one another. The Schrödinger equation can be obtained in numerous ways, as the river
analogy suggests; Richard Feynman created the most well-known method in 1948. But
none of these theories adequately explains the linearity of quantum physics, which is
one of its distinguishing characteristics. The Schrödinger equation is linear as opposed
to the nonlinear classical equations. Some of the distinctively non-classical features of
quantum mechanics, such as the superposition of states, are made possible by this
linearity (Z.Lisa, 2013).
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Classical Mechanics versus Quantum Mechanics
There are enormous objects like planets and stars in our cosmos. The subatomic
particles protons and neutrons are also present. You may have noticed that at subatomic scales, it is impossible to ignore the wave character of particles and that they
move very quickly. Which physical theory best describes the behaviour of both? a
traditional theory put forward by Isaac Newton or Einstein's General Theory of Relativity?
This post serves as an introduction to the Standard Particle Model of Quantum
Mechanics before we get into further detail. The motion of large objects like satellites,
planets, stars, and galaxies is described by classical mechanics. As long as the research
area is limited to massive objects and the speeds involved do not approach the speed of
light, classical mechanics, also referred to as Newtonian mechanics, produces
exceptionally precise results. Although the classical theories are straightforward, they
cannot be used to model exceedingly small particles travelling at extremely high speeds
since the findings could be erroneous (Siegfried. T, 2022)..
Due to Einstein, quantum mechanics contains considerably more intricate theories than
classical mechanics, but it nevertheless produces precise conclusions for particles of all
sizes. The wave-particle duality of atoms and molecules is handled by quantum
mechanics. While Einstein's Special Theory of Relativity (1905) deals with extremely tiny
particles, his General Theory of Relativity (1916) can be used to investigate all particles
in general, including macroscopic particles. As a result, it may be claimed that Special
theory of relativity and general theory of relativity are super sets. For particles with
macroscopic sizes, however, classical mechanics is still preferable over general theory
of relativity due to its clarity. The fact that atoms and subatomic particles behave
differently than what we observe in the real world is one of the discoveries of modern
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science. They possess wave characteristics that are not visible in macroscopic things.
The Standard Particle Model is a mathematical model that has been created by
scientists to describe this specific behaviour, traits, and interactions. The two main
groupings of matter's constituent particles, quarks and leptons, were proposed in this
paradigm. The model also included one Higgs boson and gauge bosons, which are
elementary force carriers. Quarks, leptons, Gauge bosons, and Higgs bosons, together
with the Standard Particle Model, link the conversions of matter into energy. Relativistic
mechanics in physics refers to mechanics that are consistent with both special and
general relativity. If the speeds of moving objects are close to the speed of light c, it
gives a non-quantum mechanical description of a system of particles or of a fluid. As a
result, electromagnetic is consistently included with the mechanics of particles and
classical mechanics is accurately extended to particles moving at high speeds and
energy. Galilean relativity forbade the possibility of particles and light travelling at any
speed, including faster than the speed of light, hence this was not possible. The
postulates of special relativity and general relativity serve as the cornerstones of
relativistic mechanics (Andrews. G, 2016.)
Quantum Superpositon
Quantum waves are mathematical, as opposed to the water movement that creates
waves on the surface of a pond. The probability of an object existing in a specific state or
possessing a specific feature are described as equations. The equations may reveal
information about the likelihood that an electron will move at a particular speed or stay in
a particular place. When an electron is superposed, its various states can be viewed as
distinct outcomes, each with a specific chance of being observed. It is possible to
describe an electron as being in two places or in a superposition of two distinct speeds.
In order to progress quantum technology, such as quantum computers, superposition
must be understood. Light waves' characteristics will be altered as a result of their
interactions with the environment. It is more likely that light reflecting off of a lake or
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snow-covered surface will be polarised horizontally. The reflection will be prevented if
this light then comes into contact with a filter that only lets through vertically polarized
light. This is how polarised sunglasses reduce glare on bright days from reflecting
surfaces. When we combine many filters to extract new characteristics of light,
superposition becomes obvious. In other words, all of the light that travels through one
horizontal filter will have a 100% probability of passing through a second horizontal filter.
The likelihood that light will flow through both filters steadily declines if this second filter
is slowly turned toward a vertical orientation. When the filter is vertical, no light will flow
through, and when it is diagonal (45 degrees), half of the light will pass through. In the
absence of superposition, all light passing through the first filter would be rigidly
horizontally polarised, and light would be entirely blocked as soon as the second filter
was rotated even a small amount. Visualizing the idea of quantum superposition might
be challenging. The famous Schrödinger's cat thought experiment, in which physicist
Erwin Schrödinger envisioned placing a cat in a sealed box together with a poison that
had an equal probability of killing the animal—or not—within an hour, has also been
used in traditional descriptions as an analogy. The cat may be said to be both alive and
dead at the end of the hour, existing in a superposition of states up until the box is
opened, with the outcome of the observation being determined at random. Schrödinger
wanted to show the folly of what he believed with quantum physis with his thought
experiment (Leman. J, 2019).
Quantum Sectors
Quantum computations have the potential to be helpful in a wide range of sectors, from
coordinating massive manufacturing production lines to improving individual medical
care. To fully realise the promise of the technology in all of these suggested areas,
however, there is still much work to be done. During the briefing's discussion, Andrew
Macintosh the Chairman of Oxford Quantum Circuits, emphasised that developing
practical applications for quantum technologies will probably proceed more quickly if it
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focuses on particular applications and works with interested industry partners who are
aware of the problems the application can solve. Whether quantum technologies can
benefit all industries or whether cryptography is the only actual sector with a pressing
need to take advantage of advancements in the field still appears to be a matter of
debate. As is frequently the case, the majority of individuals take a seat in the middle.
On the software side, Marco Paini, the programme manager for quantum computing at
the QxBranch, which has offices in Washington, DC, and London, designs the
algorithms that quantum machines can use. Like many others, he notes that the financial
services industry stands to benefit greatly from quantum algorithms due to the heavily
mathematical character of processes like portfolio optimization. He also points out the
areas of research that could profit from it, including physics and chemistry. For instance,
superconductivity can be explained by a "Hubbard model," which quantum algorithms
are ideally suited to handle. In this approach, quantum computers might play a
fascinating role in shedding light on how they function (Demming. A, 2019).
Quantum Valley as next Silicon Valley?
OxLEP intended to highlight Oxfordshire's distinctive advantages for enterprises using
quantum technology when it put together the briefing. The problem is to sustain this
position, but Srivastava claims that the UK is already among the global leaders in
quantum technology. In imaging, sensing, communication, and computation, the UK has
four cross-institutional quantum hubs, with Oxford University serving as the hub's
executive director. Peter Leek, the creator of OQC, was enticed from his then-home in
Switzerland by the knowledge and commercial promise in quantum technologies that
Oxfordshire has, as Macintosh notes, and OQC continues to draw people competent
enough to open doors for them in practically any rival industry, stretching across the
globe. Oxfordshire may already be home to internationally competitive pioneering startups like OQC, but the area has a history of other similarly promising commercial
enterprises that have led the field with ground-breaking technology only to be swallowed
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up by other larger companies from abroad, like Oxford Instruments' groundbreaking
NMR technology, which Siemens bought. It may be debatable if this matters if
companies continue to invest in their foreign branches after purchasing these smaller
businesses because the business is still beneficial to the local labour market and
economy. When the bottom line starts to suffer, there is a tendency to cut back on
resources in foreign branches rather than those closer to home. There was a lot of
optimism at the briefing that Oxfordshire may become a "Quantum Valley" comparable
to Silicon Valley in the US, but it is yet unclear how the region's promise would finally
play out. In United States, Google announced to the world that it had attained "quantum
supremacy" in the fall of 2019. It was a tremendous scientific achievement that some
people compared to the Kitty Hawk first flight. Google created a computer that, by using
the enigmatic capabilities of quantum mechanics, could perform a calculation that would
normally take 10,000 years or more in three minutes and 20 seconds. However, more
than two years after Google's announcement, there is still no practical purpose for a
quantum computer. And it'll probably keep waiting for a long time. The world is also
anticipating the development of powerful artificial intelligence, flying cars, self-driving
autos, and brain implants that will allow us to manage our electronic devices just with our
thoughts (Demming. A, 2019).
5. Methodology
5.1 Experimental Design
This study's research methodology is based on the qualitative approach. As the key sources
of data for this study are online articles,published research papers, journals and thesis. In
addition, relevant undergraduate textbooks regarding to quantum physis and mechanics will
be used to gain a deeper grasp of the intricate logic that underlies each quantum physics
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application. All of the information gathered will be assessed and studied in order to
understand how quantum mechanics has developed and what the field's future may hold.
Based on the literature analysis and the purpose of the study, the qualitative method was
selected.
5.2 Population/Sample Size/Sampling Techniques
This study uses the data from the latest published research papers, journals and articles
that can be associated with application of quantum mechanics in various field. The
mathematical workings and the concept of these quantum applications will be analysed to
understand on how it is being advantageous to the specific field. Regarding sample size, as
the data is purely qualitative, more than 10 research papers from various publications
websites such as researchgate.com, sciencedirect.com, and scienceopen.com are studied
and the connection with quantum mechanics is analyzed using undergraduate textbooks
such as The Theoretical Minimum by S.Leonard (2014).
5.3 Instrumentation for data collection
Reading and analysing pertinent quantum mechanics textbooks, web articles, and research
papers will be used to carry out the study model. While articles and research papers will provide
light on how genuinely the application is viable and functional for the technologies of the sectors,
textbooks are essential for comprehending the complex mathematical foundation. Based on the
on the research papers and journals evaluated, the contents will analysed to classify the specific
applications into relevant fields such as electronics, optics, computer science and so on. From
the applications in those fields, the corresponding theory will be studied using chosen quantum
mechanics textbook.
5.4 Data analysis techniques
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Since this study is entirely qualitative, no numerical data are used. Reading will be used to
assess and review all of the collected data. If necessary, the quantum mechanics equations
will be verified and shown. All of the applications in various fields will then be documented
together with the corresponding theories and equations.
6. Findings and Discussion
Each of the quantum mechanics application are divided into their respective fields and
discussed.
1. Quantum Mechanics in Space
The perfect setting to fully utilise the capabilities of quantum platforms and take on some of
modern physics' most fundamental open challenges is in space. Recent developments in
physics technology have given rise to a number of ideas for space-based basic physics
experiments that use the opportunities provided by quantum mechanics. The vast array of
basic issues that can be resolved by fusing space science with quantum technology are
covered in this section. We will concentrate on the benefits of conducting fundamental
experiments in space as opposed to equivalent ones on the ground, as well as the platforms
that have been suggested for doing so. Einstein’s equivalent principle in made up from three
ingredients. The equivalence between a system's gravitational and inertial mass, regardless
of its composition, has significant physical ramifications and is known as the weak
equivalence principle (WEP). A different claim made by the WEP is that a freely falling test
particle's trajectory is unaffected by the particle's actual makeup. The WEP assumes that all
weights thrown from a tower accelerate at the same rate; this is known as the "universality
of free fall." Local Position Invariance (LPI): Any non-gravitational experiment's outcomes
are independent of the location and timing of the experiment within the universe. Local
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Lorentz Invariance (LLI): Any non-gravitational experiment's findings are unaffected by the
local freely-falling frame's velocity (S. Ethan, 2021).
Quantum Key Distribution
Long-distance quantum secured networks were addressed with satellite-based quantum
communications in the late 1990s. In fact, the range of quantum channels is constrained by
exponential losses in optical fibres. By dividing the channel into independent connections,
quantum repeaters can increase this range and this technique can be expanded to arbitrary
quantum networks to provide effective entanglement routing. Consequently, the deployment
of quantum memory at each node can enhance entanglement distribution rates to subexponential scaling with total distance but it is still not the best solution for global
networking. Deployment is challenging because deterministic error correction necessitates
short inter-node distances. The range of quantum networks can be increased via terrestrial
free-space transmission, although it experiences losses because of the long air path length
and by the curvature of Earth. A safe random encryption key is intended to be discreetly
shared between two distant, trustworthy parties using a Quantum Key Distribution protocol.
The security of the shared key is ensured by the fundamental laws of quantum physics upon
successful realisation of the protocol. For providers of vital infrastructure, as well as the
political, military, and corporate sectors, access to a link with such a high level of security
and integrity is valuable. A QKD link can be used to safeguard backup data, continuity
procedures, and transactions, as well as to secure network infrastructure and management
and control systems. The QKD protocol can be implemented in a variety of ways, each with
its own advantages and disadvantages. For example, preparation methods, encoding,
measurement kinds, and assumptions about employed equipment can vary (Belenchia A,
2022). The two primary families of QKD protocols are discrete- and continuous-variable, or
DV and CV, respectively. The former utilise single-photon avalanche diodes or
superconducting nanowire single-photon detectors for measurements and employ quantum
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systems defined on finite-dimensional Hilbert spaces to encode critical bits onto discrete
degrees of freedom of a carrier system. The groundbreaking DV family member that uses
polarisation qubits is known as the BB84 protocol. While using continuous observables of
the light field, such as the quadratures of typically multiphoton Gaussian coherent or
squeezed states measured on homodyne or heterodyne detector using positive-intrinsicnegative diodes, CV QKD protocols use quantum systems described on infinite-dimensional
Hilbert spaces (Belenchia A, 2022).
The configuration of a trusted node on a satellite for a QKD link is the simplest. In a prepareand-measure QKD protocol, the satellite takes on the role of one of the trusted parties and
creates unique secure keys with different ground stations. The satellite keeps all the keys,
and when two ground stations seek a connection, it broadcasts a bit-wise parity of the keys
that have been established with each station. Since the bit-parity of both keys is a uniformly
random binary sequence and both keys are independent secret strings, disclosing the latter
does not give away any actual information to unwanted third parties. On the other hand, the
broadcast sequence and the key kept at the ground station are enough to deduce the key
kept at another station. The connection can be created as either an uplink or a
downlink depending on the function played by the satellite. The preparation and
transmission of quantum signals from the satellite to the ground station occurs in the latter
case as opposed to the former, in which the ground station prepares and transmits quantum
signals to the machine is capable receiver (also known as a ground-to-space link) . The
amount of air attenuation makes up the majority of the difference between uplink and
downlink. In the uplink scenario, atmospheric effects like absorption, scattering, and
scintillation that take place in the troposphere and lower stratosphere contribute to beam
spot spreading, deformation, and wandering that are enforced at higher altitudes due to
additional diffraction-induced spreading. In the downlink scenario, the beam initially passes
through the vacuum with merely diffraction-induced spreading, and the atmospheric
influence only manifests itself at the very end of the journey, resulting in lower overall signal
loss. As a result, under the identical circumstances, the uplink should have 10 to 20 dB
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more loss at near-infrared near-IR wavelengths than the downlink. Using strong light
sources at the ground station and retroreflectors on the satellite, the downlink can also be
mimicked. In order to ensure that the average photon number of the pulse reflected(and
processed from the satellite is one or less, the average photon number of the light pulses
emitted from the ground station is scaled in line with the uplink channel transmittivity.
Figure 3 shows a concise review of the commercial and operational features of various QKD
protocols.
Figure 3: Quantum Key Distribution implementations
Source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physrep.2021.11.004.
Finally, the creation of global quantum networks is the logical next step for space QKD,
which solves the problem of link unavailability. Such networks would be made up of satellite
constellations that would allow any two ground terminals to share a secure key. The number
of satellites used, their orbital types and altitudes, constellation shape and so on., vary
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depending on whether a space QKD network is being constructed for global, targeted, or
local coverage. Enabling intra-planar space-to-space linkages has been proven to
significantly increase the key size for all ground stations in an embassy LEO constellation
model that aims to convey a message from one ground station to a number of other
stations.
Quantum enhanced communication
The secure transmission of quantum information, at the core of unconditional security in
quantum cryptography and QKD, is supported by the indistinguishability of non-orthogonal
quantum states. However, for the effective readout of encoded information, enhanced
discrimination of several non-orthogonal quantum states is crucial. Although many signal
encoding techniques, such multilayer encoding and phase-shift keying methods, provide
channel capacity increases, the magnitude of these enhancements is dependent on how
efficiently the signals are resolved. The essential bounds of non-orthogonal quantum state
discrimination were established in seminal publications by Helstrom and Holevo. Although
the ability of two quantum states to be distinguished has basic constraints due to quantum
physics, this limit can be approached via effective readout measurements. The
communication protocol employed and the optical link's surroundings determine the
detectors and photon encodings utilised to build a QKD link. Improvements in key
generation rates can be achieved by the development of quantum detectors. Typically,
single photon avalanche diodes or superconducting nanowire single photon detectors are
used as receivers for satellite-based QKD. Quantum signals are encoded in several photon
degrees of freedom for discrete variable protocols. This covers qubit or qudit polarisation,
frequency, orbital angular momentum, or spatial modes. Due to significant divergences at
long-distance propagation and air turbulence, optical connections for space-based
applications typically exhibit extremely variable losses. OAM and spatial mode encodings
are therefore inappropriate. Instead, given their resistance to air losses, polarisation or
frequency encodings offer a sensible alternative. These encodings perform differently for
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other purposes, which may affect the key rates that can be achieved. The disadvantage of
using frequency encoding for satellite links is that the Doppler effect caused by the velocity
of the satellite must be compensated for (Belenchia A, 2022).
Deep space communication
Optical communication is an essential component of deep-space communication systems,
allowing for orders of magnitude better data transfer rates than radio frequency approaches.
Deep-space optical communication links, as opposed to those between a ground station and
a terminal in near-Earth orbit, have bigger Doppler shifts , larger maximum point-ahead
angles , and longer operation duration at small angular separations from the Sun . To meet
the demand for high data rates, conventional methods can be advanced by enhancing
equipment and signalling techniques, or novel methods for detection, and non-classical
resources can be used. The Deep Space Quantum Link is one of the projects planned for
the eventual Lunar Orbital Platform-Gateway (LOP-G) station in lunar orbit. The Deep Space
Quantum Link's goals are to examine the effects of gravity and multiple inertial reference
frames on quantum teleportation, as well as to build a space-to-space QKD link between the
LOP-G and the International Space Station (S. Ethan, 2021).
Quantum Internet
Space-based networks offer a natural way to broaden the applicability of quantum
communication protocols on an international scale. A global-scale quantum internet will be
built on the foundation of satellite linkages and fibre networks on the ground. As a result,
networked quantum information protocols that go beyond QKD will be supported in their
use. In particular, quantum processor-equipped space quantum repeaters will make it
possible to use a wider range of protocols, such as dispersed and secure cross quantum
sensing and anonymous communication protocols. The creation of quantum networks with
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greater functionality is necessary for the implementation of a quantum internet . Trusted
repeater networks have already been shown to work with satellite links [416] and in urban
areas and between cities. This can be extended by distributing entanglement throughout the
network both with and without quantum memory. This will make it possible to implement
blind quantum computing and clock synchronisation jobs. The final version will need
network-wide error correcting capabilities. As a result, globally dispersed jobs will be able to
use high fidelity quantum entanglement propagation and error correction. The network's
functionality has significantly improved, but at the expense of more technological complexity
(Belenchia A, 2022).
Quantum random number generation
An essential component for applications in cryptography is a random string of bits that
cannot be anticipated and are hidden from adversaries. Particularly, the security of the
generated cryptographic encryption key is certified by the privacy, unpredictable nature, and
randomness of random numbers. Quantum Random-Number Generators (QRNGs) use
quantum physics' impredictability to enhance the security of this fundamental source of
randomness while remaining technologically independent. Utilizing QRNGs can increase
device operating trust. Secure information-theoretic random numbers must be used to
power the transmitter and receiver in QKD applications. This is especially true for prepareand-measure methods, when the active basis selections are determined by a reliable
random source Due to significant losses in the optical link, the transmitter rate for satellitebased QKD must often be higher than Hz. Depending on the operation, standard weak
coherent pulse decoy state methods demand a different number of random bits.
For each pulse, a random bit is needed for the key bit, a bit for the basis selection, and a bit
for the intensity value selection. In general, there are three different intensities that each
require two random bits, totalling four random bits each pulse. Additionally, the quantity of
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raw unbiased bits needed increases if biased probabilities are implemented. The average of
two unbiased bits can be used to generate arbitrary biased bits non-deterministically. For
instance, to create one unbiased and three biased bits per pulse in the BB84 WCP-DS
system with biased base and optimal decoy state probability, seven raw unbiased bits are
needed. Real-time random number generation requires 700 Mbps of cryptographically
secure bits at a source rate of 100 MHz. A five-minute pass with the aforementioned source
characteristics would require 24.4 GB of storage if the random numbers were pre-generated
prior to the transmission pass. A ring filter and communication from the receiver to select
detections to be copied into storage might be used to save storage capacity if the random
numbers were generated in real-time. The length of time it takes for a receiver detection to
reach the transmitter will then determine the size of the ring buffer. The rate of off-line
random number formation remains in the range of 40 Mb/s even if we just take into account
one transmission each orbit (S. Ethan, 2021).
Quantum sensing of gravity and inertia
The geoid is a surface with an equal gravitational potential that is defined by the
gravitational field of Earth. It adheres to a fictitious ocean surface at rest in the absence of
tides and currents. Understanding the ocean circulation, sea-level change, and land ice
dynamics—all of which are impacted by climate change—requires an accurate model. One
can directly infer information regarding the distribution of subsurface mass by gravimetry,
including the monitoring of volcanic activity, changes in ice mass, subsidence monitoring,
and the discovery of underground holes. Both the oil and gas business and the building
industry are interested in the latter. Absolute gravimeters are free-fall acceleration sensors
that provide a precise, metrologically traceable measure of gravity. The rigidity of a
cantilever, magnetic levitation, or the optical trapping of a nanosphere are examples of
relative gravimeters, which are masses supported by a spring. Relative gravimeters must be
calibrated by measuring the spring's stiffness and putting the device in a location with a
known gravitational acceleration. Consequently, absolute gravimeters are needed to
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calibrate relative ones. Gravimetry applications that attempt to resolve the temporal and
spatial fluctuations of gravitational acceleration at the Earth's surface, which can fluctuate
roughly between 9.78 m/s2 and 9.83 m/s2, are especially well suited for free-fall
accelerometers. On the other hand, gradiometers are instruments that analyse the variation
between two observations to determine gravity gradients. The force of gravity acting on two
spatially separated masses can be used to detect a gravity gradient for a clamped device
like a cantilever. Gradiometers frequently use two ensembles of atoms inserted into two
interferometer pathways that are vertically separated apart for cold atom systems (Belenchia
A, 2022).
Earth sensing with cold-atoms
Due to the atoms' susceptibility to accelerations, atom interferometry provides an accurate
measuring technique that does not require additional test masses. Atom interferometry can
be used to precisely measure accelerations and rotations by taking advantage of the lower
friction in vacuum and the ensuing drift. Inertial sensors, gravity gradiometers, and
gravimeters are only a few examples of devices that can be used with the measurement
principle once it is understood. The latter two in particular are used for sensing and Earth
observation. Atoms are accelerated in a gravitational field, as shown for atom fountains in
Figure. 4, using ground-based atom interferometers such the gravimetric atom
interferometer, the absolute quantum gravimeter, or the transportable Quantum Gravimeter.
The Mach-Zehnder interferometer is the fundamental idea is used. The plan must be
expanded to combine four atom interferometers in order to measure rotations in addition to
gravity gradients. The combination of the gravity induced phases enables measurements of
rotation and gravity gradients. Figure 4 shows atoms interferometer meter used for ground
based systems (S. Ethan, 2021).
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Figure 4 : Atom interferometer scheme based on Mach- Zehnder geometry.
Source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physrep.2021.11.004.
The space-based gravity gradiometer has basis of the cold atom interferometry (CAI)
mission proposal [560] and mission analysis discusses an Earth observation satellite
equipped with a 3D gravity gradiometer based on cold atom interferometry that is nadir
orientated and at low altitude. The differential signal from two atom interferometers placed
0.5 m apart in each of the three axes is acquired to create the gravity gradiometers. Well
collimated ensembles of 106 atoms enter each double Raman diffraction-based MachZehnder-like interferometer at a cycle rate of roughly 1 Hz, with a total free fall time of 10 s.
An improvement over the Gravity field and steady-state Ocean Circulation Explorer which is
taken from simulations, has a sensitivity aim of 5 mE Hz-1/2 and a white noise at low
frequencies. A plan like the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment can use atomic
interferometers. In this plan, two satellites track one another while their separation is
constantly measured. The gravitational field of the underlying planetary body can be
mapped if the data on the separation between the two spacecraft is correlated to specific
accelerators on both satellites to use accelerometers based on atom interferometry in such
a strategy (Belenchia A, 2022).
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2. Quantum Mechanics in electronics
Quantum physics is used in the design of many contemporary electronic gadgets. The laser,
the transistor (and consequently the microchip), the electron microscope, magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI), the Global Positioning System (GPS), and computers are other
examples. The diode and the transistor, essential components of contemporary electronics
systems, computers, and communications equipment, were created as a result of research
into semiconductors. Another use is for the production of high-efficiency light sources like
laser diodes and light-emitting diodes. The quantum tunnelling effect is used in the operation
of many electrical devices. Even the basic light switch contains it. If electrons could not
quantum tunnel through the layer of oxidation on the metal contact surfaces, the switch
would not function. Quantum tunnelling is used by flash memory chips found in USB devices
to delete their memory cells. Resonant tunnelling diodes are one example of a negative
differential resistance device that makes use of the quantum tunnelling effect. Its current is
transported via resonant tunnelling through two or more potential barriers, unlike
conventional diodes (see figure at right). Only quantum mechanics can explain its negative
resistance behaviour. Tunnel current rises when the restricted state nears the Fermi level.
The current diminishes as it recedes. (Orzel, C. 2015).
Quantum Amplifiers and Generators
The number of particles with greater energy is always less than the number of particles with
lower energy under conditions of heat equilibrium. Therefore, a wave propagating in a
medium is damped since n12 > 0, > 0, and Pabs > 0. However, the adoption of an extra
energy source has the potential to upset the balance (a pumping source).
The number of particles on the upper level exceeds that on the lower level under specific
circumstances. As a result, we might see electromagnetic wave amplification rather than
absorption because n12 > 0, > 0, and Pabs 0. A state with a negative temperature or a
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population inversion is what is referred to as this. An active media is one that exhibits
inversion. Initially, inversion in molecular beams was accomplished by employing particle
assortment in the heterogeneous space of an electric or magnetic field. In
Nicolaas Bloembergen1 presented a "three-level technique" for achieving in 1956.
Particle transitions between multiple levels supplied inversion as a result of a pumping
source. Frequently, a four-level scheme is employed for the operating a three-level inversion
instead of a transition inversion. Differential equations representing population level variation
in time can be used to explain the creation of inversions. Balance equations are another
name for these equations. However, in essence, saturation of the auxiliary transition leads
to the formation of inversion at the operating transition. Figure 5 shows inversion of
population levels at the operating transition
Figure 5: Inversion of population level
Source: Introduction to Quantum Electronics and Non-liear Optics (Vitaliy. V, 2020)
Bloembergen's recommendation was put into practise in parametric amplifiers for the
centimetre range. As the pumping source, another coherent generator was employed.
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A xenon lamp was used as the pumping source in the first optical quantum generator
because there weren't any coherent light sources in the optical range at first. Following that,
researchers started using several techniques to obtain inversion, including electron impacts,
atom and molecule collisions, chemical reaction energy, and others. (Barnes. W, 2015)
In the end, regardless of the specifics of the process in the multilevel quantum system, it is
possible to account for the evolution of the population level difference at the operating
transition by including an equivalent "source" in Eq (2.25). This fictional source does not
directly affect the operating frequency's field and makes no appearance at all during the
Maxwell equations' solution.
Within the parameters of such a model, the behaviour of the source of pumping with the
particular energy W pump can be characterised by:
equation 1
This equation simulates the pumping source turning on at time t = 0 with a constant
intensity. For the starting condition n 12 = 0 ne12, it needs to be solved. The function of the
normalised population difference n 12=ne12 vs normalised time t/T1, figure 5 illustrates the
transient process for the inversion condition.
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equation 2
The pumping source is modelled for the remainder of this section using equation 1. We
switch from the quantity n12 = n1 - n2 to the quantity n21 = n2 = n1, which is positive in the case
of population inversion, in order to underline the special importance of the population
difference in quantum amplifiers and generators.
equation 3
equation 4
No further explanation is necessary for Equation 3. The saturation effect that results in
population equalisation is described in equation (5.3). The pumping source is in conflict with
oscillations produced by the quantum generator. Because of this, when the generator has
been running for a while, a dynamic equilibrium will be reached that will set the stationary
characteristics of the generator. Only by the solution of the Maxwell equations along with
Equations 3 and 4 can the mechanism of the generator's progression to the steady-state
mode be discovered. It is obvious that this is a challenging mathematical issue. However, it
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is possible to predict some properties of quantum devices using more basic models. (Vitaliy.
V, 2020)
Metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET)
One of the fundamental and simple modelling methodologies is the charge-based approach.
It is based on calculating the inversion charge density in the MOSFET channel using the
gate and drain voltages as terminal voltages [9]. The first iteration of SPICE, the circuit
simulator, makes use of these concepts. These are also known as "threshold voltage based
models" since they define all of the parameters, including drain current, voltage, and drain
saturation voltage, based on the threshold voltage. The ease and ability to add features as a
result of technological improvements are this approach's most significant benefits. In order
to account for the effects of shrinking technologies, additional factors are incorporated.
Therefore, as technology advances, so does the number of model parameters. This method
is also known as a regional technique since it explains the behaviour of the MOSFET
independently in each of its operating zones, such as mild, moderate, and strong inversion.
Therefore, these models need smoothing parameters, are relatively empirical in the
interface regions, and as a result, do not adequately reflect device behaviour.
From quantum mechanical aspect, we can look at the quantum mechanical tunnelling to
source to gate oxide. The gate oxide thickness in nanometer scale devices will be just about
2 nm due to aggressive technological scaling; these oxides are referred to as ultra thin
oxides. The electrical field in ultra thin oxide MOSFETs will be quite strong. As a result, the
gate oxide will be immediately accessible to the charge carriers in the channel through the
interface barrier. The nonclassical behaviour of the MOSFET's electrons has a significant
impact on the classical movement of charge carriers when the device's size reach deep
submicron and nanoscale areas. The gate oxides are scaled to nanoscale regions as a
result of the MOSFETs' aggressive scaling. In order to counteract the short channel effects
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at the deep sub-micrometer or nanometer scales, the substrate doping is also greatly
boosted. Due to the extremely strong electric fields created at the silicon/silicon oxide
boundary, the potential there is steepened. Between the oxide field and the silicon
potentials, this causes a potential well. The electrons are contained in this potential well
during the inversion situation. The electron energies are quantized as a result of
confinement, and as a result, the electrons can only occupy specific discrete energy levels.
As seen in Figure 6, this causes the electrons to reside in discrete energy levels that are a
fixed amount of energy above the classical energy level. As technology advances, the oxide
thickness decreases, making this increasingly significant (J.N. Roy, 2018)
Figure 6: Energy Quantization in the Substrate
Source: Journal of Semiconductor Technology And Science, Vol.10, No.1, March, 2018
From the aspect of, inversion charge density displacement into the bulk, charge carrier
density at the surface decreases as a result of energy quantization compared to what was
predicted by the classical approach. Figure 7 depicts the charge distribution for both
classical and quantum mechanical charge distributions.
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Figure 7: Electron concentration distribution of quantum versus classical state.
Source: Journal of Semiconductor Technology And Science, Vol.10, No.1, March, 2018
Now, looking at the voltage shifts at the threshold and drain saturation, as the effective oxide
thickness rises, the surface potential shift brought on by quantum mechanical forces alters
the threshold voltage. Energy quantization will occur at the oxide/substrate and oxide/polysilicon gate interfaces while operating the MOSFET at such a low dimension. Because of
the quantization of energy caused by the confinement of the charged carriers in the potential
well, the energy of the electrons will increase and they will occupy much higher energy
levels, requiring a different potential to switch on the transistor. The drain current will be
reduced as a result of the energy quantization procedure. Under these circumstances, the
drain to source saturation voltage will decrease. Therefore, it is crucial to take into account
the implications of quantum mechanics while designing MOSFETs at the nanoscale size.
The physical oxide thickness, threshold voltage, drive current, gate capacitance, and other
crucial electrical behaviour parameters are inaccurately and misleadingly predicted in this
region by using classical models, which are insufficient. (J.N. Roy, 2018)
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Semiconductor lasers
The mutual position and population of two higher energy bands govern the optical
characteristics of semiconductors. From statistics from Fermi-Dirac. The quasi-Fermi levels
W Fc not equals to W Fv exist in nonequilibrium situations. For various bands, and distribution
functions do not match. The Following from the possibility of such a straightforward
description of nonequilibrium states extremely quick formation of quasi-equilibrium inside of
individual band boundaries. If, then the intrinsic semiconductor's population inversion
requirement is met. the relevant band is occupied by at least one of the quasi-Fermi levels;
else In other words, the semiconductor must be faulty. When this prerequisite is met,
Inversion of the population occurs between levels towards the base of the top of the valence
band and the conduction band. There are many techniques for achieving inverse population
in semiconductors, including optical pumping, fast electron beam excitation, avalanche
breakdown in the presence of an external electric field, and carrier injection across the p-n
junction. Of them, only the last is applicable to semiconductors. GaAs-based injection lasers
were developed before other semiconductor quantum generators. GaAs is still the standard
laser semiconductor at this time, and the best and most appropriate pumping technique is
charge carrier injection across the p-n junction. We refer to these semiconductor lasers as
laser diodes (SLDs). (Vitaliy. V, 2020)
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Figure 8: Energy diagram of the p–n junction in the equilibrium state at (a) and with bias in the
forward direction at (b)
Source: Quantum electronics in semiconductors (W.Barnes, 2018) University of Cambridge
Figure 8 illustrates energy diagrams of the p-n junction that describe the inversion formation
process. An electron injection in the p region is the primary factor. This is where the inverse
population appears, close to the boundary. Usually, the laser crystal's two opposing edges
act as resonator mirrors. The reflection is many tens of percent due to the high
semiconductor refraction index value, so the resonator Q factor is sufficient even without
reflective covering. The smallest type of laser is the laser diode. Fractions of a millimetre are
used to measure the length of its active component. Given the size of the gain, this is
plenty.It should be observed that the p-n junction area has a somewhat greater refraction
index than the crystal's other volumes. The relative value of the refraction index jump can be
estimated from experimental data, and it is 103. Several mechanisms contribute to the
increase in dielectric permeability. Firstly, the intraband motion of free charge carriers in the
p and n regions, which are close to the depletion layer, is related to the reduction of
dielectric permeability. Second, the change from population inversion in the active layer to
equilibrium distribution in the environment may result in variations in the electric
characteristics. In this instance, complex dielectric permeability should be used to
characterise the features of the medium:
equation 5
Band-to-band transitions' sign changes at the region's edge in terms of their contribution to
dielectric permeability.
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The position of the optical absorption edge being dependent on the amount of impurity
doping is the third potential mechanism.
It is impossible to pinpoint precisely which process is responsible in simple diode
constructions due to the variable conditions that exist in each occurrence. A profile like this
makes it easier to localise the radiation field close to the p-n junction's plane. This is crucial
because, beyond the active layer, the band-to-band transitions and the impact of free
electrons within the bands themselves create extraordinarily high absorption on the working
wavelength. Additionally, the open resonator's diffraction losses are reduced by the planar
wave guide. Transferring to semiconductor heterostructures provided the solution.
Heterojunction diodes today employ semiconductors with various chemical architectures.
The crystal lattice periods must coincide with a precision of roughly 0.1 percent in order to
produce a qualifying connection. AlxGa1-xAs, a solid solution, is more frequently employed.
Gallium arsenide has a 1.5 eV forbidden band width, while AlAs has a 2.2 eV forbidden
band width. One can regulate the semiconductor properties by altering an alloy's chemical
composition. We can produce very crisp connections with the current technique with only 45 atom layers of thickness. The end of the 1960s saw the development of diodes with single
and double heterostructures that could produce continuously at room temperature. The best
parameters are found in lasers based on three-layer (double) heterostructures (DHLs),
which contain an active layer made of a narrow-band semiconductor sandwiched between
two wide-band semiconductors. Currently, found that the absorption of light can also result
in the formation of the electron excess required for generation in the semiconductor's
conduction band. Due to the brief lifespan of the excited state, this goal can only be fulfilled
by using a strong pumping source. Pumping typically uses a laser. Tens of microns is the
maximum thickness of the active layer after the depth of light penetration into the crystal.
For clear reasons, carrier injection through the p-n junction or electron excitation cannot
compete with this pumping technique. (Vitaliy. V, 2020)
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3. Quantum Computing
The fundamental units of quantum computing are qubits. Qubits, gates, and circuits are
described in it. Quantum computers operate on qubits, which have the added property of
being in superposition of state and are identical to the bits used by conventional or digital
computers. A quantum register with two qubits may store four numbers in superposition
concurrently, as opposed to two in a classical register with two bits, while a 300 qubit
register can store more numbers than there are atoms in the universe. This results in the
storage of unlimited information during calculation, but we are unable to access it. When
reading out an output in a superposition state having so many different values, a difficulty
arises. The superposition state dissipates, leaving us with a single value. Although it entices
us, there are situations when it can provide us a computational edge. Subatomic particles
are in an entangled state, which means that they are connected to one another no matter
how far apart they are. They exhibit an immediate effect on measurements when used
together. This result is advantageous for computing needs.
Take into account the subsequent state, which is not entangled:
It could be expanded into:
When we measure the first qubit with a partial measurement, we always obtain the value 0;
hence, the second qubit's state is as follows:
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This gives an equal probability to get 0 or 1
Quantum circuit is a quantum state that represents one or more qubits and is applied to in
sequence by unitary operators like quantum gates. We now use a register to simulate a
normal circuit by letting gates work on qubits. This provides us with a basic quantum circuit,
which is a series of operations and measurements on the state of n-qubits, in the form
shown above. A 2n × 2n matrix can be used to describe each unitary operation. Each of the
lines is an abstract wire, while the boxes are either a collection of gates or include unitary
quantum logic gates. The measurement sign is the metre. Implementing quantum algorithms
involves using gates, wires, input, and output methods collectively. Quantum circuits can
always be rearranged so that all measurements are performed at the end of the circuit.
Unlike conventional classical circuits, which feature loops, quantum circuits only run once
from left to right. (Gotarane. V, 2016)
When it comes to challenging jobs like sorting through a vast library of protein sequences, a
supercomputer may excel. However, it will find it difficult to spot the minute patterns in that
data that govern how those proteins act. Long chains of amino acids called proteins fold into
intricate forms to form vital biological machinery. Understanding protein folding is a
challenge with significant biological and medical ramifications. A traditional supercomputer
would use brute force to attempt protein folding, using its numerous processors to examine
every potential configuration of the chemical chain before coming to a conclusion. The
supercomputer, however, stops as the protein sequences grow longer and more
complicated. Theoretically, a chain of 100 amino acids may fold in one of many trillions of
different ways. No computer has enough working capacity to store all the different ways that
individual folds could be combined. . (Gotarane. V, 2016)
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In order to solve these kinds of difficult problems, quantum algorithms create
multidimensional spaces where the relationships between the many data points begin to
take shape. That pattern might be the combination of folds that requires the least amount of
energy to create in the case of a protein folding issue. The problem's solution is that
arrangement of folds.Google plans to construct its quantum computer by 2029, investing
billions of dollars in the process. In order to achieve this, the business established the
Google AI campus in California. For years, Google has made investments in this
technology. Additionally, other businesses, such International Business Machines and
Honeywell International (HON), have done the same (IBM). In the upcoming years, IBM
anticipates reaching significant quantum computing milestones. Additionally, businesses can
use quantum technology without needing to construct their own quantum computers. By
2023, IBM hopes to have a 1,000-quibit quantum computer operational. As of right now, if a
machine is a part of IBM's Quantum Network, access is permitted. Universities, laboratories,
and research organisations are some of those that are a component of the network.
Through the Azure Quantum platform, Microsoft also provides businesses with access to
quantum technology. In contrast, Google does not sell access to its quantum computers.
(Frakenfield. J, 2021)
4. Quantum Mechanics in Medicine
All of the quantum theories used to describe biological processes aim to reframe the
potential physiological responses that can occur in any living being. However, the quantum
physics experiments happen in solitary settings. On the other hand, environmental
influences cause a variety of responses in which quantum biology phenomena take place.
The fact that we are not alone in the world is the key point that needs to be made.
Numerous living things exist all around us in this particular habitat. As a general rule, we all
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develop a relationship with our surroundings. Many different types of bacteria, archaea,
fungus, protozoa, and viruses coexist with us in our daily lives. We have to think of
ourselves as holobionts. The way we build relationships with other living things will
determine our chances of survival. Mutualistic, commensal, or parasitic biological
interactions can occur between two separate biological entities. There are many instances
of these activities; for instance, gut bacteria are required for the production of vital metabolic
components like vitamin K. The connection between the environment and living forms and
how it promotes species differentiation is another illustration of these interactions. With the
evolution theory, Darwin put out the idea that all organisms must collect food from their
surroundings in order to exist. If food is in short supply, competition will result in only the
most efficient and adaptive organisms surviving. Nutrients can occasionally come from
organic or inorganic sources, but they typically come from other life forms, which may be the
main source of sickness. We suggest that some quantum ideas can be used in medicine
and provide a fresh viewpoint on how to cure illnesses (Bullon. P, 2020).
Oxidative stress
It is well established that risk factors for cardiovascular diseases including infections such
periodontitis as well as metabolic conditions including obesity, insulin resistance, and
diabetes mellitus. The vascular consequences of these metabolic disorders are caused by
an unbalanced vascular redox state. According to additional evidence, oxidative stress injury
is a common complication of obesity, diabetes, atherosclerosis, and periodontitis. It appears
obvious that some diseases are caused by the increased generation of oxidants, such as
radical oxygen species. On the other hand, antioxidant treatment has not been proven
effective and may potentially increase mortality. But how does oxidative energy production
work? Energy production is the most essential requirement for all living things. In a hightemperature exothermic redox chemical reaction involving a fuel (the reductant) and an
oxidant, often air oxygen, matter combustion generates energy. It is formed erratically, but
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inside a cell, it must be produced in a precise, damage-free manner, according to a wellcontrolled process. The key molecules involved in the reduction-oxidation reaction are
oxygen and oxygen. In this reaction, electrons are transferred from one reducing agent,
such as nutrients, which lose electrons, to other oxidising agents, such as oxygen, which
acquires them. The oxygen molecule, which consists of two atoms with two electrons in
unpaired orbitals and the same spin quantum number in a situation known as a triplet state,
is what causes this reaction. Since molecular oxygen typically undergoes one electron
reduction at a time, a superoxide anion is the species that results. This decrease takes
place during the oxidative burst at the membrane-bound enzyme complex NADPH oxidase
as well as during photosynthesis and mitochondrial cellular respiration .
All of these processes, when examined closely, involve the exchange of electrons between
various atoms. But in accordance with quantum theory, superposition and entanglement
exist for all subatomic particles. Entangled means that there can be in two places at once
and that both atoms share initial electrons. Therefore, these characteristics may help to
explain the possibility that oxidative stress is more of a result of altered metabolic processes
than a direct cause (Vassilev. C, 2021).
The fact that the oxidative metabolic activities result in an electronic shift from the excited
state to the ground state serves as evidence for this claim. Therefore, all biological systems
release an ultra-weak photon emission, but when they are hampered by either biotic such as
pathogens and herbivores or abiotic (unfavourable climatic circumstances) stresses, the
intensity of the ultra-weak photon emission increases to several hundred photons. The
methionine route, in particular, has been linked to alterations in metabolism and this ultraweak photon emission. As shown in a mouse model of collagen-induced arthritis, the rise in
ultra-weak photon emission is also closely tied to metabolic activities, which may be linked
to lipid oxidation that is related to inflammatory and/or ROS-mediated processes. The
mitochondrial electron transport chain is the main ROS source (ETC). A portion of the
mitochondrial DNA was moved from the endosymbiont process where it originated to the
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nucleus. The colocation of gene and gene product for redox regulation of gene expression
(CoRR) hypothesis provides an explanation for the retention of mitochondrial genes. They
contend that a change in the redox state must cause a response in the expression of genes
encoding the protein subunits of energy-transducing enzymes. The ETC must have electron
flow for it to function, and a quantum phenomena called entanglement is discussed. For
instance, complex III can contain the semiquinone-Rieske cluster in a triplet form involving a
spin-spin exchange (Bullon. P, 2020).
Calcification
The primary cause of cardiovascular diseases (CVD), atherosclerosis, is regarded as an
inflammatory illness. An important component in the onset and progression of
atherosclerosis is inflammation. Endothelial function is compromised, oxidised lipids are
deposited, vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC) are stimulated and proliferate, and
macrophages are activated. As a result, the vascular layers change, get calcified, and build
a plaque, which causes the vessel lumen to become smaller or burst and obstructs blood
flow. An oxidative mechanism is connected to these actions. The two crucial phases in the
primary course of biological evolution—the development of ATP as the universal energy
substrate and nucleosides as the basic building blocks of genetic code—included phosphate
groups in both of these molecules. Prokaryotes, including bacteria and archaea, originally
formed on Earth in an anaerobic environment about 3.5 billion years ago. The amount of
free Ca2+ and oxygen surrounding the earliest cells was substantially lower when life first
began than it is now. However, as a waste product of metabolism, oxygen generation
increased, necessitating the development of defensive mechanisms by early living things
against oxygen radical attack. The microbes eventually developed an aerobic metabolism in
order to survive by utilising oxygen to enhance energy production. This calcification process
is comparable to bone calcification, which first results in the formation of amorphous
tricalcium phosphate, followed by the formation of crystalline hydroxyapatite, and the
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development of dental enamel. Collagen with an active behaviour offers the scaffolding that
is required for the bone to crystallise. Mineral droplets adhere to collagen fibres, solidify into
amorphous phases, and then undergo a transformation into apatite crystals that are directed
by the collagen. The earliest mineralization was seen in the a1-a3 bands from the collagen
fibrils. Both phases have different atomic structures, particle morphologies, and
stoichiometry, and a cluster development model is included in the Ca-P phases' production
mechanism. A hydrated calcium phosphate composed of roughly spherical Ca9(PO4)6
particles, often known as "Posner's clusters," is the first noncrystalline phase. The
transitional phase between amorphous calcium phosphate and the crystalline form of
hydroxyapatite was recognised as this Posner's cluster, which was given the name Posner
molecules (Bullon. P, 2020).
The presence of the Posner molecules in extracellular fluids and mitochondria is regulated
by H+ and ATP. The six 31P nuclear spins that make up the system are in an excellent
setting to achieve exceptionally long spin coherence times, hence it has been given
quantum qualities. It has been hypothesised that the six 31P nuclear spins with S = 1/2 in a
Posner molecule are particularly long lived, sheltered from environmental deciherence,
because the most prevalent isotopes of both calcium and oxygen have zero nuclear spin.
This element is comparable to what we have demonstrated previously, namely that spin in
neurons may provide some insights into how consciousness arises because spin is required
to preserve quantum coherence with adequate time Li+. The spin magnitude of an isotope is
I = 1/2. a coherence time of up to five minutes. One of the most prevalent biochemicaonly
phosphorous has a nucleus with this size among the elements, making it a potential
candidate for cerebral qubit. so that it can function as a brain qubit, enabling quantum
processing in the brain, and that these quantum properties are safeguarded by molecules
known as Posner molecules, which bind calcium ions and phosphate ions. Then, entangled
Posner molecules cause nonlocal quantum correlations in the frequency of firing neurons.
Specifically related with certain bacteria, such as Aggregatibacter Actynomicetencomitans
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with the calculus site and Black-Pigmented Anaerobic Rods with the non-calculus site,
gingival calculus production requires oral biofilm bacterial calcification. The Caphospholipidphosphate complex is formed when calcium binds to the phosphate of the
acidic phospholipids in the membrane. The subgingival calculus is connected to
periodontitis, a long-lasting inflammatory condition that results in the loss of alveolar bone
and subsequently teeth. With a global age-standardized frequency of 11.2 percent
throughout the total population, severe periodontitis is ranked as the sixth-most common
condition in the world. A changed inflammatory process and a mitochondrial function
impairment are involved in the pathogeny, which may facilitate intra-mitochondrial
calcification (Vassilev.C, 2021).
Signal Transduction
The primary constituents of membranes are phospolipids. The structure is composed of two
negatively charged hydrophobic fatty acid tails and a positively charged hydrophilic head
with a phosphate group. The heads are facing extracellular space or the cytosol, while the
tails are facing the inside of the membrane. One class of phospholipids called
phosphoinositide phosphates (PIPs) interacts electrostatically with proteins in peripheral
membranes to define membrane gaps and route it to particular sites. The Ca2+ hormones
need PIPs for signal transduction to activate their cell surface receptors. It serves as a
framework to produce different chemicals that regulate a wide range of biological processes
through phosphorylation. One of the roles is signalling from the plasma membrane's inner
leaflet, which activates a number of crucial protein kinases. Second, managing ion
distribution by modulating the activity of ion channels and transporters. Thirdly, make it
easier for hydrophobic molecules to cross the membrane-separating aqueous phase.
Finally, regulate vesicular trafficking, govern the budding and fission process between
membranes, and mediate innate immunity by activating the NLRP3 inflammasome to cause
pyroptotic cell death. Free radicals can attack the lipid membrane, resulting in lipid
peroxidation, which can mediate inflammation in the absence of infection and inflammasome
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activation. The Glutathione Peroxidase Group, specifically GPX4 (PHGPx), which functions
as a phospholipid hydroperoxidase to convert lipid peroxides to lipid alcohols, is one of the
antioxidant defences that prevents them.
Membranes serve as a gatekeeper and a relationship-modifier between internal organelles
and the external world. Lipid-based membranes that integrate the metabolism of calcium,
phosphate, and oxygen carry out these operations to establish the identity of the cells. A
growing body of research has linked PIP kinases and phosphatases to the innate immune
system, which originates in membranes and is likely regulated by lipid-binding proteins. .
However, all of these metabolic pathways are subject to change, which explains some
pathogenic features of various disorders. In order to summarise, dysregulation of
phosphoinositide 3-kinases (PI3K) -dependent pathways plays a direct role in
cardiovascular disease, thrombosis, and cancer aetiology. Additionally, the assertion that
insulin resistance, which expresses insulin receptor activation, controlled by insulin
resistance. The phosphorylation process, in which a phosphoryl group is linked to sugar,
lipids, proteins, and ADP, is another stage in the molecular activation mechanisms. The
processes of phosphorylation and dephosphorylation, which catalyse the transfer of
phosphate groups and the removal of phosphate groups, respectively, in cellular regulation
and signalling, are crucial. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) that alter cellular signaltransduction processes and, thus, in both normal and pathological states, mediate both
processes. The creation of phosphoester bonds on the side chains of serine, threonine, and
tyrosine can lead to protein phosphorylation; this sort of bonding also occurs in the
nucleotides DNA, RNA, and ATP. It is necessary for healthy cellular metabolism, whereas
pathological situations include aberrant phosphorylation. Cancer, cardiovascular disease,
diabetes , inflammatory and viral disorders, and others are caused by the dysregulation of
phosphorylation. The fundamental node in a network that regulates metabolism by
influencing crucial cellular activities, such as protein, lipid, nucleotide, and ATP synthesis
while restricting autophagic breakdown of cellular components has been identified as
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mTOR, a PI3K-related protein kinase, in the past 20 years. mTOR signaling's dysfunction
has been linked to metabolic conditions, neurodegeneration, cancer, and ageing (Bullon. P,
2020).
Single cell manipulation (quantum nanotechnology)
Since quantum mechanics' formalism is independent of mass, a single, large object should
exhibit quantum superpositions. Both for testing quantum mechanics and non-classical
states of macroscopic objects (quantum superposition of states) are appealing subjects of
study. Using big items to produce large Schrödinger's cat states is one of the most
challenging and coveted challenges in quantum mechanics. These tests are challenging
because to the close coupling of the system to its surroundings, which makes it challenging
to observe the interference patterns that demonstrate the existence of the superpositions.
Successful experiments on such macroscopic superpositions often need cooling, cavity
resonant coupling, and spatial resolution. Feedback cooling was successful in cooling the
center-of-mass motion of a levitated microsphere to millikelvin temperatures, which was an
important step in achieving this aim. However, a difficult to produce very strong quadratic
coupling is required for the production of optical cavity spatial quantum superposition states.
By applying a strong magnetic gradient to the nitrogen vacancy (NV) centre while optically
trapping an nanodiamond (ND) with an NV centre in a vacuum, it is feasible to produce
significant spatial superpositions of states and arbitrary phonon Fock states. Based on the
idea that when particles exceeding a critical mass are delocalized over a critical distance,
the Schrödinger equation will collapse due to its intrinsic approximations, this can be used to
examine quantum mechanics objective collapse theories. In relation to the oscillation mode
of an optically levitated ND, a creation and detection approach for massive quantum
superposition states and arbitrary Fock states has been put forth. By using spin-mechanical
coupling, an NV centre inside the ND is used to enable the nonlinear interaction that would
produce the non-Gaussian quantum states. This technique allows for the observation of
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spatial quantum interference in very large nanoparticle superpositions involving millions of
atoms in a lab setting (Castelletto. S, 2020).
To demonstrate quantum superposition, it has been suggested to use optically levitated NDs
as mesoscopic systems with a single NV centre spin. The ND motion in the OT trap is
coupled to the NV centre spin by a static magnetic field gradient produced by a magnetic
sphere with a permanent dipole moment. By adding an induced gravity-dependent phase
shift to the NV centre spin, which is placed in an ND in a trap, and interacting with the
particle quantized motion, simple spin measurements are employed in [48] to detect spatial
quantum superpositions. The study addresses the effects of erroneous coupling with other
motional degrees of freedom in, coming to the conclusion that the setup is still valid. The
study focuses on creating a dissipative mechanical quantum state in an optically levitated
ND by magnetically connecting the mechanical motion to a dressed three-level system
supplied by an NV centre in the nanoparticle and generating single-mode and two-mode
mechanical squeezed states. Without a cavity, the magnetic field gradient is used to connect
the ND mechanical motion to the single NV centre spin. However, cryogenic temperatures
would be needed for a moderate vacuum, whereas an ultrahigh vacuum quantum squeezing
might be accomplished at ambient temperature by using feedback cooling. (Castelletto. S,
2020).
7. Conclusion
From this study, it is concluded that quantum physic theories and mathematical framework
has abundant applications in various field such as electronics, optics, space exploration,
medical sector, telecommunication and so on. Furthermore, it is proved that quantum
mechanics is much more advantageous compared to classical mechanics in technological
industrial sectors. This is because quantum mechanics theories and concepts can be used
to explain phenomena that classical mechanics fails, thus solving problems arose in various
fields.
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8. Limitations and suggestions for future research
Limitations
One of the challenges or limitations faced is the lack of research done on applied quantum
mechanics fields. Thus, relatively lower articles, journals, research papers can be obtained from
publications websites. This is due to the complexity of quantum mechanics and it is a harder
physics branch to applied compared to others major physics branches such as classical physics
and statistical physics. In fact, they are still many unanswered questions in this field due to its
complexity. Regardless, many believe that quantum mechanics holds the key for cutting-edge
future technologies in various sectors, albeit it requires intensive research starting from now.
Secondly, it was challenge to arrange a personal meeting with the lecturers from the physics
department starting from week 8. This is due to many lecturers having a highly tight schedule at
the second term of the semester. Thus, I failed to meet and interview the physics lecturers to
get rough ideas for this research. In addition, there was less lecturers who have background in
quantum physics or quantum mechanics compared to other fields in the physics department.
Finally, my own lack of deep knowledge and abstract mathematical proficiency was a challenge
too. Initially, I personally struggled to comprehend the abstract theories and mathematical
frameworks required in mastering quantum mechanics.
Suggestions
For future research, instead of solely focusing on applied quantum physics, one should broaden
the topic. For example, conducting a research on applied physics with a speciality in quantum
theories. With this method, one can easily find the link to directly compare and contrast the
relationship of classical and quantum mechanics and how they complement each other. This is
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will yield better results as they will more resources available for a more inclusive findings and
discussions. Secondly, the student also need to be much more proactive in approaching
suitable interviewees by starting earlier. Students also shall not only rely on lecturers for
information. Students can approach postgraduate students, engineers, entrepreneurs or anyone
knowledgeable in the field of the research, in this case quantum physics. Finally, before starting
a research, student shall not rush, instead they must ensure that they equip themselves with
enough knowledge to comprehend the research findings. Initially, they shall spend their studying
and grasping the fundamentals of the research topic. During research period, they shall be
impulsive and must go through the learning process methodically to properly understand the
resources and findings.
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4. G. Iannaccone, Q. Zhang, S. Bruzzone, G. Fiori (2016), Insights on the physics and
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7. Tipler, Paul, Llewellyn, Ralph (2008). Modern Physics (5th ed.). W.H. Freeman and
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https://www.livescience.com/33816-quantum-mechanics-explanation.html
11. Bembenek, S (2018, March 27). Einstein and the Quantum. Scientific American.
https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/einstein-and-the-quantum/
12. Applications of Quantum Mechanics. (n.d). Boundless Physics. Retrieved April 6, 2022
from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-physics/chapter/applications-ofquantum-mechanics/
13. Aradhya, C. (2022, February 23). Quantum Technologies And Their Applications In
Industry 4.0. electronicsforu. https://www.electronicsforu.com/technologytrends/quantum-technologies-applications-industry-4
51
BAHAGIAN HAL EHWAL PELAJAR
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(INDEPENDENT RESEARCH)
14. Siegfried, T. (2022, January 12). A century of quantum mechanics questions the
fundamental nature of reality. ScienceNews.
https://www.sciencenews.org/article/quantum-theory-history-reality-uncertainty-physics
15. Orzel, C. (2018, December 11). Three Weird Quantum Phenomena You Didn't Realize
You Were Using. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/chadorzel/2018/12/11/quantumphenomena-you-didnt-realize-you-were-using/?sh=610ed4337ed7
16. A New Theorem Maps Out the Limits of Quantum Physics. (2020, December 3). Quanta
Magazine. https://www.quantamagazine.org/a-new-theorem-maps-out-the-limits-ofquantum-physics-20201203/
17. As quantum technology matures what industries should care? – Physics World. (2019,
May 23). Physics World. https://physicsworld.com/a/as-quantum-technology-matureswhat-industries-should-care/
18. Barnes, C. H. W. (2018). Quantum Electonics in Semiconductors (1st ed., Vol. 1).
University of Cambridge.
19. Bullon, P. (2020). Quantum Physics. Quantum Physics, Quantum Biology, Quantum
Medicine?, 1(1). https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202005.0149.v1
20. Castelletto, S., Rosa, L., & Boretti, A. (2020). Micro-manipulation of nanodiamonds
containing NV centers for quantum applications. Diamond and Related Materials, 106,
107840. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.diamond.2020.107840
21. Classical Mechanics vs Quantum Mechanics. (2014, July 26). ClearIAS.
https://www.clearias.com/classical-mechanics-vs-quantum-mechanics/
22. Frankenfield, J. (2020, December 30). Quantum Computing. Investopedia.
https://www.investopedia.com/terms/q/quantum-computing.asp
23. Gotarane, V. R., & Madhukar Gandhi, S. S. (2016). Quantum Computing. Future
Computing, 1(1)
24. Griffith, D. .J. (2018). Introduction to Quantum Mechanics (3rd ed.). Cambridge
University Press. (Original work published 2004)
52
BAHAGIAN HAL EHWAL PELAJAR
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25. IBM. (n.d.). What is Quantum Computing? | IBM. Www.ibm.com.
https://www.ibm.com/topics/quantum-computing
26. Leman, J. (2019, October 2). A Quantum Leap in the Classical World. Popular
Mechanics. https://www.popularmechanics.com/science/math/a29339863/quantumsuperposition-molecules/
27. says, A. B. (2019, August 23). Quantum Physics in Medicine. AZoQuantum.com.
https://www.azoquantum.com/Article.aspx?ArticleID=124#:~:text=Quantum%20physics
%20has%20the%20potential%20to%20transform%20medicine%20and%20healthcare
28. Shtykov, V. V., & Sergey Smolskiy. (2020). Introduction to quantum electronics and
nonlinear optics. Cham, Switzerland Springer.
29. Siegel, E. (n.d.). How Quantum Physics Allows Us To See Back Through Space And
Time. Forbes. Retrieved June 30, 2022, from
https://www.forbes.com/sites/startswithabang/2021/05/13/how-quantum-physics-allowsus-to-see-back-through-space-and-time/?sh=49068332493c
30. Susskind, L., & Hrabovsky, G. (2014). The theoretical minimum : what you need to know
to start doing physics. Basic Books.
31. What Is Superposition and Why Is It Important? (n.d.). Caltech Science Exchange.
https://scienceexchange.caltech.edu/topics/quantum-science-explained/quantumsuperposition
32. Zyga, L. (2013, April 8). On the origins of the Schrodinger equation. Phys.org.
https://phys.org/news/2013-04-schrodinger-equation.html
53
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2.
Kemahiran dan kecekapan yang diperoleh daripada aktiviti-aktiviti penyelidikan yang telah
dilaksanakan
Skills and competencies acquired from the completed research activities
Kenalpasti kemahiran dan kecekapan anda yang diperolehi selepas menjalankan aktiviti penyelidikan.
Nilaikan tahap penguasaan berdasarkan kepada skala mengikut sebelum dan selepas pelaksanaan
aktiviti-aktiviti penyelidikan. Contoh kemahiran dan kecekapan adalah seperti kemahiran membaca,
kemahiran menulis, pemikiran kritikal, kemahiran merancang, kemahiran teknikal, kecekapan
menganalisis dan lain-lain.
Identify your skills and competencies acquired after the research activity implementation. Evaluate the level
of mastery based on the scale according to before and after the execution of the research activities.
Example of skills and competencies such as reading skills, writing skills, critical thinking, planning skills,
technical skills, analysis competency and others.
Kemahiran dan Kecekapan
Skills and Competencies
1) Ability to find articles
and research papers
Tahap Penguasaan
Level of Mastery
Sebelum
Before
4
Selepa
s
After
1
2
3
4
None
5
6
7
8
9
10
Expert
Moderate
9
2) Ability to extract
information from articles
Sebelum
Before
and research papers
3
3) Ability to think critically
Sebelum
Before
5
Selepa
s
After
1
2
3
4
None
5
6
7
8
9
10
Expert
Moderate
10
Selepa
s
After
1
None
2
3
4
5
Moderate
6
7
8
9
10
Expert
9
54
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3. Sumbangan (Langsung/Tidak Langsung)
Contribution (Direct/Indirect)
Terangkan sumbangan anda terhadap komuniti/syarikat/hos dan pihak lain yang berkaitan daripada
segi sumbangan yang langsung dan tidak langsung daripada program/aktiviti yang telah dilaksanakan.
Describe your contribution towards communities/company/hosts and other relevant parties in terms of direct
and indirect from the completed programs/activities.
Sumbangan (Langsung) /Contribution (Direct)
1. From this project, I managed to create a research report which contains a lot information
regarding the field of applied Quantum Mechanics, which is very useful as a reference for any
reader
2. From the data analysis, it encourages many industrial fields to adopt and apply the theories and
concept of quantum mechanics to boost the technological aspect of the industry, thus increasing
productivity.
3. A contribution to the scientific society in terms of comparing and contrasting two major fields of
physics, classical and quantum mechanics.
Sumbangan (Tidak Langsung) /Contribution (Indirect)
1. Indirectly, many quantum physics application have been documented. Hence, it is a good
reference for future studies in quickly identifying applications of quantum physics in real life.
55
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4.
Pencapaian hasil kursus (Sila tandakan (✔) yang mana berkenaan)
Course outcome achievement (Please tick (✔) the appropriate box)
Nilaikan hasil pencapaian kursus.
Evaluate the course outcome achievement.
Hasil kursus
Course outcome
Status Pencapaian
Status of achievement
Tidak
Separa
Tercapai
tercapai
tercapai
Achieved
Not
Partially
achieved achieved
1. Mencadangkan cadangan penyelidikan bagi topik yang
dipilih
Propose research proposal on selected topic
2. Melaksanakan projek penyelidikan dalam jangka masa dan
sumber yang ditetapkan
Perform the research project within stipulated time frame and
resources
3. Melaporkan penemuan penyelidikan kepada pihak
berkepentingan terpilih
Report the research finding to selected stakeholders
56
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(D) PENILAIAN KENDIRI (Sila tandakan (✔) bagi setiap kategori)
SELF-EVALUATION (Please tick (✔) one from each categories)
A. Tarikh penyerahan
Submission Deadline
Penyerahan dilakukan selewat-lewatnya pada hari Jumaat minggu ke-14 (5 markah)
Submission done latest by Friday in the 14th Week (5 marks)
Penyerahan dilakukan pada hari Sabtu dan Ahad minggu ke-14 (4 markah)
Submission done on Saturday and Sunday in the 14th Week (4 marks)
Penyerahan dilakukan selewat-lewatnya pada hari Jumaat minggu ke-15 (3 markah)
Submission done latest by Friday in the 15th Week (3 marks)
Tiada penyerahan dilakukan (0 markah)
No submission (0 marks)
B. Kesempurnaan
Completeness
Laporan bertulis mengandungi semua perkara seperti di dalam borang templat (30 markah)
The report contains all items as per template (30 marks)
2 markah ditolak bagi setiap satu perkara yang tidak disenaraikan di dalam borang templat
2 marks should be deducted for every one item not listed in the proposal
Jumlah markah yang diperolehi: ( ___30___ )
The total marks obtained
C. Pembangunan Kemahiran dan Kecekapan
Skills and Competencies Development
Lebih daripada 3 kemahiran dan kecekapan dibangunkan daripada program (6 markah)
3 or more skills and competencies were developed from the program (6 marks)
Hanya 2 kemahiran dan kecekapan dibangunkan daripada program (4 markah)
Only 2 skills and competencies were developed from the program (4 marks)
Hanya 1 kemahiran dan kecekapan dibangunkan daripada program (2 markah)
Only 1 skill and competency was developed from the program (2 marks)
Tiada kemahiran dan kecekapan dibangunkan daripada program (0 markah)
There were no skills and competencies developed from the program (0 marks)
57
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D. Sumbangan
Contribution
Terdapat 2 sumbangan langsung/tidak langsung dikenalpasti daripada program (4 markah)
There were 2 direct/indirect contribution were identified from the program (4 marks)
Hanya 1 sumbangan langsung/tidak langsung dikenalpasti daripada program (2 markah)
Only 1 direct/indirect contribution was identified from the program (2 marks)
Tiada sumbangan langsung/tidak langsung dikenalpasti daripada program (0 markah)
No direct/indirect contribution were identified from the program (0 marks)
E. Pencapaian Hasil Kursus
Course Outcome Achievement
Semua hasil kursus dapat dicapai (5 markah)
All of the course outcomes were achieved (5 marks)
Tiada hasil kursus yang dapat dicapai (0 markah)
No course outcomes were achieved (0 marks)
58
BAHAGIAN HAL EHWAL PELAJAR
(STUDENT AFFAIRS DIVISION)
REFLEKSI AKTIVITI
(ACTIVITY REFLECTION)
GKI 1001
PENYELIDIKAN BEBAS
(INDEPENDENT RESEARCH)
(E) PENGESAHAN PELAJAR
STUDENT VERIFICATION
Saya dengan ini mengesahkan bahawa maklumat yang diberikan adalah benar dan markah penilaian
kendiri adalah refleksi sebenar kerja saya.
I hereby confirm that all the information provided is true and the self-evaluation marks are a reflection of my
work.
…………………………………..
…………………………………..
Tandatangan pelajar
(Student’s signature)
Tandatangan Penasihat
(Advisor’s signature)
Nama
Name
Nama
:Tirunavakarasu A/L Amiratharaju
Name
:
Dr. Siti Fairus Binti Abdul Sani
Tarikh
Date
:
Tarikh
Date
:
30th June 2022
29th June 2022
59
BAHAGIAN HAL EHWAL PELAJAR
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Appendix
60
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(INDEPENDENT RESEARCH)
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PENYELIDIKAN BEBAS
(INDEPENDENT RESEARCH)
62
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(INDEPENDENT RESEARCH)
63