The Purpose of Research and Characteristics
“RESEARCH IS A SYSTEMATIC INVESTIGATION (I.E. THE GATHERING AND
ANALYSIS OF INFORMATION) DESIGNED TO DEVELOP OR CONTRIBUTE TO
GENERALISABLE KNOWLEDGE”
The purpose of research is a declarative sentence that summarizes the specific topic
and goals of the research study. Which gives the reader an accurate, concrete
understanding of the findings. The basic properties of the research purpose are given
below:
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The research purpose should be Specific and precise – not general, broad or
obscure
It should be defined in a concise manner (within one or two sentences)
The research goal should be very clear. Should not be vague, ambiguous or
confusing to the readers.
All the statements should be Goal-oriented. Also, stated in terms of desired
outcomes.
Example of the Purpose of Research
Example: The effect of telling stories on children’s literacy skills.
1. The best way to start is stating the general purpose of the Study:
The overall purpose of this study is to examine the effect of telling stories on
nursery children’s literacy skills.
2. Identify the specific purpose about every key variable:
Telling stories, reading fluency, reading comprehension, vocabulary, and
interest in reading are the specific variables.
3. State the specific purposes for the research study:
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Identify how often nursery teachers tell stories in the classroom.
Determine the effect of telling stories on nursery children’s reading fluency.
Determine the effect of telling stories on nursery children’s reading
comprehension.
Determine the effect of telling stories on nursery children’s vocabulary.
Determine the effect of telling stories on nursery children’s interest in reading.
8 Characteristics of Research
The investigation of the research topic can be classified into 8 ways:
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1. Empirical Research
Empirical research is conducted based on proven scientific methods derived
from real-life observations and experiments.
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2. Logical Research
This research methodology follows sequential procedures based on valid
principles.
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3. Cyclic Research
As name suggests the cyclic research starts and ends with question.
Eg: A research process should lead to a new line of questioning.
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4. Analytical Research
In analytical research, data is generated, recorded and analysed using proven
techniques to ensure high accuracy and repeatability while minimising potential
errors and anomalies.
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5. Controlled Research
Controlled research investigate with vigorous measures by keeping all research
variables constant, excluding the the varibles in under investigation.
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6. Research-based on Objective
sound judgement is used by the researcher to ensure that the research findings
are valid.
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7. Research-based on statistical treatment
A mathematical treatment is applied in this case to turn the available data into
something more meaningful from which information can be derived.
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8. Hypothesis-based Research
The hypothesis-based research design produces evidence that satisfies the
research objectives and can be used to prove or refute the hypothesis. It ensures
that the analysis study can be replicated and that the findings are credible.
There are many kinds of classification of research which are classified according to
their distinctive features. Some of the classifications are as follows: (1) According to
Purpose (2) According to Goal (3) According to the Levels of Investigation (4)
According to the type of Analysis (5) According to Scope (6) According to the Choice
of Answers to Problems (7) According to Statistical Content (8) According to Time
Element
1. According to Purpose
a. Predictive or Prognostic – it has the purpose to determine the future operation of
the variables under investigation with the aim of controlling or redirecting such for the
better.
b. Directive – it determines what should be done based on the findings.
c. Illuminative – it is concerned with the interaction of the components of the variable
being investigated.
2. According to Goal
a. Basic or Pure – it is done for the development of theories and principles. It is
conducted for intellectual pleasure of learning.
b. Applied – the application of pure research. This is testing the efficiency of theories
and principles.
3. According to the Level of Investigation
a. Exploratory – the researcher studies the variables pertinent to a specific situation.
b. Descriptive – the researcher studies the relationships of the variables. c.
Experimental – the researcher studies the effects of the variables on each other.
4. According to the Types of Analysis
a. Analytic Approach – the researcher attempts to identify and isolate the
components of the research situation.
b. Holistic Approach – this begins with the total situation, focusing attention on the
system first and on its internal relationships.
5. According to
on a very limited scope to solve a particular problem which is not so big.
6. According to Choice of Answers to Problems
a. Evaluation research – All possible courses of action are specified and identified
and the researcher.
b. Developmental research – the focus is on finding or developing a more suitable
instrument or process than has been available.
7. According to Statistical Content
a. Quantitative or Statistical Research – is one in which inferential statistics are
utilized to determine the results of the study.
b. Non-quantitative Research– this is research in which the use of the quantity or
statistics is practically not utilize.
8. According to Time Element
a. Historical research – describes what was.
b. Descriptive research – describes what is.
c. Experimental research – describes what will be.
What is academic research?
Research is a common activity in academic institutions all over the world. In the
United States, for instance, research output is bolstered by educational institutions
such as Harvard University, Stanford University, and the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology (Nature Index, n.d.).
Also called scholarly research, academic research has been defined as research that
has the sole purpose of creating or furthering knowledge (ARTiFACTS, 2020).
Academic research also tends to be theoretically focused, and its findings are
evaluated through a peer review process and made public through scholarly journals
and academic conferences.
In many cases, academic research is defined in contrast to professional research.
Also called applied research, professional research is carried out to find solutions to
practical problems. This research is also commonly organizationally focused
(Belmont University, 2021).
Qualities of Good Research
1. Good research is anchored on a sound research question.
A sound research question is one of the most important characteristics of good
research. In fact, formulating one is embedded in the curricula of research-heavy
programs like engineering and physics degrees and careers. In 2010, Farrugia et al.
proposed that developing a research question is the most important step in doing a
research project, and is at the core of what makes a good research.
A good research question details exactly what a researcher wants to learn and
defines a study’s scope. By formulating a good research question, researchers can
ensure that they stay on track during the course of their study. This research
question sets the scope of the study to a specific age group and focuses on the
relationship between aerobic exercise and mental health outcomes. With a clear
research question, researchers can design a study and develop a scope of work
sample that includes selecting appropriate participants, determining the
measurement instruments, collecting and analyzing data, and drawing conclusions
based on the results.
However, the formulation of a research question is often easier said than done. As
such, numerous frameworks–like the FINER and PICO criteria–have been invented
to help researchers formulate sound research questions.
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For instance, Cummings et al. (2013) suggest using FINER criteria to create or
evaluate a research question. According to this set of criteria, a good research
question is:
F – feasible
I – interesting
N – novel
E – ethical
R – relevant
2. Good research follows a systematic, appropriate research methodology.
The overall quality and success of a research study are largely determined by the
research methodology it uses (Thattamparambil, 2020). Choosing an
appropriate research methodology helps ensure that researchers can collect relevant
data and use the right data analysis techniques.
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A good research methodology is another quality of good research. It refers to the
systematic procedures or techniques a researcher uses to ensure that his study
achieves valid, reliable results (Jansen & Warren, 2020). Research methodologies
are often classified into qualitative research, quantitative research, and mixedmethods research.
Qualitative research methodology involves collecting and analyzing nonnumerical data, such as language to interpret subjects’ beliefs, experiences, and
behaviors (Pathak et al., 2013). Qualitative research techniques include interviews,
focus groups, and case studies.
Quantitative research methodologies involve the collection and analysis of
numerical data to discover patterns, test relationships, and make predictions
(Bhandari, 2021a). In doing quantitative research, surveys, experiments, and
systematic observation can be used to collect accurate data.
Mixed-methods research methodologies combine quantitative and
qualitative methods. According to Wisdom and Cresswell (2013), combining
quantitative and qualitative research methodologies “permits a more complete and
synergistic utilization of data than do separate quantitative and qualitative data
collection and analysis.”
Researchers must consider a variety of factors in choosing the best methodology for
their study. In most cases, research questions and objectives play a significant role in
defining the most appropriate research methodology to use.
Researchers should also take into account the methods currently used by other
researchers in their specific field. For instance, studies have shown the increasing
use of mixed-methods research in the health sciences. In their 2019 article “Mixed
methods and survey research in family medicine and community health” published in
the Family Medicine and Community Health journal, Cresswell and Hirose observed
how surveys were used in combination with focus groups on resident physicians’
communication and collaboration competencies:“Thus, the authors in the
Sonnenberg et al. study used an explanatory sequential mixed methods design to
examine the ability of the IP clinicians to provide feedback to pediatric residents
during their rotation. Using survey research in the first phase, the researchers
compared IP supervisors and physician supervisors in terms of communication and if
collaborative training objectives were met. …Then, in the second phase, the
researchers conducted follow-up qualitative focus groups to probe a contextual
understanding of the factors that influenced the process of assessment.”
3. Good research acknowledges previous research on the topic.
While good research leads to the discovery of new knowledge, it also means
studying previous research on the topic. By studying scholarly articles and other
works related to your subject of interest, you get an idea of what has already been
studied and how your study fits into existing research. You can easily find related
studies by going through your institution’s library management system or other
publicly available ones.
As one of the criteria of a good research, exploring previous research can also
ensure that you’re not duplicating existing work, which is commonly checked in
physics and industrial engineering careers. Related literature can also shed light on
potential obstacles and issues researchers may encounter during their studies.
Given the importance of studying research related to one’s topic, most academic
research projects (like theses or dissertations) feature a literature review. A literature
review describes and objectively evaluates scholarly articles, books, and other
credible sources relevant to a particular field of study, helping readers gain a full
understanding of the topic at hand (Bloomsburg University of Pennsylvania, n.d.).
According to the latest edition of The STM Report from the International Association
of Scientific, Technical, and Medical Publishers, there were approximately 33,100
active scholarly peer-reviewed English-language journals in mid-2018. At an annual
growth rate of 4%, these journals publish over three million articles a year (Johnson
et al., 2018). With these numbers, it appears to be unlikely for researchers to face
difficulties in finding literature related to their research topic.
4. Good research uses relevant, empirical data and proper data analysis
methods.
One of the most important qualities of a good research study is that it deals with
empirical data. Empirical data is data that has been collected by researchers
themselves through observation, experience, or experimentation (Bradford, 2017).
This is crucial in doing good research because empirical data is considered objective,
unbiased evidence.
Good research doesn’t stop with the collection of empirical data, the data collected
must be analyzed properly as well. The type of data collected largely determines the
right data analysis method to use.
Quantitative data, for instance, is usually analyzed through descriptive statistics or
inferential statistics (Humans of Data, 2018). These statistics can help researchers
find figures to summarize variables, find patterns, and make predictions. On the other
hand, the analysis of qualitative data involves identifying and interpreting patterns
and themes in textual data. Common analysis methods for qualitative data include
content analysis, narrative analysis, and thematic analysis (Warren, 2020).
5. Good research is representative and generalizable.
Criteria of good research include being representative. In research,
representativeness refers to a sample’s ability to represent a larger group. This
means the characteristics of the subjects (people) being studied closely match those
of the study’s target population (Austin Research, 2014).
In most cases, representativeness can be achieved through population sampling
(Economic Research and Social Council, n.d.). By using proper methods to create a
representative sample, researchers can ensure that their findings can be generalized
to the larger population represented.
6. Good research is guided by logic.
One of the distinguishing characteristics of research is that the entire process is
guided by logic. Using logic, for instance, can help researchers determine what kind
of data they need for answering their research question. Being guided by logic
throughout the research process also helps researchers spot fallacies and
inconsistencies in their claims and findings.
The logical processes of induction and deduction can also prove to be valuable in the
research process. Golesh et al. (2019) proposed that logic aids researchers by
helping them arrive at valid conclusions. According to the study, inductive reasoning
can be used to discover patterns and construct generalizations and theories.
Meanwhile, deductive reasoning can help researchers collect empirical data to
confirm or refute theories or hypotheses.
Aside from these applications of logic, logical reasoning can also make more
research more meaningful, especially if the research is to be used in the context of
decision-making (Mehran University of Engineering and Technology, n.d.).
7. Good research has external validity.
Good research has external validity and reliability if its results or findings can be
applied to the real world (Glen, 2015). If your research findings can be generalized to
other situations or applied to a broader context, your study has high external validity.
There are two types of external validity for researchers to consider: population
validity and ecological validity (Bhandari, 2021b). Research with findings that can be
generalized from the sample to the larger population has a high population validity.
Meanwhile, you can achieve ecological validity if you can apply your study’s findings
to real-world situations and settings.Since generalizable knowledge is almost always
the aim of scientific research, external validity is an important component of good
research as well.
8. Good research is replicable, reproducible, and transparent.
Replicability, reproducibility, and transparency are some of the most important
characteristics of research. The replicability of a research study is important because
this allows other researchers to test the study’s findings. Replicability can also
improve the trustworthiness of a research’s findings among readers (Understanding
Health Research, 2020).
Good research is also reproducible. Though replicability and reproducibility are often
used interchangeably, research is reproducible if researchers achieve consistent
results using the same data and analysis methods (Miceli, 2019). The reproducibility
and replicability of a research study and its findings can confirm the study’s overall
validity and credibility.
For research to be replicable or reproducible, it must also be transparent or available
to other researchers. Research must follow proper research paper formatting or be
written or presented in such a way that it provides comprehensive details on how
data was collected and analyzed and how conclusions were reached (Baskin, 2015).
9. Good research acknowledges its limitations and provides suggestions for
future research.
In addition to information on data collection and analysis methods, good research
also opens doors for future research on the topic. For instance, researchers can
provide details on unexpected study findings or suggest techniques for exploring
unaddressed aspects of your research problem or research question (Business
Research Methodology, n.d.).
In many cases, these suggestions for future research stem from the research’s
limitations. Researchers must acknowledge their study’s limitations and potential
flaws and present these along with the study’s findings and conclusion. Ross and
Zaidi (2019) further explain that a meaningful presentation of a research study’s
limitations includes implications of these limitations and potential alternative
approaches.
10. Good research is ethical.
Understandably, good research is carried out according to research ethics. According
to the World Health Organization, research ethics provide academic research
standards for conducting studies. These standards help protect the rights and dignity
of research participants while ensuring that researchers practice values, such as
honesty, objectivity, integrity, and accountability in their work (Resnik, 2020).
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Resnik also emphasizes the importance of learning how to interpret and apply
various ethical standards in research, especially since existing ethical codes won’t
cover every situation.
Some of the most common violations of research ethics include:
Falsification – This involves the manipulation or omission of data or findings.
Fabrication – This involves making up data or results and presenting these
as accurate.
Plagiarism – This refers to the use of another person’s work without giving
due credit.
While self-citation and self-referencing are common research methodology best
practices among scientists, recent studies show rising trends in excessive selfcitation. A 2017 study on citation metrics revealed that at least 250 scientists
collected over 50% of their citations from themselves or their co-authors. This figure
is significantly higher than the median self-citation rate of 12.7% (Ioannis et al., 2019).
According to the Committee on Publication Ethics, extreme self-citation is a form of
citation manipulation. This manipulation may stem from authorities’ over-reliance on
citation metrics to make decisions on career advancement and research funding
(Van Noorden & Chawla, 2019). As well, academic institutions and private
organizations rely on citations to bolster their h-index ranking and overall institution
ranking, creating an overly competitive market that invites unscrupulous scientists
and organizations to manipulate the system.
Top 10 qualities of a good researcher
1. Curiosity: A curious mind and an ability to look at things from different perspectives
is what makes a good researcher better. Good researchers are observant about the
world around them and open to new ideas and possibilities; they are always asking
questions and looking for answers. This ability to see the bigger picture while being
curious about the smaller details is what makes a good researcher explore new ideas,
test hypotheses, and make new discoveries.
2. Critical thinking: Successful researchers can think critically about the information
they gather while reading about new developments in their own and related fields. This is
an essential characteristic of a good researcher. Instead of simply accepting existing
knowledge as fact, you need to have the ability to analyze and evaluate the validity and
reliability of sources, consider alternative explanations for results you observe, and find
connections between seemingly unrelated concepts.
3. Creativity: The qualities of a good researcher do not just include curiosity and critical
thinking, but also thinking creatively when it comes to problem solving. Nurturing the
ability to think outside the box and come up with novel and often unconventional
solutions to challenges you face is how to become a better researcher. This allows you
to come up with more ground-breaking research studies and results addressing issues
that others might easily miss.
4. Objectivity: Nurturing preconceived notions is detrimental to research. Avoid
temptations to make unconclusive statements or introduce personal biases into research,
which will impact your research and standing in the long run. Remember, building
essential qualities of a good researcher means consciously keeping aside personal
preferences and biases and applying sound judgement to your work even when under
pressure.
5. Collaborative spirit: An important characteristic of a good researcher is being able to
work well with others. With a shift toward more collaborative research, successful
researchers often connect with and work with peers to come up with innovative
approaches to research problems. While sharing ideas and partnering with other
researchers can lead to breakthroughs and boost your researcher reputation, it also
opens the door for your work to reach and potentially benefit a wider audience.
6. Communication skills: An added strength of a good researcher is being able to
communicate your findings clearly and effectively, which is a key contributor to your
success. This is applicable when writing your manuscripts, presenting at conferences, as
well as when seeking funding for your work. Good researchers can explain their research
to both specialists and non-specialists to ensure their work is understood and
appreciated by a wider audience.
7. Attention to detail: One of the key qualities of a good researcher is being meticulous
in your work. Researchers need to pay attention to every detail, from the design of an
experiment to the analysis of data, and further in writing and submitting their manuscript
for publication. This crucial characteristic can help you ensure your research is accurate,
testable, and reliable, and also gives your manuscripts a better chance of acceptance.
8. Time management: To understand what are the characteristics of a good researcher,
first ask yourself if you manage your time well. Most successful researchers organize,
prioritize, and optimize their time efficiently, allowing them to not only keep up with their
responsibilities but also make time for personal tasks. If you’re being pulled in different
directions or overwhelmed with trying to manage your research, stay updated on your
research reading, or meeting your writing deadlines, consider honing this skill as a
prerequisite to becoming a good researcher.
9. Persistence & flexibility: Research can be a long, difficult process with several
hurdles and changes along the way. One of the key requirements to becoming a good
researcher is being able to adapt to new technologies and changing circumstances and
persevere despite setbacks and challenges that inevitably arise. Developing the qualities
of a good researcher means anticipating problems, adjusting plans to tackle challenges
head-on, and being patient while moving forward toward achieving your goals.
10. Focus on self-care: Anxiety, stress, and mental health issues are common among
academics. Successful researchers are better equipped to manage this by adopting a
healthy balanced lifestyle. Understanding what works for you can also improve your
efficiency and productivity. Being aware of your strengths and weaknesses and using
this to your advantage is key to becoming a good researcher.In conclusion, perfecting
the characteristics of a good researcher is not quick or easy, but by working consistently
toward developing or strengthening these essential qualities, you will be well on your
way to finding success as a well-established researcher.
Types of research
Fundamental and applied research are the two main research categories. Most
research types can be traced back to being fundamental or applied, depending on
the study's goals.
1. Fundamental research
Fundamental, also known as basic or theoretical, research is designed to help
researchers better understand certain phenomena in the world. It looks at how things
work but does not seek to find how to make them work better. This research attempts
to broaden your understanding and expand scientific theories and explanations.
Example: A company studies how different product placements affect product sales.
2. Applied research
Applied research is designed to identify solutions to specific problems or find
answers to particular questions. It offers knowledge that is applicable and
implementable.
Types of applied research include:
Technological: This research looks for ways to improve efficiency in products,
processes and production.
Scientific: This research measures certain variables to predict behaviors, outcomes
and impact.
Example: A student working on a doctorate in education studies ways to increase
student involvement in the classroom. This research focuses on a defined problem
and is solution-based.
3. Action research
Action research refers to examining actions, assessing their effectiveness in bringing
about the desired outcome and choosing a course of action based on those results. It
is typically used in educational settings for teachers and principals to perform a type
of self-assessment and course correction.
Example: A teacher collects data about their methods of teaching fifth-grade math. At
the end of the first school quarter, they discovered only 33% of students
demonstrated proficiency in the concepts. As a result, the teacher implements new
methods for the second quarter.
4. Causal research
Causal research, also called explanatory research, seeks to determine cause-andeffect relationships between variables. It identifies how much one variable may cause
a change in the other. Causal research is important for evaluating current processes
and procedures and determining if and how changes should take place.
Example: A business studies employee retention rates before and after instituting a
work-from-home policy after six months of employment to see if the approach
increases employee retention.
5. Classification research
Classification research seeks to identify and classify individual elements of a group
into larger groups or subgroups.
Example: Researchers study an animal species, placing them in defined categories
based on shared characteristics, such as: Body segmentation, Type of habitat,
Reproductive methods
6. Comparative research
Comparative research identifies similarities and differences between two individuals,
subjects or groups.
Example: A business owner reviews new hire training documentation and discovers
that new employees receive much of the same information at orientation and in their
initial departmental training. The owner incorporates materials into one session to
allow more time for department-specific training.
7. Cross-sectional research
Cross-sectional, or synchronous, research studies a group or subgroup at one point
in time. Participants are generally chosen based on specific shared characteristics,
such as age, gender or income, and researchers examine the similarities and
differences within and between groups. The group is often used as a representation
of a larger population.
Example: A company researches the sales techniques of its top 10% of salespeople
and compares them to those of its bottom 10%. This gives the company insights into
the most successful and least successful sales methods.
8. Deductive research
Deductive, or theory-testing, research is the opposite of inductive research and
moves from the broad to the specific. Researchers choose a hypothesis and test its
accuracy through experimentation or observation.
Example: Researchers observed that 12 international corporations enacted in-house
carbon emissions standards in the same year. They use deductive research to
compare global emissions levels before and after the measures were enacted.
Read more: Inductive vs. Deductive Reasoning
9. Exploratory research
Exploratory research examines what is already known about a topic and what
additional information may be relevant. It rarely answers a specific question but
instead presents the foundational knowledge of a subject as a precursor to further
research. Often, exploratory research is applied to lesser-known issues and
phenomena.
Example: You may consider what is currently known about the success of yearlong
maternity and paternity leave programs. Your research includes gathering all relevant
information and compiling it in an accessible format that wasn't available previously.
Your findings may reveal gaps in knowledge, leading to additional studies in the
future.
10. Field research
Field research occurs wherever the participants or subjects are or "on location." This
type of research requires onsite observation and data collection.
Example: A manufacturing plant hires an environmental engineering firm to test the
air quality at the plant to ensure it complies with federal health and safety
requirements. The researchers travel to the plant to collect samples.
11. Fixed research
Fixed research involves procedures determined ahead of time, such as how often
testing will take place, where it will take place, the number of subjects and their types.
The research depends on precise conditions and compliance with predetermined
protocols to reduce variables. Experimentation is often fixed research.
Example: A researcher wants to test how different labels affect consumers' ratings of
a sports drink. Participants are given the same drink with various labels at the same
time and take a survey about taste and overall impressions. The timing of providing
each drink and the subsequent surveys are critical to the study's validity.
12. Flexible research
Flexible research allows procedures to change throughout the course of the
experiment. The different types of flexible research include:
Case studies: Case studies are in-depth analyses and observations about a specific
individual or subject.
Ethnographic studies: Ethnographic studies are in-depth analyses and observations
of a group of people.
Grounded theory studies: Grounded theory studies are designed to develop theories
based on carefully collected and analyzed data.
Example: A physician uses a case study methodology to follow a patient through
symptoms, treatment and recovery.
13. Inductive research
Inductive research, also known as theory-building research, collects data that may
help develop a new theory about a process or phenomenon. It examines
observations and patterns and offers several hypotheses to explain these patterns.
Inductive research is often the first step in theory generation and may lead to
additional research, such as deductive research, to further test possible hypotheses.
Example: Researchers observed that worldwide emissions declined when 12
international corporations enacted in-house carbon emissions standards in the same
year. The researchers theorize that worldwide emissions can be reduced significantly
if international corporations impose in-house emissions standards.
14. Laboratory research
Laboratory research occurs in a controlled laboratory rather than in the field. Often,
the study demands strict adherence to certain conditions, such as eliminating
variables or timing conditions. Laboratory research includes chemical
experimentation and pharmacological research.
Example: A pharmaceutical company researches a new drug formula to determine if
it would benefit diabetes patients. Researchers closely monitor chemical interactions
in laboratory settings before moving to the next step.
15. Longitudinal research
Longitudinal research focuses on how certain measurements change over time
without manipulating any determining variables. Types of longitudinal research
include:
Trend study: Research examines population characteristics over time.
Cohort study: Research traces a subpopulation over time.
Panel study: Research traces the same sample over time.
Example: A researcher examines if and how employee satisfaction changes in the
same employees after one year, three years and five years with the same company.
16. Mixed research
Mixed research includes both qualitative and quantitative data. The results are often
presented as a mix of graphs, words and images.
Example: A car manufacturer asks car buyers to complete a survey after buying a
red or white sedan. Questions focus on how much the color impacted their decision
and other opinion-based questions.
17. Policy research
Policy research examines the effects of current government or social policies or
predicts the potential effects of proposed policies related to the distribution of
resources.
Policy researchers often work within government agencies and conduct the following
types of studies:
Cost analysis
Cost-benefit analysis
Program evaluation
Needs analysis
Example: An agency may research how a policy for vaccine distribution will affect
residents in rural areas. The outcome may change where the government sets up
free shot clinics.
18. Qualitative research
Qualitative research involves non-numerical data, such as opinions and literature. It
uses descriptions to obtain the meanings and feelings involved in a situation.
Businesses often use qualitative research to determine consumer opinions and
reactions.
Examples of qualitative research may include:
Focus groups
Surveys
Participant comments
Observations
Interviews
Example: A marketing organization presents a new commercial to a focus group
before airing it publicly to receive feedback. The company collects non-numerical
data—the opinions of the focus group participants—to make decisions.
19. Quantitative research
Quantitative research depends on numerical data, such as statistics and
measurements, to investigate specific questions, like who, what, where or when. The
results are usually presented in tables or graphs.
Types of quantitative methods include:
Survey research
Descriptive research
Correlational research
Example: A car manufacturer compares the number of sales of red sedans compared
to white sedans. The research uses objective data—the sales figures for red and
white sedans—to draw conclusions.
What is a variable?
A variable is any kind of attribute or characteristic that you are trying to measure,
manipulate and control in statistics and research. All studies analyze a variable,
which can describe a person, place, thing or idea. A variable's value can change
between groups or over time.
For example, if the variable in an experiment is a person's eye color, its value can
change from brown to blue to green from person to person.Independent vs.
dependent variables
Independent variables
Dependent variables
A variable that stands alone and isn't A variable that relies on and can be
Definition changed by the other variables or changed by other factors that are
factored that are measured
measured
Age: Other variables such as where A grade someone gets on an exam
someone lives, what they eat or how depends on factors such as how
Example
much they exercise are not going to much sleep they got and how long
change their age.
they studied.
In studies, researchers often try to find out whether an independent variable causes
other variables to change and in what way. When analyzing relationships between
study objects, researchers often try to determine what makes the dependent
variable change and how. Independent variables can influence dependent variables,
but dependent variables cannot influence independent variables.
Quantitative vs. qualitative variables
Quantitative variables
Qualitative variables
Any data sets that involve numbers or Non-numerical
values
Definition
amounts
groupings
Examples Height, distance or number of items
Eye color or dog breed
Types
Discrete and continuous
Binary, nominal and ordinal
Researchers can further categorize quantitative variables into two types:
or
Discrete: Any numerical variables you can realistically count, such as the coins in
your wallet or the money in your savings account.
Continuous: Numerical variables that you could never finish counting, such as time.
Researchers can further categorize qualitative, or categorical, variables into three
types:
Binary: Variables with only two categories, such as male or female, red or blue.
Nominal: Variables you can organize in more than two categories that do not follow
a particular order. Take, for example, housing types: Single-family home,
condominium, tiny home.
Ordinal: Variables you can organize in more than two categories that follow a
particular order. Take, for example, level of satisfaction: Unsatisfied, neutral, satisfied.
Intervening vs. moderating variables
Intervening variables
Moderating variables
Changes the relationship between
A theoretical variable used to
dependent and independent variables by
Definition explain a cause or connection
strengthening
or
weakening
the
between other study variables
intervening variable's effect
Access to health care: If wealth Age: If a study looking at the relationship
is the independent variable, and between economic status (independent
a long life span is a dependent variable) and how frequently people get
variable, a researcher might physical
exams
from
a
doctor
Example
hypothesize that access to (dependent
variable),
age is a
quality health care is the moderating variable. That relationship
intervening variable that links might be weaker in younger individuals
wealth and life span.
and stronger in older individuals.
An intervening variable, also known as a mediator or mediating variable, explains the
process through which two variables are related, while a moderating, or moderator,
variable affects the strength and direction of that relationship.
Extraneous vs. confounding variables
Extraneous variables
Confounding variables
Factors that affect the dependent Extra variables that the researcher
variable but that the researcher did did not account for that can disguise
Definition
not originally consider when another variable's effects and show
designing the experiment
false correlations
Parental support, prior knowledge In a study of whether a particular
of
a
foreign
language
or genre of movie affects how much
socioeconomic
status
are candy kids eat, with experiments are
extraneous variables that could held at 9 a.m., noon and 3 p.m. Time
Example influence
a study assessing could be a confounding variable, as
whether private tutoring or online the group in the noon study might be
courses are more effective at hungrier and therefore eat more
improving students' Spanish test candy because lunchtime is typically
scores.
at noon.
A confounding variable is a type of extraneous variable that is associated with both
the independent and dependent variables.
An extraneous variable is anything that could influence the dependent variable.
These unwanted variables can unintentionally change a study's results or how a
researcher interprets those results.
A confounding variable influences the dependent variable, and also correlates with or
causally affects the independent variable. Confounding variables can invalidate your
experiment results by making them biased or suggesting a relationship between
variables exists when it does not.
Related: 7 Types of Observational Studies (With Examples)
Other kinds of variables
Control variables
Composite variables
Characteristics that are constant and Two or more variables combined to
Definition
do not change during a study
make a more complex variable
Overall health is an example of a
In an experiment about plant
composite variable if a researcher
development, control variables might
uses other variables, such as
include the amounts of fertilizer and
Example
genetics, medical care, education,
water each plant gets. These
quality of environment and chosen
amounts are always the same so that
behaviors, to determine overall
they do not affect the plants' growth.
health in an experiment.
Control, or controlling, variables have no effect on other variables and are often kept
the same throughout an experiment to prevent bias. Composite variables are often
made up of two or more variables that are highly related to one another conceptually
or statistically.
https://www.slideshare.net/gj27/kinds-classification-of-research
https://web.cortland.edu/shis/651/goodrqqualities.pdf
https://www.ilovephd.com/the-purpose-of-research-andcharacteristics/?expand_article=1