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Teaching defined
Refers to the process of imparting knowledge and
skills from a teacher to a learner. It encompasses the
activities of educating or instructing. It is an act or
experience that has a formative effect on the mind,
character or physical ability of an individual.
A working definition of teaching is undertaking certain
ethical tasks or activities the intention of which is to
induce learning. (B.0. Smith’s)
It is a deliberate intervention that involves planning
and implementation of instructional activities and
experiences to meet learner outcomes according to
teaching plan.
Some thoughts on teaching and learning
 Clearly, not all learning is dependent on teaching….
However, all teaching regardless of quality is
predicated on learning. (Brown,1993)
 Teaching makes learning possible (Ramsden,1992)
Learning defined
 Process of gaining knowledge or skill by studying,
practicing, being taught, or experiencing something.
(Merriam-Webster Dictionary).
 A persisting change in human performance or
performance potential… (brought) about as a result of
learner’s interaction with the environment
(Driscoll,1994)
 The relatively permanent change in a person’s
knowledge or behavior due to experience
(Mayer,1982)
 An enduring change in behavior, or in the capacity to
behave in a given fashion, which results from practice
or other forms of experience (Shuell,1986).
LEARNING THEORIES
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING (Pavlovian Conditioning or
respondent conditioning)
 A simple learning process whereby a neutral stimulus
is able to evoke a response because it has been paired
with another stimulus (that originally elicited a
response).
e.g
Food → Salivate
Bell = No reaction
Food + Bell = Salivate
OPERANT CONDITIONING (Instrumental conditioning)
 Consequence of any given behavior modifies the
degree to which that behavior is likely to occur (also
known as instrumental conditioning).
S→R
Stimulus → Response
B → R/P
Behavior → Reward
Behavior → Punishment
SOCIAL CONDITIONING (Observational conditioning)
 A type of learning that occurs when a behavior is
observed and subsequently mimicked.
Classical Conditioning
→ Is a reflexive or automatic type of learning in which a
stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a response that was
originally evoked by another stimulus.
Operant Conditioning
→ Describes as a process that attempts to modify behavior
through the use of positive and negative reinforcement.
Through operant conditioning, an individual makes an
association between a particular behavior and a
consequence.
Social Conditioning
→ In this theory, people can learn new information and
behaviors by watching other people.
The “HOW’s” of Teaching
A. Strategies.
B. Approach
C. Technique
D. Method.
STRATEGY
 Is the art and science of directing and controlling the
movements and activities of the army. If strategy is
good, we can get victory over our enemies. In
teaching this term is meant those procedures by
which objectives of teaching are realized in the class.
 Teaching strategy is a generalized plan for a lesson
which includes structure, instructional objectives and
an outline of planned tactics, necessary to implement
the strategies.
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Strategy can be summarized as
 Teaching is the generalized plan of the whole lesson
plan.
 In strategy of teaching, realization of objectives is
given more importance than presentation.
 A strategy does not follow a single track all the time,
but it changes according to the demands of the
situations such as age, level, needs, interests and
abilities of the students. Thus strategy is more
comprehensive than method.
 It is directional in nature. It refers to goal directed
activities of the teachers. Thus, it is more close to
science than arts.
TEACHING STRATEGIES
BRAINSTORMING → Is a large or small group activity that
encourages students to focus on a topic and contribute to
the free flow of ideas.
CASE STUDIES → Are effective ways to get students to
practically apply their skills, and their understanding of
learned facts, to a real-world situation. They are
particularly useful where situations are complex and
solutions are uncertain.
DEBATES → Structured way of exploring the range of
views on an issue. It consists of a structured contest of
argumentation, in which two opposing individuals or
teams defend and attack a given proposition.
DISCUSSION → Discussion lets class members work
actively with the ideas and the concepts being pursued,
and discussion sessions can be an extremely effective in
changing behaviour or attitudes. Consequently, teachers
use them frequently in instructional situations.
The flipped classroom → students complete learning
normally covered in the classroom in their own time (by
watching videos and/or accessing resources), and
classroom time is dedicated to hands-on activities and
interactive, personalized learning, leading to deeper
understanding. Students use class time to apply the theory
and concepts discussed in the videos, and to utilize
techniques including group problem-solving and team
building games, simulations, case study reviews, and
group discussions.
Groupwork → is a method of instruction that gets
students to work together in groups.
Questioning → The art of asking questions is at the heart
of effective communication and information exchange,
which underpins good teaching. If you use questioning
well, you can improve the student learning experience in a
whole range of teaching settings.
Simulations → are instructional scenarios where the
learner is places in a “world” defines by the teacher. They
represent a reality within which students interact. The
teacher controls the parameters of this “world” and uses it
to achieve the desired instructional results. Students
experience the reality of the scenario and gather meaning
from it.
APPROACH, METHOD, AND TECHNIQUE
APPROACH → is the
broadest of the
three, making
technique the most
specific, and the
method found in
between approach
and technique.
METHOD → is an
organized, orderly,
systematic, and
well-planned procedure aimed at facilitating and
enhancing students’ learning.
TECHNIQUE → encompasses the personal style of the
teacher in carrying out specific steps of the teaching
process.
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APPROACH
Ways in which you try to engage students with the
subject matter (provide students with basic facts,
relate new knowledge to what students already know,
build in interaction, be passionate, be enthusiastic)
The ways In which you support your students
(encourage questions, set formative assessments,
provide constructive feedback).
A description of your approach to teaching includes:
 The mode or manner of teaching (lecture, tutorial,
bedside teaching, laboratory work)
 Some understanding of how people learn (learning
theory)
 Some understanding of how to facilitate learning
(qualities of the teacher such as passion, principles for
good teaching practice such as providing timely and
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constructive feedback, putting educational theory
into practice)
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TYPES OF TEACHING APPROACH
According to the role of teacher
The Executive approach → views the teacher as
manager of complex classroom processes, a person
charged with bringing about certain outcomes with
students through using the best skills and techniques
available.
The Facilitator approach → it places a high value on
what students bring to the classroom setting, it places
considerable emphasis on making use of students’
prior experience.
The Liberationist approach → is rooted in notions of
liberal education, wherein the goal is to liberate the
mind to wonder, to know and understand, to imagine
and create, using the full intellectual inheritance of
civilized life.
TEACHING APPROACHES
Approach according to nature of learning
Discovery Learning → takes place in problem solving
situations where the learner draws on his own
experience and prior knowledge and is a method of
instruction through which students interact with their
environment by exploring and manipulating objects,
wrestling with questions and controversies, or
performing experiments.
Conceptual Teaching → involves the learning of
specific concepts, the nature of concepts, and the
development of logical reasoning and critical thinking.
Process Writing → treats all writing as a creative act
which requires time and positive feedback to be done
well. In process writing the teacher moves away from
being someone who sets students a writing topic and
receives the finished product for correction without
any intervention in the process writing itself.
Unified Teaching → This approach lends itself
smoothly to a unified teaching-learning concept of
education. The information handler, being a teacher, a
student, or another educational environment, is at the
center of this educational model. The main inherent
characteristics of this model are extreme flexibility,
intergration, ease of interaction, and being
evolutional.
DISCOVERY
Approach according to nature of learning
Refers to various instructional design models that
engages students in learning through discovery.
Usually the pedagogical aims are threefold:
1. Promote “deep” learning
2. Promote meta-cognitive skills (develop problem-solving
skills, creativity, etc)
3. Promote student engagement
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An approach, which capitalizes on the child's natural
curiousity and urge to explore the environment.
The child’s learns by personal experience and
experiment and this is thought to make memory more
vivid and help in the transfer of knowledge to new
situations.
CONCEPTUAL
Approach accord to nature of learning
Choosing and defining the content of a certain
discipline to be taught through the use of or pervasive
ideas as against the traditional practice of
determining content by isolated topics.
Not a particular teaching method with specific steps
to follow; it is more of a viewpoint of how facts and
topics under a discipline should be dealt with.
Involves more data collection usually through
research while the discovery approach actively
involves students to undertake experimental and
investigative work.
CONCEPTUAL → choosing and defining the content of a
certain discipline to be taught through the use of or
pervasive ideas as against the traditional practice of
determining content by isolated topics.
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PROCESS
Approach accord to bature of learning
An approach which provides students with an
abundance of projects, activities, and instructional
designs that allow them to make decisions and solve
problems
Through this approach students get a sense that
learning is much more than the commission of facts
to memory. Rather, it is what children do with that
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knowledge that determines its impact on their
attitudes and aptitudes.
UNIFIED
Approach accord to nature of learning
It is based on a breakdown of knowledge to integrated
modules of information. The basic level of breakdown
is to be used in education to build up concepts, while
the higher ones are to be used to build up complex
concepts of knowledge, including those of experts.
Key to the success of this breakdown is the relational
integration of the information leading to the concept
under consideration.
This approach lends itself smoothly to a unified
teaching-learning concept of education. The
information handler, being a teacher, a student, or
another educational environment, is at the center of
this educational model.
The main inherent characteristics of this model are
extreme flexibility, integration, ease of interaction,
and being evolutional.
FORMAL
AUTHORITY
EXPERT
PERSONAL
MODEL
Formal authority teachers are in a
position of power and authority
because of their exemplary knowledge
and status over their students.
Classroom management styles are
traditional and focus on rules and
expectations
Expert teachers are in possession of
all knowledge and expertise within the
classroom. Their primary role is to
guide and direct learners through the
learning process. Students are viewed
solely as the receptor of knowledge
and information (“empty vessel”)
Teachers who operate under the
“Personal Model” style are those who
lead by example, demonstrating to
students how to access and
comprehend information. In this
teaching model, students learn
through observing and copying the
teacher’s process.
Approach according to Teacher-Learner Interaction
STUDENT-CENTERED APPROACH
Student learning is continuously measured during teacher
instruction.
1. Inquiry Based Learning
→ focuses on student investigation and hands-on learning.
→ teacher’s primary role is that of a facilitator, providing
guidance and support for students through the learning
process
FACILITATOR
TEACHER-CENTERED APPROACH
It is the primary role of teachers to pass knowledge
and information onto their students
1. Direct Instruction
→ relies on explicit teaching through lectures and
teacher-led demonstrations.
PERSONAL
MODEL
Facilitators place a strong emphasis on
the teacher-student relationship.
Operating under an open classroom
model, there is a de-emphasis on
teacher instruction, and both student
and educator undergo the learning
loosely guided by the teacher, and is
focused on fostering independence,
hands-on learning and exploration.
Teachers who operate under the
“Personal Model” style are those who
lead by example, demonstrating to
students how to access and
comprehend information.
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DELEGATOR
In this teaching model, students learn
through observing and copying the
teacher’s process.
Teachers act as a “resource” to
students, answering questions and
reviewing their progress as needed.
Teachers play a passive role in
student’s learning; students are active
and engaged participants in their
learning. The main goal of delegator is
to foster a sense of autonomy in the
learning process
2. Cooperative Learning
→ emphasizes group work and a strong sense of community.
→ “Think-Pair-Share”
FACILITATOR
DELEGATOR
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Facilitator place a strong emphasis on
the teacher-student relationship.
Operating under an open classroom
model, there is a de-emphasis on
teacher instruction, and both student
and educator undergo the learning
process together. Student learning
loosely guided by the teacher, and is
focused on fostering independence,
hands-on learning and explanation.
Teachers act as a “resource” to
students, answering questions and
reviewing their progress as needed.
Teachers play a passive role in
student’s learning; students are active
and engaged participants in their
learning. The main goal of delegator is
to foster a sense of autonomy in the
learning process
METHOD
Method of teaching is directly related to the
presentation of the lesson. Which a teacher should
use, depends on the nature of the subject, and the
tact of the teacher.
FOUR METHODS OF PRESENTING THE SUBJECT MATTER
1. TELLING METHOD → Lecture method, Discussion method,
Story telling method and so on.
2. DOING METHOD → Project method, Problem solving
method, Textbook method and so on.
3. VISUAL METHOD →Demonstration method, Supervised
study method and so on.
4. MENTAL METHOD → Inductive, Deductive, Analysis,
Synthesis method etc.
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TECHNIQUES
It is a procedure by which new knowledge fixed in the
minds of students permanently. For this purpose, a
teacher does extra activities in the class.
These activities help the teacher to take shift from one
strategy to another. This, teaching tactics are that
behavior of the teacher which he manifests in class
i.e., the developments of the teaching strategies,
giving proper stimulus for timely responses, drilling
the learn responses, increasing the responses by extra
activities and so on.
INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA
Instructional media encompasses all the materials
and physical means an instructor might use to
implement instruction and facilitate students’
achievement of instructional objectives.
May include traditional materials such as
chalkboards, handouts, charts, slides, overheads, real
objects, and videotape or film, as well newer
materials and methods such as computers, DVDs, CDROMs, the internet, and interactive video
conferencing.
What is Instructional Media?
→ Instructional media encompasses all the materials and
physical means an instructor might use to implement
instruction and facilitate students’ achievement of
instructional objectives. This may include traditional materials
such as chalkboards, handouts, charts, slides, overheads, real
objects and videotape or film as well newer V materials and
methods such as computers DVDs, CD-ROMs, the internet,
and interactive video conferencing.
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Why use Instructional Media?
→ A good aid like a window, it should not call attention to
itself, it should just let in the light, In general, you should use
media whenever, in your best judgment, it can facilitate
learning or increase understanding of your material.
Of course, communicating to facilitate learning can be
challenging process, often requiring creative efforts to achieve
a variety of implicit instructional goals (University of
Saskatchewan, n.d.).
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Among the implicit goals that media can help achieve are the
following:
1. Attracting attention
2. Developing interest
3. Adjusting the learning
4. Promoting acceptance of the idea
Instructional Media
 Instructional media helps students visualize a lesson
and transform abstract concepts into concrete, easier
to remember concepts.
 Media is an excellent way to pose assessment
questions for the class to answer or give students task
to complete.
Types of Instructional Media
Projected Media
Non-Projected Media
Audio Media
Motion Media
Hyper Media
Gaming Media
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Projected Media
Instructional materials that require projection and
electricity in their using process.
Slides, Filmstrips, and overheads.
Use to: Allow all students to view the same material
at the same time. Offer the students other
perspectives on the material.
Non-Projected Media
Instructional materials that do not require the process
of projection before its operation can take place.
Photographs, diagrams, and displays.
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Use to: Illustrate concepts, enhance direct instruction,
Encourage students to look at data in diverse ways.
Audio Media
Cassettes and compact discs
Use to: Allow students to hear other
languages/dialects, allow auditory learners to review
the lessons, encourage creativity through music.
Motion Media
Videos, computer mediated instruction, and
television.
Use to: Offer supplemental instruction, Experience
concepts in a manner that is not available in “real life”.
Hyper Media
Computer networks, software, and the internet
Use to: Offer resources beyond the library, Develop
computer and word processing skills, offer interactive
learning.
Gaming Media
Computer games
Use to: Provide a playful environment for learning,
structure learning through rules, motivating for
tedious or repetitive content, uses problem solving
skills.
HEALTH EDUCATION
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Health education is a social science that draws from
the biological, environmental, psychological, physical,
and medical sciences to promote health and prevent
disease, disability, and premature death through
education-driven voluntary behavior change
activities.
Health education is the development of individual,
group, institutional, community and systemic
strategies to improve health knowledge, attitudes,
skills and behavior.
Simply, it is the profession of educating people about
health for attainment of positive health.
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CONCEPT OF HEALTH EDUCATION
Concept of Health
→ The word health is derived from Hal, which mean “hale
(strong healthy), sound (body, family and environment),
whole’. Hahn and Payne describe health in terms of six
interacting and dynamic dimensions-physical, emotional,
social, intellectual, spiritual, and occupation.
Definition of Health
→” Soundness of body or mind that condition in which its are
duly and efficiently discharged” (Oxford Dictionary)
→WHO has given a comprehensive definition of health in its
preamble to constitution in 1984. According to WHO, “Health
is a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being.
NEED AND IMPORTANCE OF HEALTH EDUCATION
→ Inform people about health, illness, disability, and ways in
which they can improve and protect their own health,
including more efficient use of the delivery system
→ Motivate people who want to change to more healthy
practices
→ Help them to learn the necessary skills to adopt and
maintain healthful practices and lifestyles
→ Foster teaching and communication skills in all those
engaged in educating consumers about health
→ Advocate change in the environment that facilitate
healthful conditions and healthful behaviors and
→ Add to knowledge via research and evaluation concerning
the most effective ways of achieving the above objectives.
AIMS OF HEALTH EDUCATION
1. Health promotion and disease prevention
2. Early diagnosis and management
3. Utilization of available health services
PRINCIPLES OF HEALTH EDUCATION
1. Credibility: message should be convey by the trusting
people
2. Interest: firstly we should find the need of the community
in-order to create interest
3. Participation: Choice interest topic
4. Motivation: firstly convey the message in order to change
the behavior
5. Comprehension: firstly find the capacity of the people
which need the baseline data
6. Reinforcement: need repeat follow up
7. Learning by doing
8. Known to unknown: starts what knowledge they have up to
the knowledge they don’t have
9. Setting an example
10. Good human relations: build rapporting to the
communities’ people
11. Feedback: should be given to the community what change
occur, how many people developed knowledge and many
others.
12. Leader
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GOOD TEACHING
THE TEACHER
HALLMARKS OF GOOD TEACHING
A. Professional competence
B. Interpersonal relationship
C. Teaching/ Evaluation practices
D. Availability to students
PROFESSIONAL COMPETENCE
 The teacher who enjoys teaching shows genuine
interest in patient, and displays confidence in his or
her professional abilities.
 The teacher who is creative and stimulating and can
excited student’s interest and can demonstrate
clinical skills with expertise is also valued.
ASPECTS:
1. The teacher who aims at excellence develops
thorough knowledge of subject matter and polishes
skills throughout his or her career.
2. He or she expands and maintains through reading
research, clinical practices, and continuing education.
3. Learners need to know that they can trust the
clinical expertise of the teacher.
4. Part of building trust is for the teacher to also admit
errors and weaknesses in practice.
5. A teacher who portrays excellent clinical skills,
judgment, and honesty becomes a positive role model
for learners.
INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS WITH STUDENTS
 As in all relationships, it is important that teachers
listen to learners and try to see the world through
their eyes
 First approach: Respect learners t care about their
concerns
 Second approach: Accept learners as they are,
whether or not you like them
 Third approach: Honest communication contributing
to healthy relationships with learners
 Fourth approach: Clearly identifying the learner’s
responsibilities in the learning process.
This skill is demonstrated by:
1. taking interest in learners,
2. Being sensitive to their feelings and problems
3. Conveying respect for them
4. Alleviating their anxieties
5. Being accessible for conferences
6. Being fair
7. Permitting learners to express differing point of
view
8. Creating an atmosphere in which they feel free to
ask questions 9. Conveying sense of warmth
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TEACHING PRACTICES
Teaching practices- defined as the mechanics,
methods, and skills in classroom and clinical teaching.
Students value a teacher who has a thorough
knowledge of the subject matter and can present
material in an interesting clear and organized manner.
TEACHING/EVALUATION PRACTICES
Jacobson (1966): defined teaching practices as the
mechanics, methods and skills in classroom and
clinical teaching.
Teaching subject matter in a stimulating way and
inspiring learner interest hinge on several factors such
as:
→ Teacher’s style
→ Personality
→ Personal interest on the subject
→ Use of variety of teaching strategies
EVALUATION PRACTICES
Evaluation practices valued by students include:
✓ clearly communicating expectations
✓providing timely feedback on student progress
✓correcting students tactfully
✓being fair in the evaluation process
✓giving tests that are pertinent to the subject matter
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AVAILABILITY TO STUDENTS
Allied health science students, expect the instructor to be
available to them when needed. This may take the form of
being there in the ff:
✓ Stressful clinical situations
✓ Physically helping students
✓ Giving appropriate amounts of supervision
✓ Freely answering questions and;
✓ Acting as a resource person during clinical learning
experiences.
TEACHER/MEDICAL TECHNOLOGIST’S AND ROLES IN
GUIDANCE
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The concept of guidance, which associated it with the
daily activity of the classroom teacher, gives a greater
responsibility to him. It means that the teacher who is
dealing with children should be given in-service
education for discharging his responsibilities in
personal, educational and vocational guidance.
make sure the young person has a voice in setting
learning targets
AS A MOTIVATOR
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A teacher, who mechanically assigns each hour's work
without guiding learners to see the larger sequence of
which it is a part, can serve dooms and will usually
have little intrinsic appeal. This is the teacher who
then feels a need for the carrot or the stick. He
deprives students of opportunity to carry their
existing motivations into the classroom in ways that
could help their learning
WAYS TO MOTIVATE THE LEARNERS
2 TYPES OF MOTIVATION
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INTRINSIC MOTIVATION
EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION
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INTRINSIC MOTIVATION
Intrinsic motivators include fascination with the
subject, a sense of its relevance to life and the world,
a sense of accomplishment in mastering it, and a
sense of calling to it.
Students who are intrinsically motivated might say
things like the following:
“Literature interests me.”
“Learning math enables me to think clearly.”
“I feel good when I succeed in class.”
Advantages: Intrinsic motivation can be long-lasting and selfsustaining.
 Efforts to build this kind of motivation are also
typically efforts at promoting student learning. Such
efforts often focus on the subject rather than rewards
or punishments.
Disadvantages: On the other hand, efforts at fostering
intrinsic motivation can be slow to affect behaviour and can
require special and lengthy preparation.
 Students are individuals, so a variety of approaches
may be needed to motivate different students. It is
often helpful to know what interests one’s students in
order to connect these interests with the subject
matter. This requires getting to know one’s students.
Also, it helps if the instructor is interested in the
subject to begin with!
EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION
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Extrinsic motivators include parental expectations,
expectations of other trusted role models, earning
potential of a course of study, and grades (which keep
scholarships coming).
Students who are extrinsically motivated might say
things like the following.
“I need a B- in statistics to get into business school.”
“If I flunk chemistry, I will lose my scholarship.”
“Our instructor will bring us donuts if we do well on
today’s quiz.”
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Advantages: Extrinsic motivators more readily produce
behavior changes and typically involve relatively little effort or
preparation. Also, efforts at applying extrinsic motivators
often do not require extensive knowledge of individual
students.
Disadvantages: On the other hand, extrinsic motivators can
often distract students from learning the subject at hand. It
can be challenging to devise appropriate rewards and
punishments for student behaviors. Often, one needs to
escalate the rewards and punishments over time to maintain
a certain effect level.
 Also, extrinsic motivators typically do not work over
the long term. Once the rewards or punishments are
removed, students lose their motivation.
Effects of Motivation on Learning Styles
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Deep learners respond well to the challenge of
mastering a difficult and complex subject. These are
intrinsically motivated students who are often a joy to
teach.
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Strategic learners are motivated primarily by rewards.
✓They react well to competition and the opportunity
to best others.
✓They often make good grades but won’t engage
deeply with a subject unless there is a clear reward for
doing so. They are sometimes called “bulimic
learners,” learning as much as they need to do well
on a test or exam and then promptly forgetting the
material once the assessment is over.
✓Handle strategic learners by avoiding appeals to
competition. Appeal to their intrinsic interest in the
subject at hand. Design your assignments (tests,
papers, projects, etc.) so that deep engagement with
the subject is necessary for success on the
assignments. Do so by requiring students to apply,
synthesize, or evaluate material instead of merely
comprehending or memorizing material.
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Surface learners are often motivated by a desire to
avoid failure.
✓They typically avoid deep learning because it they
see it as inherently risky behavior.
✓They will often do what it takes to pass an exam or
course, but they won’t choose to go beyond the
minimum required for fear of failure.
✓Handle surface learners by helping them gain
confidence in their abilities to learn and perform.
“Scaffold” course material and assignments by
designing a series of activities or assignments that
build on each other over time in complexity and
challenge. Encourage these learners often and help
them reflect on what they’ve learned and what
they’ve accomplished
STRATEGIES FOR MOTIVATING STUDENTS
Following are some research-based strategies for motivating
students to learn
 Become a role model for student interest. Deliver
your presentations with energy and enthusiasm. As a
display of your motivation, your passion motivates
your students. Make the course personal, showing
why you are interested in the material.
 Get to know your students. You will be able to better
tailor your instruction to the students’ concerns and
backgrounds, and your personal interest in them will
inspire their personal loyalty to you. Display a strong
interest in students’ learning and a faith in their
abilities
 Use examples freely. Many students want to be
shown why a concept or technique is useful before
they want to study it further. Inform students about
how your course prepares students for future
opportunities
 Use a variety of student-active teaching activities.
These activities directly engage students in the
material and give them opportunities to achieve a
level of mastery.
✓ Teach by discovery. Students find as satisfying as
reasoning through a problem and discovering the
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underlying principle on their own.
✓ Cooperative learning activities are particularly
effective as they also provide positive social pressure.
Set realistic performance goals and help students
achieve them by encouraging them to set their own
reasonable goals. Design assignments that are
appropriately challenging in view of the experience
and aptitude of the class.
Place appropriate emphasis on testing and grading.
Tests should be a means of showing what students
have mastered, not what they have not. Avoid grading
on the curve and give everyone the opportunity to
achieve the highest standard and grades.
Be free with praise and constructive in criticism.
Negative comments should pertain to particular
performances,
not
the
performer.
Offer
nonjudgmental feedback on students’ work, stress
opportunities to improve, look for ways to stimulate
advancement, and avoid dividing students into sheep
and goats.
Give students as much control over their own
education as possible. Let students choose paper and
project topics that interest them. Assess them in a
variety of ways (tests, papers, projects, presentations,
etc.) to give students more control over how they
show their understanding to you. Give students
options for how these assignments are weighted.
3. Encourage students to beat their personal best. Some
learning tasks, like memorizing the multiplication table or a
list of names or facts, are simply not interesting in
themselves. Generate motivation by encouraging students
to compete against themselves: run through the material
once to establish a baseline, then keep track of how much
they improve (in speed, in accuracy) each time.
4. Connect abstract learning to concrete situations. Adopt
the case-study method that has proven so effective for
business, medical and law school students: apply abstract
theories and concepts to a real-world scenario, using these
formulations to analyze and make sense of situations
involving real people and real stakes.
5. Make it social. Put together a learning group, or have
students find learning partners with whom they can share
their moments of discovery and points of confusion. Divide
the learning task into parts, and take turns being teacher
and pupil. The simple act of explaining what they’re
learning out loud will help them understand and remember
it better.
6. Go deep. Almost any subject is interesting once you get
inside it. Assign the task of becoming the world’s expert on
one small aspect of the material they have to learn— then
extend their new expertise outward by exploring how the
piece they know so well connects to all the other pieces
they need to know about
Ways to motivate the Learners;
SOME OTHER WAYS TO MOTIVATE LEARNERS
1. Fine-tune the challenge. We’re most motivated to learn
when the task before us is matched to our level of skill: not
so easy as to be boring, and not so hard as to be frustrating.
Deliberately fashion the learning exercise so that students
are working at the very edge of your abilities, and keep
upping the difficulty as they improve.
▪ Use several senses
▪ Actively involve the patients or clients in the learning
process
▪ Provide an environment conductive in learning
▪ Assess the extent to which the learner is ready to learn
▪ Determine the perceived relevance of the information
▪ Repeat information
▪ Generalize information
▪ Make learning a pleasant experience
▪ Begin with what is known; move toward with what is
unknown
▪ Present information at an appropriate rate
2. Start with the question, not the answer. Memorizing
information is boring. Discovering the solution to a puzzle
is invigorating. Present material to be learned not as a fait
accompli, but as a live question begging to be explored.
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SEVEN PRINCIPLES OF GOOD PRACTICE IN
UNDERGRADUATE EDUCATION
▪Encourage student-faculty contact
▪Encourage cooperation among students
▪Encourage active learning
▪Give prompt feedback
▪Emphasize time on task
▪Communicate high expectations
▪Respect diverse talents and ways of learning
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MEDICAL TECHNOLOGISTS AS TEACHERS
should have a formal preparation
expertise is important to prepare next generation
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TEACHING PROCESS
Teaching as preactive or “giving off” process.
Teaching as organized, purposeful, and deliberate
efforts designed to bring out desirable ends.
In this process, the teacher initiates, directs and leads
his own class towards the realization of certain goals.
Hopman (1970) Taching intends to induce leaning. It
does not just happen nor matter of luck and mere
occurrence, it is a deliberate activity.
Teaching is an art of leading the hildren and youth to
live upright and successful lives (Garner, Murphy,
1974)
Teaching as involving more of the learner than of the
teacher
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Function of teaching from being teacher-monopolized
into student-directed and idea which runs counter to
the traditional view of teaching.
Goble and Porter (1977) The teacher should cease to
be the sole transmitting agent of knowledge.
Goble and Porter (1977) Described the change as a
transformation of teaching from monopolist to
mediator function. Emphasis is placed on learning not
on teaching.
Goble and Porter (1977) Should be helping students
seek, validate, assimilate and use knowledge as a
basis for further learning, forming modifying goals
and ideas, rational decision-making.
Teaching as providing the learner with basic tools of
learning so in the process he becomes a self-sufficient and
self-reliant individual

One uniqueness of the teaching profession lies on the
nature of activities given to students.
 These activities are unmistakably inherent in the
profession and not in any of the other fields of human
endeavor.
 “Teaching is to develop further skills of students
through thinking, speaking and writing tasks and
through the ideas and concepts in reading and
listening selections.”
Teaching as structuring the learning environment for
students

Structuring- means “Building”, constructing or
organizing.
 Process of putting together certain elements
systematically in order to produce more desirable
results.
 In structuring the learning environment, therefore the
teacher synthesizes specific elements like purposes
(instructional objectives) subject matter or content.
 Learning environment must be adequately prepared
and set up so learning can presumably occur.
Teaching as inherently a humane activity
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Teaching as a system of actions and interactions
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George Kneller (1971)
The teacher and his students interact with on another.
Teaching may be considered a system if actions varied
in form and content but directed toward learning
It is the performance of these actions and in the
interactions of the teacher and students that learning
takes place.
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Highet (1954) expressed that teaching involves
emotions, which cannot be systematically appraised
and employed, and human values, which are quite
outside the grasp of science.
“Teaching is not like inducing chemical reaction”: it is
much more like painting a picture or making a piece o
music, or in a lower level, like planting a garden or
writing a friendly letter”
John Hough (1970)- defined teaching as unique,
professional, rational and humane activity in which
one creatively and imaginatively uses himself and his
knowledge to promote the learning and welfare of
others.
Teaching may become humane if he/she are both
creative and imaginative.
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Whatever the learner has become is what his teacher
has made him to be.
Teaching as an Inquiry Process
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Socrates is noted for his question-and-answer
method, better known as the Socratic Method.
 Recognized the importance of developing the
learner’s intellect by subjecting him to a series od
thought-provoking and challenging questions.
 In the process, he becomes intellectually-enlightened
and fit and eventually he can assume his rightful place
in the community of men.
 A process of questioning some of the pupil’s ideas so
that he can learn to think for himself and answer
challenges to his way of thinking.
Teaching is the process of concretizing and actualizing the
fundamental principles of other significantly related
disciplines

Nervobig and Klausmeir (1974)- “Teaching draws its
basic principles and procedure from many sources but
chiefly from psychology, sociology, philosophy,
pedadogy and educational history.
 William Burton (1969)- psychology at the most
significant discipline form which the essence of
teaching is derived.
Define teaching as “Stimulation, guidance, direction
or encouragement of learning”
 Gage (1963) Teachers need to know how children
learn, and how they depend on motivation, readiness
and reinforcement.
Teaching as an Art and as a Science
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Eisner (1983) pointed out couple of distinguishing
marks between two facets of teaching.
Teaching is a Science emphasizes the cognitive and
the psychomotor aspects of learning or simply the
subject matter that must be put across into learners’
level of awareness as well as the skilful performances
that they should be able to develop in and by
themselves.
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Teaching as a science regards teaching as mechanical
and routinized in order to make it more systematic
and more efficient.
Teaching is an art presupposes the need for the
learners to appreciate and improve on whatever
knowledge he has gained and skills he has acquired.
Teaching goes beyond the prescribed level of
instruction. It does not view a teaching method as a
preconceived and scripted sequence of classroom
acts in carrying out an activity or in developing a
particular lesson.
Teaching as an art looks at teaching as dynamic and
imaginative process.
Principle 1. Teachers' knowledge of the subject matter is
essential to the implementation of important teaching
tasks
Teachers who know their subject matter thoroughly can be
more effective and efficient at organizing the subject matter
Principle 2. Active involvement of the learner enhances
learning
Learning is an active process which requires that the learner
work with and apply new material to past knowledge and
to everyday life.
Principle 3. Interaction between teachers and students is
the most important factor in student motivation and
involvement
Interaction between students and faculty, particularly
informal interaction, is one of the most important factors in
student motivation for learning.
Principle 4. Students benefit from taking responsibility for
their learning
Students are more motivated when they take control of
their own learning. This is the belief which has stimulated
active interest in self-directed learning.
Principle 5. There are many roads to learning
Students learn in different ways and vary in their abilities to
perform certain tasks.
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Principle 6. Expect more and you will achieve more
Simply stated, if an educator conveys to students that he or
she believes in their ability to succeed learning is enhanced.
Principle 7. Learning is enhanced in an atmosphere of
cooperation
Learning is enhanced when it is perceived as a collaborative
and cooperative effort between students.
Principle 8. Material must be meaningful
If new material is presented in a pattern or framework that
the learner can perceive, it is more readily learned and
retained.
Principle 9. Both teaching and learning are enhanced by
descriptive feedback
Without feedback neither learner nor teacher can improve
because they will not know what they need to know or to
what extent they are fulfilling their goals.
Principle 10. Critical feedback is only useful if the learner
has alternatives to pursue
LEARNING PROPOSITIONS
1. “behaviors which are rewarded are more likely to occur”
2. “sheer repetitions without indication of improvement or
any kind of reinforcement is a poor way to attempt to learn”
There is no use giving teachers or students feedback about
their performances unless they can do something about it,
that is, unless they have some alternative course of action
or behaviour.
3. “threat and punishment have variable and uncertain affects
upon learning; they may make the punished response more
likely or less likely to recur;they may set up avoidance
tendencies which prevent further learning”
LESSON 5
ADULT LEARNING
4. “Reward to be most effective in learning, must follow
almost immediately after the desired behavior and be clearly
connected with that behavior in the mind of the learner”
A MODEL OF ADULT LEARNING
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Malcolm knowles (1984) began to crusade for a model
of education for adults that was different from the
education of children.
→ he adopted the term “andragogy” to differentiate
the teaching of adults from “pedagogy”
His model says first that adults are motivated to learn
information for which they understand the purpose
and see practical applications. Second they want to
take some control of their learning process and be
self-directed
5. “learners progress in any area of learning only as far as they
need to in order to achieve their purposes. Often they do only
‘get by’ with increased motivation they improved”
6. “learning by reading is more facilitated more by time spent
recalling what has been read than by rereading”
7. “forgetting proceeds rapidly at first-then more and more
slowly; recall shortly after learning reduces the amount of
forgotten
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LEARNING THEORY
Concepts and propositions that explain why people
learn and predict what circumstance they will learn.
Major learning theories:
✓ Behaviorist Theories
✓ Cognitive Theories
✓ Social Learning Theories
A. BEHAVIORIST THEORIES
Earliest, used for children
Focused on studying thoughts and feelings, fears
and phobia
Theorists:
1. John Watson
- Defined behavior as a muscle movement
2. Watson and Guthrie
- Contiguity theory
3. Thorndike and skinner
- reinforcement theory
B. COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORIES
Sometimes described as information Processing
theory
Cognitive science
✓ Study of how our brains work in the process of
perceiving, thinking, remembering and learning
✓ Storage and retrieval of information
Focus is on mental process that are responsible for
behavior and its meaning
Theorists:
1. Breur
- Learning is a process whereby the novice becomes
expert
2. Feden, 1994
- An active process which the learner constructs
meaning based on prior knowledge and view of the
world
3. Ausubel, 1963
- Developed earliest model of cognitive learning
- The Subsumption theory of meaningful Verbal
Learning
- New information is subsumed into existing thought
and memory structures
4. Rumelhart, 1980
- Concept of schema or schemata
- “all knowledge is packaged into units. These units
are schemata.”
3 kinds of learning based on Schema theory:
A. Accretion
▪ The learning of facts
▪ New information is added to existing schemata
▪ No changes are made to existing knowledge
B. Tuning (schema evolution)
▪ Existing schema evolve or refined throughout the
lifespan as new situations and issues are
encountered
C. Restructuring (schema creation)
▪ Development if new schemata by copying an old
schema and adding new elements that are different
to create a new schema
Other theories/ Models of Information Processes
1. Level of Processing Theory
▪ Information is processed sequentially, from perception to
attentionto labeling and meaning
2. The Parallel Distributing Model
▪ Information is processed by different parts of the memory
system simultaneously rather than sequential
3. Connectionist Model
▪ The information is stored in many places throughout the
brain, forming network of connections
4. Stage Theory of Information Processing
▪ Relates to memory activity
▪ Information is both processed and stored in 3 stages:
SENSORY, SHORT-TERM MEMORY and LONG-TERM
MEMORY
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SENSORY MEMORY
✓ Fleeting or passing swiftly
SHORT-TERM MEMORY
✓ Needs interest
✓ Retain indefinitely if rehearsed or meaningful to us
LONG-TERM MEMORY
✓ Use of mnemonic device
COMMON CONCEPTS OF COGNITIVE THEORIES
1. Learning
➢ Behaviorist: requisition of knowledge anD skills that
changes a person’s behavior
➢ Cognitive theorists: focuses more on the acquisition of
knowledge than on the resulting behavior
➢ Feden: Domain-Specific Learning
2. Metacognition
➢ Sometimes defined as “thinking about one’s thinking
➢ A process that learners use to gauge or measure their
thinking while reading, studying or problem-solving
➢ To know what they know and what they do not know
➢ Journal writing, group dialogue, problem-based
learning, rationalization of test questions
3. Memory
➢ Sensory, short term and long term
➢ Consolidation
➢ Chunking: information is clustered into patterns
4. Transfer
➢ Ability to take information learned in one situation and
apply it to another
➢ Concepts and principles are used or adopted not just to
one particular situation but to all other situations as well
➢ Successful transfer depends on several factors:
▪ The extent to which the material was originally
learned
▪ The ability to retrieve information from memory
▪ The way in which the material was taught and learned
▪ The similarity of the new situation to original
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C. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORIES
Albert Bandura (1977)
Observational learning theory
People learn as they are in constant interaction with
their environment
Key components:
✓ Modelling
✓ Attentional processes
✓ Retention Processes
✓ Motivation
KEY COMPONENTS OF SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
 MODELLING
✓ Learning occurs as a result of observing other
people’s behavior and its consequences
 ATTENTIONAL PROCESSES
✓ This determines which modelled behavior will be
learned
 RETENTION PROCESSES
✓ Refer to the ability to retain modelled behaviors in
permanent memory
 MOTIVATION
✓ Motivation through valued outcomes (rewards)
rather punishing outcomes
✓ Perceived reward is a good motivator
TYPES OF LEARNING
GAGNE’S CONDITIONS OF LEARNING
1. Signal learning (conditioned response)
▪ Simplest level of learning
▪ Person develops a general diffuse reaction to a stimulus
2. Stimulus-Response Learning
▪ Developing a voluntary response to a specific stimulus or
combination of stimuli
3. Chaining
▪ Acquisition of a series of related conditioned responses
or stimulus-response connections
4. Verbal Association
▪ Type of chaining
▪ Process of learning medical terminology
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5. Discrimination learning
▪ The more new chains that are learned, the easier it is to
forget previous chains
▪ To retain large number of chains, you need to
discriminate among them
6. Concept learning
▪ Learning how to classify stimuli into groups represented
by a common concept
7. Rule learning
▪ Rule: chain of concepts or a relationship between
concepts
▪ Expressed as “If.... And then ..” relationships
8. Problem solving
▪ Highest level of learning
▪ Applying previously learned rules that relate to situation
▪ Process of formulating and testing hypotheses
LEARNING STYLES
LEARNING STYLES MODELS
1. HOLISTIC (Global)
✓ Get the whole picture quickly
✓ Sees the broad categories before the details.
✓ Process information simultaneously rather than step
by step manner.
✓ Retain an over-all/ global view of the information
✓ Sees how new information connects to what they
already know and value.
2. ANALYTIC
✓ Process the details of a picture, outlining the
component parts in a logical progression.
✓ Perceive information in an objective manner.
3. VERBAL
✓ Represent information they read, see or hear in terms
of words or verbal associations.
4. VISUAL
✓ Experience information they read, see or hear in terms
of mental pictures or images.
All these concepts are not dichotomies, but rather a
continuum.
No one is a purely holistic learner and not at all analytical
or vice versa.
KOLB’S THEORY OF EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING
FOUR MODELS OF LEARNING
1. Concrete Experience (CE)
✓Learning from actual experience
2. Reflective Observation (RO)
✓ Learning by observing others
3. Abstract Conceptualization (AC)
✓ Creating theories to explain what is seen
4. Active Experimentation (AE)
✓ Using theories to solve problems
FOUR LEARNING STYLES IDENTIFIED BY KOLB
1. CONVERGER
➢ Studies by abstract conceptualization and active
experimentation.
➢ Good in decision-making and problem-solving.
➢ likes technical work rather than inter-personal
relationship.
2. ACCOMMODATOR
➢ Relies on concrete experience and active
experimentation.
➢ Actively accomplish things
➢ Often use trial and error methods to solve problems.
➢ Maybe impatient with other people
➢ Acts on intuition and a risk-taker.
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3. ASSIMILATOR
➢ Emphasizes Abstract Conceptualization and Reflective
Observation.
➢ Strengths in inductive reasoning, creating theoretical
models and integrating ideas.
➢ Play with ideas to actively apply them
➢ More concerned with ideas than people.
4. DIVERGER
➢ Stresses on Concrete Experience and Reflective
Observation.
➢ Excels in imagination and awareness of meaning.
➢ Feeling-oriented and people-oriented
➢ Like to work on groups
GREGORC COGNITIVE STYLES MODEL
Hypothesized that the mind has the mediation abilities of
PERCEPTION and ORDERING.
PERCEPTION:
 Ability to grasp incoming stimuli ranging from
abstractness to concreteness
ORDERING:
 Ability to arrange and systematize incoming stimuli,
from sequence to randomness.
FOUR MEDIATION CHANNELS:
1. Concrete Sequential (CS)
2. Concrete Random (CR)
3. Abstract Sequential (AS)
4. Abstract Random (AR)
GREGORC COGNITIVE STYLES MODEL
1. Concrete Sequential (CS)
 Like highly structured, quiet learning environments.
 Do not like being interrupted
 Often focused on details
 Like concrete learning materials
 May interpret words literally
2. Concrete Random (CR)
 Intuitive
 Use trial and error method
 Tend to order new information mentally into a 3dimensional pattern.
3. Abstract Sequential (AS)
 Holistic Thinkers
 Need consistency in the Learning environment and
do not like interruptions.
 Have good verbal skills
 logical and rational
4. Abstract Random (AR)
 Think holistically and benefit greatly from visual
stimuli.
 Like busy, unstructured learning environment
 Often focused on personal relationships
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FIELD INDEPENDENCE/ DEPENDENCE MODEL
FIELD INDEPENDENT STYLE
 Items are perceived relatively independently of their
surrounding field.
 More analytical (parts more than the whole)
FIELD DEPENDENT STYLE
 Has difficulty perceiving items aside from their
surrounding field.
 More global, seeing the whole than the parts.
EMBEDDED FIGURE TEST:
➢ A complex figure in which a simple figure is embedded.
 Field Independent- See the simple figure out of the
complex
 Field Dependent- Have difficulty finding the
embedded simple figure
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MATCHING LEARNING STYLE TO INSTRUCTION
Matching the teaching style to the learning style of
the students had been inconclusive.
Some show achievement when learning style was
matched with a similar teaching style, but some have
not.
Though students have preferred learning styles, they
can be helped or develop other learning styles.
Teachers should be encouraged to use a variety of
teaching strategies to address various students’
learning needs.
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