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Microplastics in construction and built environment
Article in Developments in the Built Environment · June 2023
DOI: 10.1016/j.dibe.2023.100188
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Developments in the Built Environment 15 (2023) 100188
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Developments in the Built Environment
journal homepage: www.sciencedirect.com/journal/developments-in-the-built-environment
Microplastics in construction and built environment
Lapyote Prasittisopin a, *, Wahid Ferdous b, Viroon Kamchoom c
a
Faculty of Architecture, Chulalongkorn University, Phaya Thai Road, Pathumwan, Bangkok, Thailand
Centre for Future Materials (CFM), School of Engineering, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, QLD, 4350, Australia
c
Excellent Centre for Green and Sustainable Infrastructure, Department of Civil Engineering, School of Engineering, King Mongkut’s Institute of Technology Ladkrabang
(KMITL), Bangkok, Thailand
b
A R T I C L E I N F O
A B S T R A C T
Keywords:
Microplastic
Building
Construction
Waste
Environment
Pollution
Built environment
Concrete
Polymer
Plastics have been extensively used in the building and construction industries for decades. However, the more
plastics are utilised, the more microplastics are released. This review and analysis article summarises and or­
ganises the knowledge from 211 current related publications published in 2014–2022. The review and analysis
explain the kinds of plastics employed in construction and built environment. Fabrics or textiles, fibres and
plastics in cementitious systems, paints, tyres and roads are discussed. The entry points of microplastics into the
human body are reviewed next, followed by the management of recycled wastes. The important research gaps
and possible solutions include using high-strength concretes and surface-hardening agents is suggested to
encapsulate the microplastics inside the matrix; DPSIR model analysis can be holistically adopted for each
composite; innovative bio-chemical technology like self-healing concrete and bio-degradable plastics can be a
viable choice; and social science, law and urban planning can support awareness and comprehension.
1. Introduction
1.1. Definition of microplastics
The term “microplastics” was not coined until 1972, when a study
evaluating the presence of microscopic fragments of plastic in water
used it. These microplastics are fragmented into fine synthetic plastic
particles. Microplastics, which were considered to have a particle size
distribution (PSD) of 100 nm to 5 mm, are considered environmental
hazards (Van Cauwenberghe et al., 2013; Wright et al., 2013; Fok et al.,
2020; CONTAM, 2016). Also, Ng et al. (2018) reported another term for
fine plastic particles as “nanoplastics,” which is considered contamina­
tion, where their approximate PSD could range from 1 nm to 100 nm.
Microplastics can be divided into primary and secondary groups.
Primary microplastics are the particle waste products generated
throughout the production process (Carpenter et al., 1972). Secondary
microplastics are the small debris generated from the degradation of
larger plastic materials as a result of mechanical strain, hydrolysis,
oxidation and weathering effects from UV light, heat and microorgan­
isms. These factors all contribute to the breakdown of larger plastic
materials, which in turn leads to the generation of secondary micro­
plastics (Arthur et al., 2009; Guo et al., 2020). An et al. (2020) stated
that the secondary microplastics were the main contributors to the total
amount of microplastics found.
Despite the fact that Asia is responsible for the greatest amount of
plastic production (Liang et al., 2021), microplastics are rapidly
increasing worldwide, as shown in Fig. 1. The distribution of micro­
plastics can vary depending on microplastics’ factors and environmental
factors. Browne et al. (2011) asserted that there was no correlation be­
tween the presence of microplastics at any location and the average PSD
found in samples. To place an emphasis on the environment, the use of
microplastics in the building and construction sectors should be iden­
tified as a worldwide concern. A significant body of research on
microplastics has been conducted in the realms of marine ecosystems
(Arthur et al., 2009; Alimba and Faggio, 2019; Li et al., 2021; Sharma
and Chatterjee, 2017), agricultural ecosystems (Zhang et al., 2022; Jin
et al., 2022), terrestrial sediments (Xu et al., 2020a; Wong et al., 2020;
Sarker et al., 2020), aerated systems (Prata et al., 2022a) and aquatic
environments (i.e., drinking water and wastewater) (Pivokonsky et al.,
2018; Koelmans et al., 2019; Enfrin et al., 2019).
1.2. Significance
Microplastics are considered toxic pollution. The toxicity of
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: lapyote@p.chula.ac.th (L. Prasittisopin).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dibe.2023.100188
Received 31 March 2023; Received in revised form 8 June 2023; Accepted 22 June 2023
Available online 22 June 2023
2666-1659/© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
L. Prasittisopin et al.
Developments in the Built Environment 15 (2023) 100188
English documents with the final version were determined, as well as
note and short survey were excluded. A flowchart of the selection pro­
cess based on the PRISMA model is illustrated in Fig. 2. Some conference
papers and papers with no clear methodology or clear effect were
excluded. 211 related publications were then reviewed and metaanalysed. The PICO (population, intervention, comparison, and
outcome) process was adapted and depicted in Table 1.
This paper presents a novel systematic review and analysis of
microplastics in construction and built environment domains. This study
contributes to the body of knowledge on microplastics in the fields of
construction and built environment in four different subject areas:
• Categorisation and technical understanding of several types of
microplastics
• Sources
• Routes to the human body
• Management of recyclable wastes
• Source for other contaminants
Additionally, microplastics can be a source of contaminants, which
will be discussed. Next, state-of-the-art knowledge based on the current
investigations and needs for future studies is summarized and implied.
Based on analyses, all pertinent publications have been published in
an increasing manner, as illustrated in Fig. 3. The increased number of
papers relating to microplastics in building and construction in a few
years may indicate a rise in interest and concern. Fig. 4 (Ritchie and
Roser, 2023) depicts the geographical distribution of published papers,
the substantial growth in the number of articles over time and the
quantity of microplastics released annually. From the figure, a
higher-GDP country creates a larger number of publications, but no
relationship exists between the number of publications and the amount
of production. The data on the quantity of microplastics released
annually were retrieved from a report by Boucher and Friot (2017). The
majority of studies were published in China, the United States, the
United Kingdom and Germany. For several locations, such as Africa, the
Middle East and Southeast Asia, research is limited. Chen et al. (2020)
adopted a regression model to predict the regional distribution of
microplastic pollution in freshwater globally. The results indicated that
the degree of pollution caused by microplastics was highest in Asia,
followed by Europe and South America. The amount of pollution that
was present in developed nations was noticeably smaller than that in
emerging regions. The level of human activity was the primary factor
that determined whether urban regions or rural areas had higher levels
of freshwater contamination. Although the results were focused on
microplastics in aquatic bodies, construction and building sites on land
can be inferred. The absence of location-based research can be addressed
in some terrestrial regions of the world.
Fig. 1. Actual and projected global plastic production.
microplastics can induce immunotoxicity, cytotoxicity and reproductive
consequences in humans (Stock et al., 2021), which leads to increased
worries about our long-term health. Plastic pollution that builds up in an
area of the environment is called “poorly reversible” if the area’s natural
mineralisation processes are slow and it is unlikely that engineers can
resolve the issue. For these reasons, plastics are currently considered a
major global problem (MacLeod et al., 2021).
Over the last few decades, the issue of the contamination of eco­
systems by microplastics has garnered increasing attention, with the
earliest investigations occurring in the marine ecosystem (Andrady,
2011). Hale et al. (2020) asserted that the vast majority of plastics have
their first uses and are afterwards disposed of on land. Li et al. (2016)
estimated that 80% of the microplastic contamination seen in marine
environments originated from land. However, a review regarding
microplastics in the building and construction industry is lacking, and
the need for comprehensive study should be performed so that the
knowledge based on related publications can be categorised and
summarized.
The building and construction industry is one of the backbone ac­
tivities for the development of every nation. Nonetheless, microplastics
in the construction and built environment have rarely been focused on,
although these industries are responsible for 14% of yearly plastic
output (Schwarz et al., 2019). Yet, this large volume of microplastic
releases from these sectors is not clearly validated (Gaylarde et al.,
2021). An U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) study pro­
gramme found that the production process for microplastics in the
construction sector might be the most dangerous activity overall (Mahon
et al., 2014). One review article published by Gaylarde et al. (2021)
focused only on paint fragments, and another review article published
by Yuk et al. (2022) concentrated on microplastic air pollution from the
deterioration of building materials. Recent researchers have reviewed a
few publications. Several studies have pointed to the viability of using a
material based on cement to encapsulate microplastics (Signorini et al.,
2022; Malchiodi et al., 2022a; Sharma et al., 2021). The findings of this
review provide information that may be used in an all-encompassing
manner to address the environmental challenges related to micro­
plastics that we are currently confronting.
3. Categorisation of common plastics used in construction and
built environment
Many plastics have been extensively utilised in construction and
built envieroment. Polypropylene (PP), polyethylene (PE) and polyvinyl
chloride (PVC), which together account for approximately 60% of the
world’s total output of thermoplastics, are the three main producers of
thermoplastics (Hiemenz and Lodge, 2007). Polyethylene terephthalate
(PET) is another material that may be found in consumer products,
packaging and water bottles. The construction and building industries
make extensive use of these synthetic polymers, which may be found in
various applications, such as microfibres, fibre reinforcement,
microbeads, sheet insulation, paints, plastic pipes and claddings (Stock
et al., 2021). Fig. 5 presents the scanning electron microscope (SEM)
images of these four typical microplastics at various magnification
levels: PP, PE, PVC and other plastics (adapted from (Stock et al., 2021)).
2. Review methodology
The research was done using Scopus and Google Scholar databases
published from 2014 to 2022 and searched in December 2022. The terms
pertaining to microplastics, construction, building, built environment
and waste were found in the title, abstract, and keyword sections. Only
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L. Prasittisopin et al.
Developments in the Built Environment 15 (2023) 100188
Fig. 2. Flow chart of the selection process.
connectors, geotextiles, carpets, furniture fabric, plastering mortar and
microfibres that are incorporated into concrete to make the material
more robust and long-lasting. Plastering mortar contains a few milli­
metres of short PP fibre to reduce microcracking when exposed to high
temperatures, low humidity and direct sunlight. By contrast, PP fibre in
concrete typically employs longer PP fibre in centimetres to increase the
product’s flexibility and decrease macrocracks (Stock et al., 2021; Hie­
menz and Lodge, 2007).
Table 1
PICO method of the review study.
PICO
component
Explanation
Problem -P
In the construction and built environment, microplastics research
has not been reviewed and compiled
Examine how microplastic released from construction and built
environment exposed to human
Compare microplastics released in other applications has been
heavily studied and reviewed
DPSIR model analysis can be one holistic process of microplastic
release
Current recycled waste management was to develop effective
regulatory processes
Intervention - I
Comparison - C
Outcome- O
3.2. PE
PE is one of the three most made polymers due to its great chemical
resistance, fatigue resistance and wear resistance. It was first created in
the 1930s by scientists in the United Kingdom, and widespread com­
mercial use of the material did not start until after World War II.
Addition or radical polymerisation processes are used to make this
commodity thermoplastic. Its early applications were in the production
of films and mould-based goods. The macromolecular structure of PE is
shown in Fig. 5. On the basis of density or molecular weight, PE may be
broken down into three distinct forms: low-density PE (LDPE), mediumdensity PE (MDPE) and high-density PE (HDPE). The other types may be
linear LDPE and ultrahigh-molecular-weight PE. Numerous applications
of PE plastics have been found in concrete curing sheets, covering sheets,
mulching nets and man-made glass (Szlachetka et al., 2021).
3.1. PP
PP is brittle, hard and crystalline. It is constructed using propene (or
propylene), which is a monomer. In comparison with other types of
commodity plastics, this linear hydrocarbon resin has the lowest weight
of any polymers. Additives may significantly improve the properties of
PP, which can be purchased as either a homopolymer or a copolymer. It
was made accessible for commercial use in the latter half of the 1950s. It
is considered a commodity plastic in modern times. The fact that it
comes in diverse forms, is very inexpensive and has easy access to a huge
supply of feedstock all contribute to its widespread availability. Its
chemical structure is shown in Fig. 5. In the realms of construction and
building, PP is used extensively in various applications, including joint
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L. Prasittisopin et al.
Developments in the Built Environment 15 (2023) 100188
Fig. 3. Number of articles with the keywords microplastics, construction, building, built environment and waste.
Fig. 4. Geographical distribution of published articles and amount of misused plastics released annually in 2019.
3.3. PVC
match the structural material. As a result, renovation is required, and the
interior flexible PVC is replaced every 10 years.
PVC, frequently, the definition of PVC plastic is that it usually con­
tains 50% or more vinyl chloride units by weight. The chlorination of PE
generates PVC, which results in the production of polymers that are
structurally comparable to one another but possess distinctive properties
(Hiemenz and Lodge, 2007). The chemical structure of PVC is illustrated
in Fig. 5. Table 2 presents an overview of the primary physical charac­
teristics of PP, PE and PVC (Stock et al., 2021; Hiemenz and Lodge,
2007; Szlachetka et al., 2021; Miliute-Plepiene et al., 2021; Daniels,
2009).
PVC is the third-largest thermoplastic substance by volume in the
world, after PE and PP. The typical length of homopolymers is between
400 and 1000 units. PVC is a white, brittle, solid substance that comes in
powder or granule form. It is replacing traditional construction mate­
rials, such as wood, metal, concrete, rubber and ceramic, in various
applications due to its diverse qualities, including lightweight, dura­
bility, low cost and easy processability. PVC is rigid by nature, but
adding plasticiser can make it flexible. It is a cost-effective and flexible
thermoplastic polymer used extensively in the building and construction
sectors to manufacture door and window profiles, pipes (drinking and
wastewater), wire and cable insulation, medical equipment, ceiling tiles,
flooring, furniture, coatings and wood-plastic composites (Mil­
iute-Plepiene et al., 2021). For pipes, rigid PVC pipes may be readily cut
(with a hacksaw or tube cutter) and installed and are frequently used to
replace broken parts of ancient cast iron waste pipes. Their segments can
be joined mechanically (using plastic pressure fittings that can be
removed later) or permanently (using a specialised chemical solvent).
For flexible PVC, it is an important material in buildings and construc­
tion, used for cable insulations, floor covers, etc. In 2018, more than
50% of flexible PVC was utilised in building and construction industries
in the European region (Daniels, 2009). These PVC products have a life
expectancy of over ten years, but this service life is short and does not
3.4. Other plastics (polystyrene, polyurethane, polyethylene
terephthalate, polyacrylonitrile, polyvinyl alcohol)
Several other polymers, such as PS, PU, PET, PAN and PVA, are
utilised in building and construction applications. These polymers are
used in smaller quantities compared with PP, PE and PVC due to their
higher cost and fewer uses. Specifically, PS has been extensively utilised
as thermal and acoustic insulation and lightweight structural concrete
(Prasittisopin et al., 2022). PU has been extensively used as an insulating
foam for roofs, attics, facades, basements, cellars, floors, interior wall
panels, spaces between levels, inner sections, walls and ceilings. PET is
typically utilised as fibre reinforcement in concrete, carpet and
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L. Prasittisopin et al.
Developments in the Built Environment 15 (2023) 100188
Fig. 5. Chemical structure and SEM images of PP, PE, PVC and PET microplastics.
Table 2
Primary physical properties of plastics used in the construction and built environment (Stock et al., 2021; Hiemenz and Lodge, 2007; Szlachetka et al., 2021; Mil­
iute-Plepiene et al., 2021; Daniels, 2009).
Density
Tensile strength at
break
Young modulus
Elongation at
break
Compressive
strength
Impact strength
Melting
temperature
Linear expansion
coefficient
Application
Unit
PP
LDPE
MDPE
HDPE
PVC
g/mL
MPa
0.90–0.93
18–22
0.90–0.93
10–20
0.93–0.95
12–35
0.95–0.96
30–40
1.30–1.48
26–60
MPa
%
1100–1600
50–145
130–300
200–600
172–800
400–1100
500–1550
600–1350
2450–4700
25–58
MPa
40
–
–
15–20
≤6.8
cm-N/
cm
◦
C
35–60
45–55
25–40
71–159
27–80
160–210
105–123
110–128
126–135
199–204
8–12
2–10
11–18
12–19
4–7
Packaging, textile,
machinery and
equipment parts
Container, bottle,
plastic bag,
microfibre
Pipe and fitting, sack, shrink
film, packaging film, carrier
bag
Pipe, geomembrane,
plastic lumber
Pipe, electrical outlet box,
roof fabric, roof coating, floor
tile
cm/cmC, 10− 5
◦
wallpaper and as an electronic component in flexible pavement
(Chowdhury et al., 2013; Sulyman et al., 2016). PAN is used for outdoor
fabrics, including tents, boat sails, carpets and ropes, because of its great
resilience to solar damage and as a reinforcement for cementitious
materials (Wright et al., 2020). PVA, due to its mild surfactant feature
and viscoelastic properties, can be utilised as a surface treatment agent
for aggregates and supplementary cementing materials and as fibre
reinforcement (Thong et al., 2016; Prasittisopin and Trejo, 2018).
fibre reinforcement in concrete, paint, plastic beads and insulation
sheet, are reviewed.
4.1. Fabrics or textiles
Fabrics and textiles have long been used in the building and con­
struction industries, both temporarily and permanently. Many applica­
tions in buildings entail bedding and sleeping bags, carpets, curtains and
furniture. Choi et al. (2021) investigated different washing techniques in
polyester fabric construction for minimizing the release of microplastics.
The authors concluded that the release of microplastics was influenced
by temperature and time. Reducing the temperature and time could
lower the physical force, leading to a reduction in the amount of
microplastic released. Moreover, using filtration devices in the washing
4. Sources of microplastics in construction and built
environment
Several sources of microplastics utilised in the construction and built
environment sectors, including fabric or textile in construction sites,
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L. Prasittisopin et al.
Developments in the Built Environment 15 (2023) 100188
process could collect the microplastics effectively. Roos et al. (2017)
examined several washing processes for polyester fabrics. The authors
revealed that microplastics could be released after washing, with levels
varying by up to 400 times. Fabric construction (woven, knit and
nonwoven), yarn type (twist, evenness, hairiness and number of fibres),
processing history (spinning, knitting or weaving, scouring, bleaching,
dying, finishing and drying processes) and fibre physicochemical prop­
erties can all influence the amount of microplastic fibre generated dur­
ing fabric washing (Hernandez et al., 2017). In essence, for fabric
construction, the washing operations are the primary source of micro­
plastics that are produced. Fig. 6 illustrates the uses of fabric or textile
products in building and construction applications.
Microplastic shedding from textiles can be another source of
microplastics. Jönsson et al. (2018) assessed the releases of micro­
plastics from shedding polyester textiles and asserted that microplastics
can be released into the environment either from the fabric’s surface or
from the cut edge of the fabric. The researchers also found that the
measurements that have been done so far to determine the shedding of
microplastics from fabrics have indicated a wide range when measured
by the filter analysis method. The total number of particles shed by
comparable clothes ranges from 120 to 728,289. To achieve their
objective, a novel technique was created. The research described the
final method and the work done to minimise error sources and, conse­
quently, the standard deviation of the results through the selection of
material samples, equipment and procedures for sample preparation,
washing, filtering the washing water and analysing shed microplastics.
In addition, the shedding of synthetic fibres, including acrylic, nylon and
polyester, from textile carpets was investigated by Carney Almroth et al.
(Carney et al., 2018). Their results indicated that the fabrics made of
nylon, acrylic and PET all shed fibres, but there was no noticeable dif­
ference between the three types. Significant quantities of fibres were
also released during the production of the textiles due to loose
manufacturing. The release of microplastics can vary depending on the
fabric patterns and manufacturing techniques employed.
Furthermore, architectural constructions, such as marquees, mem­
branes, awnings, double wall spacers and pneumatic structures, have
garnered significant interest in recent times. Synthetic textiles are good
candidates to be used in the construction of the majority of the roof
components of any temporary, semipermanent or public superstructure.
In these types of applications, the synthetic fabrics that are used should
be lightweight, robust, resistant to rot, moisture-proof and unaffected by
UV sunlight (Horrocks and Anand, 2000). Chen et al. (2021) asserted
that, currently in China, mulching construction land with dust-proof
nets is legally required to prevent and regulate the pollution caused by
fine particulate matter. Fine particulate matter could pollute the envi­
ronment by contaminating microplastics. The findings also indicated
that the studied mulched regions contained a substantial number of
large particles with a size greater than 1000 μm (50%). PE (which made
up greater than 50% of the microplastic polymers) and PP (which made
up 41% of the microplastic polymers) were the most common varieties.
The buildup of microplastics in soil that has been mulched by dust-proof
netting at a building site is, on average, almost six times higher than that
at an unmulched site. A quantity of microplastics of this scale has the
potential to trigger a feedback loop of adverse environmental conse­
quences. To preserve human health, in addition to the soil and envi­
ronment as a whole, recommendations were offered to decision-makers
for the revision of appropriate legislation and policies. For example, the
appropriate architectural constructions using synthetic textiles will be
Fig. 6. Applications of fabric and textile products in the construction and built environment sectors.
6
L. Prasittisopin et al.
Developments in the Built Environment 15 (2023) 100188
regulated by implementing only temporary construction, applying
limited numbers of reuses and having controlled serviceability in a
shorter period, unlike nontextile constructions.
Other applications in construction reported to be sources of micro­
plastics are the use of scaffold netting on construction sites and a syn­
thetic grass sheet that covers the land (Mehmood and Peng, 2022). The
plastic commonly used is PE. These PE products are often of lower
quality and made from recycled materials, which make them more prone
to destruction. In addition, because these products are consistently
exposed to the outdoors, there is a substantial possibility that PE might
fracture and that the atmosphere would be contaminated. This could
lead to the hazardous utilisation of these products in excessive amounts
or without proper oversight.
Lastly, even in areas with fewer human activities, such as the Tibetan
Plateau, microplastics from plastic tents have been found in rural hill­
side tourist areas (Jiang et al., 2019). Plastics have largely taken the
place of more conventional building materials, such as animal skins and
natural fibres, in the construction of simple forms of temporary shelter,
including tents. Microplastics could also come from fragments and fibres
that were shed from plastic tents. As a result, a significant amount of the
wastewater and solid waste that were collected did not undergo the
appropriate treatment before being released into the river. In addition,
the dispersed and frequent mobility of herders who used plastic tents has
made it impossible to prevent and regulate microplastic contamination.
This has led to an increase in the severity of the problem. The immense
size of the Tibetan Plateau, the lengthy travels of many of its residents
and the generally problematic transportation have all proven to be ob­
stacles in the way of preventing and controlling the pollution caused by
microplastics in this region, particularly in rural regions.
construction of prefabricated structures, which is anticipated to result in
efficiencies in the near future regarding both the use of resources and the
influence on the environment (Yan et al., 2000). These modern con­
structions and buildings make extensive use of plastic in increasing
amounts.
Plastic beads are one of the key applications used in cementitious
materials to replace aggregates, with the objectives of reducing static
weight and enhancing thermal and acoustic resistance. Expanded PS
(EPS) and expanded PP beads are typically added as a replacement for
fine aggregates (Hong et al., 2016; Chen et al., 2015; Su et al., 2022).
Zaragoza-Benzal et al. (2022) used a mixed solvent for dissolving recy­
cled EPS beads and added it to plasters in 2023. Although the resulting
products offered excellent performance, this innovative method in fact
accelerated microplastic emissions. In the construction sector, there are
several research projects that have an emphasis on substituting either
virgin EPS beads or recycled EPS beads to decrease waste and promote
sustainability. Despite this, minimal work has been done about the
release of microplastics. Consequently, there is a significant hole that
must be filled by future research and development. In addition, it is
common knowledge that the EPS bead itself may serve as a significant
ignition source for residential and commercial structures. As a result, a
significant amount of research has concentrated on the use of fire re­
tardants, which may also be discharged concomitantly with the release
of microplastics. The fracturing of EPS beads results in the release of
microplastics, which causes a significant increase in the extent of dam­
age. Jang et al. (2017) mentioned that hexabromocyclododecane was
also found in high concentrations in the EPS debris that was collected
from the coastal regions of Asia and the Pacific, which suggests that
HBCD pollution caused by EPS debris is a widespread environmental
problem across the world. Some also used methylene diphenyl diiso­
cyanate, melamine cyanurate and aluminium hydroxide as chemicals for
flame retarders in EPS concrete systems (Bhoite et al., 2021; Lee et al.,
2022).
In more recent years, synthetic fibres have been employed in the
formulas of 3D printing for buildings to develop attributes that are more
flexible and resistant to cracking and to reduce the amount of shrinkage
that occurs. This development in building technology is gaining
considerable attention from scholars all around the world. Fibres, such
as PP, PE and PVA, with various morphologies and sizes, are basically
employed in small amounts (Farina et al., 2016; Pham et al., 2022; Xiao
et al., 2021; Sukontasukkul et al., 2022). Regarding more recent appli­
cations, 3D-printed concrete is being constructed into artificial coral
reefs because the 3D printing material can construct artificial coral
skeletons based on natural calcium-based materials, which will accel­
erate the pace at which real coral parts will mature and the process of
transplanting reefs, all while keeping nursery expenditures to a mini­
mum (Santos et al., 2023; Yoris-Nobile et al., 2023; Albalawi et al.,
2021). Yoris et al. (Yoris-Nobile et al., 2023) mentioned that the fabri­
cation of 3D-printed artificial coral reefs can be viable in terms of onsite,
large-scale production. Synthetic fibres are required in their formation.
Nevertheless, the use of a 3D printer in the production of an artificial
coral reef is a direct and expeditious method of dispersing microplastic
particles into the surrounding water.
Some researchers have investigated the use of waste plastic products,
such as fishing net, rayon and PVC, in cementitious systems (Pae et al.,
2022; Mahmood and Kockal, 2022; Malchiodi et al., 2022b; dos Santos
et al., 2022). Malchiodi et al. (2022b) began by incorporating up to 4%
of the microplastics that the team had gathered from the air-pumping
and air-filtering systems of a cotton textile finishing facility in Italy
into concrete in an effort to enhance the quality of the concrete. Their
performance was commendable. However, these concrete products will
likely emit microplastics in the future due to erosion and demolition.
Another limitation was reported by Dorigato (2021): the recycling of
waste fibre in the construction sector remains a significant obstacle due
to technological and economic concerns that are preventing further
advancement.
4.2. Fibers and plastics in the cementitious systems
Concrete is a material that is utilised on earth on a greater scale than
any other substance besides water. Their material formulation has un­
dergone extensive development and is continuing to do so in the hopes
of lowering the number of practical challenges and raising the level of
functioning. For instance, fibre-reinforced cementitious composites
have been widely introduced into cementitious materials to enhance
their performance characteristics in terms of mechanical features and
durability (Malchiodi et al., 2022a; Monazami and Gupta, 2021; Pae
et al., 2022; Prasittisopin and Trejo, 2013a; Teng et al., 2018). The use of
various types of fibres, such as PVA, polyolefin and PAN, has been
evaluated to improve damping, tensile strength, flexural strength,
toughness and dimensional stability characteristics (Jiang et al., 2019;
Kujawa et al., 2021; Long et al., 2021). Thong et al. (2016) reviewed the
use of PVA in cement composites and stated that PVA fibres had a ho­
mogenous dispersion in the cementitious matrix and that considerable
amounts of these fibres were well attached to the matrix. This was done
in the context of microscale enhancement. This might be explained by
the hydrophilic nature of the PVA fibres, as well as their structure, which
was rough on the surface. Consequently, a strong link with the cemen­
titious matrix was created, leading to an improvement in the interfacial
transition zone region. Although only small amounts of polymers are
required to improve the quality of products on both micro- and mac­
roscales, the use of these synthetic polymers will ultimately result in the
release of microplastics due to the nature of their incorporation.
Sandwiched concrete panels with polymeric materials are an effi­
cient and lightweight building material that works as a load-bearing and
insulating element. These panels, together with plastic connectors, may
be made with either natural or synthetic polymers, such as EPS or PU
sheet (Chowdhury et al., 2013). The sandwiched concrete panels offer a
number of benefits, including a reduction in the amount of time spent
building dwellings, the withstanding of seismic forces and savings in
material costs. In many countries, such as China, the USA, Japan and
Europe, these sandwiched concrete panels are likely applied because the
governments of such countries are currently actively pushing the
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4.3. Paints
that the use of these items by consumers is frequently accompanied by
considerable emissions of polymers, the categories of paint, lacquer and
dyes have been assigned a high priority score. The matrices of paint are
composed of polymers with concentrations ranging from 14% to 30%,
and examples of these polymers are epoxy, acrylic and alkyd. Further
study is required to determine whether these and other components of
paint should be categorised as microplastics. Consumers, in contrast to
professionals in the construction business who use these goods on a
regular basis, frequently lack the equipment necessary for the correct
disposal of paint waste, brushes, rinse solutions and dust. Compared
with professional practices, the construction industry is more organised
when it comes to the proper disposal of waste glue and paint, as well as
the cleaning of brushes. Sanding old coats of paint or exposing buildings
to general wear and tear during renovations can also result in the release
of plastic particles into the atmosphere. This kind of emission can
sometimes take up a significant amount of space. The dimensions of the
dust that is created by sanding or wear range from 50 nm to 2–3 μm
(Koponen et al., 2009). There are few to no alternatives to using
microplastics in paint currently available. Disseminating knowledge
regarding dust-free working practices, such as cleaning it up, might
contribute to an even greater reduction in emissions. Within the in­
dustry, there is an awareness of careful working procedures as well as
paints and glues that are less harmful to the environment. The latter
element, however, is more related to solvents than it is to the possibility
of the existence of microplastics.
Paints have been widely used in the building and construction in­
dustries. Their formulations contain PU, PS, polyesters, polyacrylates,
alkyls and epoxies. Building coatings, a class of paints used in building
and construction work, are also a source of microplastic. Microplastics
are incorporated into paint to impart a surface effect (such as a matte
finish), improve the appearance of the colour, lessen the paint’s density
and make it easier to apply, make the paint harder and more resistant to
scratching or provide a glitter or decorative effect, for instance (Lassen
et al., 2012). Recent research that investigated the release of micro­
plastics from paints and coatings suggested that paints contribute more
to the microplastics in the environment than textiles do (Olatunji, 2022;
Lassen et al., 2015). The methods of washing, construction styles (in the
event that microplastics are released from painted buildings and struc­
tures), the age of items (such as tyres), the environment and weather
conditions are all factors that might influence the rate at which micro­
plastics are released. Microspheres that are included in the formulation
of paint typically have a diameter of anywhere from a few to hundreds of
microns, with the only exception of glittering particles, which may have
a diameter of anywhere from a few millimetres to a few centimetres
(OECD Emission Scenario Document on, 2009). These formulas are
especially helpful for anti-slip applications, road markings, outdoor and
indoor structural paints, swimming pools and heavy-duty flooring and
tiles. These uses involve significant wear, and as a result, the systems
have the potential to cause the creation and release of fragments into the
surrounding environment. The loss of fragments can also take place after
the paint has been weathered (mostly by UV irradiation) or after the
underlying layer has been weathered (e.g., following the formation of
rust on metal surfaces), or it might take place during maintenance (e.g.,
sanding of the surface to be repainted). According to Hann et al.
(2018a), building decorative paints account for 4.2 million tons a year,
with about 73% for the interior segment and approximately 27% for the
exterior segment. Gaylarde et al. (Mahon et al., 2014) asserted that the
release of microplastics from building paints is mostly due to the
breakdown caused by UV irradiation. The discussion by Gaylarde et al.
(Mahon et al., 2014) seems to be specifically for the exterior segment.
The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
(OECD) (OECD Emission Scenario Document on, 2009) has estimated
that a total of 6% of paint is lost over the course of its lifetime: 1.8% of
the paint is lost during painting, 1% is lost due to weathering, and 3.2%
is lost during removal. This loss could account for 21,100–34,900 tons
annually for the European Union, the majority of which is absorbed by
soil, but some of it (2000–8000 tons annually) is released into the
waterbody (Hann et al., 2018a). Zohuriaan-Mehr and Omidian (2000)
also reported that the proportion of nonfibrous microplastics made up of
polymerised petroleum resin was 9%. In the manufacture of varnish and
building paints, as well as in the creation of rubber tyres and road paint,
this polymer is frequently combined with other sorts of resin.
In a broader sense, the urban environment represents a rich and
varied indirect source of paint particulate. Paint particles are generated
when decorative, anticorrosive or safety paints on private and public
buildings, road surfaces and municipal structures and street furniture
undergo natural deterioration or are deliberately disturbed during
maintenance, repair or removal (Turner, 2021). In recent years, devel­
opment in metropolitan areas has been widely implemented on existing
building sites that require destruction. These sites have been mostly used
for new building construction as well. This allows for the demolition of
numerous painted internal and external components, resulting in the
release of a significant amount of microplastic particles. Accordingly,
each area or country should have a viable strategy for the management
of debris from building and demolition activities (Kawecki and Nowack,
2019).
The existence of microplastics in paint is a topic about which very
little is known, although its priority need was ranked third, after packing
material and litter (Verschoor et al., 2016; Galafassi et al., 2019). Given
4.4. Tyres and roads
The impact of roads and traffic on the natural environment sur­
rounding human populations has been a subject of scientific inquiry. The
research outcomes indicate that pollution exerts a harmful impact not
only on terrestrial ecosystems but also on aquatic environments. Road
pollution is frequently characterised by elevated levels of particles,
which comprise mineral particles such as quartz and feldspar, as well as
micro- and nanoparticles that arise from the wear and tear of tyres and
road surfaces. Tyre and road wear particles have garnered significant
research attention in recent times. The surge in research attention can be
ascribed to the escalating interest in pollution caused by micro- and
nanoparticle substances. The presence of synthetic rubber can be
attributed to the composition of particular road surfaces and tyres.
Tyre wear particles are regarded as the primary microplastic source,
followed by abrasion particles from road markings and road wear par­
ticles. Polymer-modified bitumen represents the second and third
sources of microplastic particles entering the marine environment from
land. Roads and traffic are estimated to be the largest source of micro­
plastic particles entering the marine environment from land (Rødland,
2022). In 2016, rubber accounted for 26.9 million tons, of which 12.6
million tons were natural rubber and 15 million tons were synthetic
rubber (Xu et al., 2020b). Tyres used in automobiles are one of the most
important contributors to rubber emissions. Tyres generate significant
amounts of fine particles and waste ranging in size from nanometres to
micrometres. It has been completely disregarded that tyres serve as a
covert source for microplastics, yet estimations have established that
between 26% and 74% of microplastics are obtained from the rubber
that is found in tyres (Andersson-Sköld et al., 2020).
The Swedish National Road and Transport Research Institute
recently reviewed studies from 2020 and reported that polymers, as well
as various chemical additives and fillers, were what made up both tyres
and road markings (Burghardt et al., 2022). Elastomer is a type of
thermoset polymer that is used in the production of tyres. Thermo­
plastics, thermosets, thermoplastic elastomers or elastomers are present
in the polymers that make up road markings and polymer-modified
bitumen. However, there is currently limited, if any, knowledge about
the extent to which these substances are released from microplastics.
This is despite the fact that some of the chemicals used in the production
of tyres, road marking products and polymer-modified bitumen are
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Developments in the Built Environment 15 (2023) 100188
hazardous to human health and the environment. Besides, road mark­
ings were not identified as substantial contributors to the pollution
caused by microplastics (Hossain et al., 2021). Although a large quantity
of microplastics from the abrasion of tyres was found, the proportion of
particles carried to water receivers is currently unclear due to the lack of
data on the microplastic contents of stormwater from roadways. It is also
unclear how much of the microplastics are permanently deposited in the
ground next to the road. The same is valid for artificial turfs, in which
between 2300 and 3900 tons of materials are lost annually, but there are
no data on the quantity that is carried to the ocean (Tamis et al., 2021).
One recent study determined the presence of microplastic in a part of
Gothenburg, Sweden, that was being rebuilt. The authors indicated that
sweeping the streets was an effective and promising way to stop
microplastic from spreading (Järlskog et al., 2020, 2021). Table 3 shows
an overview of microplastics in the building and construction industries.
which was roughly 10 times greater than the abundance of microplastics
in stations that were located further away. The characteristics of the
microplastics, such as their sizes, morphologies and colours, were clus­
tered in such a way that the three stations that were located in close
proximity to the plant belonged to one group, while the stations that
were farther away belonged to another group (Fig. 7). According to the
results of their research, uncommon microbial species, also known as
“rare taxa,” had a positive correlation with microplastics. It was
discovered that this shift in rare taxa profiles (such as decomposition
processes and resistance to microbial decay) altered the human skin and
nasal microbiome (Miranda et al., 2020). The existence of rare taxa is
evidence that humans are likely exposed to an increased quantity of
microplastics in this area. This phenomenon has also been observed in
dam and weir construction (Zhang et al., 2017).
The next type of building that has gained popularity is known as
“rapid construction,” particularly in China. This building technology has
also been utilised by a large number of offshore wind farms, such as
those in the Yellow Sea in China (Wang et al., 2018). In 2016, the re­
searchers conducted a study to determine the degree of microplastic
contamination at an offshore wind farm in the Yellow Sea in China. The
degree of microplastic contamination in the region we studied was
comparable to that found in coastal locations all over the world, but to a
somewhat greater extent. The hydrodynamic impact, which was influ­
enced by human activities, was shown to be the primary factor deter­
mining the leaching of microplastics in the intertidal zones of the local
region (Fischer et al., 2016).
In addition, stormwater treatment wetlands are one of the most
important strategies for dealing with the runoff that is caused by roads
(Vymazal, 2011). The discovery of synthetic rubber microplastics in
stormwater provides more evidence that discarded tyres can be a source
of microplastic contamination (Ziajahromi et al., 2020). Road runoff is
expected to be a significant contributor to this problem. The fact that the
water and sediment samples did not contain any microplastics that
possessed the same properties and polymer composition as the con­
struction material for the floating wetland suggests that the micro­
plastics that were found in the water and sediment did not originate
from the material that was used to construct the floating wetland. Long
et al. (2022) investigated the stormwater treatment wetland in
5. Routes of microplastics from construction and built
environment exposed to humans
Due to the fact that microplastics are very small particles that are
found in land and marine settings, these particles are easily eaten by any
species. An accumulation of microplastics can have a negative effect on
an aquatic organism’s tissues, organs and digestive tracts, as well as on
plants and humans (Van Cauwenberghe et al., 2015; Brame et al., 2021;
Khalid et al., 2020). This review focuses solely on the detrimental effects
that the use of microplastics in construction and built environment ac­
tivities can have on humans. The release and absorption of microplastics
by humans are primarily attributed to two significant mechanisms,
namely leaching and airborne dispersion.
5.1. Leaching process to human intakes
One of the routes through which microplastics from land might make
their way into marine systems is the leaching process. The development
and construction that take place in close proximity to coastal regions are
major sources of microplastics, which can rapidly seep into the water.
Other human activities that can cause the release of microplastics into
the water have received inadequate attention. The flow of microplastics
into coastal areas has been documented by a number of structures and
construction projects, including nuclear power stations, dam construc­
tion, offshore wind farms and stormwater treatment in wetland areas.
For coastal nuclear power plants, Yu et al. (2020) asserted that more
than half of the world’s nuclear power plants are located along coast­
lines; moreover, in China, every single one of the country’s nuclear
power stations is situated in coastal regions. Wang et al. (2022) analysed
the sediments at 20 different sites located close to a nuclear power fa­
cility in northeast China that is presently under construction. The au­
thors noted that the average abundance of microplastics in three stations
that were located close to the nuclear power plant was 0.33 items/g,
Table 3
Overview of microplastics in the construction and built environment industries.
Source
Amount of
microplastics
Type of
microplastics
Reference
Fabric
200,000–500,000
tons
2,890,000 tons
588,000 tons
Polyester
(mainly)
Rubber, PET
PE, PU, polyester
Eionet (2022)
18,000–70,000 tons
PE
Hann et al. (2018b)
PE, PP
Blanke (2020)
Tent
0.04–0.017 (kg/ha/
year)
65–195 fibres/kg
PET, PE
Indoor fibre
Outdoor fibre
1–60 fibres/m3
0.3 and 1.5 fibres/m3
PET, PE, PP
PET, PP
Napper and
Thompson (2016)
(Dris et al., 2017)
Tyre
Road marking
paint
Synthetic
grass
Mulched net
Luo et al. (2021)
Ryberg et al. (2018)
Fig. 7. Spatial distribution pattern of normalised microplastic data in the vi­
cinity of nuclear power plant construction (Reproduced with permission from
(Zhang et al., 2017)).
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Developments in the Built Environment 15 (2023) 100188
Changsha, China and discussed how the relationship between the plants
and the sediment in the created wetland was important for the micro­
plastic removal efficiency. When the features of the distribution of
microplastics in urban stormwater treatment wetlands were taken into
account, rural stormwater treatment wetlands were found to have fewer
microplastics, lower removal efficiencies and a greater proportion of
finer microplastics. The efficiency with which rural stormwater treat­
ment wetlands remove microplastics is something that still has to be
improved.
Li et al. (2022) studied the amount of microplastics released in the
Yangtze River Basin and concluded that seasons affected the load of
microplastics, with October having the highest load. Once it entered the
river, the leaching of microplastics from nonpoint sources was reduced
by 26%. The amount of microplastic leaching might then decrease by up
to 81% once the microplastics reached the ocean. It seems that this ratio
arises from a solitary location. Conducting multiple research projects in
diverse locations and environments is necessary to determine the ulti­
mate effects of microplastic leaching from construction and built
environment.
this study demonstrated that indoor environments contained excessive
amounts of microplastics, which may induce a substantial exposure risk
for various age groups.
Using a proxy-based methodology, the Swiss Federal Statistical Of­
fice’s dataset on new building emissions of airborne microplastics
revealed that the majority of the microplastics came from EPS and a
small amount from PS (Kawecki and Nowack, 2020a). The Swiss
Plateau, where the majority of human activities and new construction
projects were concentrated in Switzerland and which extended from
Lake Constance in the northeast to Lake Geneva in the southwest, was
where a significant portion of emissions were produced. Geographical
significance thus pertains to the dispersion of airborne microplastics.
A comparison of indoor and outdoor air quality showed that the
concentrations of suspended particles varied from 0.4 particles per m3 to
60 particles per m3 for indoor air and from 0 to 2 particles per m3 for
outdoor air. Microplastics permeated the air, with indoor air containing
twice as much as outdoor air (Gaston et al., 2020; Prata et al., 2022b).
Adequate air ventilation is necessary in closed or semi-closed spaces to
prevent the occurrence of significant concentrations of microplastics.
Similarly, Dris et al. (2017) proved that indoor air contained more
airborne microplastics than outdoor air. Torres-Agullo et al. (2022) also
argued that this issue is severe because interior surroundings are sig­
nificant, given that people spend 90% of their time indoors. There have
also been reports of finding microplastics not only inside buildings and
workplaces but also on buses and subway trains.
According to the information that is currently available, inhalation is
one of the main ways in which people become exposed to microplastics
(Paulpandian, 2021). There is limited information on the dangers of
inhalation and airborne microplastics in various indoor environments
(Torres-Agullo et al., 2022). To determine their relative roles as path­
ways, further research is necessary. Therefore, both indoor and outdoor
air should be considered to fully comprehend the dynamics of micro­
plastic in urban surroundings.
5.2. Airborne pollutants
Airborne microplastic is a growing concern for human exposure and
environmental contamination. In accordance with the volume of the
emission and the potential for widespread release of the emission into
the environment, mitigation measures for airborne microplastic dust
emissions are prioritised in the construction industry (Verschoor et al.,
2014). Ingestion, skin contact and inhalation are the three main ways
through which microplastics could enter the body. Firstly, the micro­
plastics that are inhaled come from urban dust and can be made up of
rubber tyres, dust from construction and man-made textiles. Secondly,
microplastics would be ingested because microplastics are widely
distributed in the food chain and water supplies. The epidermal mem­
brane is too thin to allow microplastics to pass through, but the micro­
plastics might still enter through cuts, sweat glands or hair follicles.
Despite the fact that microplastics enter the human body through all
three of these routes, environmental and seafood particles still pose the
greatest danger of absolute exposure (Yee et al., 2021).
Due to excessive traffic, tyre and road wear particles and urban
reconstruction, microplastics are discharged in large quantities. More­
over, airborne microplastic dust is produced during significant building,
bridge and road reconstruction projects. The findings by Järlskog et al.
(2021) demonstrated that street sweeping effectively inhibited the
spread of pollutants by gathering significant amounts of dirty materials
from the extensive construction, renovation and reconstruction projects
of road tunnels, bridges, roads and buildings. In Ningbo, a megacity on
China’s east coast, Xu et al. (2020b) examined the connection between
urban factors and freshwater microplastic pollution near construction
sites along an urban river channel. The urban region of Ningbo,
including the Fenghua River, was compared with comparable mea­
surements due to the city’s growing population. This study considered
regional urban growth, illuminating some of the key variables influ­
encing urban microplastic pollution levels. These controls on micro­
plastic dust in urban areas will also give Chinese cities new perspectives
on how to handle the spread and emission of other anthropogenic pol­
lutants in the future. In Iran, Dehghani et al. (2017) determined the
indoor and outdoor conditions of buildings in the Tehran metropolis,
and Kashfi et al. (2022) considered them in Bushehr and Shiraz cities.
Microplastic particles are ingested by children and adults during out­
door activities and in workplaces, with large abundances of micro­
plastics being considered to induce acute exposure. Accordingly,
management measures are needed, given that street dust has the po­
tential to be a significant source of microplastic contamination in
metropolitan areas. More recently, Kashfi et al. (2022) stated that in­
fants in kindergartens and mosques had a significant daily intake of
microplastics from indoor dust ingestion and inhalation. The findings of
6. Recycled waste management in construction and built
environment
The advocacy of environmental management and the goal of sus­
tainable development have put pressure on all businesses, including
those in the construction and built environment sectors, to adopt
appropriate environmental protection practices like waste management.
Although many researchers have investigated the use of wastes, such as
plastic, in the construction process in an effort to reduce waste and in­
crease sustainability, construction is not an environmentally-friendly
activity by nature. A successful approach to reducing plastic waste by
adding it to concrete as agglomerates is a huge implementation into
practices (He et al., 2022; Poonyakan et al., 2018; Adamu et al., 2021).
However, one solution for resolving the problem from the tremendous
amount of plastic wastes generated could bring another serious problem
of leaching of microplastics. The unknown part of this area is huge and
needs prompt investigation. In construction and building goods, such as
street furniture, roof and floor coverings, piling, PVC windows,
wood-plastic composites, asphalt, noise barriers, cable ducting and pipe,
panels, cladding, insulation foam and man-made soil, that are specif­
ically made for using recycled plastic, plastic can be recycled and
repurposed (Lai et al., 2016). To improve strength, durability, impact
resistance and aesthetics, technology is being developed that will allow
construction materials to gradually include recycled plastic constituents.
Recycling can be an efficient method for managing plastic waste and
promoting the circular economy. One potential application for recycled
plastic is as a soil amendment or mulch in the soil. When recycled plastic
is used as a mulch in soil, it can help suppress weeds by physically
preventing light from reaching the soil, thereby preventing weed seeds
from germinating (Lamont, 2017; Lalitha et al., 2010). Plastic mulch can
also help retain soil moisture by reducing evaporation and slowing the
decomposition of organic matter, which releases moisture back into the
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Developments in the Built Environment 15 (2023) 100188
soil. In addition, plastic mulch can regulate soil temperature by acting as
an insulator and maintaining a more consistent temperature. Using
recycled plastic as mulch could also benefit the environment by reducing
the need for synthetic fertilisers. This is due to the fact that plastic mulch
can aid in slowing the release of nutrients from organic matter in the
soil, thereby providing a source of nutrients with a slow release for
plants. However, using plastic mulch is a direct way of introducing
microplastics into soil, which can cause problems for human health in
the long run (Khalid et al., 2020).
Recycled plastic can be used to construct erosion-controlling barriers
or blankets for slopes and other areas prone to erosion (Cetin, 2015;
Devipriya et al., 2022). These plastic barriers or blankets can be
anchored to the ground with stakes or other anchors. The plastic ma­
terial aids in keeping soil in place and reduces erosion. A benefit of using
recycled plastic for erosion control is that it can be an effective method
for controlling erosion in diverse soil and terrain types. In addition to
being relatively inexpensive compared with other erosion control mea­
sures, it is also simple to install and remove. However, recycled plastic
may not be aesthetically pleasing in certain settings, and it may not be
appropriate for use in all types of soil or terrain. Recycled plastic can be
used to create drainage systems in soil to assist with water management
(Bolden et al., 2013; Cascone and Gagliano, 2022; Omay et al., 1997).
This can be done by creating channels or trenches in the soil and filling
them with recycled plastic. One may argue that although this solution
can be successful in recycling plastics, it is also a direct route to landfill
plastics. Recycled plastics are believed to typically degrade at a faster
pace than virgin plastics, and this solution seemingly even augments the
rate of microplastic leaching into nature. Plastics also aid in directing
water away from an area and can prevent waterlogging and other types
of soil degradation. A benefit of using recycled plastic for drainage
systems is that it can be an effective means of managing excess water in
soil. However, the installation may be labour-intensive, and ongoing
maintenance may be required to ensure proper operation.
When using recycled plastic in soil, considering the possibility of
chemical leaching from the plastic into the soil is essential (Nakashima
et al., 2012; Kristanti et al., 2022; Sobhani et al., 2021; Bläsing and
Amelung, 2018). Some plastics, especially those not intended for use in
soil, may contain chemicals that are toxic to plants and animals. Over
time, these chemicals can leach into the soil, potentially contaminating
it and affecting plant and animal health. When selecting recycled plastic
for use in soil, care must be taken to minimise the risk of chemical
leaching. Given that this type of plastic is less likely to contain harmful
chemicals, it is generally recommended to use recycled plastic that is
designed for use in soil. Additionally, the potential for recycled plastic to
break down into microplastics over time must be considered (de Souza
Machado et al., 2018, 2019; Okoffo et al., 2021). Concerns with the
usage of recycled plastics as a filler or addition for construction include
the abundance of microplastics. The building materials known as
‘RESIN8’ were created and copyrighted by Loria-Salazar and
Gomez-Sandoval (2021). The materials are composed of an extruded
blend of 80% recycled plastic (from various sources) and 20% mineral
ingredients (mainly lime and wood ash). Concrete masonry blocks and
pavers have been successfully made using this cutting-edge material.
The authors claimed that after an extremely abrasive wheel loading
operation, the microplastic release potential of RESIN8 pavers appeared
insignificant.
To minimise the risk of microplastic pollution, the disposal of recy­
cled plastic should also be considered. For instance, plastic is less likely
to break down into smaller pieces that might form microplastics if it is
disposed of in a landfill that is intended to confine waste and prevent it
from entering the environment. The pyrolysis of plastic waste and
monomer recovery (e.g., PMMA) are other methods for permanent
disposal. Furthermore, plastic waste can serve as an energy source for
electricity. After being incinerated, by-products, including bottom ash
(BA) and fly ash (FA), are produced. These ashes have been successfully
utilised by adding building materials to improve the quality of the
resulting products. Incineration is not the end of plastic waste, as Yang
et al. (2021a) demonstrated; BA might be a source of microplastics
released into the environment. There are nine kinds of plastic, with PP
and PS being the most common. BA was a possible source of micro­
plastics released into the environment, as demonstrated by their find­
ings. Therefore, the authors believed that microplastics could be able to
terminate by incineration process. It is common knowledge that FA and
BA were substituted for the binder component as supplementary
cementing materials in concrete to promote quality and sustainability by
utilizing industrial by-products. The pozzolanic reactions of hydraulic
cement generally take place when incorporated with FA and BA, leading
to a densified porous matrix. The process of densifying a porous matrix
leads to a concrete structure that exhibits enhanced strength and dura­
bility. This methodology has been employed for several decades. It has
recently come into focus that the utilisation of FA and BA may exacer­
bate the issue of microplastics, which is already a matter of substantial
apprehension. Additional investigation is warranted regarding the
management of BA prior to pyrolysis, during the process of fine grinding
or prior to its incorporation into building materials.
It is notable to highlight that many industrial by-products and agri­
cultural ashes, including but not limited to silica fume, blast furnace
slag, rice husk ash, corn ash and paper sludge ash, have been extensively
employed in the cement and concrete industries to enhance the perfor­
mance of final products, reduce material cost and mitigate carbon
footprint emissions. The diverse range of aforementioned materials ne­
cessitates an evaluation of their respective effects on the release of
microplastics.
For the built environment during the waste management process, as
aforementioned, microplastic can be generated from the fragments of
plastic where degradation takes place. A waste landfill seems to be one
of the key sources of microplastics. It is reported that wind abrasion in
outdoor environments could fragment microplastics from textiles and
revitalize them from landfills (Hu et al., 2022). Atmospheric emissions
from wind abrasion at landfill sites were estimated to be 0.16 pieces/t of
waste/h, and the polymer type, shape and component were related to
the waste composition at the time (Hu et al., 2022). Rezaei et al. (Rillig,
2012) also ran a wind simulation predicting microplastics erosion and
suspension on their surface as airborne pollution at a rate ranging from
0.08 to 1.48 mg/m2/min. Moreover, recent research from Costa-Gómez
et al. (2023) investigated the PM10 and PM2.5 from the decomposition
process of EPS component and found that EPS generates both PM10 and
PM2.5 at concentrations of 2.1 mg/m3 and 1.8 mg/m3, respectively. For
thermal degradation, Revell et al. (2021) investigated the radiative
forcing by airborne microplastics, assuming a consistent surface con­
centration of 1 microplastic particle/m3 and a vertical distribution up to
10 km altitude, with the emphasis on the light absorption of micro­
plastics. Their calculation showed around 0.044 ± 0.399 fW m− 2 in the
current built environment. This airborne pollution from both diverse
weathering (e.g. wind erosion) and thermal decomposition can be found
in any outdoor environment.
Hence, plastic waste management in construction activities and a
sustainable built environment can be accomplished via better resource
allocation, material recovery and an enhanced waste management sys­
tem, especially for developing countries with a limited budget. How­
ever, the primary goal is to create robust legislative procedures for the
management of building waste, as there is currently a draft legislation
aiming to protect human health from many international organisations
like the World Health Organization (WHO) and the European Commis­
sion (EC) (Gao and Sun, 2021). These procedures can lessen the problem
of dumping in open lands, which is made worse by the combination of
municipal solid waste and unauthorised recycling that takes place in
these unregulated areas (Kittinaraporn et al., 2022). In sum, the proper
methods for preventing recycled plastic waste from transforming into
microplastics are pyrolysis and monomer recovery.
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7. Microplastics as a source of the release of other contaminants
8. Discussion and suggested future works
Microplastics are considered sources of dissolved organic carbon and
toxic contaminants including, hydrophobic organic pollutants, heavy
metals, polybrominated diphenyl ethers, bisphenol A, polychlorinated
biphenyls, polybrominated diphenyl ethers and volatile organic com­
pounds. In addition, microplastics serve as carriers for hazardous con­
taminants (Zhou et al., 2022). The buildup of microplastics promotes
their bioaccumulation and toxicity. On the contrary, microplastics are
hypothesised to function as a sink for pollutants, reducing the likelihood
of their bioaccumulation (Xu et al., 2020c). Their bioaccumulation can
directly influence the carbon cycle through microbial processes, plant
growth, or litter decomposition (Omay et al., 1997). Contaminants
adsorbed to the surface of microplastics also aid in identifying probable
sources. Due to their vast surface area, microplastics may absorb several
hazardous substances (Luo et al., 2019; Monira et al., 2021). This
adsorption of pollutants on microplastics is highly dependent on phys­
icochemical parameters such as polymer chemistry, polymer structure,
specific surface area, polarity, crystallinity and pore size distribution.
Furthermore, the sizes and characteristics of microplastics affect the
efficacy of detection and treatment methods for both microplastics and
other contaminants (Khan et al., 2022).
For instance, Abbasi et al. (2017) examined microplastics and heavy
metals in street dust in Iran and found road traffic emission pollutants
such as Cu, Zn, Sb, Hg, Pb and Mo, as well as resuspended soil particles,
including Al, Mn, Ni, Ti, Cd and Co. It is reported that automobile traffic,
road surface deterioration, the tear and wear of brake pads, the leaking
of brake fluids, the deterioration of road paint and air deposition were
the primary causes of pollution in this region. With these excessive levels
of heavy metals, the calculated potential ecological risk index indicated
that the risk was between moderate and high. These heavy metals ulti­
mately persist as airborne contaminants and cause health risks, such as
by exerting negative effects on the neurological, cardiovascular and
reproductive systems. Other impacts include decreased IQ, poor atten­
tion and abnormal behavior (Prata et al., 2022c). WHO reported the air
quality database in 2022, entailing guidelines for dealing with PM10,
PM2.5 and NO2 in urban environments, and emphasized in the major
cities that 99% of global population breathes air that exceeds the limits
(Nascimento et al., 2022). This is not accounted for in the microplastics
issue yet. Overall, not only the entry of microplastics into the human
body is the problem but also the introduction of other contaminants that
accompany microplastics, thereby yielding multifarious impacts on
human health.
This section reviews the previous literature on microplastic emis­
sions in the construction and built environment industries. There is a
lack of current reviews in this field. The relevant research is very recent,
particularly in China and developed nations. China has been identified
as the leading producer of plastic waste, particularly given the lack of an
effective management strategy to date. Due to the fact that more than
90% of the research has been publicly disclosed during the past five
years (Fig. 3), there is no amalgamated dataset that considers the big
picture. The lack of scientific consensus on quantitative reporting ap­
proaches increases the difficulty of regulating microplastic exposure in
the environment. Another major concern is the amount of microplastics
transported from construction sites to land, as well as the amount of
microplastics consumed by humans, such that an effective monitoring
process to collect the data is imperative (Yang et al., 2021b). Before a
suitable solution and standard methods may be established with regard
to the management of microplastic emissions, there is a need for addi­
tional time to be devoted to doing research in this area (Ta and T.’ Babel,
2022). The possibilities to overcome the microplastics release should be
performed for further investigation, as outlined in Fig. 8.
8.1. Encapsulation and composite method
In today’s construction activities and built environment, a large
portion of construction projects are conducted at the same site. This
seems to be especially done in urban areas with intensified populations
where there is no free space available anymore (McKim et al., 2000;
Burton, 2002; Rees, 2021). This means that intensive construction ac­
tivities in big cities in any part of the world deal with demolition.
However, no current research reveals issues with the effect of demolition
on microplastics. Also, Fu et al. (2023) asserted that the knowledge
regarding microplastics was flawed and limited, especially in the social
science study. The research in this field, such as civil engineering,
environmental engineering, architecture, construction management,
law, social science and urban development study greatly influences our
liveable places and offers the requisite experiments to investigate. As
discussed previously, demolition is a way of detaching microplastics
from concrete (instead of encapsulating them) via leaching and airborne
dust. Demolition activities generate substantial amounts of small matter,
such as PM2.5 (Dorevitch et al., 2006; Cheng et al., 2021) and micro­
plastic particles (Faruqi and Siddiqui, 2020; Kawecki and Nowack,
2020b). This problem seemingly intensifies in urban areas where
high-rise buildings captivate air containing small matter to stay in place
Fig. 8. Outline of possible solution for minimizing the microplastic release issue.
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Developments in the Built Environment 15 (2023) 100188
as deposition microplastics (Piazzolla et al., 2020; Xu et al., 2022;
O’Brien et al., 2023). Undoubtably, as new construction and building
projects, as well as the remaining old construction and building projects,
introduce plastics into building materials and structural components,
exposure to microplastics will be of great concern. As noted in Section 5,
BA and FA have been widely incorporated into concrete mixtures for
many decades. These ashes are recognized as a potential source of
microplastics and were found in many regions (Zhang et al., 2015; Ma
et al., 2022; Bungau et al., 2022; Diefenderfer and Apeagyei, 2011).
Several countries have executed construction projects with concrete
containing BA and FA passing their life expectancy (for example, a
50-year service life) (Lizárraga-Mendiola et al., 2022; Monkul and
Özhan, 2021; Sereewatthanawut et al., 2023). Hence, many construc­
tions nowadays cannot be in service any longer; as a result, demolition is
becoming an important aspect of modern construction, and these
encapsulated ashes (but can also from rice husk ash, corn ash, silica
fume, blast-furnace slag) have been discharged (Prasittisopin and Trejo,
2013b; Channa et al., 2022; He et al., 2021; Prasittisopin et al., 2019;
Yogarathinam et al., 2022). Concerning synthetic fibres and plastics, the
issue can be postponed for a few decades, as their use in concrete
structures for high-quality products such as ultra-high-performance
concrete, additive-manufacturing (3D-printing) concrete and
self-consolidating concrete is still in good condition (Prasittisopin et al.,
2021; Tuvayanond and Prasittisopin, 2023; Prasittisopin et al.).
Encapsulation with high quality concrete or building material pre­
sents a viable option for mitigating microplastic emissions in construc­
tion and built environments. The use of high-strength and ultra-highstrength concretes is believed to have been used in certain major con­
crete projects today since the material degrade under harsh weather
conditions considerably less quickly than normal strength and lowstrength concrete do. It is possible to reduce and address the problem
of microplastic leaching from such high-strength and ultra-high-strength
concretes.
An additional proposition involves the utilisation of surface hard­
ening agents, such as lithium- and silica-based compounds, which are
commonly employed in pavement and floor contexts to mitigate abra­
sion. With the implementation of regular maintenance, the issue of
microplastic leaching has the potential to be ultimately resolved.
Nevertheless, a thorough investigation is required to evaluate and
authenticate these two technical demonstrations.
It is important to highlight that when building elements are pre­
fabricated, solutions for sandwiched systems, such as precast concrete,
composite walls, and prefabricated room units, can be predesigned.
Composite systems can be created by omitting plastic from the exterior
and adding a plastic component to the interior wall. For instance, the
plastering system should not include any plastic in the mix design;
however, the middle portion of the composites can benefit from the
addition of plastic. Another illustration involves employing a metal
external wall, like aluminum cladding and a plastic-rich component in
the middle part of the sandwiched systems.
environment and are valuable. This is one means to accelerate the
decomposition of synthetic plastic wastes in construction.
Alternatively, research on self-healing concrete where the biotech­
nology of microbials is presently available (Van Wylick et al., 2021; Feng
et al., 2021; Elkhateeb et al., 2022). The self-healing concrete, which has
been employed in some experiments, can be used to lessen the leaching
of microplastics. This is due to the material’s ability to mend itself by
activating CaCO3 precipitation, which caused the crack that could have
been the first initiated pit to disappear. It is important to confirm this
field of bioorganism-based self-healing concrete. There should be
extensive research and development done in this area.
The vital investigation of an alternative approach to utilizing
biodegradable plastics, such as polylactic acid (PLA) and biodegradable
co-polyester, in the context of construction and building materials is
seemingly warranted. The replacement of biodegradable plastics with
synthetic polymers may prove to be an attractive choice for temporary
construction projects. The aforementioned applications, including tem­
porary shelters, concrete curing sheets, covering sheets, and mulching
nets, are considered to be the most straightforward alternatives for
substitution.
8.3. Use of alternative natural materials
Reducing the use of plastic-based materials in construction and built
environment is seemingly a crucial step in reducing the release of
microplastics into the environment. Natural materials, such as wood,
bamboo, mass timber and hemp, offer a sustainable and environmen­
tally friendly alternative to plastic-based insulation and other con­
struction materials. Either adoption of artisanal lime and graphene
technology or water-based coating may offer alternative methods to
plastic-based paint. Using these materials not only reduces the release of
microplastics but also has additional benefits, such as reducing the
carbon footprint of buildings and promoting sustainable building prac­
tices. This is because using these materials is not considered deforesta­
tion any longer since the forest can be regenerated in an efficient
manner. However, while these strategies offer a promising approach to
reducing the release of microplastics in construction and built envi­
ronment, they are not without their challenges. For example, using
alternative materials may be more expensive than using normal plasticbased materials and may require additional expertise or training for
construction workers. Additionally, waste management practices may
require significant changes to existing construction practices, which can
be difficult to implement in practice (Ali et al., 2021; Arnaud et al.,
2020; Le Corre et al., 2021).
The utilisation of non-plastic building materials is considered an
ideal approach, albeit its practicality may not be as high as that of
concrete due to performance, cost and availability constraints. It is
recommended that feasibility studies based on social, environmental
and economic impacts be conducted to explore the potential of alter­
native natural materials as a substitute for the current building material.
At present, it is feasible to establish a green branding and sustainable
marketing strategy to promote the Sustainable Development Goals
(SDG) and particular green building initiatives. It can be anticipated that
if the restriction on the utilisation of non-plastic-based construction
materials is lifted, there will be significant potential for natural building
materials in the future.
8.2. Biochemical technology
Biochemical technology has progressed to the extent that it can
potentially assist the degradation rates of plastics, which in turn can
lower the lasting life of microplastics. As an illustration, Chen et al.
(2022) described a method for decomposing microplastics that included
the following processes: 1) catalytic decomposition of microplastics into
organic compounds that are safe for the environment (carbon dioxide
and water); 2) catalytic recycling and upcycling of plastic wastes into
monomers, fuels and chemicals that have been valorised (Mainardis
et al., 2021; Comninellis et al., 2008). Several catalytic processes, such
as photocatalysis (Ebrahimbabaie et al., 2022), enhanced oxidation
processes and biotechnology (Hou et al., 2021), are promising and
ecologically favourable possibilities for the transformation of micro­
plastics and plastic wastes into products that are safe for the
8.4. DPSIR model strategy
Concerning the emissions of microplastics in the construction in­
dustries and built environment, the implementation of the existing
policy of the DPSIR (i.e., driving force, pressure, state, impact and
response) paradigm that was established by the European Environ­
mental Agency is considered (Rouillard et al., 2018). This paradigm
aims to bio-diversify the interactions between society and the environ­
ment, namely, the current knowledge on the origins of microplastics in
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Developments in the Built Environment 15 (2023) 100188
the environment, the abundance, mobility and destination of micro­
plastics distributed throughout the many environmental compartments;
and the socio-economic and ecological implications of these interactions
(Samandra et al., 2022; Zhao et al., 2022). Fig. 9 depicts the DPSIR
model analysis for microplastic exposure in the building and construc­
tion industries. It is believed that a comprehensive evaluation of each
component of the DPSIR model strategy is necessary to provide valuable
evidence of its implementation.
diminishing microplastic emission should widely take place (Tursi et al.,
2022). The investigation and establishment of social and environmental
policies pertaining to microplastic emissions can serve as a significant
research area for social science, humanity, urban planning and legisla­
tive perspectives on a global, regional and local level. In the context of
Thailand, for instance, a number of prominent environmental scientists
have emerged, who have attempted to provide insights into the issue of
microplastic release in the construction and built environment. This
represents the initial phase of establishing a formal strategy to address
and alleviate the issue.
8.5. Social awareness and policy
9. Conclusion
There is a need for greater awareness and education about the risks
associated with microplastics in the construction and built environment
which can be conducted based on the SDG policy. This includes
educating construction workers, building owners, and other stake­
holders about the potential environmental and health impacts of
microplastics, establishing proper guidelines locally as well as strategies
to reduce their release. Greater awareness and education can help pro­
mote the adoption of sustainable building practices and encourage
greater investment in research and development of alternative materials
(Negrelli and Silva, 2021). A framework to precisely evaluate the impact
of microplastics on human health should include human exposure
characterization, microplastics’ characterization, method of intake and
exposure duration (World Health Organization, 2022). Additionally, the
WHO (World Health Organization, 2022) also reported the applicability
of a risk assessment framework that entailed statistical analysis, end­
points, dose-response relationships, concentration ranges, effect
thresholds and test particle relevance. The framework programme
relating microplastics exposure to human health is underway.
As aforementioned, many international organisations such as WHO
and EC have established legislative drafts and cooperative acts to deal
with these microplastics issues. The United Nation (UN) (United Na­
tions, 2022) created Resolution 5/14 in May 2022 (“End plastic pollu­
tion: Towards an international legally binding instrument”) to prepare
for the work of the intergovernmental negotiations. The EC (European
Commission, 2023) developed an EU Green Deal in February 2023 with
the goal of reducing microplastics release by around 30% by 2030.
When such international policies can be achieved, regional and local
organisations of each nation should be adopted, and the acts for
A systematic review and analysis of state-of-the-art published articles
on the topic of the use of microplastics in construction and built envi­
ronment was carried out. The following are some of the inferences that
may be drawn:
• PP, PE and PVC account for 60% of the world’s thermoplastic output
mainly used in the building and construction sectors as aggregates,
macrofibres, microfibres and building parts.
• Many sources of microplastics used in construction and built envi­
ronment, including fabrics, fibre reinforcement in concrete, paints,
plastic beads and tyres and roads, have been investigated. Among
them, tyre and road applications were reported to generate micro­
plastics the most. In contrast, while microplastics present in building
and construction paints may not have been a significant concern,
their quantity is relatively substantial.
• Microplastics enter the human body through leaching (microplastics
from land enter the marine system, and then humans consume sea
animals that eat microplastics) and inhaling airborne particle
pollution at construction and building sites.
• The current recycled waste management is the development of
effective regulatory processes for managing the wastes, as recycled
plastics and burnt ashes would finally yield microplastics.
• FA and BA typically substituted cement in concrete could yield
microplastics, other agricultural ashes and industrial ashes might
also release microplastics.
Fig. 9. DPSIR model analysis for microplastic exposure in the construction and built environment.
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Developments in the Built Environment 15 (2023) 100188
• The utilisation of encapsulation and composite Method, wherein the
cement matrix was designed to possess high strength and the plastic
component was layered in the inner part, could serve as an important
strategy in mitigating the release of microplastics.
• The DPSIR model may depict the holistic process of microplastic
release in building and construction, similar to other activities. Each
component of this DPSIR model should be further assessed.
• The exploration of bio-chemical technology, like catalytic processes
and photocatalysis, self-healing concrete and bio-degradable poly­
mers should be pursued as a potential alternative to conventional
products.
• Using natural, non-plastic construction materials reduced plastic use.
Regulating the material was important despite its lower practicality
than concrete due to performance, cost, and availability issues.
Feasibility studies should assess the social, environmental, and eco­
nomic impacts of a project.
• Social science, humanity, urban planning, and legislation in con­
struction and built environment fields could study microplastic
emission policies at the global, regional, and local levels.
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The exploration and advancement of microplastics for utilisation in
the construction and built environment hold great importance; however,
the existing research on this topic has only recently become accessible. A
significant disparity persists between empirical inquiry and efforts to
lessen the issue, evaluate its effects, implement effective management
strategies, and formulate protocols necessitating additional study.
Funding source
This research project was financially supported by Program Man­
agement Unit Competitiveness (PMUC), Office of National Higher Ed­
ucation Science Research and Innovation Policy Council, Thailand as
well as the National Research Council of Thailand (NRCT) and Chula­
longkorn University (Grant No. N42A660629), Thailand. This research
is also funded by Thailand Science research and Innovation Fund Chu­
lalongkorn University (SOC66250010), Thailand.
Author contribution
Conceptualisation, L. Prasittisopin and W. Ferdous; methodology, L.
Prasittisopin; formal analysis, L. Prasittisopin and W. Ferdous.; wri­
ting—original draft preparation, L. Prasittisopin and V. Kamchoom;
writing—review and editing, V. Kamchoom; funding acquisition, L.
Prasittisopin and W. Ferdous.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
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