- Rocks and Minerals and Their Exploitation - Formation of Rocks - The Rock Cycle - Represents changes between three rock types and the processes causing them - Types of Rocks - Igneous Rocks - Made from liquid magma cooling - Magma (below surface) and lava (reaches surface) - Extrusive Igneous Rock - Cools quickly, small crystals (e.g., basalt) - Intrusive Igneous Rock - Cools slowly, large crystals (e.g., granite) - Examples: Granite, Basalt - Sedimentary Rocks - Formed by weathering of existing rocks - May contain fossils - Sediments accumulate and get pressurized - Transported by water and wind (erosion) - Sediment particles: clays, silts, sands, gravels, boulders - Examples: Limestone, Sandstone, Shale - Metamorphic Rocks - Formed from existing rock with heat and/or pressure - Changes in rock crystals without melting - Changes can be physical, chemical, or both - Examples: Marble, Slate - Exploitation of Rocks and Minerals - Mining and Extraction - Techniques: open-pit mining, underground mining - Processing and Refining - Crushing, grinding, separating minerals from ore - Practical Uses - Construction materials (concrete, asphalt) - Metal production (iron, copper) - Gemstones and jewelry (diamonds, emeralds) - Industrial uses (graphite, talc) - Extraction of Rocks and Minerals from the Earth - Exploring for Minerals - Prospecting - Surface examination of rocks - Ore - Rock with valuable minerals worth mining - Methods of Exploration - Remote Sensing - Aerial photography - Satellite signals - GPS for location accuracy - Geochemical Analysis and Field Surveys - Chemical properties of rocks - Sample collection using GPS - Geophysics - Seismic wave analysis - Sensors for mineral detection - Methods of Extraction - Surface Mining - Open-Cast and Strip Mining - Clearing vegetation, removing topsoil - Explosives loosen rocks, diggers remove them - Materials transported by trucks or wagons - Quarrying for building materials - Sub-Surface Mining - Deep and Shaft Mining - Vertical shaft to mineral layer - Horizontal tunnel following mineral - Machines and miners extract minerals - Transport via trucks or trains - Factors Affecting Extraction Decisions - Geology - High-grade ores preferred - Low-grade ores left as reserves - Accessibility - Transport costs and infrastructure - On-site processing reduces costs - Licensing and agreements - Environmental Impact Assessment - Habitat preservation and restoration - Mine waste disposal - Supply and Demand - Demand affects prices and profitability - Impact on working and new mines - Resources - Gold and Diamonds - Impact of Rock and Mineral Extraction - Environmental Impacts - Ecological Impacts - Loss of Habitat (Vegetation Clearance) - Affects plants and animals - Pollution - Noise Pollution (Machinery, Explosives) - Disturbs behavior of animals, hearing problems - Water Pollution - Unsafe drinking water - Water acidity, toxic metal ions - Bioaccumulation - Organisms absorb and retain ions - Biomagnification - Concentrations increase in food chain - Land Pollution - Toxic waste hinders plant growth - Air Pollution - Dust particles hinder photosynthesis - Lung diseases from inhaled dust - Visual Pollution - Landscape damage - Economic Impacts - Job Creation - Extraction and transportation - Increased Country's Economy - Foreign exchange earnings - Investment in infrastructure - Improved Transport - Social Impacts - Positive - Better Standard of Life - Improved Services (Healthcare, Education) - Infrastructure Development - Negative - Health Impact on Workers - Health Impact on Civilians (Pollution) - Lack of Safety - Managing the Impact of Rock and Mineral Extraction - Safe Disposal of Mining Waste - Preventing Collapse - Avoiding Water Pollution - Monitoring Waste Movement - Land Restoration - Soil Improvement - Landfilling - Sanitary Landfilling - Tree Planting - Bioremediation - Making Lakes and Natural Reserves - Sustainable Use of Rocks and Minerals - Sustainable Resource - Sustainable Development - Strategies for Sustainable Use - Efficient Extraction - Secondary processing of mine waste - Improved machine performance - Enhanced data analysis - Efficient Use - Engineering solutions - Recycling - Legislation - Government regulations - Manufacturer responsibility for recycling CHPATER3 - Agriculture and the Environment - Soil Composition - Mineral Particles - Combination of rock fragments and inorganic substances - Formed by physical, chemical, and biological weathering - Organic Content - Mixture of living plants, animals, microorganisms, and their remains - Air - Found within pore spaces - Enters soil by diffusion - Water - Present in pore spaces - Enters soil through precipitation or irrigation - Factors Affecting Soil Composition - Type of Soil - Management Practices - Local Climate - Mineral Particle Size - Soil Types - Sand - Size: 2.0-0.02 mm - Texture: Gritty - Silt - Size: 0.02-0.002 mm - Texture: Silky or soapy - Clay - Size: <0.002 mm - Texture: Sticky when wet, hard when dried - Soil for Plant Growth - Importance of Soil - Cheap and Abundant Medium - Supplies Water, Nutrients, Anchorage, Oxygen - Essential Nutrients for Plants - Nitrogen (Supplied as Nitrate ions - NO3-) - Phosphorus (Supplied as Phosphate ions - PO43-) - Potassium (Supplied as Potassium ions - K+) - Other Elements for Protein Synthesis and Processes - Organic Content and Decomposers - Earthworms - Break Down Vegetation - Mix and Aerate Soil - Spread Organic Matter - Fungi - Feed on Dead Matter - Aid Nutrient Uptake - Bacteria - Work on Organic Matter - Convert Waste to Chemicals - Contribute to Nitrogen Cycle - High Organic Matter Levels - Water-Holding Capacity Increase - Improved Air Spaces - More Decomposers, Tunnels, and Burrows - Prevent Mineral Nutrient Loss - Soil pH - Influenced by Parent Rock and Water pH - Affects Nutrient Uptake and Availability - pH Adjustment by Farmers - Acidify (Using Acidic Fertilizers) - Alkalize (Add Ground Limestone) - Soil Texture: Sand vs. Clay - Sand - Larger Air Spaces - Good Drainage - Poor Humus Retention - Easy to Cultivate - Clay - Poor Air Spaces - Poor Drainage - Retains Humus - Hard to Cultivate - Drainage and Cultivation - Moderate Drainage Ideal - Ease of Cultivation Determines Ploughing Difficulty - Agriculture Types - Subsistence Agriculture - Cultivation for Farmer's Needs - Surplus for Barter or Cash - Examples: Wheat, Rice - Commercial Agriculture - Cultivation for Sale - Some for Farmer's Use - Examples: Tea, Coffee, Cocoa, Sugarcane, Cotton, Rice, Wheat, Corn - Arable Agriculture - Plants for Human Consumption - Examples: Rice, Wheat, Maize, Soybeans - Pastoral Agriculture - Animals or Animal Products - Examples: Grass/Grain, Milk, Wool, Eggs - Mixed Agriculture - Crops and Animal Rearing - Increasing Agricultural Yields - Crop Management Strategies - Crop Rotation - Different Plants Each Year - Legumes - Nitrogen-Fixing Bacteria - Leafy Crops - High Nitrogen Requirement - Root Crops - Deep Root Systems - Fallow Periods - Soil Fertility Restoration - Advantages of Crop Rotation - Diseases Left Behind - Reduced Pest Population - Essential Nutrients in Soil - Staggered Harvests - Fertilizers - Organic - Natural Resources - Supplies Organic Matter - Variable Composition - Inorganic - Specific Nutrient Delivery - Storage Ease - Quick and Slow Acting - Irrigation - Importance of Water - Plant Water Needs - Cell Activity - Photosynthesis - Nutrient Uptake - Water Quality Requirements - Pollution-Free - Low Salt Content - Common Water Application Methods - Overhead Sprinklers - Advantages - Easy to setup - Covers large area - No need for individual pipes - Disadvantages - Large droplets can cap soil - Small droplets blown by wind - Water on leaves evaporates quickly - Clay Pot Irrigation System - Advantages - Simple technology - Easy water amount check - High efficiency - Disadvantages - Suitable only for permanent plants - Requires significant labor - Trickle Drip System - Advantages - Water at plant base - Automated and controlled - Efficient water use - Disadvantages - Expensive installation - Complex maintenance - Tubes can get blocked by grit - Inflexible, not easily moved - Flood Irrigation - Advantages - Inexpensive - Covers large areas quickly - Disadvantages - Inefficient water use - Damages soil structure - Pest and Pest Control - Pest - Animal that attacks or feeds on crops - Pesticide - Used to control pests - Weed Control - Herbicides for killing weeds - Reasons for Weed Control - Competition for resources - Reduced crop quality - Poisonous potential - Cultivation difficulty - Drainage system blockage - Source of pests and diseases - Impact on aesthetics (tourism) - Advantages of Herbicides - Easier management - Potential effectiveness - Lower cost - Predictable results - Reduced labor requirement - Rapid effect - Cultural Controls - Alternatives to Herbicides - Hand Weeding and Hoeing - Weed Barriers - Flame Guns - Crop Diseases - Caused by Fungi, Bacteria, Viruses - Most Common: Fungal Diseases - Controlled by Fungicides - Insect Control - Insecticides - Chemicals for Controlling Insects - Alternative Approaches in Agriculture - Biological Control - Using Natural Predators - Advantages - No Chemical Residues - No Spray Impact - No Reapplication - Disadvantages - Not Instant like Chemical Control - Potential for Predator Over-breeding - Unintended Predation - Natural Predator Lifespan - Mechanization - Larger Cultivation Area - Reduced Labor Costs - All-Weather Ploughing - Attachments for Fertilizers, Pesticides - Selective Breeding - Desired Characteristics - Steps - Choose Parents with Desired Traits - Raise Offspring - Select Best Offspring - Repeat Process - Examples: Beef Cattle, Dairy Cattle, Wheat, Rice - Drawbacks: Slow Process, Limited Success Rate - Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) - DNA Insertion from One Organism to Another - Advantages - Disease and Pest Resistance - Increased Nutritional Value - Growth in Challenging Environments - Extended Crop Storage - Disadvantages - Potential Impact on Human Health - Non-Natural Products - Genetic Spread to Wild Plants, Biodiversity Reduction - Herbicide Resistance Increase - Reduced Genetic Diversity - Controlled Environments - Greenhouses for Managed Growth - Greenhouse and Environmental Management - Greenhouse Definition - Enclosed Structure for Plant Growth - Environment Control for Optimal Growth - Growth Factors - Temperature - Increase: Operate Heating System (e.g., Insulation) - Decrease: Open Roof Ventilators - Light - Increase: Supplementary Lighting - Decrease: Shading Material in Roof - Humidity - Increase: Misting Units - Decrease: Open Roof Ventilators - Day Length - Increase: Supplementary Lighting - Decrease: Shading Material and Curtains - Water - Increase: Sprinkler or Irrigation - Decrease: Adequate Drainage Material Underneath - Impact of Agriculture - Overuse of Herbicides and Insecticides - Pest Resistance - Environmental Damage - Spray Drift - Chemical Leaching - Overuse of Fertilizers - Wastage of Nutrients - Leaching and Eutrophication - Health Impacts (Nitrates) - pH Imbalance and Toxicity - Dehydration and Imbalanced Growth - Mismanagement of Irrigation - Soil Compaction - Oxygen Deprivation - Nutrient Loss - Runoff and Erosion - Soil Capping and Salinization - Overproduction and Waste - Unsold Crop Portions - Storage Space and Transportation - Quality and Labor Waste - Exhaustion of Mineral Content - Depleted Soil Nutrients - Solutions: Crop Rotation, Mixed Cropping, Fallow Land - Soil Erosion - Vulnerability due to Overcultivation - Cash Crops vs. Food Crops - Decline in Staple Food Availability - Causes and Impacts of Soil Erosion - Causes of Soil Erosion - Removal of Natural Vegetation - Loss of Root Binding - Flash Flooding and Run-off - Overcultivation - Soil Particle Breakage - Wind Carriage - Overgrazing - Reduced Vegetation and Roots - Soil Compaction - Wind Erosion - Deforestation - Arable Crop Development - Water Erosion - Heavy Rainfall - Excess Run-off - Soil Compaction - Gully Erosion - Impacts of Soil Erosion - Topsoil Removal - Loss of Productive Layer - Subsoil Nutrient and Air Loss - Habitat Loss - Organisms in Topsoil - Ecosystem Impact - Silting of Water Courses - Flood Risk - Lagoon Formation - Water Quality Impact - Drinking Water - Aquatic Organisms - Desertification - Fertile Land to Desert - Drought and Migration - Famine and Malnutrition - Managing Soil Erosion - Terracing - Prevents Erosion on Steep Slopes - Water Held in Terraced Areas - Useful for Rice Cultivation - Contour Ploughing - Ploughing Along Contours - Prevents Gully Formation - Useful for All Slope Gradients - Bunds - Artificial Banks at Growing Edges - Retains Water for Moist Soil Crops - Increases Soil Quantity and Fertility - Windbreaks - Permeable Barrier to Reduce Wind Impact - Prevents Wind Erosion - Provides Habitats for Beneficial Insects - Maintaining Vegetation Cover - Sowing Legumes After Harvest - Binding Soil and Adding Nitrogen - 'No Dig' Method - Existing Vegetation Left - Use of Herbicides for Weed Control - Soil Bound by Existing Roots - Addition of Organic Matter - Improves Soil Structure - Increases Decomposers - Acts as a Sponge, Preventing Dehydration - Reduces Soil Erosion - Planting Trees - Acts as Windbreak - Provides Shade and Habitat - Adds Organic Matter - Mixed Cropping - Efficient Resource Use - Intercropping - Maximizes Space and Resources - Crop Rotation - Rotating Crop Types for Yield Benefits - Sustainable Agriculture - Aims of Sustainable Agriculture - Meet Population Needs - Efficient Resource Use - Support Natural Ecosystems - Sustain Economic Independence - Organic Fertilizers - Slow Acting, Reduces Eutrophication Risk - Waste Product, Saves Disposal Costs - Low Transport Costs, Already on Farms - No Energy for Manufacture - Improves Soil Structure - Managed Grazing - Prevents Overgrazing - Ensures Adequate Grazing - Maintains Soil Fertility - Prevents Soil Compaction - Crop Rotation - Enhances Soil Health - Pest and Disease Management - Use of Pest-Resistant Varieties - Reduces Pesticide Use - Use of Drought-Resistant Varieties - Reduces Water Usage - Use of Herbicide-Resistant Varieties - Reduces Herbicide Use - Trickle Drip Irrigation - Efficient Water Use - Rainwater Harvesting - Collect Rainwater for Storage and Use CHPAYTER 4 - Water and Its Management - Global Water Distribution - Oceans - Cover 71% of Earth's Surface - Contain 97% of Earth's Water - Freshwater - Only 3% of Earth's Water - Two Thirds (65%) in Ice Sheets - The Water Cycle - Precipitation - Rain, Sleet, Snow, Hail - Rain Most Common - Surface Run-off - Flows Over Ground Surface - Into Streams and Rivers - Interception - Obstructed by Trees and Plants - Precipitation Doesn't Reach Surface - Infiltration - Precipitation Soaks into Sub-surface Soils - Moves into Rocks Through Cracks - Through-flow - Downslope Movement Through Soil - Roughly Parallel to Ground Surface - Groundwater Flow - Slow Horizontal Movement Through Rock - Evaporation - Water to Water Vapor in Atmosphere - From Oceans, Seas, Water Bodies - Transpiration - Evaporation from Plant Leaves - Condensation - Water Vapor to Liquid or Solid - Decrease in Temperature with Height - Formation of Clouds - Water Supply - Surface Water - Lakes, Rivers, Swamps - Groundwater - Water in Soil and Rocks - Aquifers - Water Stored in Porous Rocks - Permeable and Impermeable Layers - Folded Rock Layers - Outcropping Permeable Rocks - Mechanical Pumps or Human Labor - Artesian Aquifers - Water Under Pressure - Potable - Safe to Drink - Reservoirs - Artificial Lakes as Water Sources - Created by Dams or Rivers - Service Reservoirs - Water Tower, Cistern - Wells - Bored or Dug Holes into Rock - Reach Water Stored in Rocks - Rivers - Natural Streams of Water - Provide Surface Transfers of Water - Desalination - Removal of Salt from Seawater - Distillation - Boiling, Condensation - Energy-Intensive, Salt Waste - Reverse Osmosis - Pumping Water through Membrane - More Efficient, Less Energy - Water Usage - Domestic - Drinking and Cooking (3%) - Washing and Flushing Toilet (50%) - Washing Clothes (20%) - Gardening - Washing Cars - Lost in Leaks - Industrial - Factories Use Water For: - Cooling - Mixing and Production - Bottling and Canning - Power Generation - Agricultural - Mainly for Irrigation - Transporting Minerals - Photosynthesis - Prevention of Wilting - Domestic Animals - Water Quality and Availability - Water-rich Countries - Plentiful Fresh Water Supplies - Large Countries with Ample Land for Rain - Note: - Big Areas ≠ Water Availability - Desert Regions Impact Availability - Examples: Australia, Argentina, Sudan - Water-poor Countries - Scarce Fresh Water Supplies - Dominated by Desert Countries - Exceptions: - Singapore - Mauritius (Small Island States) - Water Conflict - Conflict Over Access to Water Resources - Physical Water Scarcity - Not Enough Water for Human and Ecosystem Needs - Arid Regions Suffer - Abundance vs Over-commitment - Economic Water Scarcity - Lack of Water Infrastructure Investment - Insufficient Human Capacity - Affordability Issue - Urban vs Rural Water Access - Urban Areas - Better Access to Safe Drinking Water - Wealthier, Factories, Offices - Higher Incomes, Political Influence - Concentrated Population - Easier and Cheaper Infrastructure - Rural Areas - Multipurpose Dam Projects - Example: Ramganga Dam, Uttarakhand, India - Choice of Site - High Precipitation - Low Temperature - Strong Impermeable Rock - Elevated Location - Narrow, Steep-Sided Valley - Nearby Rivers and Lakes - Accessible Location - Advantages - Generation of Electricity - Flood Control - Irrigation - Recreation and Tourism - Water Provision - Habitat Creation - Accessible Areas - Renewable Energy Source - Reduced Fossil Fuel Consumption - Disadvantages - Population Relocation - Land Flooding - Disruption of Aquatic Life Cycles - Redundancy Due to Sediment Buildup - High Construction Cost - Maintenance Requirements - Economic Impact on Farmers - Altered Water Supply Downstream - Soil Enrichment Reduction Downstream - Sustainability of Dams - Alternative to Fossil Fuels - Reduced Greenhouse Gas Emissions - Unsustainability of Dams - Reservoir Siltation - Structural Deterioration - Environmental and Fish Population Impact
