CSCS Study Guide
Chapter 1: Structure & Function of the Muscular, Neuromuscular, Cardiovascular, & Respiratory Systems
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Muscular system
o Muscle is surrounded by epimysium
o Tendon connects to bone periosteum, a specialized connective tissue covering all bones
o Under the epimysium the muscle fibers are grouped in bundles (fasciculus) which are surrounded by
perimysium
o Each individual muscle fiber is surrounded by endomysium
o The fibers actual membrane is the sarcolemma
o Each of the connective tissues are continuous with the tendon
o Neuromuscular junction- junction between the motor neuron & the muscle fiber it innervates
o Motor unit- a motor neuron & all the muscle fibers it innervates
o Sarcoplasm- cytoplasm of a muscle fiber; contains contractile components, proteins filaments, glycogen,
mitochondria, sarcoplasmic reticulum
o Myofibrils- make up muscle fiber; contain myosin & actin
o Sarcomere- smallest contractile unit
 A b&- corresponds with the alignment of the myosin filaments
 I b&- corresponds with the areas that contain only actin filaments
 Z line- middle of I b& & where the actin filaments are anchored
 H zone- the center of the sarcomere where only myosin filaments are present
o Sliding filament theory
 Resting phase
 Little calcium is present in the myofibril (most of it is stored in the sarcoplasmic reticulum)
 Excitation-contraction coupling phase
 Sarcoplasmic reticulum release calcium, which binds with troponin, which causes a shift in
tropomyosin. This shift uncovers the binding spot on actin for myosin. The number of cross
bridges that are attached to actin filaments at any instant in time dictates the force production
of a muscle
 Contraction phase
 Energy comes from hydrolysis of ATP to ADP & phosphate (catalyzed by ATPase)
 Calcium must be provided for the eventual shift of tropomyosin
 ATP must replace ADP on myosin head in order for the head to detach from the actin site &
re-cock
 Recharge phase
 Measurable muscle shortening transpires only when all these events are repeated over & over
again throughout the muscle fiber. This occurs as long as calcium & ATP is available
 Relaxation phase
 Occurs when the stimulation of the motor nerve stops
 Calcium is pumped back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum
 Actin & myosin return to their unbound state
Neuromuscular system
o Activation of muscles
 Action potential hits nerve terminalAch diffuses across neuromuscular junction, causing
excitation of sarcolemmaaction potential generated across sarcolemmafiber contracts
 All of the muscle fibers in the motor unit contract & develop force at the same time
 All or none principle
 A twitch can occur & if they occur close enough together, tetanus happens
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o Muscle fiber types
 Slow twitch & fast twitch fibers
 Type I (slow twitch) - high fatigue resistance, endurance, aerobic enzyme count, myoglobin content,
capillary density, & mitochondria density. Low force/power production & anaerobic enzyme
content. Small fiber diameter & motor neuron size. Slow nerve conduction velocity &
contraction/relaxation speed. Red in color.
 Type IIa (fast twitch) - large motor neuron size. Fast conduction velocity & contraction/relaxation
speed. High anaerobic enzyme content & low myoglobin content. Intermediate in everything else.
White/red in color.
 Type IIx (fast twitch) – the complete opposite of type IIa
 Table 1.1 page 10
o Motor unit recruitment
o Preloading
 Some of the muscle fibers that are active early in the ROM will not be fully activated unless the
muscle is loaded prior to muscle action
o Proprioception
 Proprioceptors are specialized sensory receptors located within joints, muscles, & tendons
 Provide the CNS with info needed to maintain muscle tone & perform complex coordinated
movements
o Older muscle
 Muscle function is reduced in old people
 Sarcopenia- inactivity plays a major role
 Muscle atrophy with ageing results from losses in both number & size of muscle fibers
 Muscle quality also decreases with age
Cardiovascular system
o Heart- atrium & ventricles
o Valves- tricuspid & bicuspid (mitral) valves, aortic & pulmonary valves
o Conduction system
 SA nodeinternodal pathwaysAV nodebundle of HISleft & right bundle branchespurkinje
fibers
o Electrocardiogram
 Records electrical activity of the heart
 P,QRS, T waves
Respiratory system
o Trachearight & left bronchibronchioles
Chapter 2: Bioenergetics of Exercise & Training
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Terminology
o Exergonic reaction-energy releasing reaction
o Endergonic reaction- require energy
o Metabolism- the total of all the catabolic (exergonic) & anabolic (endergonic) reactions
o Calcium ATPase- hydrolyze ATP for pumping calcium into the sarcoplasmic reticulum
o Sodium ATPase- hydrolyze ATP for maintaining the sarcolemmal concentration gradient after
depolarization
Phosphagen system
o Provides ATP for short term, high intensity activities & is active at the start of all exercise regardless of
intensity
o ADP+CP(creatine kinase)ATP+Creatine
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o Body stores approximately 80-100 grams of ATP at any given time
o Phosphagen system uses the creatine kinase reaction to maintain the concentration of ATP
o Under normal circumstances, skeletal muscle concentrations of CP are 4-6 times higher than ATP
concentrations, which serves as an energy reserve
o 2ADP(adenylate kinase)ATP+AMP
 This reaction can rapidly replenish ATP as well
o Law of mass action (or mass action effect)
 States that the concentrations of reactants or products in solution will drive the direction of the
reactions
Glycolysis
o Breakdown of glycogen or glucose to resynthesize ATP
o End result is Pyruvate, which can be converted to lactate (anaerobic/fast glycolysis; ATP resynthesis occurs
at a faster rate, but is limited in duration) or shuttled into the mitochondria (Krebs cycle; ATP resynthesis is
slower, but can occur for a longer duration, aerobic/slow glycolysis)
o Net gain: 4 NADH & 2 ATP
o Figure 2.2 page 25
o Glycolysis & the formation of lactate
 Formation of lactate from Pyruvate is catalyzed by lactate dehydrogenase
 H+ accumulation reduces intracellular pH, inhibits glycolytic reactions, & interferes with muscle’s
excitation-contraction coupling
 Decrease in pH inhibits enzymatic turnover rate of the cell’s energy systems
 Metabolic acidosis- exercise induced decrease in pH
 Cori cycle- lactate gets transported to the liver where it is converted to glucose
 Blood lactate is greater following high intensity exercise
 Trained people experience lower blood lactate concentrations than untrained people
 Glucose+2Pi+2ADP2Lactate+2ATP+H2O
o Glucose leading to the Krebs cycle
 If O2 is present pyruvate is transported to the mitochondria
 Pyruvate is converted to acetyl-CoA which enters the Krebs cycle
o Energy yield of glycolysis
 When blood glucose is used there is a net gain of 2 ATP because the phosphorylation of blood
glucose (done by hexokinase) requires ATP
 When muscle glycogen is used there is a net gain of 3 ATP because when it is broken down to
glucose (done by glycogen phosphorylase) the glucose is already phosphorylated
o Control of glycolysis
 Stimulated by high concentration of ADP & by a slight decrease in pH
 Inhibited by markedly lower pH, ATP, CP, & citrate
 Allosteric inhibition- when an end product binds to the regulatory enzyme & decreases its turnover
rate & slows product formation
 Allosteric activation- when an “activator” binds with the enzyme & increases its turnover rate
 Hexokinase- catalyzes the phosphorylation of glucose; allosterically inhibited by the concentration
of glucose-6-phosphate (the product of the phosphorylation of glucose)
 PFK- the most important regulator of glycolysis, it’s the rate limiting step; ATP is an allosteric
inhibitor of PFK, therefore as ATP concentrations rise PFK slows down glycolysis; AMP is an
allosteric activator (AMP concentrations rise due to adenylate kinase reaction)
o Lactate threshold- intensity at which blood lactate begins an abrupt increase above the baseline conc.;
represents an increasing reliance on anaerobic mechanisms; 50-60% VO2 max UT, 70-80% VO2 max Tr.
o OBLA- occurs when blood lactate reaches 4mmol/L
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Oxidative system
o Primary source of ATP at rest & during low intensity activity
o Uses carbohydrates & fats as substrates
o At rest around 70% of ATP produced is from fats & 30% from carbs
o Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle, tricarboxylic acid cycle)
 Produces 2 ATP indirectly from GTP
 Produces 6 NADH, 2 FADH; these molecules transport H atoms to the electron transport chain
 H atoms are passed down a chain of cytochromes to form a proton concentration gradient to
provide energy for ATP production
 O2 is the final electron acceptor, producing water.
 1 NADH can produce 3 molecules of ATP & 1 FADH2 can produce 2 molecules of ATP
o Results in production of 38 ATP from one molecule of blood glucose
o Results in production of 39 ATP from one molecule of muscle glycogen
o Fat oxidation
 Hormone sensitive lipase breaks down triglycerides
 Free fatty acids are released into the blood where they enter muscle fibers
 Free fatty acids undergo beta oxidation in the mitochondria
 Results in acetyl-CoA, which enters the Krebs cycle
 1 molecule of glycerol produces 22 ATP
 18 carbon fatty acid produces 441 ATP
o Protein oxidation
 Only occurs during starvation or workout bouts longer than 90 minutes
 Can be broken down into amino acids, which can be used during gluconeogenesis or converted to
pyruvate
 BCAAs are the major amino acids oxidized in skeletal muscle
 Nitrogenous wastes are eliminated through urea & ammonia
o Control of oxidative system
 The rate limiting step in the Krebs cycle is the conversion of isocitrate to alpha ketoglutarate, done
by isocitrate dehydrogenase
 Isocitrate dehydrogenase is stimulated by ADP & allosterically inhibited by ATP
 If NAD & FAD aren’t available to accept H, than Krebs cycle is reduced
 When GTP concentrations increase, it prevents the first step in the Krebs cycle
 The electron transport chain is inhibited by ATP & stimulated by ADP
o Energy production & capacity
 In general, there is an inverse relationship between a given energy system’s maximum rate of
ATP production & the total amount of ATP it is capable of producing over a long period
 The extent to which each energy system contributes to ATP production depends primarily on
the intensity of muscular activity & secondarily on the duration. At no times does any single
energy system provide the complete supply of energy
Effect of event duration & intensity on energy system used:
Duration of event
0-6 sec
6-30 sec
30 sec to 2 min
2-3 min
>3 min
Intensity of event
Extremely high
Very high
High
Moderate
Low
Primary energy systems
Phosphagen
Phosphagen & fast glycolysis
Fast glycolysis
Fast glycolysis & oxidative system
Oxidative system
Rankings of rate & capacity of ATP production
System
Phosphagen
Fast glycolysis
Slow glycolysis
Oxidation of carbs
Oxidation of fats/protein
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Rate of ATP production
1
2
3
4
5
Capacity of ATP production
5
4
3
2
1
Substrate depletion & repletion
o Phosphagens
 Creatine phosphate can decrease 50-70% in the first 5-30 seconds of high intensity exercise & can
be almost eliminated as a result of very intense exercise to exhaustion
 Post-exercise phosphagen repletion can occur within 8 minutes & is largely accomplished as a result
of anaerobic metabolism
 Aerobic endurance training may increase resting concentrations of phosphagens & decrease their
rate of depletion at a given absolute submaximal power output
o Glycogen
 About 300-400 grams of glycogen are stored in the body’s muscle & 70-100 grams in the liver
 Anaerobic & aerobic training can increase muscle glycogen stores
 At intensities higher than 60% of max VO2, muscle glycogen becomes an increasingly important
energy substrate
 Repletion of muscle glycogen during recovery is related to post-exercise carb ingestion
 Repletion is optimal if 0.7-3 g/kg is ingested every 2 hours following exercise
O2 uptake & the aerobic & anaerobic contributions to exercise
o During low intensity exercise with a constant power output, O2 uptake increases for the first few minutes
until a steady state is reached
o At the start of exercise, some of the energy must be supplied through anaerobic mechanisms. This is the O2
deficit
o After exercise, O2 uptake remains above pre-exercise levels. This is the excess post-exercise O2
consumption (EPOC)
o EPOC is the O2 uptake above resting values used to restore the body to pre-exercise conditions
Metabolic specificity of training
o Interval training
 Method that emphasizes bioenergetic adaptations for a more efficient energy transfer within the
metabolic pathways by using predetermined intervals of exercise & rest periods
 Properly spaced work to rest intervals allow more work to be accomplished at higher exercise
intensities with the same or less fatigue than during continuous training at the same relative intensity
o Combination training
 It has been suggested to ass endurance training to anaerobic athletes since recovery relies primarily
on aerobic mechanisms
 Aerobic training may reduce anaerobic performance capabilities for high strength/power athletes. It
can also reduce the gain in muscle girth, max strength, & speed/power related performance
 Extensive aerobic training to enhance recovery from anaerobic events is not necessary & may be
counterproductive in most strength & power sports
Using interval training to train specific energy systems
% of max power
90-100
75-90
30-75
20-30
Primary system stressed
Phosphagen
Fast glycolysis
Fast glycolysis/oxidative
Oxidative
Typical exercise time
5-10 sec
15-30 sec
1-3 min
>3 min
Range of work/rest ratios
1:12 to 1:20
1:3 to 1:5
1:3 to 1:4
1:1 to 1:3
Chapter 3: endocrine responses to resistance exercise
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Role of receptors in mediating hormonal changes
o Lock & key theory- a given hormone interacts with a given receptor; the receptor is the lock & the hormone
is the key
o Cross reactivity- a given receptor partially interacts with hormones that are not specifically designed for it;
when this occurs the resulting action is different from those induced by the primary hormone
o Allosteric binding site- substances other than hormones can enhance or reduce the cellular response to the
primary hormone
o Downregulation- the inability of a hormone to interact with a receptor
o Receptors may have a number of domains- outside of the cell membrane, within the cell membrane, or
partly inside & outside of the cell membrane
o Receptors have the ability to increase or decrease their binding sensitivity & the number of receptors can be
altered as well
Steroid vs. polypeptide hormones
o Steroid hormone interactions
 Hormones from the adrenal cortex & gonads
 Fat soluble & passively diffuse across the sarcolemma of a muscle fiber
 After diffusing across the sarcolemma, the hormone binds with its receptor to form a hormone
receptor complex (H-RC), causing a conformational shift in the receptor & activating it
 The H-RC arrives at the cell’s nucleus & “opens” it in order to expose transcriptional units that code
for the synthesis of specific proteins
o Polypeptide hormone interactions
 Made up of amino acids
 Can bind to hormones in the blood or to receptors in the cell membrane of target tissue
 Require secondary messengers because they are not fat soluble
Adaptations in the endocrine system
o Amount of synthesis & storage of hormones
o Transport of hormones via binding proteins
o Time needed for the clearance of hormones through liver & other tissues
o Amount of hormonal degradation that takes place over a given period of time
o How much blood to tissue fluid shift occurs with exercise stress
o How tightly the hormone binds (receptor affinity) to its receptor
o How many receptor are on the tissue
o The magnitude of the signal sent to the cell nucleus by the H-RC or secondary messenger
o The degree of interaction with the cell nucleus (which dictates how much muscle protein to produce)
Primary anabolic hormones
o Testosterone
 Primary androgen hormone that interacts with skeletal muscle tissue
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Following secretion from the testes (men) & the ovaries & adrenal glands (women), it’s transported
to target tissues by a transport protein. At the tissue, it crosses the cell membrane & binds to its
receptor, eventually causing an increase in DNA transcription & protein synthesis
 Serum testosterone concentrations can be increased by doing large muscle group activities, heavy
resistance, high volume of exercise, & short rest intervals
 Men have higher testosterone levels in the morning & drop throughout the day; so increase in the
morning might be easier, but exercise induced increases later in the day are more effective for
increasing overall testosterone concentrations for an entire day
 Women have much lower concentration & their concentrations don’t fluctuate
 Free testosterone & sex hormone binding globulin
 A higher total bound testosterone level allows for the potential of more free testosterone
 One study showed that free testosterone remains the same or decreases after RT exercises,
but younger men have higher concentrations of free testosterone after workouts
 Testosterone responses in women- not shit happens
 Training adaptations
 In men, acute increases in testosterone are observed if the exercise stimulus is adequate
 Resistance exercise & training increase the muscle androgen receptor content
 May have a role in nervous system development in long term training
o Growth hormone
 Anterior pituitary gland secretes it
 With RT it enhances cellular amino acid uptake & protein synthesis in skeletal muscle
 Main physiological roles:
 Decreases glucose utilization & glycogen synthesis
 Increases amino acid transport across cell membranes, protein synthesis, utilization of fatty
acids, lipolysis, availability of glucose & amino acids, collagen synthesis, cartilage growth,
& renal plasma flow & retention
 Promotes compensatory renal hypertrophy & enhances immune cell function
 GH interacts directly with target tissue & may also be mediated by a separate set of hormones
 Highest levels are during night & sleep
 It is released into the peripheral circulation, where it attaches to specific binding proteins
 In general GH acts by binding to plasma membrane bound receptors on the target cells
 Efficacy of pharmacological GH
 Exercise induced hypertrophy is different from hypertrophy resulting from GH injections;
the force production in muscle fibers consequent to exercise induced hypertrophy is superior
 GH injections result in a wide variety of secondary effects not related to changes in muscle
size or strength
 GH responses to stress- a significant stimulus is increased H ion & lactate concentrations
 GH responses in women- women’s reduced concentrations of testosterone & different resting
hormonal concentrations over the course of the menstrual cycle appear to be their most striking
neuroendocrine difference. How such differences relate to training adaptations remains to be
demonstrated
 Training adaptation of GH
 Not really understood
 One study showed that large increase were observed in serum GH concentrations with a short
rest & 10RM over three sets
 If H ions & lactate increase GH, a higher intensity therefore could increase GH
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o Insulin like growth factors (IGFs)
 Some of the effects of GH are mediated through small polypeptides called IGFs
 The liver secrets IGFs after the GH stimulates liver cell DNA to synthesize them
 IGFs travel in the blood bound to binding proteins; in the target tissue, IGFs dissociate from the
binding proteins & interact with the receptors
 IGFs have been shown to stimulate the secretion of its own binding proteins from within the muscle
cell itself
 The circulating IGF binding proteins play an important role in restricting access of the IGF peptides
to receptors & are influenced by GH concentrations
 Nutritional status & insulin levels also have been shown to be important signal mechanisms for IGF
release. Acute changes in nitrogen balance & protein intake can affect IGF release.
 Exercise responses of IGF- acute increases, but don’t know why
 Training adaptations of IGFs
 Responses to RT are unclear, but recent reports demonstrate that changes are based on the
starting concentrations before training
 Basically nobody knows shit
Adrenal hormones
o Cortisol
 Secreted by adrenal cortex
 Exerts its major catabolic effects by converting amino acids to carbs, increasing the level of
proteolytic enzymes, & inhibiting protein synthesis
 Resistance exercise responses of cortisol
 Cortisol increases with RT, most dramatically when rest periods are short & the volume is
high
 Chronic high levels of cortisol may have adverse catabolic effects; acute increases may
contribute to the remodeling of muscle tissue
o Catecholamines
 Epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine
 Secreted by adrenal medulla
 Act as central motor stimulators & peripheral vascular dilators & enhance enzyme systems in muscle
 RT induces stress leads to events similar to the fight or flight response
 Role of catecholamines
 Increase force production via central mechanisms & increase metabolic enzyme activity
 Increase muscle contraction rate, BP, energy availability, & blood flow
 Augment secretion of other hormones, such as testosterone
 Training adaptations of catecholamines
 Heavy RT has shown to increase the ability of the athlete to secrete greater amounts of
epinephrine during max exercise
Chapter 4: Biomechanics of Resistance Exercise
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Synergist- when a muscle indirectly assists in a movement; the muscles that stabilize the scapula during upper arm
movement are synergists
Fulcrum- the pivot point of a lever
Moment arm- perpendicular distance from the line of action of the force to the fulcrum
Torque- degree to which a force rotates an object about a fulcrum; force times the length of its moment arm
Muscle force- force generated by biomechanical activity
Resistive force- force generated by a source external to the body
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Mechanical advantage- ratio of the moment arm through which & applied force acts to that through which a
resistive force acts; a mechanical advantage greater than 1 allows the applied force to be greater than the resistive
force to produce an equal amount of torque; a mechanical advantage less than 1 is a disadvantage
1st class lever- the muscle force & resistive force act on opposite sides of the fulcrum; elbow extension against
resistance
2nd class lever- the muscle force & resistive force act on the same side of the fulcrum, with the muscle force acting
through a moment arm longer than that through which the resistive force acts; when the calf muscles work to raise
the body onto the balls of the feet, due to its mechanical advantage the required muscle force is smaller than the
resistive force
3rd class lever- muscle force & resistive force act on the same side of the fulcrum, with the muscle force acting
through a moment arm shorter than that through which the resistive force acts; elbow flexion against resistance, the
mechanical advantage is less than 1, so the muscle force has to be greater than the resistive force to produce torque
equal to that produced by the resistive force
Mechanical advantage (MA) often changes: the patella increase the MA of the quads by maintaining the quads
tendon’s distance from the knees axis of rotation; during elbow flexion of the biceps the moment arm changes, at
the beginning it is short (less MA) & when your arm is at 90 degrees it is longest (higher MA)
Variations in tendon insertion
o A person whose tendons are inserted on the bone farther from the joint center should be able to lift more
weight because the muscle force acts through a longer moment arm
o The MA gained by having tendons insert farther from the joint center is accompanied by a loss of max
speed because the muscle has to contract more to make the joint move through a given ROM
o To produce a given joint rotational velocity, a muscle inserted farther from the joint center must contract at
a higher speed, at which it can generate less force due to the inverse force velocity relationship of the
muscle (force velocity curve)
Anatomical planes
o Sagittal plane- left & right halves; barbell curls
o Frontal plane- front & back halves; lateral dumbbell raise
o Transverse plane- top & bottom halves; dumbbell flies, rotational exercises
Acceleration- change in velocity per unit time
Force = mass times acceleration
Strength- the maximal force that a muscle can generate at a specified velocity
Work = force times distance
Power = work/time
Force is measured in newtons, distance in meters, work in joules (N*m), time in seconds, & power in watts (J/s)
Biomechanical factors in human strength
o Neural control
 Affects max force output of a muscle by determining which & how many motor units are involved
in a muscle contraction & the rate at which the motor units are fired
 Muscle force is greater when more motor units are involved in a contraction, the motor units are
greater in size, & the rate of firing is faster
 Much of the improvement in strength in the 1st few weeks of training is attributable to neural
adaptations; as the brain learns how to generate more force from a given amount of contractile tissue
o Muscle cross sectional area
 The force a muscle can exert is related to its cross sectional area rather than to its volume
o Arrangement of muscle fibers
 Muscles with greater angle of pennation have more sarcomeres in parallel & fewer sarcomeres in
series; therefore they can generate force better, but have a lower max shortening velocity
o Muscle length
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When a muscle is at resting length, the actin & myosin filaments lie next to each other; so a max
number of cross bridge sites are available & the muscle can generate the greatest force
 When a muscle is stretched, a smaller proportion of actin & myosin filaments lie next to each other;
there are fewer cross bridge sites & the muscle can’t generate as much force
 When the muscle contracts to much, the actin filaments overlap which also reduces the number of
cross bridge sites
o Muscle contraction velocity
 The force capability of muscle declines as the velocity of contraction increases
o Strength to mass ratio
 Directly reflects an athlete’s ability to accelerate their body
 When body size increases, muscle volume increase proportionately more than does muscle cross
sectional area
o Body size
 Load lifted divided by body weight to the 2/3 power
Sources of resistance to muscle contraction
o Gravity
o Inertia
 When weight is held in a static position or moved at a constant velocity, it exerts constant resistance
only in the downward direction
 Upward or lateral acceleration of the weight requires additional force
o Friction
 It takes more force to initiate movement than to maintain that initiated movement
 Friction coefficient changes with the surface
o Fluid resistance
 The resistive force encountered by an object moving through a fluid (liquid or gas), or by a fluid
moving past or around an object
 Big factor in swimming, rowing, golf, & throwing events
o Elasticity
 The more the elastic component is stretched, the greater the resistance
 Every exercise movement begins with low resistance & ends in high resistance which is contrary to
force capability patterns in human muscles, which show a drop off in force capability towards the
end of the ROM
Joint biomechanics: concerns in RT
o Back injury- a slightly arched back is superior to a rounded back for avoiding injury
o Intra abdominal pressure & lifting belts- valsalva maneuver is unnecessary & can be dangerous;
weightlifting belts can increase intra abdominal pressure which can be beneficial but you don’t want to wear
it all the time because then the muscles won’t get enough stimulus, only wear belts for exercises directly
stressing the lower back & with heavy weight
o Shoulders- has the greatest ROM & poor structure which is why it’s very prone to injury
o Knees- prone to injury because of its location between 2 long levers
Specificity
o Training is most effective when exercises are similar to the sport activity
o Supplementary exercises specific to the sport can provide a training advantage & reduce the chance of
injury
Chapter 5: Adaptations to Anaerobic Training Programs
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Neural adaptations
o Central adaptations
 Primary motor cortex activity increases when the level of force developed increase & when new
exercises or movements are being learned
o Adaptations of motor units
 With heavy RT, all muscle fibers get larger because they are recruited in consecutive order by their
size to produce high levels of force. The CNS might adapt by allowing athletes to recruit some
motor units not in consecutive order, recruiting larger ones first to help with greater production of
power or speed
 Selective recruitment of fast twitch motor units may occur under certain circumstances that allow an
athlete to inhibit lower threshold motor units & in their place activate the higher threshold motor
units critical to optimal speed & power performance
 A muscle doesn’t require as much neural activation to lift a load after it increases in size
 Anaerobic training can enhance the firing rates of recruited motor units
o Neuromuscular junction (NMJ)
 More dispersed, irregularly shaped synapses & a greater total length of nerve terminal branching
 Increased end plate perimeter length & area, as well as greater dispersion of Ach receptors within
the end plate region
o Neuromuscular reflex potentiation
 Muscle spindle/stretch reflex is enhanced
o Electromyography studies
 Cross education- training one limb can result in an increase in strength in the untrained limb
 In untrained people, a bilateral deficit occurs. The force produced when both limbs contract is less
than the sum of the forces they produce when contracting unilaterally.
 Antagonist co-contractions might be reduced
Muscular adaptations
o Muscular growth
 Hypertrophy, primarily from an increase in the muscles cross sectional area
 Increase in synthesis & a decrease in degradation of the contractile proteins & an increase in the
number of myofibrils within a muscle
 Hyperplasia- an increase in the number of muscle fibers via longitudinal fiber splitting as a response
to high intensity RT
o Fiber size changes
 An increase in both type I & type II muscle fiber area
 Type II fibers manifest greater increase in size than type I fibers
o Fiber type transitions
 IIxIIaxIIaIIcIcI
 Type IIx fibers turn into type IIa fibers (via changes in ATPase isoform content), which are more
oxidative & resistive to fatigue
o Structural & architectural changes
 Increase in myofibril volume, cytoplasmic density, sarcoplasmic reticulum & T-tubule density, &
sodium potassium ATPase activity; these changes accommodate hypertrophy, function, & strength
 Angle of pennation increase in pennate muscles, which can accommodate greater protein deposition
that allows for greater cross sectional area
 Muscle fascicle length increases
o Mitochondrial & capillary density decrease due to the increase in muscle size, but this doesn’t reduce the
ability to perform aerobic exercises
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o Buffering capacity can improve due to the substantial, constant reductions in muscle & blood pH from
anaerobic training; the athlete can tolerate higher concentrations of lactic acid
Connective tissue adaptations
o General bone physiology
 Trabecular (spongy) bone- able to respond more rapidly to stimuli
 Cortical (compact) bone- dense & forms a compact outer shell that is bridged by trabecular bone
 Minimal essential strain- the threshold stimulus that initiates new bone formation. Exceeding this
threshold signals osteoblasts to migrate to the given region & form bone
o Anaerobic training & bone growth
 Force exerted on bones increases from strength/ hypertrophy gains & stronger forces of muscular
contraction
 This results in an increase in bone mineral density (BMD)- the quantity of mineral deposited in a
given area of bone
 Inactivity or immobilization reduces BMD
 May take 6 months or longer to increase BMD via RT, but the process of adaptation begins within
the 1st few workouts
o Principles of training to increase bone strength
 Specificity of loading- using exercises that directly load a particular region of the skeleton
 Osteogenic stimuli- factors that stimulate new bone formation; eliciting this is critical to increasing
BMD
 Exercises should involve multiple joints, should direct the force vectors through the spine & hip, &
should apply loads heavier than single joint exercises
 Progressive overload applies to bone formation too
 During early adulthood, people should train to maximally elevate their peak bone mass
o Adaptations of tendons, ligaments, & fascia to anaerobic training
 Fibroblasts synthesize & secrete pro-collagenleaves cells in a triple helix formation with
protective extensions that prevent early collagen formationcleavage of the extensions via enzymes
results in collagen, which aligns with other collagen to form a long filamentmultiple filaments
create a microfibrilmultiple microfibrils are a fibril multiple fibrils are a fiber multiple fibers
form a collagen bundle
 The enzyme levels increase in response to RT
 Strength & load bearing capacity increases:
 At the junctions between tendon (& ligament) & bone surface
 Within the body of the tendon or ligament
 In the network of fascia within skeletal muscle
 Stronger muscles pull with greater force on their bony attachments & cause in increase in bone mass
at the tendon bone junction & along the line over which the forces are distributed
 Changes within a tendon that contribute to its size & strength increases:
 Increase in collagen fibril diameter
 Greater number of covalent cross links within the hypertrophied fiber
 Increase in the packing density of collagen fibrils
 Tendon stiffness (tendon elongation) increase as a result of RT
o Adaptations of cartilage to anaerobic training
 Hyaline cartilage- on articulating surfaces of bone
 Fibrous cartilage- Intervertebral discs & at the junctions where tendons attach to bone
 Articular cartilage gets O2 & nutrients via diffusion from the synovial fluid
 Movement creates changes in pressure in the joint capsule that drives nutrients from the synovial
fluid toward the articular cartilage of the joint
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
Endocrine responses & adaptations to anaerobic training
o Acute anabolic hormonal responses
 Elevated total & free testosterone, growth hormone, & cortisol for up to 30 minutes post-exercise in
men
 The acute elevation in free testosterone has been shown to be greater in resistance trained men than
aerobic trained men
 Elevation of these hormones is greatest when large muscle mass exercises are performed & during
workouts with moderate to high intensity/volume & short rest intervals
 Insulin is mostly affected by supplementation before, during, or after exercise & not by the
anaerobic exercise stimulus
 Catecholamines reflect the acute demands of anaerobic exercise (fight or flight) & RT increases
concentrations of them
o Chronic changes in the acute hormonal response
 The acute hormonal response to an anaerobic workout may improve as the individual is gradually
able to exert more effort in successive training sessions
o Chronic changes in resting hormonal concentrations
 Consistent changes are less likely & resting concentrations reflect the current state of muscle tissue
o Hormone receptor changes
 RT has been shown to upregulate androgen receptor content within 48-72 hours after the workout
 The resistance exercise stimulus appears to mediate the magnitude of acute androgen receptor
modifications
Cardiovascular & respiratory responses to acute exercise
o Acute cardiovascular responses to anaerobic exercise
 HR, SV, Q, & BP increase significantly during resistance exercise (especially if using the valsalva
maneuver)
 SV & Q increase mostly during the eccentric phase of each rep
 The concentric phase increases intra thoracic/abdominal pressure which limits venous return &
reduces EDV
 Heavy resistance exercises decrease blood flow to the working muscles because the contracting
muscles impede blood flow. Blood flow increases during the rest period
o Chronic cardiovascular adaptations at rest
 RH, resting BP may decrease slightly, & RPP (HR*SBP) has been shown to decrease slightly
 SV will increase as lean tissue mass increases
 Total cholesterol & LDLs might decrease slightly & HDLs may increase
 Heavy RT does little to enhance resting cardiac function, but a high volume program with short rest
periods may (circuit training)
 Increased left ventricular wall thickness & mass due to elevated blood pressures & intra thoracic
pressure; little or no change in left ventricle size are volume is observed with RT
o Chronic adaptations of the acute cardiovascular response to anaerobic exercise
 The cardiovascular response to an acute bout of resistance exercise is reduced
 O2 extraction is not improved using heavy loads & low volume; a high volume program with short
rest periods may (circuit training) works better
o Ventilatory response to anaerobic exercise
 Ventilation generally doesn’t limit RT & is either unaffected or slightly improved by RT
 Adaptations include increased tidal volume & breathing frequency with max exercise, but during
submax activity breathing frequency is often reduced while tidal volume is increase
 This results from local, neural, or chemical adaptations in the muscles trained
 Ventilation equivalent (VE/VO2) is improved
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Compatibility of aerobic & anaerobic modes of training
o Strength & power gains will decrease especially if the aerobic training is high in intensity, volume, &
frequency. This may be due to adverse neural changes & the alterations of muscle proteins
o Power development appears to be negatively affected more than strength during concurrent high intensity
resistance & aerobic training
Overtraining
o Excessive frequency, volume, or intensity of training that results in extreme fatigue, illness, or injury
o Overreaching- excessive training on a short term basis
o Overreaching becomes overtraining if it continues beyond a reasonable time period
o A plateau or decrease in performance is observed
o Two types:
 Sympathetic overtraining syndrome- increased sympathetic activity at rest
 Parasympathetic overtraining syndrome- increased parasympathetic activity at rest & exercise
o Too rapid a rate of progression & high volume of heavy loads with high training frequencies & taking little
to no rest to recover can result in overtraining
o Resting concentrations of testosterone & IGF-1 are decreased & cortisol concentrations are increased
Detraining
o Cessation of anaerobic training or a substantial reduction in frequency, volume, & intensity that results in
decrements in performance & loss of the physiological adaptations associated with RT
 May occur in as little as 2 weeks or sooner in well trained athletes
o Strength reductions appear to be related to neural mechanisms initially, with atrophy predominating as the
detraining period extends
o When the athlete returns to training, the rate of strength reattainment is high, suggesting the concept of
“muscle memory”
Chapter 6: Adaptations to Aerobic Endurance Training Programs

Acute responses to aerobic exercise
o Cardiovascular responses
 Cardiac output (L per min)
 SV*HR
 Amount of blood pumped by the heart per minute
 From rest to steady state it increases rapidly at 1st & then more gradually & eventually
reaches a plateau
 Stroke volume
 Venous return is increased with exercise, therefore end diastolic volume increases, which
increases SV
 With the increased filling, the myocardium becomes more stretched resulting in a more
forceful contraction & greater systolic emptying (frank starling mechanism)
 The increase in cardiac emptying increases the ejection fraction- the fraction of blood ejected
from the heart
 HR
 Just prior to & at the beginning of exercise HR increases
 Increases linearly with intensity
 O2 uptake (mL*kg*min)
 Increases & is directly related to the mass of the exercising muscle, metabolic efficiency, &
intensity
 Resting O2 uptake is 3.5mL of O2 per Kg of body weight per minute (1 MET)
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
BP
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Fick equation: VO2=Q*avO2 difference
SBP- pressure exerted against the arterial walls as blood is ejected during ventricular
contraction
 DBP- pressure exerted against the arterial walls when no blood is being ejected
 MAP- average BP throughout the cardiac cycle: [(SBP-DBP)/3]+DBP
 Control of local circulation
 TPR- total peripheral resistance of the systemic circulation
 As blood vessels constrict, TPR increases
o Respiratory responses
 Increases in O2 delivered to tissue, CO2 returned to lungs, & minute ventilation (volume of air
breathed per minute)
 Tidal volume (amount of air inhaled & exhaled with each breath) increases
 At high intensities breathing frequency takes on a greater role than tidal volume
 Anatomical dead space- not useful for gas exchange because there are no alveoli
 Physiological dead space- alveoli that impair gas exchange; happens in people with lung/breathing
problems
 Gas responses
 Partial pressures of gases are different in tissues & arterial blood
 Diffusing increases during exercise
 Blood transport of gases & metabolic by-products
 O2 is carried in blood either dissolved in the plasma or combined with hemoglobin
 CO2+H2OH2CO3H+HCO3
 CO2 & water form carbonic acid via carbonic anhydrase
 Carbonic acid is broken down into hydrogen ions & bicarbonate
 H ions combine with Hb to maintain blood pH while bicarbonate diffuses out of the RBC
into the plasma & chloride ions diffuse into the RBC to replace them
Chronic adaptations to aerobic exercise
o Cardiovascular adaptations
 Increased max cardiac output, increased SV, reduced HR at rest & during submax exercise
 Increased capillarization (angiogenesis)
 Resting HR decreases because of an increase in parasympathetic tone
 An increased resting SV also decreases resting HR
 Increased VO2 max because of increase in SV
 Increase in SV due to an increase in chamber volume & increased contractility
o Respiratory adaptations
 Either unaffected or only moderately affected by training
 Adaptations include increased tidal volume & breathing frequency with max exercise
 With submax exercise frequency is reduced & tidal volume is increased
o Neural adaptations
 Efficiency is increased & fatigue of the contractile mechanisms is delayed
o Muscular adaptations
 Glycogen sparing & fat utilization
 OBLA occurs at higher percentages
 Selective hypertrophy of type I fibers occurs due to their increased recruitment during aerobic
activities
 Type IIxIIa (which are more oxidative)
 Increase in size & number of mitochondria & increased myoglobin (transports O2 in muscle) content
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o Bone & connective tissue adaptations
 Bone mass increase if activity is significantly more intense than normal daily activities
 Extent to which tendons, ligaments, & cartilage grow & become stronger is proportional to the
intensity of the exercise stimulus
o Endocrine adaptations
 Similar with anaerobic exercise
Designing aerobic endurance programs for optimizing adaptations
o For the strength/power athlete interval training is best vs. LSD
o Short high intensity bouts of interval sprints can improve VO2 max if the interim rest period is also short
o Aerobic endurance training results in reduced body fat; increased VO2, respiratory capacity, mitochondrial
& capillary density; improved enzyme activity; lower blood lactate concentrations
External influences on the cardiorespiratory response
o Altitude
 Hyperventilation as a result of increased breathing frequency
 Increase in Q due primarily to increases in HR
 Increased formation of Hb & RBCs
 Increased diffusion capacity through the pulmonary membranes
 Increased capillarization
o Hyperoxic breathing
 Breathing O2 enriched gas mixtures
 May increase the amount of O2 carried by the blood & therefore increases the supply of O2 to
working muscles
o Smoking
 Increased airway resistance due to nicotine related bronchiole restriction or increased fluid secretion
& swelling in the bronchial tree due to irritation of smoke
 Paralysis of the cilia by nicotine, which limits the ability to remove excess fluids & foreign particles,
causing debris to accumulate in the respiratory passageways & adding to the difficulty of breathing
 Carbon monoxide has a higher affinity for Hb than O2
o Blood doping
 EPO or infusions
 Health risks (increased blood viscosity, stroke, myocardial infarction, thrombosis, embolism)
 Increases O2 availability to working muscles
 Effects of altitude appear to be lessened & environmental stressors such as heat & cold aren’t as
extreme
 During hot environments, RBC mass shunts more blood to the surface to improve thermodynamics
while still providing blood to the muscles
Individual factors influencing adaptations to aerobic endurance training
o Genetic potential
o Age & sex
 Young men are better at everything
 Women suck because they have higher body fat & lower blood Hb & men have larger heart size &
blood volume
o Overtraining
o Detraining
Chapter 7: Age & Sex Related Differences & Their Implications for Resistance Exercises
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
The growing child
o Chronological age vs. biological age
 It’s not particularly accurate to define a stage of maturation or development by age in months or
years
 Biological age- measured in terms of skeletal age, somatic maturity, or sexual maturation
 Two kids might be the same chronological age, but one kid might be sexually mature while the other
kid might not have hit puberty yet
 In adequately nourished kids there is no scientific evidence that physical training delays or
accelerates growth or maturation
 A child’s training age (length of time the child has been RT) can influence adaptations to RT; the
magnitude of gain is affected by the amount of adaptation that has already occurred
 Peak height velocity (growth spurt) - young athletes may be at an increased risk for injury. The
relative weakening of the bone, muscle imbalances between agonists/antagonists, & the relative
tightening of the musculotendinous junction are risk factors for overuse injuries
o Muscle & bone growth
 During puberty, a 10 fold increase in testosterone production in boys results in a massive increase in
muscle mass
 In girls, an increase in estrogen production causes increased body fat deposition, breast
development, & widening of the hips
 Increase in muscle mass is due to hypertrophy, not hyperplasia
 Bone formation occurs in the diaphysis (central long shaft of long bone) & in growth cartilagelocated in epiphyseal plate, joint surface, & musculotendinous junction
 Trauma & overuse may cause problems the growth cartilage areas which may impair the growth &
development of the affected bone
o Developmental changes in muscular strength
 During periods of rapid growth, muscle increases first in mass & later in its ability to express
strength
 Hormonal difference during puberty are responsible for an acceleration in the strength development
of boys
 Myelination of many motor nerves is incomplete until sexual maturation
 As the nervous system develops, kids improve their performance in skills that require balance,
agility, strength, & power
 Body types play a role in strength- early maturing kids are mesomorphic or endomorphic; late
maturing kids are ectomorphic
Youth resistance training
o Resistance exercise can be a safe & effective method of conditioning for children
o Kids should begin RT at a level that is commensurate with their maturity level, physical abilities, &
individual goals
o Trainability of children
 Preadolescents can significantly improve their strength with RT. Neurological factors, as opposed to
hypertrophic factors (due to inadequate levels of circulating testosterone), are primarily responsible
for these gains
 Children are affected more by detraining than adults; continuous training is required to maintain
gains; seems likely changes in neuromuscular function are partly responsible
 During & after puberty training induced gains in strength are associated with gains in muscle
hypertrophy due to hormonal influences
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o Potential benefits
 RT may favorably alter selected anatomic & psychosocial parameters, reduce injuries in sport &
recreation activities, & improve motor skills & sport performance
 IT DOES NOT STUNT GROWTH, it actually enhances bone density
o Potential risks & concerns
 Potential for injury to the epiphyseal plate
 Repetitive use soft tissue injuries
 Completely safe if taught well & supervised
o Program design considerations for children
 Have emotional maturity to follow directions
 Pre-training medical examination
 Focus on proper technique instead of the amount of weight lifted
 Dynamic warm up with static stretching performed after workout
 1 to 3 sets of 6 to 15 reps
 2 to 3 nonconsecutive training days
 First establish a rep range (ex: 10 to 12) & then determine by trial & error the max load that can be
safely handled for the prescribed range
Female athletes
o Body size & composition
 During puberty the production of estrogen in girls increase fat deposition & breast development
 Adult women tend to have more body fat & mass muscle & bone mass
 Tend to be lighter in total body weight & have broader hips in relative to their waists & shoulders
o Strength & power output
 In terms of absolute strength, women have about 2/3 the strength of men
 In terms of relative strength, lower body strength is similar to that of men, while upper body strength
is still less
 When strength is expressed relative to muscle cross sectional area, no significant difference exists
between sexes, which indicates muscle quality is not sex specific
o Trainability of women
 Short term gains in hypertrophy are similar between sexes
o Program design considerations for women
 It’s a misperception that RT programs for women should be different from those for men or that
women lose flexibility or develop “bulky” muscles if they train with weights
Older adults
o Age related changes in musculoskeletal health
 Bones become fragile with age because of a decrease in bone mineral content that causes an increase
in bone porosity. The bone mineral content & micro-architecture of bone can deteriorate to such an
extent that even activities of daily life may cause a bone fracture.
 Osteopenia- bone mineral density between -1 & -2.5 standard deviations of the young adult mean
 Osteoporosis- bone mineral density below -2.5 standard deviations of the young adult mean
 Sarcopenia- loss of muscle mass with advancing age
 After age 30 there is a decrease in the cross sectional areas of individual muscles
 Appears to result from physical inactivity & a gradual & selective denervation of muscle
fibers
 Decreased muscle mass results in a loss of muscle strength & a decrease in the ability of a muscle to
generate power
 Caused by reductions in muscle mass, nervous system changes, hormonal changes, poor nutrition, &
physical inactivity
o RT for older adults
 Aging doesn’t appear to enhance or reduce the ability of the musculoskeletal system to adapt to
resistance exercise
 Improvements in muscular strength, power, muscle mass, bone mineral density, & functional
capabilities have been observed
 Improvements enhance exercise performance, decrease the risk for injury, promote independent
living, & improve quality of life
o Trainability of older adults
 Older people maintain their ability to make significant improvements in strength & functional ability
 Both aerobic & resistance exercise are beneficial for older adults, but only RT can increase muscular
strength & muscle mass
o Program design considerations for older adults
 Issues regarding preexisting medical ailments, exercise progression, & nutritional status should be
evaluated before the beginning of a RT program
 Seniors should complete a medical history & risk factor questionnaire
 In some cases physician clearance is required before the initiation of a moderate or vigorous exercise
program
 Begin at a relatively low exercise intensity while directing attention toward learning proper
technique
o Progress from 1 set of 8-12 reps at low intensity to higher training volumes & intensities
Chapter 8: Psychology of Athletic Preparation and Performance
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
Anxiety: state & trait
o State anxiety- subjective experience of apprehension & uncertainty accompanied by elevated autonomic &
voluntary neural outflow & increased endocrine activity; it’s a negative experience, but its effects on
athletic performance can be positive, negative or indifferent, depending on factors such as the athlete’s skill
level, personality, & complexity of the task
o Trait anxiety- a personality variable or disposition relating to the probability that one will perceive an
environment as threatening
o Arousal- the intensity dimension of behavior & physiology; always present to some degree as a continuum
ranging from being deeply asleep, or comatose, to highly excited; the athlete who is psychologically well
prepared knows the appropriate zone for optimal performance & can manage it accordingly
o Cognitive anxiety- refers to psychological processes & worrisome thoughts
o Somatic anxiety- relates to such physical symptoms as tense muscles, tachycardia, & the butterflies
o Stress can be negative (distress) or positive (eustress)
Attention & skill
o Attention- the processing of both environmental & internal cues that come to awareness
o Selective attention- the ability to inhibit awareness of some stimuli in order to process others; referred to by
athletes as their level of focus & refers to the suppression of task irrelevant stimuli & thoughts
o Preparatory routine- ritual or mental checklist to deal with anxiety & attentional challenges; directs thought
to task relevant & controllable concerns
Cue utilization
o At low levels of arousal, attentional width is very broad, & both relevant & irrelevant cues can come to the
athlete’s awareness; the athlete may not concentrate well at these underaroused levels
o As arousal increases up to a moderate level, attentional width progressively decreases, enabling more focus
because of the exclusion of task irrelevant cues
o If arousal increases beyond a moderate level, a point of diminishing returns may be reached; at high levels
of arousal, so much shrinkage of attentional capacity may occur that task relevant cues are eliminated
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


Attentional style
o Attentional style as a personality trait tends to be characterized by 2 dimensions, internal-external & broadnarrow
o 1st dimension- refers to an introspective versus an externally oriented perspective
o 2nd dimension- refers to an integrative versus a highly selective orientation
Ideal performance state
o Absence of fear- no fear of failure
o No thinking about or analysis of performance (related to the motor stage of automaticity)
o A narrow focus of attention concentrated on the activity itself
o A sense of effortlessness- an involuntary experience
o A sense of personal control
o A distortion of time & space, in which time seems to slow
o Ideal performance state is characterized by a “quiet mind” that results in less cortical interference with the
motor control centers & in consistent & efficient execution of motor performance
Motivational phenomena
o Intrinsic motivation- desire to be competent & self determining; athlete is a self starter because if their love
of the game; coaches can concentrate on task relevant concerns; these athletes are more likely to maintain
effort consistently across practice & competition
o Achievement motivation- relates to the athlete’s wish to engage in competition, or social comparison;
whoever is higher in achievement motivation will be the better athlete because they have an appetite for
competition
o Positive reinforcement- act of increasing the probability of occurrence for a given behavior by following it
with an action, object, or event such as praise, decals on the helmet, or prizes & awards
o Negative reinforcement- of increasing the probability of occurrence for a given behavior by removing an
action, object, or event that is typically aversive (like not doing wind sprints at the end of practice because
you hauled ass the entire practice)
o Positive punishment- the presentation of an act, object, or event following a behavior that could decrease the
behavior’s occurrence (reprimanding a player after a fumble)
o Negative punishment- the removal of something valued, could take the form of revoking privileges or
playing time, as in benching
o Reinforcement is better because it focuses on what athletes should do & that they did right; increases task
relevant focus rather than worry focus
Influence of arousal
o Skill level
 The more skill an athlete has developed, the better they can perform during states of less of greater
than optimal arousal
o Task complexity
 Simple skill can tolerate a higher degree of arousal because they have few task relevant cues to
monitor
 Skill that necessitate tremendous decision making effort require arousal that must be kept relatively
low because of the need to maintain attentional width
o Personality
 Extroverts are sensory reducers; require heightened stimulation because of the tendency to reduce or
dampen arousing effects
 Introverts are sensory increasers; requires a lower level of stimulation because of the tendency to
increase arousal
o Trait anxiety
 High levels flood attentional capacity with task irrelevant cognition
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 Athlete with low levels can handle higher levels of pressure
Goal setting
o Process goals- those over whose achievement the athlete has control
o Outcome goals- ones over which the athlete has little control
o Short term goals- increase the likelihood of success because they are relatively close to the athlete’s present
ability level; they increase confidence, self esteem, & self efficacy (perceived self confidence)
o Long term goals- the athlete may see more relevance in everyday practice goals if it’s apparent how they
help attain the ultimate level of performance
o Effective behavioral coaching
 The specificity of the goals is important to giving the athlete feedback in effective coaching
 Feedback is a corrective mechanism & is more effective in the presence of specific, quantifiable
goals
 Systematic goal setting can simultaneously increase the psychological development & performance
of the athlete
 Goal setting affects performance because:
 Goals direct an athlete’s attention by prioritizing efforts
 Goals increase effort because of the contingency of success on goal attainment
 Goals increase positive reinforcement through the feedback given to athletes
Physical relaxation techniques
o Diaphragmatic breathing
 Belly breathing
 Focuses thought on breathing to clear the mind & therefore increase attentional capacity
o Progressive muscular relaxation
 Somatopsychic technique by which psychological & physical arousal are self regulated through the
control of skeletal muscle tension
o Autogenic training
 Shifting autonomic processes from sympathetic to parasympathetic dominance
Mental imagery
o Cognitive psychological skill in which the athlete uses all the senses to create a mental experience of an
athletic performance
o Mentally rehearsing a movement
o Internal (first person) or external (third person)
Hypnosis
o An induced state of hypersuggestibility in which positive suggestions relating to an athlete’s performance
potential can be planted in the subconscious mind
Systematic desensitization
o A hybrid or cognitive & somatic techniques that allows an athlete to replace a fear response to various cues
with a relaxation response
Chapter 9: Performance Enhancing Substances
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Ergogenic aid- can be any substance, mechanical aid, or training method that improves sport performance
Types of performance enhancing drugs
o Hormones & drugs that mimic their effects
o Dietary supplements- a product other than tobacco that must be intended for ingestion & can’t be advertised
as conventional food & that contains one or more of the following ingredients:
 vitamin/mineral
 herb/botanical
 amino acids
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dietary substance to supplement the diet by increasing total dietary intake
concentrate, metabolite, constituent, extract, or combination of any of the above
hormones
o anabolic steroids
 synthetic derivatives of testosterone
 stimulate protein synthesis
 responsible for development of male secondary sex characteristics
 testosterone produced in the Leydig cells of testes
 dosing
 stacking regimen
 administer several drugs simultaneously; rationale is tom increase the potency of each drug
 take in a cyclic pattern & administer in a pyramid pattern in which dosages are steadily
increased over several weeks
 towards end of cycle athlete decreases intake & might take other drugs to increase normal
testosterone production
 Who uses anabolic steroids?
 Strength athletes
 People that want to enhance their appearance
 Muscle dysmorphia- people with an altered self image who believed they looked small &
weak even though they were big as shit
 Ergogenic benefits
 Increases in muscle protein synthesis & inhibition of catabolic effects of high intensity
training
 Increases in lean body mass
 Some weight gain might be caused by increased water, but in some studies the ratio of
intra/extra cellular water was unaltered 6 weeks after cessation
 Strength gains in experienced athletes are generally small compared to those seen in novice
lifters
 Athletes using anabolic steroids see strength gains 2-3 times higher than non users
 A higher testosterone to cortisol ratio may allow the athlete to maintain a higher intensity &
volume of training & enhance recovery
 Psychological effects
 Elevations in arousal, self esteem, & aggressiveness
 May be associated with mood swings & psychotic episodes
 Adverse effects
Affected system
Adverse effects
Cardiovascular
Lipid profile changes
Elevated BP
Decreased myocardial function
Gynecomastia (bitch tits)
Decreased sperm count
Testicular atrophy
Impotence
Decreased sperm count/ tests size
Menstrual irregularities
Clitoromegaly
Masculinization
Libido changes
Endocrine
Genitourinary
Dermatological
Hepatic
Musculoskeletal
Psychological
Acne
Baldness
Increased risk of tumors & damage
Premature epiphyseal plate closure
Risk of tendon tears
Intramuscular abscess
Mania
Depression
Aggression
Mood swings
o Prohormones
 Testosterone precursors
 Athletes use on the premise that they will increase testosterone concentration
 Have relatively weak androgenic properties in themselves
o Human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG)
 Obtained from placenta of pregnant women
 It can increase testicular testosterone production
 Used by athletes who are finishing a cycle of anabolic steroids & are looking to activate their
endogenous testosterone
o Insulin
 Secreted by pancreas
 Facilitates uptake of blood glucose & amino acids into cells
 Used to potentiate protein synthesis
 Peptide hormone, so it can’t be detected in urine
o HGH
 Secreted from anterior pituitary gland
 Stimulation of bone & skeletal muscle growth
 Taken alone or stacked
 Peptide hormone, not detected in urine
 Adverse effects
 Gigantism
 Acromegaly- widening of bones, arthritis, organ enlargement, metabolic abnormalities
o EPO
 Produced by kidneys & stimulates production of red blood cells
 Increases aerobic capacity
 Increases blood viscosity, SBP, & compromises thermoregulatory system
o Beta adrenergic agonists
 Chemically related to epinephrine
 Increase protein synthesis/muscle mass & decrease fat mass through enhanced lipolysis & lowered
lipogenesis
 Clenbuterol is one of these
 Side effects
 Tachycardia
 Hyperthermia
 Tremors
 Dizziness
o Beta blockers
 Block beta adrenergic receptors, preventing catecholamines from binding
 Reduce anxiety & tremors during performance
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May have an ergolytic effect (reduced performance)
 Impair cardiovascular response to exercise by reducing O2 & substrate delivery to exercising
muscle
Dietary supplements
o Essential amino acids
 Not produced in the body & must be obtained through the diet
 Consumption can augment muscle protein synthesis
 Supplementing before or after exercise (or both) may enhance the training adaptations usually seen
with chronic resistance training
o Beta hydroxy beta methylbutyrate (HMB)
 Believed it has anabolic & lipolytic effects
 Possible anticatabolic properties
 Recent studies don’t support the efficacy of HMB supplementation in resistance trained athletes
o Beta alanine
 When it enters the muscle cell it becomes the rate limiting substrate for carnosine synthesis
 Carnosine is found in fast twitch muscle & contributes up to 40& of the skeletal muscle buffering
capacity (MBC) of H ions produced during intense anaerobic exercise
 Increasing skeletal muscle carnosine through beta alanine supplementation would improve MBC &
anaerobic performance
 3.2 to 6.4 g/day appears to elevate muscle carnosine levels
o Sodium bicarbonate
 Once in the blood it breaks down into bicarbonate increasing the extracellular pH
 As a result, it would help regulate intramuscular pH during high intensity exercise
o L-carnitine
 Responsible for the transport of fatty acids from the cytosol into the mitochondria to be oxidized for
energy
 Enhances performance by increasing fat utilization & sparing muscle glycogen
 3g daily
Creatine
o In the form of creatine phosphate in the energy system
o Supplementation increases creating content of muscles, which allows more energy to be produced
o 20-25g daily for 5 days followed by maintenance of 2 g/day
o May improve quality of each training session, which will result in better performance
Stimulants
o Caffeine
 Prolong aerobic endurance
 Increase in fat oxidation through the mobilization of free fatty acids from adipose tissue or
intramuscular fat stores
 This slows glycogen depletion
 Enhanced power production
 Side effects
 Anxiety
 GI disturbances
 Insomnia
 Heart arrhythmias
o Ephedrine
 Strong thermogenic quality
 Increases fat oxidation & spares muscle glycogen
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Side effects
 Nausea
 Vomiting
 Palpitations
 Death
o Citrus Aurantium
 Contributes to appetite suppression & increased metabolic rate & lipolysis
Ch. 10: Nutritional Factors in Health & Performance
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Role of nutritionists
o Personalized nutritional counseling: weight loss/gain, menu planning, dietary supplements
o Dietary analysis of food records
o Nutritional education: presentations & handouts
o Referral & treatment of eating disorders
o Define athlete’s goals
Standard nutrition guidelines
o Food guide pyramid (MyPyramid)
 Grains
 Vegetables
 Fruits
 Milk
 Meat & beans
 Oils
o Dietary reference intakes (DRIs)
 Recommendations for 50 nutrients (14 vitamins, 18 minerals, & 18 macronutrients & related food
components)
 DRI report for each nutrient includes:
 Estimated average requirements & its standard deviation by age & gender
 Recommended dietary consumption based on the estimated average requirement
 An adequate intake level when a recommended intake cannot be based on an estimated
average requirement
 Tolerable upper intake levels above which risk of toxicity increases
Macronutrients
o Protein
 Contain nitrogen
 Composed of 20 amino acids
 Essential/non essential amino acids
 Amino acids are joined together by peptide bonds
 Dipeptide, polypeptide
 Polypeptide chains bond together to form proteins with various structures & functions
 The need for dietary proteins/amino acids results from the constant turnover of cells (breakdown &
regeneration of cells)
 Protein quality- determined by whether the protein supplies amino acids in amounts proportionate to
the body’s needs
 High quality protein- proteins of animal origin
 Low quality protein- deficient in one or more of the essential amino acids; plant proteins

Vegans must consume a variety of plant foods that provide different amino acids
(complementary proteins)
 General requirements
 Consider caloric intake & biological value of the protein
 Protein can be metabolized as a source of energy in a state of negative caloric balance
 The higher the biological value of the protein (protein from animal origin), the lower the
protein requirement
 Recommended intake for protein for adults is .8 g/kg of body weight for men & women or
10-15% of daily caloric intake
 Requirements for athletes
 Athletes’ protein requirements are increased by training
 Protein requirements of aerobic endurance athletes .8g/kg to 1.4g/kg of body weight
 Heavy resistance training requirements can increase requirements up to 1.7g/kg of body
weight
 A general recommendation of 1.5 g/kg to 2g/kg of body weight ensures adequate protein
intake
 Excess protein is broken down
 The nitrogen is excreted in the urine
 Intakes greater than 4g/kg of body weight is not advised for athletes with impaired renal function or
low calcium intake or those who are restricting fluid intake
o Carbohydrates
 Main energy source
 ALL types of dietary carbohydrates are effective in supplying the athlete with glucose & glycogen
 Monosaccharides
 Glucose, fructose, galactose
 Glucose is the most common, circulates in the blood, & is the primary energy substrate for
cells
 Fructose is much sweeter than glucose
 Disaccharides
 Sucrose (glucose & fructose) is the most common; found in most fruits; table sugar
 Lactose (glucose & galactose) is only found in mammalian milk
 Maltose (glucose & glucose) occurs when polysaccharides are broken down & during the
fermentation of alcohol; primary carbohydrate in beer
 Polysaccharides
 Complex carbohydrates, contain up to thousands of glucose units
 Starch, fiber, glycogen
 Starch is the storage form of glucose in plants; found in grains, nuts, legumes, & vegetables;
must be broken down to glucose before it can be used as an energy source
 Fibers (constituent of plant cell wall) are generally resistant to digestive enzymes & increase
bulk & water content & decrease transit time of feces. Fiber is found in fruits, vegetables,
nuts, legumes, & whole grain products. The DRI for fiber is 38 & 25 g/day for men &
women.
 Glycogen is a temporary source of energy. If glucose is not metabolized for energy it is
synthesized to glycogen. 2/3 of glycogen is store in skeletal muscle; the remaining is stored
in the liver (which has the highest glycogen content of all the tissues in the body).
Glycogenesis is the process of converting glucose to glycogen.
 Glycemic index (GI)
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o Lipids
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Classifies food by how high & for how long it raises blood glucose
Foods that are digested quickly & raise blood glucose rapidly have a high GI
If the goal is to quickly replenish glucose & glycogen then foods that rapidly appear as
glucose in the blood are desirable
 Scientists have speculated that low GI foods may spare carbohydrate by minimizing insulin
secretion & increasing fatty acid levels in the blood
Carbohydrate requirements
 50 to 100 g/day is needed to prevent ketosis
 45 to 64% of total daily caloric intake
 A high carbohydrate diet is commonly recommended for all athletes
 Aerobic endurance athletes who train for 90 minutes or more daily need 8 to 10 g/kg of body
weight (this level has been shown to replenish glycogen within 24 hours)
 5 to 6 g/kg of body weight is adequate for power, strength, & sprint athletes
Fatty acid chains contain more carbon & hydrogen relative to O2 so they provide more energy
Saturated fatty acids contain all the hydrogen they can & contain no double bonds
Unsaturated fatty acids have carbon atoms double bonded to where the hydrogen atoms would be
Fatty acids containing 1 double bond are monounsaturated
Fatty acids containing 2 or more double bonds are polyunsaturated
Fat serves as a carrier for the fat soluble vitamins & supplies omega 6 & 3 fatty acids which are
necessary for the formation of healthy cell membranes, development of the brain/nervous system, &
the production of hormones
Cholesterol is an important component of cell membranes. It’s also necessary for the production of
bile salts, vitamin D, the sex hormones, & cortisol. It’s synthesized in the liver & intestine.
Requirements & recommendations
 5 to 10% of energy from omega 6 fatty acids
 .6 to 1.2% of energy from omega 3 fatty acids
 Fat should constitute 20 to 35% of total calories consumed with less than 10% from saturated
fats
 Fat intakes greater than 30% are common in elite athletes
 An acceptable lower limit of 20% of calories from fat
 Diets low in fat (less than 15%) may decrease testosterone production & metabolism
Fat & performance
 Both intramuscular & circulating fatty acids are potential energy sources during exercise
 Intramuscular fatty acids are more important during activity & that circulating fatty acids are
more important during recovery
 With increasing exercise intensities (over70-80% VO2max) there is a gradual shift from fat
to carbohydrate as the preferred source of fuel
Micronutrients
o Vitamins
 Organic substances that cannot be synthesized by the body
 They are needed in very small amounts & perform specific metabolic functions
 Table 10.5 page 215
o Minerals
 Required for a wide variety of metabolic functions
 Ultratrace minerals are needed in minute amounts & evidence for their essentiality is difficult to
find. Deficiencies have not been established.
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 Table 10.6 page 216
Fluid & electrolytes
o Water
 45 to 70% of a person’s body weight
 Fluid balance
 Total water intake for young men & women (ages 19-30) is 3.7 L & 2.7 L/day
 Athletes sweating profusely for several hours per day may need to consume & extra 3 to 4
gallons of fluid to replace losses
 Risks of dehydration
 Unless sweat losses are replaced, body temperature rises which leads to heat exhaustion,
heatstroke, & possibly death
 Fluid loss of 1% can be associated with an elevation in core temperature during exercise
 Fluid loss of 3-5% results in cardiovascular strain & impaired ability to dissipate heat
 At 7% loss collapse is likely
 Monitoring hydration status
 Record athletes body weight
 Each pound lost during practice represents 1 pint of fluid loss which must be replaced before
the next practice
 Sings of dehydration include dark yellow urine, decreased frequency of urination, rapid
resting heart rate, prolonged muscle soreness
o Electrolytes
 Major electrolytes lost in sweat are sodium, chloride, & potassium
 You may experience heat cramps from sodium depletion
 The average sodium concentration in sweat is 1.15 g/L
o Fluid replacement
 Before activity
 At least 1 pint of fluid 2 hours before activity
 Can be any nonalcoholic beverage
 During activity
 Athletes should start drinking before sensing thirst & continue to drink at regular intervals
 Chugging is preferred over sipping as large volumes empty from the stomach faster than
small volumes
 Cool water is an ideal fluid replacement
 Aerobic endurance athletes can benefit from carbohydrate provision during activities lasting
more than 1 hour
 Carbohydrate concentration of commercial sport drink ranges from 6-8%, a solution that
tends to be absorbed rapidly
 After activity
 Replace each pound of body weight lost with 1 pint of fluid
Pre-competition & post-exercise nutrition
o Pre-competition food consumption
 Purpose
 To provide fluid & energy for the athlete during performance
 Timing
 Eat 3 to 4 hours prior to the event (varies athlete to athlete) to prevent becoming nauseated or
uncomfortable during competition
 Practical considerations
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It’s important that athletes consume food & beverages that they like, that they tolerate well,
that they are used to consuming, & that they believe will result in a winning performance
 Carbohydrate loading
 Used to enhance muscle glycogen prior to long term aerobic endurance exercise
 3 days of high carb diet in concert with tapering exercise the week before the event &
complete rest the day before the event
 Diet should provide 8-10 g/kg of body weight
 This should increase muscle glycogen stores 20-40% above normal
 Increases carbohydrate oxidation during submax exercise & improves high intensity, short
duration performance
o Post-exercise food consumption
 High GI foods after exercise replenish glycogen faster than low GI foods
 A delay of 2 hours does not inhibit glycogenesis 8 to 24 hours later
 For athletes training multiple times a day immediate consumption after exercise is beneficial
Weight & body composition
o Energy requirements
 A kilocalorie is the work or energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water 1 degree
Celsius
 Factors influencing energy requirements
 Resting metabolic rate- accounts for 60-75% of daily energy expenditure; a measure of the
calories required for maintaining normal body function
 Thermic effect of food- 7-10% of daily energy expenditure; the increase in energy
expenditure above the resting metabolic rate that can be measured following a meal; includes
the energy cost of digestion, absorption, metabolism, & storage of food in the body
 Physical activity- most variable
 Estimating energy requirements
 Table 10.7
o Weight gain
 If all the extra calories consumed are for muscle growth during resistance training, than about 2500
kcals are required for each pound gained. 350 to 700 kcals above daily requirements are needed to
support a 1-2 pound weekly gain
o Weight loss
 The ability to achieve & maintain minimal body fat is largely genetic
 Best diet is a well balanced one that achieves a negative caloric balance
 Whether athletes gain muscle & lose body fat simultaneously depends primarily on their level of
training
 You can’t lose substantial amounts of body mass without losing lean body mass too
 Gradual weight loss ensures maximum fat loss & preservation of lean tissue
 Caloric intake of no less than 1800 to 2000 kcal/day can serve as a starting point
 Diet should be composed primarily of foods high in nutrient density
 Diet should be composed of food low in energy density
o Rapid weight loss
 Accomplished by restricting food & fluids for 3 to 10 days before competition
 Athletes may suffer heat illness, muscle cramping, fatigue, dizziness, weakness, & decreased
concentration
Eating disorders: anorexia nervosa & bulimia nervosa
o Anorexia nervosa
 Self imposed starvation in an effort to lose weight & achieve thinness
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Characterized be a severe fear of obesity
They appear very thin, often wear layers of baggy clothing, & may have a covering of fine white
hair on the skin
 Diagnostic criteria:
 Refusal to maintain body weight at or above a minimally normal weight for age & height
(body weight less than 85% of normal)
 Intense fear of becoming fat or gaining weight
 Undue influence of body weight on self evaluation or denial of the seriousness of the current
low body weight
 Amenorrhea (the absence of at least three consecutive menstrual cycles)
 Warning signs:
 Commenting repeatedly about being or feeling fat & asking “do you think I’m fat” when
weight is below average
 Dramatic weight loss for no medical reason
 Preoccupation with food, calories, & weight
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o Bulimia nervosa
 Recurrent consumption of food in amounts significantly greater than would customarily be
consumed at one sitting
 Purging follows this binging: vomiting, intense exercise, laxatives, diuretics
 Frequent weight fluctuations of 10 pounds are common
 Binging is a coping response used by the individual to manage stress
 Diagnostic criteria:
 Recurrent binge eating
 Recurrent inappropriate compensatory behavior in order to prevent weight gain
 At least 2 binge eating sessions followed by compensatory behavior each week for at least 3
months
 Self evaluation is unduly influenced by body shape & weight
 The disturbance doesn’t occur exclusively during episodes of anorexia nervosa
 Warning signs:
 Eating secretively
 Disappearing repeatedly immediately after eating
 Appearing nervous or agitated if something prevents the person from being alone shortly
after eating
 Losing or gaining extreme amounts of weight
 Smell or remnants of vomit in places
 Disappearance of large amounts of food
o Warning signs for both disorders
 Complaining of constipation or stomach aches
 Mood swings
 Social withdrawal
 Relentless, excessive exercise
 Excessive concern about weight
 Strict dieting followed by binges
 Increasing criticism of one’s body
 Strong denial that a problem exists, even when there is hard evidence
o Management & care
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Fact finding
 Roommates/teammates may observe a food related problem
 Initial assessment: warning signs may include amenorrhea, significant weight loss & refusal
to gain weight, refusal to make recommended dietary changes, reports from the athlete that
conflict with what others observe, strong denial that there is a problem or making excuses
 Declines in performance won’t occur until late in the disease when stress fractures, illness, &
fainting may occur
Confronting
 Denial & disdain on the part of the individual are to be expected
 A plan should be in place for managing athletes with suspected eating disorders
Referring
 The athlete should schedule an appointment for an assessment at a clinic or hospital
Following up
What not to do
 Trying to help the athletes by monitoring their food intake
 Having them weigh in frequently
 Giving them nutritional information
 Telling them they look fine
Obesity
o BMI is the preferred body composition assessment for fat people (weight in kg/height in meters squared)
o Skinfold assessment becomes inaccurate because of the size of the skinfold & the lack of standardized
formulas for fat people
o Underweight is a BMI less than 18.5
o Normal is 18.5 to 24.9
o Overweight is 25 to 29.9
o Class 1 obesity is 30 to 34.9
o Class 2 obesity is 35 to 39.9
o Extreme obesity is greater than 40 (you are fat as shit)
Chapter 11: Principles of Test Selection & Administration
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Reasons for testing
o Used in goal setting- baseline measurements can be used as starting points
o Assessment of athletic talent- need to determine whether the candidate has the necessary physical abilities
to become competitive
o Identification of physical abilities in need of improvement- some abilities may be improved by physical
training
Terminology
o Test- assessing ability in a particular endeavor
o Field test- test used that’s performed away from the lab
o Measurement- collecting test data
o Evaluation- analyzing test results
o Pretest- test administered before training to determine athlete’s initial ability levels
o Midtest- test administered during training period to assess progress & modify the program if needed
o Posttest- test administered after the training period to determine the success of the program
Validity- degree to which a test measures what it’s supposed to measure
o Construct validity- ability of a test to represent the underlying construct (the theory developed to organize &
explain some aspects of existing knowledge & observations)
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 Refers to overall validity, or the extent to which a test measure what it’s supposed to
 Other types of validity are secondary
o Face validity
 Appearance to athlete & observers that the test measure what it’s supposed to
 Desirable based on assumption that anyone taking a test of physical ability wants to do well
o Content validity
 Assessment by experts that testing covers all relevant subtopics or component abilities (for soccer
you should include speed, agility, & power)
o Criterion referenced validity
 3 types; extent to which test scores are associated with some other measure of the same ability
 Concurrent validity- extent to which test scores are associated with those of other accepted tests that
measure the same ability
 Predictive validity- extent to which the test score corresponds with future behavior or performance
 Discriminant validity- the ability of a test to distinguish between 2 different constructs & is
evidenced by a low correlation between the results of the test & those of tests of a different construct
Reliability
o Measure of degree of consistency or repeatability of a test
o On a perfectly reliable test, same score is obtained multiple times
o Test must be reliable to be valid
o Test-retest reliability depends on:
 Intrasubject variability- lack of consistent performance by subject
 Lack of interrater reliability- degree to which different raters agree; clearly defined scoring system &
competent scorers are essential; can occur because of calibration & how testers are (motivated,
lenient, head/assistant coach, etc)
 Intrarater variability- lack of consistent scores by a given tester
 Failure of test itself to provide consistent results
Test selection
o Metabolic energy system specificity- a valid test must emulate the energy requirements of the sport for
which ability is being assessed
o Biomechanical movement pattern specificity- the more similar the test is to an important movement in the
sport, the better
o Experience & training status- for a well trained, experienced athlete, technique intensive test may be
appropriate because it can be very sport specific & one can assume that poor technique won’t impair
performance of the test; training status is important for determining what test to give
o Age & sex- males are stronger than females, so tests for males might not be possible for females
o Environmental factors- temperature, humidity, & altitude can influence test performance
Test administration
o Health & safety concerns
 Test conditions that can threaten the health of the athletes
 Remain attentive to health status of athletes
 Heat injury
 Medical referral warranted if persistent following symptoms: chest pain, blurred vision, dizzy,
nausea, etc.
o Selection of training & testers
 Test administrators should be well trained & should have thorough understanding of all testing
procedure & protocols; all testers should have proficient practice so that the test scores they obtain
are reliable
o Recording forms
 Scoring forms should be developed before testing & should have space for all test results &
comments
o Test format
 Athletes are aware of the testing purpose & procedures
 Should address how athletes are tested (groups, individually, who gives what tests, etc.)
o Testing batteries & multiple testing trials
 Duplicate test setups may be employed to make efficient use of testing time
 A tester can administer 2 non-fatiguing tests in sequence to an athlete as long as test reliability can
be maintained
 When multiple trials, allow complete recovery between trials
o Sequence of tests: think of energy systems; do in this order:
 Non-fatiguing tests- height, weight, skinfold, vertical jump, flexibility
 Agility tests- T test, pro agility test
 Max power & strength tests- 1RM power clean, bench press
 Sprint tests- 40 yard sprint
 Local muscular endurance tests- partial curl up
 Fatiguing anaerobic capacity tests- 400 meter run, 300 yard shuttle
 Aerobic capacity test- 1.5 mile or 12 minute run
o Preparing athletes for testing
 Date, time, & purpose should be announced to let athletes prepare mentally & physically
 Give clear & simple instructions
 Demonstrate proper test performance when possible
 Pretest warm up
Chapter 12: Administration, Scoring, & Interpretation of Selected Tests

Measuring parameter of athletic performance
o Maximum muscular strength (low speed strength)
 1RM or max force produced at isokinetic speed
 1 RM testing protocol:
 Warm up with light resistance that allows 5 to 10 easy reps
 1 minute rest period
 Warm up load that allows athlete to do 3 to 5 reps
 2 minute rest
 Conservative, near max load that allows the athlete 2 to 3 reps
 2 to 4 minute rest
 Make a load increase and perform 1 RM
 If successful, 2 to 4 min rest and go back to previous step
 If the athlete failed, 2 to 4 min rest then decrease the load
o Anaerobic or maximum muscular power (high speed strength)
 High force with high contractile speed
 Tests are very short duration, max speed, and produce very high power
 1 RM of explosive exercises, vertical jump
 Wingate
o Anaerobic capacity
 Max rate of energy produced by PCr and lactic acid energy systems
 Max power output between 30 and 90 seconds
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o Local muscular endurance
 Ability of certain muscle groups to perform repeated contractions against submax resistance
 Several seconds to several minutes without rest periods
 Max number of chin ups, dips, push ups
o Aerobic capacity
 Estimated by 1 mile run
 Max rate of energy produced through oxidation
 mL*kg*min
o agility
 proper footwear
 non slip surface
 electronic timing is best
o speed
 don’t do distances over 200m
o flexibility
 ROM about a body joint
 Goniometers
o Body composition
 Skinfold
 Hydrostatic weighing and DEXA- gold standard
o Anthropometry
 Science of measurement applied to the human body
 Height, weight, selected body girths
o Testing conditions
 Testing conditions should be as similar as possible for all the athletes tested and from test to retest of
the same athlete
Types of statistics
o Descriptive stats
 Summarizes or describes a large group of data
 Used when all the information about a population is known
o Central tendency- values about which the data tend to cluster
 Mean, median, mode
o Variability
 The degree of dispersion of scores within a group
 Range- the interval from the lowest to the highest score
 Standard deviation (SD)- measure of the variability of a set of scores about the mean; a small SD
indicates that a set of scores is closely clustered about the mean; a large SD indicates wider
dispersion of the scores about the mean
o Percentile rank
 The percentage of test takers scoring below that individual
 Ranks scores from lowest to highest
 If you are in the 75 percentile, 75% of the group produced scored below yours
o Inferential stats
 Allows one to draw general conclusions about a population from information collected in a
population sample
 Basic assumption is that the sample is truly representative of the population
Chapter 13: Warm Up & Stretching
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Warm up
o Increase muscle temperature, core temperature, & blood flow
o Faster muscle contraction/relaxation
o Improvements in rate of force development & reaction time, muscle strength/power & oxygen delivery
(Bohr effect)
o Enhanced metabolic reactions
o Stretching during warm up
 Little evidence proving stretching does anything to prevent injury or soreness
 Static stretching can compromise performance
 Decreased force production, power, run speed, reaction time, & strength endurance
 Dynamic stretching doesn’t decrease performance & is preferred for stretching during warm up
 PNF has been shown to increase running performance
o Components of a warm up
 General warm up
 5 to 10 minute slow activity (slow jogging) or low intensity sport specific actions
 Specific warm up
 8 to 12 minute dynamic stretching focusing on movements that work through the ROM
required in the sport
 Followed by sport specific movements of increased intensity (such as sprint, bounding,
jumping)
 Include rehearsal of skill to be performed
Flexibility
o Degree of movement at joint = ROM
o ROM (& flexibility) determined by connective tissue structure, activity level, age, sex, muscle bulk, & RT
with limited ROM
o Static flexibility- ROM about a joint during passive movement; requires no voluntary activity: gravity, a
partner, or a machine does it
o Dynamic flexibility- available ROM during active movements, generally greater than static flexibility
o Flexibility & performance
 Optimal ranges & increased risk of injury possible if not in those optimal ranges
 Imbalance isn’t good either
o Frequency, duration, & intensity of stretching
 Acute effect of stretching greatest immediately after
 2 times per week for 5 weeks shown to increase flexibility
 15 to 30 seconds (30 seconds better)
o When should athlete stretch?
 After practice/competition
 Increased muscle temperature (from activity) = increased elastic properties
 Performed within 5 to 10 minutes after
 As a separate session
 Preceded by a warm up
Proprioceptors & stretching
o Muscle spindles
 Within Intrafusal fibers, monitors changes in length
 Cause stretch reflex
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o GTO
 Near musculotendinous junction, monitors muscular tension
 Autogenic inhibition- relaxation that occurs in the same muscle that is experiencing increased
tension; tension built up during an active contraction stimulates the GTO, causing a reflexive
relaxation of the muscle during the subsequent passive stretch
 Reciprocal inhibition- relaxation that occurs in the muscle opposing the muscle experiencing the
increased tension; accomplished when you simultaneously contract the muscle opposing the muscle
that is being passively stretched. The tension in the contracting muscle stimulates the GTO &
causes a simultaneously reflexive relaxation of the stretched muscle
Types of stretching
o Static
 30 seconds
 Doesn’t elicit stretch reflex
 Increases ROM
o Ballistic
 Badcauses injury
 Triggers stretch reflex
o Dynamic
 Sport specific movements
 Promotes dynamic flexibility
 Promotes temperature related benefits of general warm up
 Muscle is active through ROM
o PNF
 Hold relax
 Passive pre-stretch at mild discomfort for 10 seconds
 Isometric muscle action for 6 seconds
 Passive stretch for 30 seconds
 Contract relax
 Passive pre-stretch at mild discomfort for 10 seconds
 Contraction of stretched muscle through ROM
 Passive stretch for 30 seconds
 Hold relax with agonist contraction
 Passive pre-stretch at mild discomfort for 10 seconds
 Isometric muscle action for 6 seconds
 Contraction of antagonist muscle while simultaneously passively stretching agonist
Chapter 14: RT & Spotting Techniques
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
Handgrips
o Pronated/overhand
o Supinated/underhand
o Neutral grip
o Alternated grip
o Hook grip- for exercises requiring a strong grip (power exercises)
o Closed grip- thumb wrapped around the bar
o Open/false grip- thumb not wrapped around the bar
Stable body & limb position
o 5 point body contact position
 For seated or supine
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 Head firmly on bench/pad
 Shoulders/upper back firmly/evenly on bench/pad
 Buttocks firmly/evenly on bench/pad
 Right foot flat on floor
 Left foot flat on floor
 Promotes stability/spine support
ROM & speed
o Slow, controlled reps increase the likelihood of full ROM reached
o Power exercisesaccelerate bar to max speed while maintaining control
Breathing considerations
o Exhale through sticking point of the concentric phase & inhale during the eccentric phase
o Valsalva can be helpful for well trained, experienced lifters performing structural exercises to assist in
maintaining proper vertebral alignment & support
Weight belts
o An athlete should wear a weight belt when performing exercises that place stress on the lower back &
during sets that involve near max or max loads
Spotting
o For safety & forced reps
o Free weight exercises performed over the head, bar on back, bar anteriorly on shoulder/clavicles, or over the
face
o Don’t spot power exercises
o Spotter grasps bar with alternated grip
o Spot at wrists
o Multiple spotters if load is to big
o Spotter & athlete must communicate
o Liftoffs
Chapter 15: RT
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SAID principle- specific adaptations to imposed demands: type of demand placed on body dictates the type of
adaptations that will occur
Step 1: needs analysis- determine unique characteristics of the sport
o Evaluation of the sport
 Movement analysis- body/limb movement patterns & muscle involvement
 Physiological analysis- strength, power, hypertrophy, endurance priorities
 Injury analysis
o Assessment of the athlete: page 384 table 15.1 & 15.2
 Training status- current condition
 Training background- training occurring before new program
 Type of program (flexibility, sprint, plyometric, etc.)
 Frequency, intensity, technique experience
 Physical testing & evaluation- assessments of strength, flexibility, power, speed, muscular
endurance, body composition, endurance, etc.
 Goals
Step 2: exercise selection
o Core exercises- 1 or more large muscle areas, multi-joint, receive priority
o Assistance exercises- smaller muscle areas, single joint
o Structural exercises- load spine directly or indirectly (power clean)
o Power exercises- structural exercises performed very quickly
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o Sport specific exercises: SAID principle
o Muscle balance- balance agonist/antagonist
o Correct technique
Step 3: frequency- training sessions in a given time period (page 389 table 15.4 & page 390 table 15.6)
o At least 1 day of recovery, but no more than 3 between sessions that stress the same muscle group
o During sport season frequency might decrease
o Load & exercise type- intensity determines frequency
o Other training- aerobic/anaerobic training
Step 4: exercise order
o Power, other core, assistance exercises
 Multi-joint then single joint
 Large muscle areas 1st
 Pre-exhaustion- single joint exercises 1st
o Alternate upper & lower body exercises (circuit training)
o Alternate push/pull exercises
o Supersets- 2 sequentially performed exercises stressing 2 opposing muscles
o Compound sets- 2 sequentially performed exercises stressing the same muscle
Step 5: load & reps, page 394 table 15.7
o Load- amount of weight
o Load volume- related to mechanical work, weight * reps
o 1RM & #RM (most weight lifted for a specified # of reps)
o 1RM testing options- actual 1RM, estimated 1RM from multiple RM test
o Assigning load & reps- base on 1RM or estimated RM
 Strength: >85% 1RM, <6 reps
 Power: single event- 80-90% 1RM, 1-2 reps; multi event- 75-85% 1RM, 3-5 reps
 Hypertrophy: 67-85% 1RM, 6-12 reps
 Endurance: <67%, >12 reps
o Power training is less than 100% 1RM because at 100% velocity s very low; lower % & the velocity
increases, which increases power
o Variation of load- have 1 heavy day per week & lighter loads other days to allow for rest
Step 6: volume
o Strength: 2-6 sets
o Power: 3-5 sets
o Hypertrophy: 3-6 sets, 3 or more exercises
o Endurance: 2-3 sets
Step 7: rest periods
o More rest for core exercises & heavier loads
o Strength/power: 2-5 minutes
o Hypertrophy: 30 seconds to 1.5 minutes
o Endurance: <30 seconds
Chapter 16: Plyometric Training
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Improves muscle force & power
Mechanical model
o Elastic energy in the musculotendinous component is increased with a rapid stretch & then stored
o When this movement is immediately followed by a concentric muscle action, energy is released
o Series elastic component (SEC)
 Tendons are majority
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Act as springs- when concentric action occurs they release stored energy & naturally return muscles
& tendons to unstretched configuration
 If concentric action not immediately after, energy is lost as heat
Neurophysiological model
o Stretch reflex- involuntary response to an external stimulus that stretches the muscle
o Muscle spindles
 Sensitive to rate & magnitude of stretch
 During plyometrics, they are stimulated by rapid stretch causing reflexive muscle action
 Response increases force in agonist muscle
o Stretch shortening cycle (SSC)
 Employs SEC & stretch reflex to facilitate a max increase in muscle recruitment over a minimum
amount of time
 3 phases: eccentric, amortization, & concentric
 Eccentric- preload agonists. SEC stores elastic energy & muscle spindles stimulated.
Spindles send a signal to ventricle root via type 1a afferent (dorsal) nerve fibers
 Amortization (transition) - end of eccentric to beginning of concentric. Delay in time during
which type 1a nerve synapses with alpha motor neurons in ventral root. Signal then goes to
alpha motor neuron. Phase must be short or stored energy dissipates as heat
 Concentric- energy stored in SEC is used to increase force beyond that of an isolated
concentric muscle action
 A high stretch rate is vital to plyometric exercise. It results in greater muscle recruitment during the
SSC concentric phase
Mode
o Determined by body region performing the given exercise (single vs. double leg hop)
Intensity
o Refers to amount of stress placed on involved muscles (skipping = low; depth jumps = high)
o As intensity increases, volume should decrease
o Factors that affect intensity- points of contact, speed, height of drill, body weight
Frequency
o Usually 1-3 sessions per week, but you need 48-72 hours of recovery time so it can be 2-4 sessions per
week
Volume
o Lower body
 80-100 contacts per session
 100-120 contacts per session
 120-140 contacts per session
o Upper body- expressed as # of throws/catches
Program length
o Currently 6-10 weeks
o Vary with season of sport
Progression
o Progressive overload
o Increase intensity while decreasing volume
Warm up
o Low intensity, dynamic movements (sport specific)
o Generalstretchingsport specific
Age issues
o Watch for depth jumps/high intensity lower body stiff in adolescents because of epiphyseal plates
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o Old people- orthopedic conditions; no more than 5 low to moderate intensity exercises with 3-4 days
between sessions
Plyometrics & RT
o Combine upper body plyometrics with low body RT & vice versa
o Don’t do high intensity RT & plyometrics on same day
Plyometrics & aerobic exercise- do plyometrics 1st because aerobic exercise decreases force production
Safety considerations
o Technique- proper form, landing technique
o Strength- for lower body 1RM squat should be 1.5 * body weight & bench should be body weight for
athletes weighing over 100 kg & 1.5 * body weight for smaller athletes
o Speed- should be able to do 5 reps on squat with 60% body weight in <5 seconds
Balance
o Physical characteristics
 Athletes over 220 pounds have an increased risk for injury
 Avoid high volume & high intensity
Equipment
o Landing surface should be somewhat soft
o If too soft amortization phase will be too long
o Do depth jumps 16-42 inches only
o Footwear with good ankle/foot support, lateral stability, & wide, non-slip sole
o Supervision
Chapter 17: Speed, Agility, & Speed Endurance Development
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Impulse- change in momentum resulting from a force, measured as the product of force & time
Power
o The rate of doing work, measured as the product of force & velocity
o Peak power & force absorbed by tissues is greater in active lengthening than shortening
Peak rate of intrinsic muscle shortening depends on:
o Contractility & excitability of neuromuscular system
o Muscle architecture- fiber/fascicle length & the number of active sarcomeres
o Motor unit composition & max cross bridge cycling rates in fiber types
Many functional tasks begin with actions referred to as the SSC
o Activities aim to improving SSC should:
 Involve skillful, multi-joint movements that transmit forces through the kinetic chain & exploit
elastic-reflexive mechanisms
 Structured around brief work bouts separated by frequent rest pauses
o A combination of progressive plyometric & heavy RT can accomplish this
 Complex training- alternating SSC tasks with heavy RT within the same session enhances their
working effect
o Reactive ability vs. reaction time
 Reactive ability- characteristic of explosive strength in SSC actions that can be improved through
reactive-explosive training
 Reaction time- untrainable & correlates poorly with movement action time or performance in many
explosive events; important in quick timing tasks (hitting a baseball) & defensive types of stimulus
response actions (goaltenders making a save)
Explosive strength training good for aerobic athletes because stride frequency, length, & efficiency can be
improved
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Running speed
o Alternating flight phase & support phase
o Run speed is the interaction of stride frequency & stride length
o Elite sprinters have greater stride length & keep increasing it up to ~45 meters
o They achieve greater stride frequency & increase it up to ~25 meters
o They produce greater initial forces & velocities at the start, greater rates of acceleration, & reach max
velocities quicker
o Stride length-frequency relationship
 As speed approaches maximum, frequency changes more than length & is more important in
determining final velocity
 Frequency seems to be more trainable than stride length
o Fundamental training objectives
 Minimize braking forces at ground contact by maximizing the backward velocity of leg/foot at
touchdown & by planting foot beneath your center of gravity
 Emphasize brief ground support times as a means of achieving rapid stride rate
 Emphasize functional training of hamstrings (concentric & eccentric training)
Agility
o Skill classification
 General- target development of 1 or more basic coordinated abilities
 Speed- unify them in a skill specific manner
 Closed- have programmed assignments & predictable/stable environments; athlete determines
where, when, & how to begin the action (pro agility drill)
 Open- non programmed assignments & unpredictable or unstable environments; open field dodging
in team games
 Continuous- no identifiable stat or finish; usually performed at low or intermediate speeds
 Discrete- definite start & finish
 Serial- composed of discrete skills performed in sequence, with successful execution of each subtask
determining the overall outcome
o Agility tasks involving changes in velocity can be characterized by:
 Decrease or increase in speed (or both) & redirection of movement
 Final speed & direction
o Agility tasks involving changes in locomotion mode can be characterized by:
 Specific locomotion modes performed & the movement techniques used to execute them discretely
 The specific sequences in which they are performed & the techniques used to transition between
them serially
o Technical consideration
 Body position- body lean must increase as the rate of deceleration increases
 Visual focus- head in neutral position with eyes focused directly ahead (use peripheral vision when
moving laterally)
 Leg action- greater deceleration during multidirectional tasks the greater the need to reacquire high
stride rate & stride length
 Arm action- powerful arm action to help with leg drive
 Braking mechanisms- key to increase direction changing
 Run ½ speed & stop within 3 steps
 Run ¾ speed & stop within 5 steps
 Run full speed & stop within 7 steps
o Methods of developing speed & agility
 Primary- technique training
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Secondary
 Sprint resistance- gravity resisted running (upstairs or up a grade), provides resistance
without arresting athletes movement mechanics
 Sprint assistance- gravity assisted running, high speed towing, other activities to get
overspeed effect, improves stride rate
 Tertiary
 Mobility- flexibility, full ROM
 Strength- address entire force velocity spectrum, use SSC actions
 Speed endurance- figure 17.9 page 475
Program design
o Periodization (micro, meso, macrocycles)
o Short term planning
 Fatigue management & task specificity are the driving forces in short range planning
 Want to enhance fatigue resistance & tolerance
 Speed & agility sessions
 Max running velocity has been directly related to muscle myokinase & creating
phosphokinase & inversely related to lactate dehydrogenase
 Creating phosphate energy system
 Do speed agility stuff early in training session
 Brief work bouts & frequent 2-3 minute rest periods
 Repetition method- figure 17.9 page 475
 Speed endurance sessions- maximally engage oxidative pathways in intermittent tasks instead of
continuous, submax workloads
 Motor learning guidelines
 Physical vs. mental practice- mental is useful for pre-performance preparation
 Amount of practice- overlearning
 Whole vs. part practice- part practice preferable for highly complex & low organization,
whole practice good for low complex & high organization
 Augmented feedback- extrinsic feedback
 Practice distribution- shorter, more frequent practice sessions
 Practice variation- changing task order or conditions
o Medium term planning
 Exploit complementary training effects at optimal times & minimize the compatibility problems
associated with concurrent training
o Long term planning
 As athletes master each skill, they should review & maintain it while progressing to newer, more
complex tasks
Chapter 18: Aerobic Endurance Exercise Training
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Max aerobic power (VO2 max)
o High VO2 max = increased performance
o Aerobic programs should be designed to increase this
o Lactate threshold (LT)
 % of VO2 max at which a specific blood lactate concentration is observed or the point at which
blood lactate concentrations begin to increase above resting levels
 Max lactate threshold- exercise intensity at which max lactate production is equal to max lactate
clearance; considered to be a better indicator of aerobic endurance than VO2 max or LT
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Exercise economy
o A measure of the energy cost of activity at a given exercise velocity
o High exercise economy = expend less energy during exercise to maintain a given exercise velocity
Step 1: exercise mode
o Refers to activity performed by the athlete
o Athlete should select activities that mimic as closely as possible the movement pattern employed in
competition
o Ensure systems used in competition are challenged to improve
Step 2: training frequency
o Must do more than 2 times per week to increase VO2 max
o Recovery is essential
 Rehydration
 Sufficient rest
 Post exercise carbs
Step 3: training intensity
o Adaptations specific to intensity
o As intensity increase, more type II fibers are recruited
o Must overload the bodies systems to get adaptations
o HR
 Use when intensity is between 50-90% of HRR
 % HRR = %VO2 max
 Use age predicted max HR if no lab testing is available
 Karvonen method & % of max HR method- page 494 side bar
 Age contributes 75% of variability of HR
o RPE- can be influenced by external factors, table 18.2 page 495
o Metabolic equivalents (METS)- table 18.3 page 495
 1 MET = 3.5 ml*kg*min
 Need to know VO2 max
Step 4: exercise duration
o Influenced by intensity
o Longer the duration, lower the intensity
Step 5: progression
o Fitness doesn’t decrease for up to 5 weeks when the intensity is maintained & the frequency decreases to as
few as 2 times per week
o Frequency, intensity, & duration shouldn’t increase >10% each week
Types of aerobic endurance training programs
o LSD
 1-2 times per week at race distance or longer; ~70% VO2 max
 30 minutes to 2 hours
 Should be able to talk without undue respiratory distress
 Enhanced cardiovascular/thermoregulatory function
 Improved mitochondrial energy production & oxidative capacity of muscle
 Use more fat as fuel
 Increase the LT
o Pace/tempo training
 1-2 times per week at/slightly above race pace for ~20-30 minutes
 Can do a steady pace or intermittent at same intensity for multiple intervals with brief recovery
periods
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o Intervals
 1-2 times per week for 3-5 minutes near VO2 max (1:1 work/rest ratio)
 Permits the athlete to train at intensities close to VO2 max for a greater amount of time than would
be possible in a single exercise session
 Intervals may be as short as 30 seconds
o Repetitions
 Once per week for 30-90 seconds greater than VO2 max (1:5 work/rest ratio)
o Fartlek
 Once per week for ~20-60 minutes between LSD & pace/tempo intensities
 Combination of other types of aerobic training
 Easy running with hills or short, fast bursts of running
Design & training sessions- table 18.5 page 501
o Off season (base training)
 Long duration, low intensity initially
 As off season continues, increase intensity & duration (5-10% per week)
o Preseason- increase intensity & maintain/decrease duration
o In season
 Include competition days in training schedule
 Low intensity & short duration should precede competition
o Post season (active rest)
 Low training duration & intensity
 Maintain sufficient level of fitness
 Rehab/repair
Cross training
o Decrease the likelihood of overuse
o Used to maintain general conditioning
o Must be equal in intensity & duration to athlete’s primary mode of exercise
Detraining
o Decrease duration or intensity or stop all together
o Physiological adaptations regress towards pre-training levels very rapidly
Tapering
o Systematic reduction of duration & intensity with an increased focus on technique
o Objective is to obtain peak performance
RT
o Increase recovery time & reduce muscle imbalances
o Important for hill climbs, breakaways, etc.
Chapter 19: Periodization
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General adaptation syndrome (GAS)
o Shock/alarm phase
 When the body experiences a new stress or more intense stress
 May last for days/weeks
 May experience soreness/drop in performance
o Resistance phase
 Body adapts to the stimulus
 Supercompensation
o Exhaustion phase
 Symptoms experienced with alarm phase reappear
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 Staleness/overtraining may appear
 Should try to avoid this phase
Periodization cycles
o Macrocycle- usually 1 year, but can be months to 4 years
o Mesocycle- several weeks to months
o Microcycle- 1-4 weeks
Periodization periods
o Prepatory period
 Longest & when there are no competitions
 Establish a base level of conditioning
 Low intensity & high volume
 LSD run/swim, low intensity plyometrics, high rep RT
 Technique training isn’t a high priority
 Gradually increase RT loads & sport conditioning intensity, decrease training volume, & focus more
on technique
 Hypertrophy/endurance phase
 Early phase of prepatory period, 1-6 weeks
 Low intensity, high volume
 Increase lean body mass & develop an endurance base
 Basic strength phase- increase strength of muscles essential to primary sport movements
 Strength/power phase- high intensity, low volume; near competition levels
st
o 1 transition period- 1 week of lower intensity, lower volume
o Competition period
 Goal is to peak strength/power through an increase in intensity with a decrease in training volume
 Skill technique practice increases while physical conditioning decreases
 Very high intensity, very low volume (1-3 sets, 1-3 reps)
nd
o 2 transition period
 Active rest
 1-4 weeks
 Unstructured, non sport specific activities
 Low intensity, low volume
Off season
o Between post season & 6 weeks prior to the 1st contest of the next year’s season
o Most of the prepatory period
Preseason
o Last stages of prepatory period & 1st transition period
o The 6 weeks prior to the 1st contest of the season
In season
o Competition period, all of the seasons contests, including tournaments
o Either make a maintenance program or multiple mesocycles
Post season- 2nd transition period
Linear periodization- traditional, gradual, progressive increase in intensity over time
Undulating/ non linear periodization- large, daily fluctuations in load/volume assignments for core exercises
Chapter 20: Rehabilitation & reconditioning
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Sports medicine team
o Team physician, athletic trainer, physical therapist, strength & conditioning professional, exercise
physiologist, nutritionist, & psychologist
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Communication
o Key
o Indication- form of treatment required by the rehabilitating athlete
o Contraindication- activity that’s unadvisable
Types of injury
o Macrotrauma- specific, sudden overload to a given tissue, resulting in disrupted tissue integrity
 Broken bones, fractures
o Dislocation/subluxation
o Sprain/strain
o Contusion
o Microtrauma- overuse injuries; stress fractures, tendinitis
Tissue healing
o Inflammation phase
 Pain, swelling, redness
 Tissue death causes histamine/bradykinin to be released
 Blood flow & capillary permeability is increased (edema)
 Macrophages eat stuff (phagocytosis)
o Repair phase
 New capillaries/connective tissue
 Collagen fiber production
 Can start 2 days after injury
o Remodeling phase
 Tissue produced during repair phase is strengthened
 Collagen fibers properly align themselves
 Can last 2-4 months
Goals of rehabilitation & reconditioning
o Inflammation phase
 Treatment goal
 Prevent disruption of new tissue
 RICE
 Ultrasound, e-stim
 Consult with athletic trainer for indicated & contraindicated exercises
 Exercise strategies- rest
o Repair phase
 Treatment goal
 Prevent excessive atrophy & joint deterioration
 Avoid disruption of newly formed collagen fibers
 Avoid active resistive exercises involving the damaged tissue
 Ultrasound, e-stim, ice
 Exercise strategies
 Isometric exercises- submax, allow athlete to maintain neuromuscular function & improve
strength while not injuring new tissue
 Isokinetic exercises
 Isotonic exercises- balance boards, stability balls, activities to improve neuromuscular
control
o Remodeling phase
 Treatment goal
 Optimizing tissue function
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 Continue & progress exercises performed during repair phase
 Can add sport specific stuff
o Exercise strategies
 Functional training- joint angle/velocity specific, closed kinetic chain
 Transition to sport specific
 Closed kinetic chain exercises- squats, push ups
 When the distal joint segment is stationary
 More functional
 Increase joint stability & functional movements
 Open kinetic chain- leg extension, bench press
 Distal joint isn’t stationary
 Allows greater concentration on isolated muscle/joint
Program design
o De Lorme program
 3 sets of 10
 1st set: 10 reps at 50% 10RM
 2nd set: 10 reps at 75% 10RM
 3rd set: 10 reps at 100% 10RM
o Oxford program
 Opposite of the De Lorme program
 Heavy to light
o Daily Adjustable Progressive Resistive Exercise (DAPRE) system
 Allows more manipulation of intensity & volume than the previous 2 programs
 4 sets
 1st set: 10 reps at 50% estimated 1RM
 2nd set: 6 reps at 75% estimated 1RM
 3rd set: max number of reps at 100% estimated 1RM
 4th set: determined by number of reps in 3rd set; page 536 table 20.2
Chapter 21: Facility Organization & Risk Management
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New facility design
o Predesign phase- 25% of project time (6 months)
 Needs analysis
 Feasibility study- determines costs, facility location, projected usage, etc.
 Project goals
 Architect selection- look for credentials
o Design phase- 10% of project time (3 months)
 Finalize variety of qualified professionals
 Finalize blueprints
 Equipment specifications
 Design facility spacing- take into account health, safety, & legal codes & traffic flow
o Construction phase- 50% of project time (12 months)
 Construction start to finish
 Make sure goals & objectives are met
 Deadlines set & adhered too
o Preoperation phase
 Hire staff that meets standards
 A plan for continued staff development
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o Assessing athletic program needs
 How many athletes will use the facility
 What types of training does each athletic group require
 Age groups & training experience of athletes
 What repairs & adaptations to equipment must be made
Designing facility
o Location
 Rooms should be on ground floor with accessible service entrances
 If they aren’t on the 1st floor, they must be stable; keep sound absorption in mind
o Supervision location- centrally located with big windows
o Access
 Free & unobstructed
 People with disabilities
 Door width minimum 36 inches
 Hallway width minimum 60 inches
 Emergency exits clearly visible & free from obstructions
o Ceiling height- 12-14 ft
o Flooring
 Carpet (treated with anti everything) &/or rubberized surface (good for free weights)
 Poured rubber floor is very durable & good
 Wood is best for Olympic lifts because of flat, good footing
o Environmental factors
 75-100 ft candles
 50 ft candles at floor level
 Windows at least 20 inched from the floor
o Temperature- 68-78 degrees Fahrenheit
o Relative humidity 60% or less
o Sound shouldn’t exceed 90 decibels
o Electrical service- grounded electrical outlets & ground fault circuit interrupters are necessary
o Mirrors- good for lifting technique, keep at least 20 inches above the floor, & have bumper rails
o Other- drinking fountains, rest rooms clearly marked, phones in office, signs for policy/rules, storage room
Arranging equipment
o Create areas that emphasize body parts
o Create areas according to the type of equipment
o Equipment placement
 Power exercises away from glass & entrances
 Tallest machines against the walls
 36 inches in between bar ends, weight trees, etc.
 6 inches from mirrors
 Bolt stuff down
o Traffic flow
o Stretch/warm up area- 49 square feet per athlete
o Circuit training- 24-36 inches between machines, page 551 table 21.1
o Free weights- 36 inches in between bar ends, page 551 table 21.1
o Olympic area- accommodate 3-4 people; perimeter 3-4 feet; page 551 table 21.1
o Aerobic area- 24 square feet for bikes/stair machines, 6 for skiing machines, 40 for rowers, & 45 for
treadmills
o Cleaning- page 565-567 figure 21.5
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Scheduling
o Seasonal priority & peak hours- in season is given priority & more time is needed for off season
Staff-athlete ratio
o Middle school- 1:10
o Secondary- 1:15
o Older than that- 1:20
Litigation
o Liability- a legal responsibility, duty, or obligation
o Standard of care- what a reasonable & prudent person would do under similar circumstances
o Negligence- failure to act as a reasonable & prudent person would under similar circumstances; duty, breach
of duty, proximate cause, & damages all must occur
o Assumption of risk- knowing that an inherent risk exists with participation in an activity & voluntarily
deciding to participate anyway
o Supervision- always watch athletes
o Instruction- good technique
o Medical clearance- scope of practice
Emergency care plan
o EMS activation procedures
o Primary, secondary, & tertiary people to contact
o Specific address to give to EMS people
o Location of phones & nearest exits
o Designated personnel qualified to care for injuries (sports medicine staff)
o Ambulance access
o Location of emergency supplies & 1st aid kits
o Plan of action in case of a natural disaster, terrorism, etc.
Record keeping- can save your ass
Liability insurance
Product liability
Chapter 22: Developing a Policies & Procedures Manual
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Mission statement & program goals
o Missions statement
 Short & sharply focused
 Clear & easy to understand
 Defines why we do what we do & why the organization exists
 Doesn’t prescribe means
 Is sufficiently broad
 Inspires our commitment
 Says what we want to be remembered for
o Program goals- the desired end products of a strength & conditioning program
Program objectives
o The specific means of attaining program goals
o Should encompass all areas of the program to ensure that the goals are attained
Descriptions & duties of the strength & conditioning staff
o Strength & conditioning director (head guy)- responsible for overall program, facility, equipment, staff, &
administrative tasks
o Assistant strength & conditioning person- only directly responsible for a limited number of teams
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o Faculty supervisor- responsible for observing activities within the strength & conditioning facility &
cleaning & maintaining its equipment
Staff policies & activities
o Orientation meeting- for athletes & coaches where everything is discussed
o Annual plan- list that states upcoming projects & demands
o Budgetary issues- new equipment, office shit, travel, etc.
o Staff facility use- you can use what & when
o Staff workout times- early, but not when a team is
o Relationships with athletes & other staff members- no personal relationships
o Staff professional goals- CEUs, ask questions, give presentations, etc.
Faculty administration
o Access to & supervision of the facility
 Participation requirement for athletes- screening & clearance required
 Eligibility criteria
 Action for ineligible person- explain why & tell them to leave
o Phone & music system use- staff only
o Facility rules & guidelines- important & make sure they are followed & enforced
o Emergency procedures- plans should be rehearsed & discussed on a regular basis to ensure the safety of the
staff members & all users of the facility