HISTORY, THEORY, AND RESEARCH STRATEGIES
DEVELOPMENTAL SCIENCE
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E. PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT
The study of constancy and change throughout the lifespan
Table 3. PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT
Prenatal
Infancy and Toddlerhood
Early Childhood
Middle Childhood
Adolescence
Early Adulthood
Middle Adulthood
Late Adulthood
A. THE FIELD OF DEVELOPMENTAL SCIENCE
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Scientific
Applied
Interdisciplinary
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An orderly, integrated set of statement that:
o Describes,
o Explains,
o Predicts behavior.
THEORY
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BASIC ISSUES IN DEVELOPMENT
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Continuous or discontinuous?
One course of development or many?
Relative influence of nature and nurture?
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A. CONTEXT OF DEVELOPMENT
Unique combinations of personal and environmental
circumstances can result in different paths of change
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B. BASIC ISSUES
Table 1. NATURE VS. NURTURE
NATURE
Hereditary Information
Received from parents
conception
at
NURTURE
Physical and social forces
Influences
biological
and
psychological development
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Table 2. STABILITY AND PLASTICITY
STABILITY
Persistence
of
individual
differences
Lifelong patterns established
by early experiences
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PLASTICITY
Development is open
lifelong change
Change occurs based
influential experiences
C. DEVELOPMENT AS A DYNAMIC SYSTEM
Ongoing process from conception to death
Molded by network of influences:
o Biological
o Psychological
o Social
Conception to birth
Birth-2 years
2-6 years
6-11 years
11-18 years
18-40 years
40-65 years
65 years-death
F. MAJOR DOMAINS OF DEVELOPMENT
Physical Development
o Changes in body size, proportions, appearance,
functioning of body systems, perceptual and motor
capacities, and physical health.
Cognitive Development
o Changes in intellectual abilities, including attention,
memory, academic and everyday knowledge, problem
solving, imagination, creativity, and language.
Emotional and Social Development
o Changes in emotional communication, selfunderstanding, knowledge about other people,
interpersonal skills, friendships, intimate relationships, and
moral reasoning and behavior.
G. IFLUIENCES ON DEVELOPMENT
Multiple, interacting forces:
o Age-graded
o History-graded
o Non-normative
to
on
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H. RESILIENCE
Ability to adapt effectively in the face of threats to development
Factors in resilience:
o Personal Characteristics
o Warm parental relationship
o Social support outside family
o Community resources and opportunities
I. LIFESPAN VIEW OF DEVELOPMENT
D. LIFESPAN PERSPECTIVE
Development is:
o Lifelong
o Multidimensional and multidirectional
o Highly plastic
o Influenced by multiple, interacting forces
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JOHANN ALBERT CADAY | BS PSYCHOLOGY 2B
SCIENTIFIC BEGINNINGS
BEHAVIORISM AND SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
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EARLY SCIENTIFIC THEORIES
Theory of evolution
o Natural selection
o Survival of the fittest
Normative approach
o Child study movement
o Development as a maturational process
Mental testing movement
o First successful intelligence test
o In forefront of nature–nurture controversy
PSYCHOANALYTIC PERSPECTIVE
(FREUD AND ERIKSON)
Emphasis on individual’s unique life history
Conflicts between biological drives and social expectations
A. FREUD’S THREE PARTS OF THE PERSONALITY
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Sensorimotor
Preoperational
Concrete operational
Formal operational
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View of the human mind as a symbol-manipulating system
Development as a continuous process
Use of rigorous research methods
Little insight into creativity or imagination
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B. FREUD’S PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES
Oral
Anal
Phallic
Latency
Genital
PIAGET’S COGNITIVE-DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY
Children actively construct knowledge by manipulating and
exploring their world.
Mental structures adapt to better fit with environment.
Development moves through four broad stages.
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Contributions:
o Behavior modification
o Modeling, observational learning
Limitations:
o Narrow view of environmental influences
o Underestimates individual’s active role
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C. ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES
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A. PIAGET’S STAGES
B. INFORMATION PROCESSING
DEVELOPMENTAL COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE
Relationship of brain changes to cognitive processing and
behavior patterns
Brings together researchers from
o Psychology
o Biology
o Neuroscience
o Medicine
o Practical applications
ETHOLOGY
Adaptive value and evolutionary history of behavior
Acquisition of adaptive behaviors:
o critical period
o sensitive period
EVOLUTIONARY DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
Adaptive value of
o cognitive
o emotional
o social
competencies as they change with age
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Person–environment system throughout the lifespan
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JOHANN ALBERT CADAY | BS PSYCHOLOGY 2B
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VYGOTSKY’S SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY
Transmission to the next generation of a culture’s
o values
o beliefs
o customs
o skills
Cooperative dialogues between children and more expert
members of society
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D. ETHNOGRAPHY
Participant observation of culture or social group
Rich, descriptive insights
Does not permit generalization from findings
GENERAL RESEARCH DESIGN
Table 1. RESEARCH DESIGN
CORRELATIONAL
Reveals relationships between
participants’
characteristics
and behavior
Does not permit cause-andeffect inferences
ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS THEORY
EXPERIMENTAL
Participants
randomly
assigned
to
treatment
conditions
Detects cause-and-effect
relationships
Findings may not apply in realworld conditions
A. CORRELATIONAL COEFFICIENTS
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Layers of the environment:
o microsystem
o mesosystem
o exosystem
o macrosystem
Chronosystem: temporal dimension
COMMON RESEARCH METHODS
B. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
A. SYSTEMATIC OBSERVATION
Table 2. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
Table 1. SYSTEMATIC OBSERVATION
NATURALISTIC
OBSERVATION
Observation of behavior in
natural contexts
Reflects participants’ everyday
lives
STRUCTURE
OBSERVATION
Observation of behavior in
laboratory
Gives
all
participants
opportunity to display behavior
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Table 2. SELF-REPORT
Probes
for
participant’s
viewpoint
Provides large amount
of information in brief period
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Expected to cause changes in
another variable
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B. SELF-REPORT
CLINICAL INTERVIEW
Conversational style
INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
Manipulated by experimenter
STRUCTURED INTERVIEW
All participants are asked the
same questions in the same
way
Permits comparisons and
efficient data collection
C. CLINICAL/CASE STUDY METHOD
DEPENDENT VARIABLE
Measured,
but
not
manipulated, by experimenter
Expected to be influenced by
independent variable
C. RANDOM ASSIGNMENT
Unbiased procedure used to assign participants to treatment
conditions
Increases chances that characteristics will be equally
distributed across conditions
D. MODIFIED EXPERIMENTS
Table 1. MODIFIED EXPERIMENTS
FIELD EXPERIMENT
Conducted in natural settings
Capitalizes
Opportunities
assignment
on
for
existing
random
DEPENDENT VARIABLE
Compares existing differences
in treatment
Participant groups matched as
much as possible
Full picture of individual’s psychological functioning
Combines information from
o Interviews
o Observations
o Test scores
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JOHANN ALBERT CADAY | BS PSYCHOLOGY 2B
DEVELOPMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN
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A. PROBLEMS IN CONDUCTING LONGITUDINAL
RESEARCH
Participants dropout
Practice effects
Cohort Effects
B. IMPROVING DEVELOPMENTAL DESIGN
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Sequential designs
o Compare several similar cross-sectional or longitudinal
studies
o Permit longitudinal and cross-sectional comparisons
Combining experimental and developmental designs
o Experimental manipulation of experiences
o Provides evidence of causal association between
experiences and development
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Protection from harm
Informed consent
Privacy
Knowledge of results
Beneficial treatments
RIGHTS OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS
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JOHANN ALBERT CADAY | BS PSYCHOLOGY 2B
GENETIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL FOUNDATION
GENOTYPE AND PHENOTYPE
Table 1. GENOTYPE AND PHENOTYPE
GENOTYPE
An
individual’s
genetic
information
PHENOTYPE
An
individual’s
directly
observable characteristics
GENETIC FOUNDATIONS
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DOMINANT-RECESSIVE INHERITANCE
Only the dominant allele affects children’s phenotypic
characteristics
Carriers:
o heterozygous (have one recessive allele)
o can pass recessive trait to their children
Many serious diseases are product of recessive alleles
INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE
Both alleles are expressed in the phenotype
Possible results:
o combined trait
o trait that is intermediate between the two
Example: sickle cell anemia
X-LINKED INHERITANCE
MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS
Table 2. MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS
MITOSIS
Process by which DNA
duplicates itself
Produces new body cells
containing the same genetic
information
MEIOSIS
An
individual’s
directly
observable characteristics
Halves
the
number
of
chromosomes
normally
present
Leads to genetic variability
AUTOSOMES, SEX, CHROMOSOMES, AND SEX CELLS
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GENOMIC IMPRINTING, MUTATION, AND POLYGENIC
INHERITANCE
Genomic imprinting:
o chemical marker activates one allele in a pair
o often temporary; may not occur in all individuals
Mutation:
o sudden, permanent change in a segment of DNA
o may affect one or two genes, or many
Polygenic inheritance:
o characteristics influenced by many genes
TWINS
Table 3. TWINS
FRATERNAL/DIZYGOTIC
Result from release and
fertilization of two ova
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IDENTICAL/MONOZYGOTIC
Result when a single zygote
separates to form two
individuals
ALLELES
Two forms of the same gene, one inherited from each parent
o homozygous (both alleles are alike)
o heterozygous (alleles differ)
Occur at the same place on both chromosomes in a pair
CHROMOSAL ABNORMALITIES
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Down syndrome: caused by problems with 21st chromosome
Sex chromosome abnormalities:
o caused by problems with X or Y chromosome
o often not recognized until adolescence
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Genetic counseling
Prenatal diagnosis and fetal medicine
Reproductive technologies
Adoption
REPRODUCTIVE CHOICES
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A. REPRODUCTIVE TECHNOLOGIES
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Donor insemination
In vitro fertilization
Surrogate motherhood
New technologies
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Helps couples
o assess chances of hereditary disorders
o choose best course of action in view of risks and family
goals
Recommended when
o couple has had difficulties bearing children
o known genetic problems exist
o woman is over 35
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Amniocentesis
Chorionic villus sampling
Fetoscopy
Ultrasound
Maternal blood analysis
Ultrafast magnetic resonance imaging
Preimplantation genetic diagnosis
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Trends:
o International adoption
o adoption of older children
o adoption of children with known developmental problems
Children typically exhibit some difficulties, but most fare well
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Most homeless families are women with children under age 5
Many homeless children suffer from:
o developmental delays
o chronic emotional stress
o 25% to 30% of school-age homeless children do not
attend school
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What Are the Risks of Affluence?
o Alcohol and drug use
o High levels of anxiety and depression
o Unavailable parents:
▪
lack of emotional closeness and supervision
▪
excessive demands for achievement
C. HOMELESSNESS
C. PARENTAL DIAGNOSTIC METHODS
D. ADOPTION
AFLUENCE
IMPORATNCE OF REGULARLY EATING DINNER AS A
FAMILY
ENVIRONMENTAL CONTEXTS FOR DEVELOPMENT
Family
Socioeconomic status and family functioning
Neighborhoods, towns, and cities
Cultural context
FAMILY INFLUENCES ON DEVELOPMENT
Direct influences
Indirect influences: effects of third parties
Adaptation to changes within and outside the family
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Social status:
o years of education
o prestige of one’s job and skill it requires
Economic status: income
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46 million Americans (15%) are poor
Those hit hardest are:
o parents under age 25 with young children, especially
single mothers
o older adults who live alone, especially women
o children, especially African-American, Native-American,
and Hispanic children
B. GENETIC COUNSELING
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B. POVERTY (WHO IS POOR?)
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ECONOMIC STATUS (SES)
A. SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS AND FAMILY
FUNCTIONING
SES is linked to:
o timing of marriage and parenthood
o family size
o values and expectations for children
o parents’ education and economic security
o communication and discipline styles
o investment in children’s cognitive development
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BEYOND THE FAMILY
Benefits of Strong Community Ties
o Neighborhoods: resources and social ties that promote
development
o Towns and cities: mold children’s and adults’ daily lives
o Small towns: promote connection and participation
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JOHANN ALBERT CADAY | BS PSYCHOLOGY 2B
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CULTURAL CONTEXT
PERCENTAGE OF OLDER ADULTS LIVING IN
POVERTY
Cultural values and practices: shape daily life within and
outside the family
Subcultures:
o cooperative family structures help protect members from
harmful effects of poverty
o collectivism vs. individualism
Public policies: laws and programs designed to improve current
conditions
EXTENDED FAMILIES
Three or more generations living together
More common in many minority cultures
Benefits:
o reduce stress of poverty
o provide assistance for all generations
o create strong family bonds
o transmit culture to next generation
INDVIDUALISTIC AND COLLECTIVIST SOCIETIES
Table 4. Individualistic vs Collectivist
Individualistic
People define themselves as
separate entities
Independent self
Collectivist
People define themselves as
part of a group
Interdependent self
INDICATORS OF CHILDREN’S HEALTH AND WELLBEING
BEHAVIORAL GENETICS
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A. HOW MUCH DOES HEREDITY CONTRIVUTE TO
BEHAVIOR
Heritability Estimates
Obtained from kinship studies
Provide an estimate of proportion of individual differences in a
trait attributable to heredity
Range from 0 to 1.00
B. GENE-ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION
Individuals respond differently to same environment because
of genetic makeup
Similar responses can result from different gene–environment
combinations
C. CANALIZATION
Tendency of heredity to restrict development of some
characteristics to just one or a few outcomes
Ensures development of species-typical skills under many
rearing conditions
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D. GENE-ENVRIONMENT CORRELATION
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Passive correlation
Evocative correlation
Active correlation: niche-picking
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Development results from bidirectional exchanges between
heredity and all levels of environment
Genes affect behavior and experiences
Experiences and behavior affect gene expression
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E. EPIGENESIS
The Epigenetic Framework
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JOHANN ALBERT CADAY | BS PSYCHOLOGY 2B
PRENETAL DEVELOPMENT, BIRTH, AND THE NEWBORN BABY
PERIODS OF PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
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D. TERATOGENS
Harm done by teratogens is affected by:
dose
heredity
age
other negative influences
Delayed health effects may show up decades later
Teratogenic substances
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A. CONCEPTION AND IMPLANTATION
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B. PERIOD OF THE FETUS
Third month:
o organs, muscles, and nervous system start to become
organized and connected
o lungs begin to expand and contract
Second trimester:
o many organs are well-developed by 20 weeks
o most of the brain’s neurons are in place
Third trimester:
o age of viability: 22–26 weeks
o fetus takes on beginnings of personality
C. SENSITIVE PERIODS IN PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
Drugs:
o prescription
o nonprescription
o illegal
Tobacco
Alcohol
Radiation
Environmental pollution
Infectious disease
E. OTHER MATERNAL FACTORS IN PREANTAL
DEVELOPMENT
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Nutrition
Emotional stress
Rh factor incompatibility
Age
Lack of prenatal health care
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Monitor general health:
weight gain
capacity of uterus and cervix to support fetus
growth of the fetus
Treat complications:
diabetes
preeclampsia
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Dilation and effacement of the cervix
Delivery of the baby
Delivery of the placenta
IMPORTANCE OF PREANTAL CARE
STAGES OF CHILDBIRTH
STAGES OF LABOR
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JOHANN ALBERT CADAY | BS PSYCHOLOGY 2B
THE BABY’S ADAPTATION TO LABOR AND DELIVERY
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High levels of stress hormones
o help baby withstand oxygen deprivation
o prepare baby to breathe
o arouse infant into alertness
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THE APGAR SCALE
INTERVENTIONS FOR PRETERM INFANTS
Temperature-controlled isolette
Special stimulation:
o gentle rocking
o visual or auditory stimulation
o touch, such as skin-to-skin kangaroo care
Parent training in infant caregiving
INFANT MORTALITY IN THIRTY NATIONS
NATURAL, OR PREPARED, CHILDBIRTH
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Classes
Relaxation and breathing techniques
Labor coach: friend, relative, or trained doula
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Anoxia (oxygen deprivation)
Breech position
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Fetal monitoring
Labor and delivery medication
o analgesics
o anesthetics
Cesarean delivery
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BIRTH COMPLICATIONS
MEDICAL INTERVENTIONS IN CHILDBIRTH
PRETERM AND SMALL-FOR-DATE INFANTS
Table 1.
Preterm vs small-for-Date
Preterm
Born several weeks or more
before their due date
Weight may be appropriate for
length of pregnancy
Small-for-Date
May be either preterm or fullterm
Below expected weight for
length of pregnancy
PREGNANCY LENGTH AND INFANT
SURVIVAL/DISABILITY
BIRTH COMPLICATIONS AND RESILIENCE
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Severe birth trauma is associated with long-term difficulties
Effects of mild to moderate trauma depend on environment
Resilience plays a role in long-term adjustment
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Eye blink
Rooting
Sucking
Moro
Palmar grasp
Tonic neck
Stepping
Babinski
NEWBORN REFLEXES
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JOHANN ALBERT CADAY | BS PSYCHOLOGY 2B
INFANT STATES OF AROUSAL
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Rapid-eye-movement (REM) sleep
Non-rapid-eye-movement (NREM) sleep
Drowsiness
Quiet alertness
Waking activity and crying
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Talk softly or play rhythmic sounds
Offer pacifier
Massage baby’s body
Swaddle
Hold on shoulder, rock or walk
Go for car ride or swing in cradle
Combine methods
Let cry for short time
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SOOTHING A CRYING BABY
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NEWBORN AND THEIR SENSES
A. NEWBORN SENSE OF TOUCH
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Sensitive to touch
around mouth
on palms and soles of feet
Use touch to investigate their world
Severe pain
overwhelms nervous system with stress hormones
can be relieved with local anesthesia, sugar solution, or
physical touch
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Infants
o have a preference for sweet tastes at birth
o can readily learn to like new tastes
o have odor preferences at birth
o can locate odors and identify mother by smell from birth
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Newborns
o can hear a wide variety of sounds
o prefer complex sounds to pure tones
o can distinguish between a variety of sound patterns when
only a few days old
o listen longer to human speech than to nonspeech sounds
o can detect the sounds of any human language
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Least developed sense at birth
Limited visual acuity
Actively explore environment:
scan for interesting sights
track moving objects
Not yet good at discriminating colors
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NEONATAL BEHAVIORAL ASSESMENT SCALE
(NBAS)
Evaluates newborn reflexes, state changes, responsiveness to
physical and social stimuli
Used to
o discover individual and cultural differences
o help parents get to know their babies
Changes in scores reveal baby’s ability to recover from stress
of birth
Neonatal Intensive Care Unit Network Neurobehavioral Scale
(NNNS): similar instrument used for at-risk infants
NEW FAMILY ADJUSTMENT
Hormones that facilitate caregiving:
o oxytocin
o prolactin
o estrogens
o Hormonal effects may depend on experience
Challenges of early weeks:
o new roles
o changed schedule
B. NEWBORN SENSES OF TASE AND SMELL
C. NEWBORN SENSE OF HEARING
D. NEWBORN SENSE OF VISION
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JOHANN ALBERT CADAY | BS PSYCHOLOGY 2B
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY AND TODDLERHOOD
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BODY GROWTH
REGIONS OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX
Height increases 50% by age 1, 75% by age 2
Weight doubles by 5 months, triples by 1 year
Growth occurs in spurts
Individual and group differences in size and rate of growth
INDIVIDUAL AND GROUP DIFFERENCES IN GROWTH
Group differences:
male/female
ethnic
Individual differences
Skeletal age: best estimate of physical maturity
GROWTH TRENDS
Table 1.
Changes in body proportions
Cephalocaudal
“Head to tail”
Lower part of body grows later
than the head
Proximodistal
“Near to far”
Extremities grow later than
head, chest, and trunk
NEURONS AND THEIR CONNECTIVE FIBERS
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A. PREFRONTAL CORTEX
Region of the cerebral cortex responsible for thought,
especially:
o consciousness
o inhibition of impulses
o integration of information
o use of memory, reasoning, planning, and problem-solving
strategies
Undergoes rapid growth in the preschool and school years, and
in adolescence
MAJOR MILESTONES OF BRAIN DEVELOPMENT
B. LATERALIZATION OF THE CERBRAL CORTEX
Table 2.
Lateralization of the Cerebral Cortex
Left Hemisphere
Verbal abilities
Positive emotion
Sequential,
analytic
processing
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C. BRAIN PLASTICITY
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At birth, hemispheres have begun to specialize
Highly plastic cerebral cortex has high capacity for learning
If part of cortex is damaged, other areas can take over its tasks
Older children and adults retain some plasticity, but less than
in young children
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Appropriate stimulation is vital for brain growth
Experience-expectant growth: depends on ordinary
experiences
Experience-dependent growth: additional growth resulting
from specific learning experiences
METHODS FOR MEASURING BRAIN FUNCTIONING
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
Event-related potentials (ERPs)
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
Positron emission tomography (PET)
Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS)
Right Hemisphere
Spatial abilities
Negative emotion
Holistic, integrative processing
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SENSITIVE PERIODS IN BRAIN DEVELOPMENT
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JOHANN ALBERT CADAY | BS PSYCHOLOGY 2B
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CHANGING STATES OF AROUSAL
OPERANT CONDITIONING
Table 3.
Sleep–wake pattern moves to night–day schedule during first
year
By age 2, total sleep time declines from 18 to 12 hours per day
Sleep patterns are affected by social environment, cultural
values
INFLUENCES ON EARLY GROWTH
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Heredity
Nutrition:
o breastfeeding vs. bottle-feeding
o risks of overfeeding
Malnutrition
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Correct balance of fat and protein
Ensures nutritional completeness
Helps ensure healthy physical growth
Protects against disease
Protects against faulty jaw and tooth development
Ensures digestibility
Smooths transition to solid food
Operant Conditioning
Reinforcer
Increases
probability
that
behavior will occur again by
presenting desirable stimulus
removing unpleasant stimulus
Punishment
Reduces
probability
that
behavior will occur again by
presenting unpleasant stimulus
removing desirable stimulus
USING HABITUATION TO STUDY INFANT MEMORY
AND KNOWLEDGEs
A. BENEFITS OF BREASTFEEDING
B. MALNUTRITION
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IMITATION
Infants are born with primitive ability to imitate
Mirror neurons provide biological explanation
Powerful means of learning
Helps facilitate positive relationships
MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
THE STEPS OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
A. SEQUENCE AND TRENDS
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Gross-motor development: crawling, standing, walking
Fine-motor development: reaching, grasping
Sequence is fairly uniform
Large individual differences in rate of motor progress
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Mastery involves acquiring increasingly complex systems of
action with each skill
Each new skill is joint product of
o central nervous system development
o the body’s movement capacity
o the child’s goals
o environmental supports for the skill
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B. MOTOR SKILLS AS DYNAMIC SYSTEMS
C. CULTURAL VARIATIONS IN MOTOR AND
DEVELOPMENT
Rates and patterns of development affected by
early movement opportunities
environmental stimulation
child-rearing practice
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JOHANN ALBERT CADAY | BS PSYCHOLOGY 2B
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MILESTONES OF REACHING AND GRASPING
SUBJECTIVE BOUNDARIES IN VISUAL PATTERNS
Prereaching
Ulnar grasp
Transferring object from hand to hand
Pincer grasp
DEVELOPMENTS IN HEARING
MILESTONES IN FACE PERCEPTION
VISUAL DEVELOPMENT
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Supported by rapid maturation of eyes and visual centers in
brain
Improvements:
o 2 months: focus
o 4 months: color vision
o 6 months: acuity, scanning, and tracking
o 6–7 months: depth perception
MILESTONES IN DEPTH PERCEPTION
A. EARLY FACE PERCEPTION
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The Visual Cliff Reveals link between crawling and depth
perception
MILESTONES IN INTERMODAL PERCEPTION
MILESTONES IN PATTERN PERCEPTION
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JOHANN ALBERT CADAY | BS PSYCHOLOGY 2B
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DIFFERRNTIATION THEORY
Infants
o actively search for invariant features of the environment
o notice stable relationships among features of a stimulus,
detecting patterns such as individual faces
o gradually detect finer and finer features
ENVIRONMENT AND PERCEPTIONAL DIFFERNTIATION
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JOHANN ALBERT CADAY | BS PSYCHOLOGY 2B
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JOHANN ALBERT CADAY | BS PSYCHOLOGY 2B