AN INDEPENDENT STUDY COURSE BY CORRESPONDENCE
Paralleling the Course of the Same Name and Number
Offered in Residence by
Texas State University
San Marcos, Texas
PSY 3331
Social Psychology
2002 Edition
(Three Semester Credit Hours)
Prepared by
Dr. Theron Stimmel, Professor
Department of Psychology
Texas State University
A PUBLIC SERVICE FUNCTION OF THE TEXAS STATE UNIVERSITY SYSTEM
Copyright © 2002
by the
Office of Distance and Extended Learning
Texas State University
Lesson One — 1
Copyright © 2002
by the
Office of Distance and Extended Learning
Texas State University
All Rights Reserved
Content Developed By
Dr. Theron Stimmel
Course Production Staff:
Joshua Book, Assistant Director
Travis Irby, Instructional Designer
Dana Ortiz, Administrative Assistant
Melissa Vela, Administrative Assistant
Correspondence Study Policy on Academic Freedom
Texas State University defends the rights of its faculty and students to
express views on a full spectrum of issues. This principle of academic
freedom is especially important in courses containing controversial subject
matter. It extends to the Correspondence Curriculum as well as to oncampus classes. Views expressed in this study guide should not be
expected to represent a consensus of the university faculty and
administration.
2 — Lesson One
Contents & Overview
PSY 3331
Social Psychology
Important Information.................................................................................................................. i
Personal Study Schedule.............................................................................................................. v
Course Author & Your Instructor............................................................................................. vii
Course Introduction..................................................................................................................... ix
Scope and nature of the course, course goals, required textbooks, course procedures, assignments,
examinations, grading criteria, student learning outcomes, University Honor Code, and final comments.
Lessons
Lesson 1
Lesson 2
What is Social Psychology? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Definition of social psychology and its relation to the nature of science; the elements of social
psychology research; ethical principles and questions.
The Social Self . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Self-concept, self-esteem, and self-presentation; how people come to know themselves, develop a
self-concept, and maintain a stable identity; how people evaluate themselves, enhance self-images,
and defend against threats to their self-esteem; how people regulate their own actions and present
themselves to others according to interpersonal demands.
Lesson 3
Perceiving Persons & Perceiving Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
How people know or think they know other people; attribution theory, confirmation, biases, and
self-fulfilling prophecies; how people think, feel, and behave toward members of social groups; data
on stereotypes, prejudices, racism, and sexism; ways to reduce discrimination.
Lesson 4
Attitudes & Conformity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Attitudes and how they are measured and their relation to behavior; two methods of changing
attitudes; ways in which social influences are “automatic”; why people conform; strategies used to
elicit compliance with direct requests; causes and effects of obedience to the commands of authority; the continuum of social influence. Midcourse Examination Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Tips for the midcourse exam, procedures for the exam, midcourse examination request form.
Lesson 5
Group Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77
Social influence in a group context including collective processes and group processes; cooperation, competition, and conflict.
Lesson 6
Lesson 7
Attraction & Close Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
How people form relationships with each other; the basic human need for being with others;
affiliation; loneliness; factors that influence initial attraction to others; various close relationships and factors which can keep them together or tear them apart.
Helping Others . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
The social psychology of giving and receiving help; the evolutionary, motivational, situational,
personal, and interpersonal factors that determine whether a potential helper will aid a person in
need; people’s reactions to receiving help; the helping connection.
Lesson 8
Aggression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .123
Aggression defined; cultural and gender differences; the origins of aggressive behavior; situ-
ational factors that influence when people are likely to become aggressive; the effects of media
violence and pornography on aggression; the intimate violence that can happen in close relationships; ways to reduce violence.
Lesson 9
The Application of Social Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Examples of social psychology and the law; the role of social psychology in the workplace; the
social psychology of physical and mental health.
Final Examination Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Tips for the final exam, procedures for the exam, final examination request form
Important Information
Before beginning work in your course, you will find it helpful to familiarize yourself with the
policies and procedures of the Texas State Office of Distance and Extended Learning contained
in the online student handbook and on our website. In addition, the following pages contain
information important to know when taking a course from our office. Please take the time to
carefully read through this section.
Textbooks and Course Materials
Be sure to purchase all materials required for your course within thirty days of your enrollment date. After thirty days, course materials may become unavailable.If you need to order
additional textbooks or course materials, you may contact the University Bookstore at 512-2452273.
Making a Schedule
You have nine months to complete your course. To meet graduation or other personal deadlines, you may need to complete your course earlier.
Using the Personal Study Schedule in the front of this study guide, set a reasonable schedule
for submitting each assignment and taking any required exams. When making your schedule,
keep in mind that unless otherwise stated in the Introduction of this study guide, you may
submit no more than two assignments per week. Consider the assignment turnaround time
involved with a correspondence course. You should plan around dates when the university is
closed for extended periods of time and faculty will not be on campus or grading correspondence assignments. Also be aware that it will take longer to get your assignments graded during exceptionally busy times for faculty, such as when final exams are being administered in
on-campus classes. Allow four weeks for final grades to be reported to the Texas State registrar. Allow additional time for receipt of transcripts. It is your responsibility to know your
personal deadlines. Take these into consideration when making your schedule, particularly if
you need to complete this course to graduate. Once you have constructed a study schedule,
stick to it. Refer to it often to ensure that you are staying on track. If you should fall behind,
amend your schedule so that it is still a useful tool for helping you complete the course in a
reasonable amount of time.
Doing and Submitting Assignments
Follow assignment directions carefully. If possible, complete your assignments using a computer word processing program. If you do not have access to a computer or need to write out
hard-copy assignments, print legibly in ink unless otherwise directed by the instructor. For
mathematical work, show all calculations and circle your final answer.
Important Information — v
Identify your work. Number all pages of your assignment and include on each page the
course prefix and number, the assignment number, and your name. (This is especially important for assignments submitted via e-mail or online.) Attach an assignment cover sheet from
the back of this study guide to all hard-copy assignments. Fill out all information completely
and clearly. If you have questions, e-mail your instructor or ask them on the cover sheet for
hard-copy assignments. Your instructor or our office will respond. Make or save a copy of
your work. Doing so will save you from having to redo your assignment if it is lost.
When you submit your assignment, our office notes your submission, and your instructor
grades it. Your instructor may take up to ten working days to grade your assignment. Our
office records the grade, and graded hard-copy or e-mailed assignments are returned to you.
Assignments submitted online are graded by your instructor online and available for your
review online.
Submitting Assignments by Mail
Place your assignment in one of the pre-addressed envelopes provided. If you find the envelope is too small for your entire assignment, obtain a larger envelope and record on it your
return address, course name, and assignment number. Do not split an assignment into more
than one envelope. Never give or send your assignment directly to your instructor.
Be sure your assignment has sufficient postage to avoid any last-minute delays. You must pay
any outstanding postage fees incurred during your enrollment period to avoid a hold being
placed on your records. Mail exam request forms separately from your assignments; do not
mail an exam request form in the same envelope with an assignment.
Submitting Assignments by Fax
In some courses, you may fax your assignments to our office for an additional fee. Check the
Introduction of this study guide to see if your instructor will accept faxed assignments. When
faxing an assignment to our office, fill out the assignment cover sheet and use this as the cover
sheet for your fax. Always call to verify receipt of the assignment and the total amount of the
fax charge.
Submitting Assignments Online
Some print-based courses have companion websites in TRACS, Texas State’s online learning
environment. If your course has a companion site that includes online assignment submission,
follow the directions for submitting assignments in that TRACS site. Not all print-based courses have companion sites in TRACS, and not all course companion sites include online assignment submission. The Introduction of this study guide will inform you if your course includes
a course companion site in TRACS.
vi — Important Information
Exams
Almost all correspondence courses require you to take at least one exam. For these courses, a
minimum grade on the exam(s) is required to pass the course independent of the grades you
earn on the assignments. An explanation of the exam grade requirement for your course can be
found in the Introduction of this study guide.
If you live at a distance from the Texas State campus and need to have your exam proctored,
be sure to read the information on exam proctors in the About Your Exam section of this study
guide. We will contact all proctors for verification. Review proctor requirements to avoid possible delays in your exam being mailed to your testing location.
Reporting Course Grades and Incompletes
All assignments must be completed and all exams must be taken for you to receive credit for
your course. Once you have completed your course and the instructor has determined your
final grade, you will receive a final grade report. Letter grades of A, B, C, D, and F are used
for final grades. The lowest passing grade is a D. There is no pass/fail grading option for any
course except MATH 1311. Final grades are reported to the Texas State Registrar only if you
complete the course. No grade is reported if you do not complete the course. If your enrollment expires and you do not drop your course, your course remains on your transcript as “in
progress,” but no grade is reported. If you drop your course, no transcript entry is made.
Your final exam grade report (for courses that have a final exam) and a course report are
mailed to you upon completion of the course. You may also obtain a course grade on an official Texas State transcript. Transcripts are available from the Registrar’s Office, 111 J.C. Kellam Building, and may be requested in person, by mail, or by fax at 512.245.2367. The cost is
$5 per transcript, payable by check, cash, or credit card. No official transcript can be released if
there is any financial obligation to Texas State. For more information, refer to the website of the
Texas State Registrar’s Office, www.txstate.edu/registrar.
Additional Resources
The Texas State Library
All Texas State students, including correspondence students, receive library support services
from the Alkek Library, located on the main campus. The library website (which can be found
at www.library.txstate.edu/services/distance-students) is your essential portal to resources
and services. Distance learning students are also eligible for additional assistance (including
document delivery) from the Distance Services Librarian. Some library resources may require
a Texas State username and password, which you may obtain by contacting the Texas State Office of Distance and Extended Learning. Please contact the Alkek Library for more information
on specific library services. Contact the Reference Desk at 512.245.2686, or contact the Distance
Librarian at 866.255.3511.
Important Information — vii
Online Tutoring
The Texas State Office of Distance and Extended Learning provides students with online tutoring for correspondence courses offered through our office. The subject areas in which students
can receive help include math, writing, and Spanish. For detailed information about this service, visit our website or contact us by phone.
A Final Word
The Office of Distance and Extended Learning will work with you to see that you benefit from
and enjoy correspondence study. Should you have any questions about our procedures, call
512.245.2322 from 8 a.m. to 5 p.m. Central Time, Monday through Friday. If you have questions
concerning course content, e-mail your instructor or use the assignment cover sheets to communicate with your instructor. The Office of Distance and Extended Learning is committed to
offering you the highest quality educational experience. We appreciate feedback concerning
our services to you, your instructor, and ideas for new courses. For current course listings, visit
our website, www.correspondence.txstate.edu.
You may also contact our office directly:
Texas State University,
Office of Distance and Extended Learning,
601 University Drive, San Marcos, TX 78666-4615.
Local: 512.245.2322 • Toll-free: 800.511.8656 • Fax: 512.245.8934
Website: www.correspondence.txstate.edu • E-mail: corrstudy@txstate.edu
viii — Important Information
Personal Study Schedule
Here’s a planning schedule to help you successfully complete your course. Follow these
steps:
First, enter the course abbreviation and number, and the date you enrolled in the course.
Second, enter your deadline for completing the course at the bottom of the schedule. Be sure
to allow for holidays and breaks between semesters.
Third, enter the dates you plan to take each exam.
Fourth, enter the dates you plan to submit each assignment.
Planning Schedule
START
I began _____________________________ on _______________________ .
PlannedActualDate
Assignment Date Date Sent Received Grade
1___________________________________
2___________________________________
3___________________________________
4___________________________________
MIDCOURSE EXAM
I plan to take the midcourse exam on _______________________ .
5___________________________________
6___________________________________
7___________________________________
8___________________________________
9___________________________________
FINAL EXAM I plan to take the final exam on ____________________________ .
DEADLINE My grade must be received on _____________________________ .
Personal Study Schedule — v
CORRESPONDENCE NOTE:
Plan your personal study
schedule wisely, so you will get
the most out of the course.
vi — Personal Study Schedule
About the Author
Dr. Theron Stimmel, a professor in the Department of Psychology, has been teaching at
Texas State University since 1969. Dr. Stimmel has a Ph.D. in psychology from the University
of Michigan. His current research is about the ways in which family alcohol and other drug
abuse affects the childhood of those families. Dr. Stimmel has taught psychology for several
years in a number of different settings.
About the Author — vii
About the Instructor
Sara N. Holland received a master’s degree in business administration from Indiana
University in 1964, and she has completed her doctoral coursework and comprehensive exam
in organizational psychology at the University of Houston. She has taught marketing at the
University of Dallas; business, psychology, and management at the University of Houston; and
organizational psychology at the University of Houston. She has also served as an organizational consultant and career coach.
You may e-mail Ms. Holland at herblady@austin.rr.com.
viii — About the Instructor
Introduction
PSY 3331
Social Psychology
Scope and Nature of the Course
Taking a course by correspondence gives you the freedom to work
on the course at the time you choose. The disadvantage is that it
is easy to procrastinate and fail to make progress in the course.
The first time you see the book and lessons you may think that the
demands are overwhelming. Believe me, they are not! If you were
taking this course in a regular university, you would be attending
class about forty-five hours in addition to reading most of this book.
This is all you have to do:
Read the lessons, read the book, and send in the completed lessons!
Course Goals
After completing this course you should be able to do the following:
• list the advantages of applying the scientific method to hu man social behavior;
• relate thinking to the ongoing process of explaining our rela tionship with others;
• explain how and why destructive human behaviors such as
aggression, prejudice, and discrimination occur and how we
might change or prevent them from occurring;
• distinguish between dispositional and situational causes of
behavior and be able to properly weight them in explaining
your own behavior and that of others;
Introduction — ix
• name some of the factors of attraction that bring people to gether and the factors that lead to long-term versus short term maintenance of relationships; and
• apply your knowledge from this course to suggest solutions
for environmental and health problems.
Required Textbook
Brehm, Sharon S., Social Psychology, 5th ed.
(Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002)
ISBN: 0-618-12964-2 or 0-618-24900-1
Remember to
buy the textbook
within thirty days
of your
enrollment.
If you have not already purchased all of your course materials, you
must do so within thirty days of your enrollment. If you wait longer, the Office of Distance and Extended Learning cannot guarantee
the availability of all the materials required for your course.
Course Procedures
The Baron and Byrne text is the very best book I could find.
Through eight editions I have found that students learn very well
from this book. In my opinion, social psychology combines scientific rigor with practical and multicultural applications in a way I
believe you will find important in your life.
When you obtain your book and lessons, get started! Schedule time
in a non-distracting environment and work regularly. There are
nine lessons—some are longer than are others. I suggest you submit your first three lessons one at a time. I will usually return them
to you promptly. If I find mistakes in the way you are answering
questions, I will explain them in such a way that you will not continue making them in future lessons. Later, as you get more fluent
in this process, you may want to submit two lessons at a time. Generally I will return them to you promptly.
Remember, you are sending in lessons, not an article to be published! If you agonize over whether a lesson is perfect, you may
develop intellectual paralysis. Stick to it, and get the lessons done
at a steady pace.
x — Introduction
Assignments
There are a total of nine assignments in this course. Each assignment
consists of several short answer questions that you should answer
concisely and thoroughly. Assignments compose 20% of your total
grade. All assignments must be submitted and all exams taken before a grade will be issued.
Assignments may be hand-written as long as they are written in
ink and are legible. Remember, this is a college course and collegelevel work is expected from students. Therefore, your answers will
be graded on grammar and writing style as well as content. Also,
be sure you understand the meaning of plagiarism. The penalties
for academic dishonesty, including plagiarism, include an F in the
course and prosecution through the student justice system.
Examinations
In addition to the assignments, you will be required to complete a
midcourse examination as well as a comprehensive final. Both exams are closed-book; you cannot use your books or notes during the
examinations. Both exams will be based approximately 40% on the
objectives and 60% on thought and concept issues like those you do
with your submitted assignments, each composing 40% of your final grade for a total of 80%. In the lessons I will frequently give you
hints at what I think is most important. Generally, if you do a good
job on the submitted assignments, you will master this course.
Grading Criteria
Your assignments will comprise 20% of your grade. The midcourse
exam will comprise 40% of your grade, and your final exam will
comprise 40% of your grade. When you have completed Lesson
Four, notify the Office of Distance and Extended Learning that you
are ready to take your midcourse exam. When you have finished
Lesson Nine, notify the Office of Distance and Extended Learning
that you are ready to take your final exam. No one will pass the
course without making a passing grade on the final exam. There is
no pass/fail grading option.
There is no pass/
fail grading
option.
Student Learning Outcomes
The Department of Psychology has adopted student learning outcomes for the undergraduate major, the graduate major, and for
Introduction — xi
PSY 1300, a general education course meeting a requirement for the
social and behavioral science component. These expected student
learning outcomes are available for your review at the following
website: http://www.psych.txstate.edu/assessment/. If you do not
have Internet access, you may request a copy of the learning outcomes from the Office of Distance and Extended Learning.
University Honor Code
The Texas State University Honor Code serves as an affirmation
that the University demands the highest standard of integrity in
all actions related to the academic community. The Honor Code
applies to all Texas State students, including correspondence
students. As stated in the Texas State Student Handbook,
Texas State
University
Honor Code
Violation of the Honor Code includes, but is not limited to,
cheating on an examination or other academic work, plagiarism,
collusion, and the abuse of resource materials.
Academic work means the preparation of an essay, thesis,
report, problem, assignment, or other projects which are to be
submitted for purposes of grade determination.
Academic
Offenses
Cheating means engaging in any of the following activities:
• copying from another student’s test paper, laboratory
report, other report or computer files, data listing, or
programs;
• using, during a test, materials not authorized by the per son giving the test;
• collaborating, without authorization, with another per son during an examination or in preparing academic
work;
•
knowingly, and without authorization, using, buying,
selling, stealing, transporting, soliciting, copying, or
possessing, in whole or in part, the content of an unadministered test;
• substituting for another student—or permitting another
person to substitute for oneself in taking an exam or
preparing academic work;
xii — Introduction
• bribing another person to obtain an unadministered test
or information about an unadministered test;
•
purchasing, or otherwise acquiring and submitting as
one’s own work, any research paper or other writing assignment prepared by an individual or firm. This section
does not apply to the typing of the rough or final versions of an assignment by a professional typist.
Plagiarism means the appropriation of another’s work and
the unacknowledged incorporation of that work in one’s own
written work offered for credit.
Collusion means the unauthorized collaboration with another
person in preparing written work offered for credit.
Abuse of resource materials means the mutilation, destruction,
concealment, theft, or alteration of materials provided to assist
students in the mastery of course materials.
Final Comments
Having read this introduction, you are now ready to begin learning about social psychology. I hope you find this course interesting
and perhaps that you gain some insight into your own and others’
behavior.
The lessons are written by me. They do not duplicate what is in the
book but supply perspectives, both historical and current, that help
you conceptualize some of the vast terrain of social psychology.
The content of these lessons will be covered on the exams. If you
have any questions as you progress through this course or if you
have any suggestions on how to improve the course, please be sure
to submit them with your assignments.
The content of
the lessons will
be covered on
the exams.
Introduction — xiii
CORRESPONDENCE NOTE:
Devote at least a half-hour
daily to your correspondence
study.
xiv — Introduction
Lesson One
What Is Social Psychology?
Reading Assignment
Chapter One, Introduction
Chapter Two, Doing Social Psychology Research
Summary
In Lesson One, I explain what social psychology is and relate it to
the nature of science. I define and discuss the elements of social
psychology research and end with some ethical principles and questions.
Objectives
After completing this lesson, you should be able to do the following:
• define the term social psychology;
• explain why social psychology is called a “scientific field”;
• define the following fields of study and compare each to social
psychology:
a. clinical psychology,
b. personality psychology, and
c. cognitive psychology;
Review these
objectives again
after completing
this lesson.
• compare and contrast sociology with social psychology;
• describe common sense as a basis for knowledge in social psychology, and indicate why common sense notions present a confusing picture of human social behavior;
Lesson One — 1
•
explain the contributions of the following people to social
psychology:
a. Adolph Hitler,
b. Norman Triplett,
c. Max Ringelmann,
d. William McDougall,
e. Edward Ross,
f. Floyd Allport,
g. Gordon Allport, and
h. Muzafer Sherif;
• discuss the importance of Kurt Lewin’s research and define
the term interactionist perspective;
• list the major researchers of social psychology in the 1950s
and name the contribution of each to the field;
• discuss Stanley Milgram’s 1960s seminal research in social
psychology;
• explain the debate between researchers in the 1960s and 1970s
and how it was resolved;
• define the terms social cognition, social neuroscience,
behavioral genetics, evolutionary psychology, cross-cultural
research, and multicultural research;
• state at least three reasons why it is important to learn about
research methods in social psychology;
• discuss the process of asking a question in social psychology;
• define the terms hypothesis and theory in social psychology
research;
• contrast the goals of basic research and applied research;
• discuss and give examples of the use of conceptual variables
in social psychology;
• define operational definition of conceptual variables in
social psychology;
2 — Lesson One
• discuss the pros and cons of collecting self-reports in social psychology;
• describe the use of “bogus pipeline” in social psychology research;
• explain interval-contingent, signal-contingent, and event-
contingent self-reports;
• describe the use of narrative studies in social psychology research;
• discuss the necessity for reliability in self-reports for research;.
• define the following types of research design in social psychol ogy:
a. experimentation,
b. correlational research,
c. meta-analysis research, and
d. descriptive research;
• define descriptive research including current trends and tendencies, including definitions of observational, archival studies, and surveys;
• define population in survey research;
• explain why random sampling is the best way to select a population for study;
• discuss in detail the term correlation coefficient including definitions of concurrent and prospective correlations;
• compare the terms positive correlation, negative correlation, and no correlation in research;
• explain what is meant by the phrase “correlation is not causa-
tion”;
• explain the three possibilities of correlation in a research study;
• write a formal definition of the term experiment in social psychology research;
Lesson One — 3
• contrast the terms random sampling and random assignment
in research, and give examples of each;
• compare and contrast independent variables and dependent
variables in research;
• define main effect in social psychology research;
• define field experience and lab experience in social psychol ogy research;
• define independent variable and dependent variable in re search;
• describe the experiment by Tanya Chartrand (2001) on the
“...effects of nonconscious goals and success or failure”;
• tell what interaction means as a statistical term in psychologi cal research;
• explain subject variables, statistical significance, and internal validity in research;
• define and discuss the following terms in social psychology
research:
a. experimenter expectancy effects,
b. external validity,
c. mundane realism,
d. experimental realism,
e. deception,
f. confederates,
g. reliability,
h. informed consent, and
i. debriefing;
• explain the function of institutional review boards (IRBs);
• describe Chastain & Landrum (1999) regarding IRBs;
• explain the American Psychological Association’s (APA)
Ethical Principals of Psychologists and Code of Conduct
(1992) with regard to informed consent and debriefing;
4 — Lesson One
• discuss ethical principals in social psychology research;
• describe in detail the research which employed the deception of Stanley Milgram (1963) in light of ethical issues in social psychology;
• discuss being totally unbiased in social psychology research;
• explain the accuracy of people’s impressions of others (Cronbach, 1955; Kenny, 1994); and
• discuss how people feel overconfident in making judgments of
others (David Dunning and colleagues, 1990; Nisbett & Ross, 1980).
Discussion
Origins of Social Psychology
Man is by nature a social animal; an individual who is unsocial natu-
rally and not accidentally is either beneath our notice or more than human. Society is something in nature that precedes the individual. Anyone who either cannot lead the common life or is so self-sufficient as not to need to, and therefore does not partake of society, is either a beast or a god. (Aristotle, Politics, about 328 B.C.)
Man is by nature
a social animal.
We are indeed social animals. In infancy, we are helpless for a longer
period than any other creature. This means that we are very open to
the behaviors of our families which influence our language, habits,
thoughts, and beliefs. Elliot Aronson has defined social psychology
as an attempt to understand “the influences that people have upon
the beliefs or behavior of others” (The Social Animal, 1984, p. 6). I believe Aristotle would have accepted that definition. He gave several
principles on how people are persuaded to change their beliefs.
Many philosophers and thinkers since Aristotle have speculated
about the ways in which other people influence us. Indeed, it is
difficult to think of any behavior that is not influenced by others. Even in cases where other people are not present, their implied
presence may influence us. A teenage male standing in front of a
mirror getting ready for his first date is alone. Yet, how he expects
his girlfriend and others to react to him plays a large part in how he
prepares. Social psychologists call this impression management and
we will study it in this course.
Lesson One — 5
Scientific Social Psychology
In this course
we will focus on
scientific social
psychology.
In this course we will focus on scientific social psychology. What do
we mean by scientific or science? We mean, first of all, that conclusions are based on facts. In science, facts are results that are public
and repeatable. If other scientists fail to get the same results using
the same procedures, the findings are not acceptable. It would be
incorrect to equate science with mere fact gathering, however. A
sports reporter who gives the statistics of a baseball game meets
the scientific criteria for facts. Yet, few people refer to sports reporters as scientists. Science also involves arranging facts into a logical
network of meanings that we call “explanations.” Scientists not
only describe what happened but try to explain how and why it happened. A good theory should meet three criteria. First, it should
explain a wide range of findings. Second, it should explain them in
as simple a manner as possible. Third, it should be heuristic. That
is, it should point to areas of research most likely to be theoretically
meaningful.
Not all theories we will study in this course are going to meet all
of these criteria completely, but we will find many of them useful.
Many theories in the history of science have proven to be important
because of their heuristic value. Sigmund Freud gave a very elaborate theory of how human personality developed. One of its features was that personality was heavily determined by the conflict
between a child’s instinctual needs and the socialization demands
of society. The heuristic value of Freud’s theory was that it focused
scientific attention on the personality developments of young children and the way that parents and siblings affect these children.
Thus, by heuristic, I mean that a theory may be important because it
focuses the attention of scientists on matters that they would normally not consider or would consider at a much later time in the
history of their discipline.
6 — Lesson One
Scientific Method In Social Psychology
Social psychologists use two main techniques to establish causes
of behavior. The text elaborates on these methods extensively, but
I want to give you an example of how we might test a hypothesis
with the correlational method:
Correlation
Method
Testing a Hypothesis With Correlation Method
Observed Relationship
causes
→
→
1. viewing violence
aggressiveness
causes
2. having a
preference for
personality that violent programs
is predisposed to causes
violence
aggressive behavior
→
↔
As the number of
violent TV programs
viewed increases, the
level of aggressiveness displayed increases.
Possible Explanations
no causal conclusion can be unequivocally supported.
∴
Why can no causal conclusion be unequivocally supported? Try to
answer this question. Can you think of another factor that might
explain the correlation between aggressiveness and the number of
violent TV shows watched?
Thus, correlation may suggest possible causes of behavior, but it
does not prove causation. A and B may be correlated with C, and it
may be C that is causing A to occur. In the example above, C is a
personality that is predisposed to violence.
Lesson One — 7
Let’s now test the same hypothesis using the experimental method.
Experimental
Method
Testing a Hypothesis With Experimental Method
Hypothesis: Exposure to violent television programs causes an
increase in the level of aggression shown by young
viewers.
Experimental Strategy:
I. Manipulate the violent content of TV viewing by
A. Randomly assigning one group to view program with
much violent content.
B. Randomly assigning second group to view the program
with little or no violent content.
II. Measure aggressiveness via appropriate test.
III. Test for difference between the two groups.
Only Possible Explanation
Observed Relationship
viewing violence
∴
Children who viewed
the violent TV
programs were more
aggressive than those
who viewed the
nonviolent program.
causes
→
aggressiveness
a causal conclusion is supported.
Do you see why a causal conclusion is supported? Every other
cause is ruled out. By assigning the children randomly to two conditions, the personality differences between the two groups should
be no greater than chance.
Of course, research is more complicated in practice. Chapter One of
your book contains a more elaborate presentation. Be sure that you
feel competent to answer the learning objectives before completing
your assignment.
8 — Lesson One
Assignment One
Complete this assignment on your own paper and submit for grading. Be sure to
fill out and attach an assignment cover sheet from the back of this study guide.
You may also type out the assignment using a word processor and submit the document online
via TRACS.
Answer each of the following questions thoroughly and concisely and submit for grading.
1. What are the main features that determine if a piece of research is an experiment?
2. When must we use the correlational method in social psychological research? What are the
advantages and disadvantages of the correlational method?
3. What are the uses of theory in scientific research?
4. Explain what internal validity means in social psychological research.
5. Why is it important to talk about research procedures in a beginning course in social
psychology?
Lesson One — 9