CHAPTER 1 Body’s Organ Systems ● Integumentary system: forms the external body covering and protects deeper tissues from injury, synthesizes vitamin D and houses cutaneous receptors (pain, pressure) and sweat and oil glands ○ Hair, nails, skin ● Skeletal system: protects and supports body organs and provides the framework for muscles to cause movement. Blood cells are forms in bones, and bones store minerals ○ Bones, joints ● Muscular system: allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion, and facial expression. Maintains posture and produces heat. ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ○ Skeletal muscles Nervous system: the fast-acting control system of the body that responds to internal and external changes by activating appropriate muscles and glands. ○ Brain, nerves, spinal cord Endocrine system: glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and metabolism by body cells ○ Pineal gland, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, thymus, adrenal gland, pancreas, ovary/testis ○ Slower than nervous system, uses chemical messengers in the bloodstream to reach the target Cardiovascular system: blood vessels transport blood, carrying oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, wastes, etc. the heart pumps blood ○ Heart, blood vessels Lymphatic system/Immunity: picks up fluid leaked out of blood vessels and returns it to blood. Disposes debris in the lymphatic system. Houses white blood cells (lymphocytes) involved in immunity. Mounts the attack against foreign substances in the body. ○ Red bone marrow, thymus, lymphatic vessels, thoracic duct, spleen, lymph nodes Respiratory system: keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide. The gaseous exchange occurs through the walls of the air sacs of the lungs ○ Nasal cavity, pharynx, bronchus, larynx, trachea, lung Digestive system: breaks down food into absorbable units that enter blood for distributio to cells, indigestibles are eliminated as feces ○ Esophagus, liver, stomach, small and large intestines, rectum, anus. Urinary system: eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body, regulates water, electrolyte, and acid-base balance of the blood ○ Kidney, ureter, urinary bladder, urethra Male Reproductive system: overall function is production of offspring, testes produce sperm and male sex hormone, and male ducts and glands aid in delivery of sperm to female reproductive tract ○ Prostate gland, Penus, testis, ductus deferens, scrotum Female Reproductive system: overall function is production of offspring. Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones. The remaining female structures serve as sites for fertilization and development of the fetus. Mammary glands of female breasts produce milk to nourish the newborn. ○ Mammary glands (in breasts), ovary, uterine tube, uterus, vagina Anatomical position: a common visual reference point, where a person stands erect with feet flat on the ground, toes pointing forward, and eyes facing forward. The palms face anteriorly with the thumbs pointed away from the body. Right and left refer to the person being viewed, not to the viewer. ○ Anterior/ventral: front ○ Posterior/dorsal: back Axial region: makes up the main axis of the body (head, neck, and trunk) ○ Trunk is divided into the thorax (chest), abdomen, and pelvis ■ ● ● ● Trunk also includes the region around the anus and external genitals called the perineum Appendicular region consists of the limbs, also called the appendages or extremities. Orientation and Directional Terms ○ Superior (cranial): toward the head end or upper part of a structure or the body; above ○ Interior (caudal): away from the head end or toward the lower part of a structure or the body; below ○ Medial: toward the midline of the body or on the inner side of ○ Lateral: away from the midline ○ Proximal: farther from the origin of a body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk ○ Ipsilateral: on the same side ○ Contralateral: on opposite sides ○ Anterior (ventral): toward or at the front of the body; in front of ○ Posterior (dorsal): toward or at the back of the body; behind ○ Superficial (external): toward or at the body surface ○ Deep (internal): away from the body surface; more internal Sectional cuts or planes: ○ Median (midsagittal) plane: divides a structure into right and left portions ■ A sagittal plane extends vertically and divides the body into left and right parts ■ Other sagittal planes offset from the midline are parasagittal ○ Frontal (coronal plane): divides a structure into anterior and posterior portions ○ Transverse plane: divides a structure into superior and inferior portions ■ Runs horizontal form right to left, dividing the body into superior and inferior parts. Also called a cross section ○ Cuts made along any plane that lies diagonally between the horizontal and the vertical are oblique sections Body Cavities and Membranes ● Closed to the outside and each contains internal organs ● Two large cavities ○ Dorsal Cavity ■ Subdivided into a cranial cavity which lies in the skull and contains the brain ■ And a vertebral cavity, which runs through the vertebral column to enclose the spinal cord ■ The hard bony walls of this cavity protect the contained organs ○ Ventral Cavity ■ More anterior and large of the closed body cavities ■ Contains the lungs, heart, intestines, and kidneys (known as visceral organs or viscera) ■ ■ Axial ● ● ● ● ● Has two divisions: ● Superior thoracic cavity, surrounded by the ribs and muscles of the chest wall ○ Three parts: two lateral parts contains a lung, surrounded by a pleural cavity and a central band of organs called the mediastinum ( contains the heart surrounded by the pericardial cavity) ■ Other major thoracic organs such as the esophagus and trachea (windpipe) ● Inferior abdominopelvic cavity, surrounded by the abdominal walls and pelvic girdle ○ Two parts: the superior part called the abdominal cavity contains the liver, stomach, kidneys and other organs, and the inferior part, or the pelvic cavity, containing the bladder, some reproductive organs, and the rectum ■ These two are not separated but continuous with each other ■ Most organs in this cavity are surrounded by a peritoneal cavity ● These two divisions are separated by the diaphragm, a dome-shaped muscle used in breathing The previously mentioned cavities surrounding organs are serous cavities, which are a slitlike space lined by a serous membrane or serosa, named pleura, pericardium, and peritoneum. ● Part of the serosa that forms the outer wall of the cavity is the parietal serosa, which is continuous with the inner, visceral serosa (the serosa that covers the visceral organs) ● Visualize with a limp balloon with a fist pushed into it: ○ The first is the organ, and the part of the balloon clinging to the first is the visceral serosa on the organ’s outer surface ○ The outer wall of the balloon represents the parietal serosa ○ And the thin airspace in the ballon is the serous cavity itself ● Serous cavities contain a thin layer of serous fluid: which is produced by both serous membranes ○ This fluid allows the visceral organs to slide with little friction across the cavity walls as they carry their functions ■ Important for organs that move or change shape, pumping heart, and the churning stomach Frontal: forehead Orbital: eye Nasal: nose Oral: mouth Mental: chin ● Cervical: neck ● Sternal: along breast bone ● Axillary: armpit ● Mammary: along the chest ● Umbilical: where belly button is (located in abdominal region ● Inguinal region: groin ● Genital Apendicular ● Acromial: top of shoulder ● Brachial: upper arm (shoulder to elbow) ● Antecubital: where blood is drawn ● Antebrachial region ( elbow to forearm) ● Carpal: wrist ● manus(hand) ● Pollex: thumb ● Palmar: palm ● Digital: all four fingers ● Coxal: hip ● Femoral: thigh ● Patellar: knee ● Crural: leg (anterior surface) ● Fibular or peroneal: lateral surface of leg ● Tarsal: ankle ● Metatarsal: foot ● Digital: the toes ● Hallux: big toe CHAPTER 2 ● All living organisms are cellular in nature ● Cells are the smallest living units in our bodies ● Cell performs basic survival functions: ○ Obtain and use nutrients ○ Dispose of wastes ○ replicate/regenerate/repair ○ Carried out by the cell’s organelles ● THREE BASIC COMPONENTS OF CELL ○ Plasma/cell membrane ○ Nucleus/control center of the cell ○ Cytoplasm ● Plasma membrane ○ Reference to the fluid mosaic model ○ Not stuck but components inside can move around, very fluid ○ A phospholipid bilayer ■ Outward and inward layers ■ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ Round phospholipid head with fatty acid trails ● Phospholipid heads are water soluble (hydrophilic) ○ Going to face extracellular and intracellular fluid ● Fatty acid tails are oriented toward each other away from the water (hydrophobic) ■ Cholesterol molecule along the fatty acid tail (most of them) ■ Series of different proteins ● Integral protein: imbed themselves in the plasma membrane ○ Transmembrane protein: goes across the membrane ● Peripheral proteins: located on the periphery or outside of the plasma membrane (extra/intracellular surface) ■ Green branched structures are carbohydrate chains ● Be found on the actual protein or the phospholipid heads ● Attached to protein: glycoprotein ● Attached to phospholipids head: glycolipid Phospholipids make up 75% of membrane lipids ■ Amphipathic: one side is hydrophilic (phospholipid head) and one side is hydrophobic (fatty acid tails) (has both characteristics) ■ Very dynamic and the phospholipids can change positions with each other Cholesterol: ■ Found among the lipid tails of the bi layer ■ Four ring structure in the molecule ■ Only found in animal cells (no plants) ■ Provide structural rigidity to the plasma membrane Glycolipids (attached to the lipids) ■ Only found facing the extracellular fluid (ECF) ■ Can act as a cellular adhesion molecule, to attach two cells together ■ Cellular recognition, immune cells pass through them to see if there is anything wrong with the cell Membrane proteins ■ Integral proteins: imbedded in the bilayer, usually transmembrane proteins extend across both layers ■ Peripheral protein: do not extend across the membrane btu loosely associated with the membrane and are easily separated from it Principle functions of plasma membrane are: ■ Protective barrier against invaders or any foreign objects ■ Acts for cellular communications ● Some transmembrane proteins can act as channels allowing materials in ● Other types of integral proteins act as a receptor, chemical messengers attach to the protein listing type of response in the cell ● Regulating the movement( the transmembrane protein open up as a channel acting as a passageway in and out of the cell ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ● The plasma membrane is selectively permeable, very picky Some solutes diffuse across the lipid bilayer with no proteins or ATP needed Some solutes need help with integral proteins to transport the impermeant molecules inside or outside the cell ■ Integral proteins can act as a carrier and use passive transport, or a pump and use active transport. ■ Passive vs active transport is whether or not we require ATP Passive modes of transport across the membrane, 1 active: ■ Simple diffusion: solutes be able to cross the membrane on its own directly through the phospholipid bilayer (has to be small enough) ■ Osmosis: diffusion of water through the lipid bilayer, requires a protein or channel (aquaporins) for water to move through the membrane, channel does not require ATP (passive transport) ■ Facilitated diffusion: a transmembrane protein will open up to allow solutes to cross through, and are often water soluble solutes ■ Active transport: a transmembrane protein is involved but in order to do so ATP is required. Endocytosis: bringing materials into the cell through the use of: ■ Phagocytosis: large macromolecules are brought through the cell, the plasma membrane detects something to bring in, the membrane forms pseudopods, or extensions of the plasma membrane, and then pinches off to form a circular membrane compartment called a phagosome. Most types of white blood cells ingesting bacteria, viruses, and other foreign substances ■ Pinocytosis: smaller solutes dissolved in the extracellular fluid. Pseudopods do not form. The plasma membrane dips downward to form a pit, so that the extracellular fluid goes in there, and then the top portion pinches off to form a vesicle ■ Receptor-mediated endocytosis: this transport requires some type of ligand or chemical messenger to bind to the receptors to signal for the creation of a vesicle to bring materials into the cell. ■ The vesicles are also describes as an endosome for endocytosis. Exocytosis: there is a vesicle with material inside of it. The vesicle migrates to the edge of the cell, and because the vesicles are made of proteins , it fuses with the plasma membrane and then liberates the contents of the vesicles to the extracellular fluid. Brings material from the cell outside. Exocytosis describes the vesicles as secretory vesicles ■ These two processes make sure that the plasma membrane doesn't get too small or big. Cytoplasm ○ Cytosol: a jelly like fluid in which all other intracellular elements are suspended (water, ions, enzymes, sites of many chemical reactions in the cell itself) ○ ● ● ● ● Organelles: specialized structures that have their own specific functions (describes as membranous (single or double layer membrane in their structure) or nonmembranous(no membrane) ○ Inclusions: temporary structures (pigments granules (the granules that form our sin and hair color), crystals of proteins , food stores,(lipid droplets)) 9 basic organelles: mitochondria, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus, lysosomes, peroxisomes, cytoskeleton, centrioles Ribosomes: ○ Non-membranous organelles ○ Functions in protein synthesis (making proteins) ○ Made of two subunits ■ Made of proteins and ribosomal RNA (rRNA) ■ Small and large subunit ○ Two locations: free floating ribosomes in the cytosol or attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum Endoplasmic reticulum: ○ network within the cytoplasm ○ Membranous organelle ○ Network of membrane enclosed cavities (flattened sacs or tubules) ○ Rough ER: protein synthesis (ribosomes present) ○ Smooth ER: making or breaking down fats and calcium storage (no ribosomes present) (lipid metabolism) ○ Rough ER: ■ Associated with flattened sacs, associated with the terms cisterns or cisternae (plural) ■ Closest to the nucleus ○ Smooth ER: ■ More tubular ■ Farther away from nucleus ○ Rough and smooth ER are continuous to each other and are not separated ○ The nucleus has a nuclear envelope and extends to form the ER ○ Produces steroid hormones and aid in drug detoxification Golgi apparatus ○ membranous organelle ○ Has a cavity ○ Referred to the sorting center ○ Anything synthesized from the ER is modified and sorted at the golgi apparatus ○ Proteins from the rough ER are transported to the golgi by a transport vesicle ■ Going to arrive on the cis-face of the golgi ( or the receiving side) ● Always the closest side to the rough ER ■ Transport vesicle is going to fuse with the golgi because the two are membranous. And releases the contents and traverses through the cisternae and as it moves it gets modified and processed, lots of enzymes to facilitate the changes ■ ● ● ● Reaches the trans-face is the “shipping side”, and a new transport secretory vesicle to contain the material and release through exocytosis ■ Transport vs secretory vesicles (transport stays in cell, secretory vesicles leave the cell) ■ secretory vesicles go to plasma membrane, fuse and leaves the cell by extocytosis ■ Vesicle can fuse with the membrane in order to just fuse into the plasma membrane ■ From the golgi, if the material doesn’t work out a vesicle comes out and goes into a lysosome to break down material that wouldn’t work out Lysosomes are associated with the breakdown of materials ○ Green areas are where materials are being digested ○ Proteins and waste from organelles are brought into lysosomes to digest and break down ○ Debris from outside the cell can merge with the lysosomes if entered and be broken down Peroxisomes: membranous and smaller than lysosomes ○ Detoxification ○ Peroxide bodies ○ Break down smaller toxic wastes rather than larger ○ Can break down long fatty acid chains ○ Normal cellular metabolism → byproduct is free radicals (very destructive molecules, extra electrons ( can damage surrounding proteins) ), the peroxides neutralize the radicals through enzymes. ■ Oxidase is going to take on the free radicals and turn them into hydrogen peroxide ■ Hydrogen peroxide is turned into water by catalase (an enzyme) ● Takes potent destructive molecules that are harmful to turn into products that arent harmful (detoxification) Mitochondria: the powerhouse of the cell ○ Needed for energy production (most ATP from mitochondria) ○ Double membrane ■ Outer mitochondrial membrane ■ Inner mitochondrial membrane ● Not aligned with the outer membrane and is folded ● The folding is specifically known as the cristae (not cisternae (golgi and ER)) ○ Folding is to increase surface area of inner membrane, to be able to pack more proteins and enzymes associated with ATP production, to maximize the amount of energy produced ● Space in the inner mitochondrial membrane is the matrix ■ Space in between is the intermembrane space ○ ● ● ● Mitochondrial DNA: is different from nuclear DNA, it is special because it is circular in nature and very sensitive from damage from free radicals ○ The peroxisome has a lot of metabolic reactions including reactions to make ATP, one of the byproducts of the mitochondria are free radicals. ○ Mitochondrial DNA has no protective mechanism ■ Can only be maternally inherited, the mitochondria is located in the tail of the sperm, and once attached to an egg, the tail detaches and does not become apart of the new human Cytoskeleton: ○ Elaborate network of rods running through the cytoplasm ○ Functions like bones, muscles and ligaments do in an organism ○ Supports the cells shape and produces movement ○ Types of filaments: ■ Microfilaments: very small and made up by spherical protein subunits called actins (globular molecules), actin strands ● Edge of cell ● Microvilli: non-motile (not move), microscope, finger-like projections of the plasma membrane; actin on the inside ○ Increases the surface area for absorption (maximizes absorption) ○ Found in absorptive cells (epithelium lining the small intestines) ○ Actin is the microfilament that act as standing rods to make the microvilli stand up ■ Intermediate filaments: little larger, tough, insoluble protein fibers constructed like woven ropes ● Found throughout the cell ● Framework of the cell ● Stabilize organelle position in the cytosol and attaches cells to one another ■ Microtubules: largest, hollow tubes of spherical protein subunits called tubulins, space in the middle is hollow ● Largest diameter ● Project outward from the centrosome ● Determine the cell’s overall shape ● Also involved in cellular movement (cilia (along a cell’s surface, and move to brush things off the cells surface) and flagella (sperm tail)) Centrosome and Centrioles ○ Helps in cell division ○ Forms microtubules and aids in cellular division ○ Centrioles are hollow in the middle, and made up of the individual microtubules The Nucleus ○ Nucleolus: site of ribosomal rRNA synthesis, rRNA is associated with ribosomes ○ ○ Chromatin ( genetic material of the nucleus) Nuclear envelope/membrane: a double membrane ■ Little structures that are nuclear pores which are little holes that allow material to enter or exit the nucleus ■ Extend out to form the rough ER CHAPTER 4 ● ● ● ● Related cells live and work together in a tissue ○ Tissue is a group of cells of similar structure that perform a common function ○ Between the cells are nonliving material, the extracellular matrix Different tissues are woven together to form the fabric of the human body Four types of tissue: epithelial (covering) tissue, connective (support) tissue, muscle (movement) tissue, and nervous (control) tissue. Epithelial tissue: ○ Epithelium: A sheet of cells that covers a body surface or lines a body cavity ○ Two forms: ■ Covering and lining epithelium: covers the outer and inner surfaces of most body organs (outer layer of skin; inner lining of all hollow viscera (stomach and respiratory tubes); lining of the peritoneal cavity; the lining of all blood vessels. ■ Glandular epithelium: forms most of the body glands ○ Occurs at the boundary of two different environments. Most substances that enter or leave the body must pass through an epithelium ○ Functions: ■ Protection of underlying tissues ■ Secretion (release of molecules from cells) ■ Absorption (bringing small molecules into cells) ■ Diffusion ( movement of molecules down their concentration gradient ) ■ Filtration ( passage of small molecules through a sieve-like membrane) ■ Sensory reception ○ Special characteristics of epithelia: ■ Cellularity: composed of entirely cells, separated by a minimal amount of extracellular material ■ Specialized cell junctions: adjacent cells are directly joined at many points by special cell junctions ■ Polarity: have a free apical surface and an attached basal surface. The apical surface abuts the open space of a cavity, tubule, gland or hollow organ. The basal surface lies on a thin supporting sheet, the basal lamina, which is part of the basement membrane. ■ Supported by connective tissue ■ Avascular but innervated, meaning it lacks blood vessels. Receives nutrients from capillaries; nerve endings penetrate epithelial sheets (innervated) ■ ○ Regeneration: high regenerative capacity, as long as cells receive adequate nutrition they can replace lost cells quickly by mitosis, cell division Classifying epithelia: two features, number of cell layers and the shape of the cells (simple and stratified describe the number of cell layers) ■ Simple: one layer, all cells attached to the basement membrane ● Shape of the cells is indicative of function ■ Stratified: multiple layers, cells on basal surface attached to basement membrane, and on the apical surface is an open space ● Function to protect ■ Squamous: flat shape with flat, disc-shaped nuclei ● Found where diffusion and filtration are important (because these are distance-dependent processes) more thin –> more quicker ■ Cuboidal: cubed shaped cell with spherical centrally located nuclei ■ Columnar: taller than they are wide, like columns, nuclei of columnar cells are located near the basal surface and are commonly oval in shape, elongated from top to bottom ● Both cuboidal and columnar cells are found in tissues involving secretion and absorption. Larger cells are necessary for additional cellular machinery to produce and package secretion to produce necessary energy for these processes. ■ To identify stratified epithelia, you name according to the shape of the cells in the apical layer ■ Ciliated epithelia function to propel material, such as mucus Epithelial tissues: ● Simple squamous: ○ Single layer of flattened cells and sparse cytoplasm, disc shape nucle ○ Allow materials to pass by diffusion and filtration in sites where protection is not needed; secretes lubricating substances ○ Location: kidney, lungs, heart, blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, serosae, walls of capillaries ● Simple cuboidal: ○ Single layer of cubelike cells with large spherical nuclei ○ Function to secretion and absorption ○ Location: kidney, ducts and secretory portions of small glands, ovary surface ● Simple columnar: ○ Single layer of tall cells with round to oval nuclei ○ Absorption; secretion of mucus, enzymes, and other substances; ciliated type propels mucus by ciliary action ○ Location: digestive tract, gallbladder, excretory ducts of some glands, small bronchi, uterine tubes, and some regions of the uterus ● Pseudostratified columnar ○ Single layer of cells with differing heights, may contain cilia ○ Secretes substances, particularly mucus, propulsion of mucus by ciliary action ○ Location: trachea and most of upper respiratory tract, nonciliated type in males sperm carrying ducts and ducts of large glands ● Stratified squamous ○ Thick with several layers of flattened cells, in a keratinized type, cells are full of keratin and dead, basal cells are active in mitosis ○ Protects underlying tissues in areas subjected to abrasion ○ Location: esophagus, mouth, and vagina, keratinized variety forms the epidermis of the skin, a dry epithelium ● Stratified cuboidal ○ Two layers of cubelike cells ○ Protection ○ Location: largest ducts of sweat glands, mammary glands, and salivary glands ● Stratified columnar ○ Several cell layers, basal cells are usually cuboidal, superficial cells are columnar ○ Protection and secretion ○ Location: rare, small amounts in male urethra and in large ducts of some glands ● Transitional ○ Both stratified squamous and stratified cuboidal, basal cells cuboidal or columnar, surface cells dome shape or squamous like ○ Stretches readily, permits stored urine to distend urinary organ ○ Location: the ureters, bladder, part of urethra Glands ● Epithelial cells that make and secrete a product form glands. ● The product of glands are aqueous fluids that contain proteins (usually) ● Secretion is the process where gland cells obtain needed substances from the blood and transform them into a product that is then discharged from the cell ● The protein product is made in the rough ER then packaged into secretory granules by the golgi apparatus and released from the cell by exocytosis ● Classified as either endocrine (“internal secretion”) or exocrine (“external secretion”), depending on where they release their product. ● Also unicellular (“one celled”) or multicellular (“many-celled”) ● Unicellular glands are scattered throughout epithelial sheets ● Multicellular glands develop by invagination of an epithelial sheet into the underlying connective tissue ● Endocrine gland are ductless, they secrete directly into the tissue fluid that surrounds them ○ The endocrine glands produce messengers called hormones that enter nearby capillaries and travel through the bloodstream to specific target organs ● Exocrine glands are numerous and secrete their products onto body surfaces or into body cavities ( such as the digestive tube), multicellular exocrine glands have ducts that carry products to epithelial surfaces ○ Secretion acts near the area it was released ○ Types of mucus secreting glands, the sweat glands, oil glands of the skin, salivary glands of the mouth, the liver (secretes bile), the pancreas (secretes digestive enzymes), mammary glands (secrete milk) and others ○ Unicellular exocrine glands: one major type of the goblet cell, shaped like a drinking glass with a stem. ■ These are scattered on the epithelial surface of intestines and respiratory tubes, between columnar cells ■ Produces mucin, a glycoprotein (sugar protein) that dissolves in water when secreted ■ Complex mucin and water is viscous, slimy mucus, which covers, protects, and lubricates many internal body surfaces ○ Multicellular exocrine glands ■ Two parts: an epithelium-walled duct and a secretory unit consisting of the secretory epithelium ■ A supportive connective tissue surrounds the secretory units (in all but the simplest glands), carrying with it blood vessels and nerve fibers. This connective tissue forms a fibrous capsule that extends into the gland proper and partitions the gland into subdivisions called lobes ■ Simple glands have an unbranched duct ■ Compound glands have a branched duct ■ Tubular glands if their secretory cells form tubes and alveolar if they form spherical sacs ■ Some are tubuloalveolar, containing both tubular secretory and alveolar units Epithelial Surface Features
