PSYC 150 ONLINE STUDY GUIDE FINAL EXAM Know the definitions of all chapter titles covered this semester as PSYCHOLOGISTS define them. Be familiar with basic tenets (beliefs) of the various SCHOOLS OF PSYCHOLOGY (many chapters - a reoccurring theme) Especially: Psychoanalysis (Freud): the term Freud used for both his theory of personality and his therapy for the treatment of psychological disorders Behavioural (learning): Behaviorism is a learning theory that only focuses on objectively observable behaviors and discounts any independent activities of the mind. Behavior theorists define learning as nothing more than the acquisition of new behavior based on environmental conditions. Cognitive (thinking) the mental process involved I acquiring storing, reserving and using information Humanistic: the school of psychology that focuses on the uniqueness of human being and their capacity of growth and psychosocial health Chapter 2: Biology and behavior Biological PSYCHOLOGY: Behavioral neuroscience, also known as biological psychology, biopsychology, or psychobiology, is the application of the principles of biology to the study of physiological, genetic, and developmental mechanisms of behavior in humans and another animal Neurons: a specialized cell, it conducts impulses throughout the nervous system Neurotransmitters: chemicals that are released into the syndic clef from the axon terminal of sending neurons, cross the synapses and bind appropriate receptors to the dentrites or cell body. Fight or flight: The fight-or-flight response, also known as the acute stress response, refers to a physiological reaction that occurs in the presence of something that is terrifying, either mentally or physically. ... In either case, the physiological and psychological response to stress prepares the body to react to the danger. Chapter 4: States of consciousness Everyday consciousness and altered states Sleep: consciousness stream of thoughts, feelings, sensations, and perceptions of which we are aware from moment to moment. Altered states of consciousness: mental states other than ordinary waking consciousness, such as sleep, meditation, hypnosis or a drug induced state. Hypnosis: Hypnosis or drug induced state Circadian rhythms: Controlled by the brain, within each 24 hours period, high to low points of bodily functions. (Examples, blood pressures, heart rates, Appetit, hormones, digestive enzymes, sensory acuity and elimination) Stages of sleep: Sleep stages and aspects of each: • Sleep cycles last about 90 minutes. • Stage 1 (light sleep) = transition between waking to sleeping. • Stage 2 = 50% of sleep occurs; somewhat deeper than Stage 1. • Stage 3 (deep sleep) = slow-wave sleep; delta waves (slow waves). • Stage 4 = deepest sleep, lasts 40 minutes; more than 50% delta waves. • • After REM period, first cycle of sleep is complete. Go directly from REM sleep into stage 2 sleep. • REM, then stages 2,3,4. • Begin cycle again. REM SLEEP vs NREM: REM = “Rapid eye movement” sleep (active sleep). • 20-25 percent of adult sleep. • Intense brain activity. • Most dreaming occurs. • Blood pressure rises. • Heart rate, respiration faster and irregular. • Brain temperature increases. Large muscles of body (arms, legs, trunk) become paralyzed NREM SLEEP • No rapid eye movements (NREM) (quiet sleep). • Heart rate and respiration slow, regular. • Little body movement. • Blood pressure, brain activity at lowest points of 24hour period. • REM SLEEP - what and how and why and what Happens to us while we are in it: Helps people shift throughout the day. Chapter 5: Learning Classical conditioning and Pavlov’s dogs - Know and be able to identify the different parts of learning here Classical Conditioning: One of simplest forms of learning. Powerful effect on our attitudes, likes, dislikes, emotional responses. Learning in which association formed between two stimuli. Pavlov’s Research: Ivan Pavlov directed research in physiology, Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia, 1891 until 1936. Studied conditioned reflex in dogs. Involuntary response (salivation) associated with sights, sounds of feeding. Conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus: Conditioned Stimulus (CS) • • • Conditioned stimulus: Previously neutral stimulus. After repeated pairings with unconditioned stimulus, produces unlearned response. bell and neutral stimulus, making a loud noise and saying the word banana, mixing two. The neutral became the unconditioned stimulus Previously neutral stimulus. After repeated pairings with unconditioned stimulus, produces unlearned response. Unconditioned Stimulus (US) • • Unconditioned stimulus: Stimulus elicits unconditioned response. built into the system, a loud noise we will jump, a piece of meat we will drool (SALVATION) Stimulus elicits unconditioned response unconditioned response and Conditioned response: Unconditioned response: Automatic unlearned response made to unconditioned stimulus without prior learning Conditioned response: Learned response made to conditioned stimulus. A response that comes to be elicited by a conditioning stimulus as a result of its repeated pairing with an UNS Neutral stimulus: A neutral stimulus is a stimulus which initially produces no specific response other than focusing attention. In classical conditioning, when used together with an unconditioned stimulus, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus. ALSO know all about Operant conditioning: Consequences of behaviour modify that behaviour in future. Behaviour reinforced tends to be repeated. Behaviour ignored or punished less likely to be repeated. Chapter 6: Memory Memory: Active system that senses organizes, alter, stores and retrieves information its three stages (basic processes) – those involved in act of remembering: Encoding, Storage and Retrieval Encoding: Selective attention and transform information to be stored in memory Storage: Keeping or maintain information in memory Retrieval: Stored information is brought to mind Short term memory and its capacity magic number 7: Short term memory: 5 to 9 bits of information, it works less than 30 seconds. When STM is full, displacement occurs. Bits of information made larger by chunking. Information kept in short-term memory by rehearsal. Can extend our STM by chucking information. Long term memory and its capacity: Long-term memory: System of memory into which all the information is placed to be kept more or less permanently. The capacity is streaming unlimited. Permanent or relatively permanent memories. Unlimited capacity. Information in LTM usually stored in semantic form. Types of amnesia: Amnesia, a partial or complete loss of memory resulting from brain trauma or psychological trauma. Retrograde amnesia, a loss of memory for events occurring during a period of time preceding a brain trauma that caused a loss of consciousness. Anterograde, the inability to form long term memories of events occurring after brain surgery or a brain injury, although memories formed before are intact. Chapter 10: Social Psychology Bystander effect: As number of bystanders at emergency increases, probability victim receives help decreases. Help delayed if given. Fundamental attribution error: Overemphasis on internal factors. Underestimation of external facts when explain others behaviour. Zimbardo prison study: The Stanford Prison Experiment was a landmark psychological study of the human response to captivity, in particular, to the real-world circumstances of prison life. It was conducted in 1971 by Philip Zimbardo of Stanford University. Conformity: Changing one’s behaviour or attitude to be consistent with norms, expectations of group. Solomon Asch study; (seating set up so that the confederates answer 1st, confederates gave the wrong answer most of the time, more than a 3rd of all participants gave the wrong answer also) Attraction and the “Halo” effect: Geographic closeness; major factor in attraction, Attribute positive or negative traits to person. Result of observing one major positive or negative trait. (Based on one trait, depending on what it is can rub off on a person) Beauty as it relates to mathematical average facial features prosocial behaviour: • • Behaviour that benefits others. Helping, cooperation, sympathy. Prejudice, stereotypes and discrimination: Prejudice; negative attitudes towards others; based on gender, religion, race, membership in a particular group Discrimination, negative behaviour towards others, based on gender, religion, face, membership in a particular group Stereotypes - definitions and be able to identify examples Contact hypothesis: Notion that prejudice can be reduced, increased contact with members of different social groups, helps see others points of views leading to less prejudice Social Loafing: Tendency to exert less effort when working with others than when working alone. People feel less accountable for their actions, people worry less about what others think. Chapter 11: Personality Definition of personality: a person’s characteristic patterns of behaving thinking and feeling Freud, and the definition of psychoanalysis as a personality theory and: Psychoanalysis is Freud’s term for both his theory of personality and his therapy for the treatment of psychological disorders. The psychoanalysis as personality theory is an unconscious instincts/processes are seen as the primary motivator, importance of early childhood experience personality is seen as fixed at the age of 5 or 6. Everything ins personality has a cause. Freud conscious and unconscious and iceberg: Conscious is Those thoughts, feelings, sensations and memories of which are aware at any given moment. Unconscious considered by Freuds to be the primary motivating force of behaviour, is said to contain, repressed memories, instincts and wishes. They have all NEVER been allowed into consciousness. ID, EGO, SUPEREGO (what they are, do, how they operate, and how they relate the conscious and unconscious parts of the personality): ID is the unconscious system of personality, contains life and death instincts, operates according to the Pleasure Principle. (present at birth) the pleasure principle seeks pleasure, avoids pain and wants immediate gratification. Libido is the psychic (often sexual) energy that comes from the ID and provides energy for the entire personality. EGO is the rational (largely conscious) part of the personality, operates via the reality principle and tries to satisfy the ID without violating moral values. ( THE SUPER EGO is the moral system (two parts) Conscience and the Ego Ideal. Conscience is consisting of ALL behaviours for which we have been punished and about which we feel guilty. Ego Ideal contains the behaviours for who we have been praised and rewarded and about which we feel pride and satisfaction (developed around 4 or 6 and based from care takers Defense mechanisms – what they are and what they do: Warring they are in conflict. ID has demands. SUPEREGO has issues. EGO has a lot of work to do. It is an unconscious, irrational, means used by the EGO to defend itself against anxiety. It involves self-deception and distortion of reality. Defense mechanisms examples be able to identify: repression, displacement, projection, rationalization: Repression is the act of removing unpleasant memories from one’s consciousness to that one is no longer aware of the painful event. Projection is attributing our own undesirable thoughts, impulses, personality traits or behaviours to other (blaming someone for your own problems) Rationalization is supplying logical, rational, socially acceptable reason instead of real reason for action or event ( Displacement is a substitute less threatening object or person for original object of impulse (taking it out on someone else who is weaker, some who you have more power over) Freud’s stages of development and how they relate to pleasure zones Fixation in stages and consequences: The psychosexual stages, a series of stages through each the sexual instinct develops; each stage is defined by an erogenous zone that becomes the center of new pleasures and conflict. Oedipal conflict what it is and in what stage it develops Five factor theory – know and be to identify all parts of it: The Oedipal complex, also known as the Oedipus complex, is a term used by Sigmund Freud in his theory of psychosexual stages of development to describe a child's feelings of desire for his or her opposite-sex parent and jealousy and anger toward his or her same-sex parent FIVE FACTORS Conscientiousness: self- discipline, careful pursuit of delayed goals Agreeableness: helpful, trusting, friendliness Neuroticism: anxiety, insecurity, emotional instability Openness: flexibility, nonconformity, variety Extraversion: Drawing energy from others, sociability Humanistic psychology – core beliefs: ▪ In the 1960’s, some psychologists began to reject: ▪ the dehumanizing ideas in Behaviourism, and ▪ the dysfunctional view of people in Psychodynamic thought. • • • ▪ Maslow and Rogers sought to offer a “Third Force” in psychology: The Humanistic Perspective. ▪ They studied healthy people rather than people with mental health problems. ▪ Humanism: focusing on the conditions that support healthy personal growth. Projective tests – types and examples of: projective test is a personality test designed to let a person respond to ambiguous stimuli, presumably revealing hidden emotions and internal conflicts projected by the person into the test. Projective test composed of 10 inkblots. • • Participant responds to inkblots. Used to reveal unconscious functioning and presence of psychiatric disorders. Chapter 13: Psychological disorders Definition of psychological disorder: Are deviant, distressful, and dysfunctional patterns of thoughts, feelings and actions, can be defined by culture and context • Can change over time— what is considered a psychological disorder can change over time Psychopathology: The scientific study of the origins, symptoms, and development of psychological disorders Early explanations for psychological disorder biopsychosocial approach: The biopsychosocial approach holds that psychological disorders are the result of the intersecting influences of genetic predispositions and physiological states, inner psychological dynamics, and social and cultural circumstances the 5 key criteria for distinguishing normal and abnormal: 1. Strange and unusual • Culture • Time period 2. Personal distress • Sometimes but not always 3. Maladaptive • Healthy or impaired functioning 4. Danger • To oneself or others 5. Responsibility • Insanity (a legal term) the 5 current perspectives in abnormal psychology: Biological • Psychodynamic • Learning • Cognitive • Humanistic historical perspectives on abnormal behavior: Evil Spirits, demons, or ghosts trephining exorcism DMS 5: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. Describes about 300 mental disorders. Describes symptoms that must be present for diagnosing each disorder Neurosis and Psychosis: Neurosis. Obsolete term for disorder causing personal distress. Some impairment in functioning. Does not cause one to lose contact with reality or to violate important social norms. Psychosis, Severe psychological disorder. Sometimes requiring hospitalization. • Loses contact with reality. Suffers delusions. Hallucinations. Seriously impaired ability to function in everyday life. Anxiety and different types of anxiety disorders: Generalized feeling of apprehension, fear, tension. May be associated with particular object or situation or may be free floating. Not associated with anything specific. Generalized Anxiety Disorder: Excessive anxiety that is difficult to control. • Excessive worry that is difficult to control. Characterized by a global, persistent, chronic, excessive state of apprehension. Often referred to as free floating anxiety (Freud), Social Anxiety Disorder: Irrational fear and avoidance of social situations. People believe they might embarrass or humiliate themselves. Feel they will appear clumsy, foolish, or incompetent. Somatic Symptom Disorder: Disorders in which symptoms are present dur to psychological rather than physical causes • Conversion disorder: loss of motor or sensory function in some part of body Illness Anxiety Disorder: Disorder where person is overly concerned about their health. Fear that their bodily systems are sign of serious disease. Dissociative Identity Disorder: Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID): Two or more distinct, unique personalities existing in same individual. Each takes over at different times. Severe memory disruption concerning personal information about other personalities. Also called multiple personality disorder Social anxiety: Irrational fear and avoidance of social situations. People believe they might embarrass or humiliate themselves. Feel they will appear clumsy, foolish, or incompetent. Schizophrenia: Severe psychological disorder. • • • • Loss of contact with shared reality Delusions and hallucinations Thinking disturbances Generally bizarre behaviour Depressive and Bipolar Disorders: Disorders characterized by extreme and unwarranted disturbances in feeling or mood. Depressive or manic episodes, or both. Personality Disorders - all of them - be able to identify aspects of key ones including narcissist, histrionic, borderline, antisocial: An enduring pattern of inner experience and behaviour that deviates markedly from the expectations of individual’s culture. Is pervasive and inflexible. Leads to distress or impairment. Paraphilias: • Sexual disorder in which sexual urges, fantasies, behaviour involves: ❖ Children (pedophilia). ❖ Other non-consenting partners. ❖ Non-human objects. ❖ Suffering and humiliation of oneself or one’s partner (sadism). ❖ Exhibitionism Obsessions versus compulsions: Obsessions: persistent, recurring, involuntary thoughts, images, or impulses that invade consciousness and cause great distress Compulsions: a persistent, irresistibly, irrational urge to perform an act of ritual repeatedly Chapter 14: Therapies Medical methods: • The use of medications or other medical treatments to relieve the symptoms associated with psychological disorders Why is therapy important? • Treatment can help ameliorate these costs and provide a better quality of life to people suffering with psychological disorders Types of therapists: • • A clinical or counseling psychologist holds a doctorate in psychology and is trained in psychological testing and evaluation, diagnosis, psychotherapy, research, and prevention of mental and emotional disorders. A psychiatrist holds a medical degree and has expertise in the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of mental and emotional disorders, and has the authority to prescribe medications and other medical practice • • Social workers focus on assisting people in difficult situations such as poverty, family conflict and abuse, and homelessness. Masters-level social workers provide many of the same diagnostic and treatment services as clinical psychologists, except they are much less likely to be trained in psychological testing. A professional counselor holds a master’s degree in counseling and has expertise in assessment, counseling, and therapy techniques and is more likely than other disciplines to be give attention to a client’s spiritual, educational, and professional well- being, and to focus on prevention Psychological therapies: The most influential styles of psychotherapy build on psychology’s major theories: psychoanalytic, humanistic, behavioural, cognitive • Psychotherapy typically involves an interaction between a patient/client and a clinician, although some therapies are carried out in groups. Eclectic therapies: • Eclectic Psychotherapy—drawing on techniques from different forms of therapy, depending on the client and the problem Psychoanalysis: • • • Developed by Freud Overall goal is to bring unconscious conflicts and repressed memories and feelings into conscious awareness Under direction of an analyst/therapist, the patient gains insight into unconscious unresolved conflicts and can let go of anxiety and other symptoms. Psychoanalytic Concepts and Methods: • • • • Free association - including discussion of dreams Resistance: during free association, the client may censor certain thoughts and topics Transference: reacting to the therapist in a way which brings out unresolved feelings about another person (mad at mother, take it out on therapist) Interpretation: the therapist suggests meanings related to the dreams, resistance, and transference, to help the client bring conflicts out into the open and work through them. Transference: reacting to the therapist in a way which brings out unresolved feelings about another person (mad at mother, take it out on therapist) Humanistic Therapies Rogers’ PERSON-Client Centred Therapy: • • Therapists are expected to show three traits (conditions) to nurture client growth: genuineness, acceptance (which Rogers called “unconditional positive regard”), and empathy. WARM and Accepting environment Behavioural Therapies: • • • Do not seek to explain psychological disorders by exploring the unconscious or to promote self-awareness or insight Assume that disordered behavior is learned (either through operant or classical conditioning) - all about learning Symptom relief is achieved by changing the rewards and punishments which are influencing problematic behaviours (operant conditioning), and by building new associations to disrupt unwanted panic and other automatic Cognitive Therapies Beck’s Cognitive Therapy: • • • Based on assumption that psychological problems, especially depression and anxiety, are a result of illogical patterns of thinking, called “irrational beliefs” and “cognitive distortions” FAULTY AND IRRATIONAL THINKING Treatment techniques focus on recognizing and altering these unhealthy pattern Ellis’s Rational-Emotive Therapy: • • Negative emotions arise from people’s irrational interpretations of experiences and their negative beliefs. The therapist helps the client recognize their irrational beliefs and firmly challenges the client to develop more realistic views, after seeing that the irrational beliefs are unreasonable and emotionally harmful. ABC model: • Often referred to as an “A-B-C” model: the therapist helps the client see that events don’t directly lead to emotional reactions, that the irrational beliefs affect the consequence, the feelings caused by an action Anti-Psychotic Medications: The Anti-psychotic medications are often used in treating psychosis and schizophrenia Anti-Anxiety Medications: • • • The benzodiazepines alleviate anxiety by increasing levels of the neurotransmitter GABA, which inhibits the transmission of nerve impulses in the brain which reduces brain activity Side effects include negative interaction with alcohol, decreased coordination and motor function, and the risk of psychological or physiological dependence Other medications have been found effective against anxiety, including some antidepressants and also Buspar (buspirone); their method of action against anxiety is less clear. Mood-Stabilizing Medications: • • • Lithium, a naturally occurring substance, is effective in the treatment of bipolar disorder, especially the manic phase of the disorder. Mood stabilizers work by regulating the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate. The mechanism of action for lithium, however, is still a matter of research and speculation. The anticonvulsant medication Depakote has also been found to be effective in treating bipolar disorder. Antidepressants: SSRIs – Prozac: • • • Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) target the neurotransmitter serotonin alone PROZAC SSRIs tend to have fewer side effects than earlier generations of anti-depressants, although potential side effects include headaches, difficulty sleeping, and sexual Brain Stimulation: Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT): Electroconvulsive therapy, formerly known as electroshock therapy, and often referred to as shock treatment, is a psychiatric treatment in which seizures are electrically induced in patients to provide relief from mental disorders.
