Table of Contents:
Effective Written Presentation
EFL Learners and Oral Presentation
Example for a Written Presentation
page 1
page 13
page 20
An Example for a Written Presentation.
Read the text carefully, collect the main points, especially
those printed in green color, and discuss them in class
afterwards, please.
EFFECTIVE WRITTEN PRESENTATION
Distributed to:
Students in Business Report Writing
Middle Tennessee State University
Prepared by:
Martha Balachandran, Professor
Department of Business Education, Marketing Education,
and Office Management
Middle Tennessee State University
i
Spring 2005
ii
Table of Contents
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ................................................................................. V
INTRODUCTION................................................................................................. 1
ORIGIN OF REPORT ........................................................................................ 1
PURPOSE OF REPORT..................................................................................... 1
HISTORICAL INFORMATION........................................................................ 1
METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................. 1
PREVIEW OF REPORT .................................................................................... 2
IMPORTANCE OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION ................................ 2
REPORT FORMATTING................................................................................... 3
SELECTION OF COVER AND PAPER ........................................................... 3
BASICS OF LAYOUT ....................................................................................... 3
Conventional Page Layout.............................................................................. 3
Special Page Layout ....................................................................................... 4
CHOICE OF FONT(S) ....................................................................................... 4
PAGE NUMBERING......................................................................................... 4
USE OF HEADINGS ......................................................................................... 5
SUMMARY ........................................................................................................ 5
GRAMMAR AND USAGE IN WRITING......................................................... 5
INCORPORATING GRAPHICS........................................................................ 6
DOCUMENTING SOURCES ............................................................................. 8
RECOMMENDATIONS...................................................................................... 9
WORKS CITED.................................................................................................. 10
iii
List of Graphic Aids
Table I
Relative Importance of Headings Within a Report................................................ 5
Table II
Long, Formal Report Grades ................................................................................. 7
Chart I
Long, Formal Report Grades
Fall 2000 through Spring 2001 .............................................................................. 7
Chart II
Grade Distribution for Long, Formal Report
BMOM 451/551..................................................................................................... 8
iv
Executive Summary
This report discusses effective communication, formatting, grammar and usage,
graphics, and documentation of a long, formal business report. Even though this
report is not analytical, the following recommendations are offered:
1. Communicate effectively. The most important aspect of business
communication is ensuring that receivers interpret the message as the sender
intended.
2. Make sure the report is attractive and neat.
3. Apply the seven C’s of effective communication: clear, correct, concise,
cohesive, concrete, courteous, and complete.
4. Format the document appropriately. Follow the guidelines in this paper for
margins, font selection, page numbering, and headings.
5. Include graphic aids to enhance the written presentation and to relate the
report story more effectively.
6. Document all sources using internal parenthetic references and a work cited
page following MLA or APA guidelines.
Both primary and secondary research were conducted to write this report.
Primary data were collected in two ways. First, student records provided
information on performance in business report writing for the Fall 1999, Spring
2000, and Summer 2000 semesters. Second, students responded to a
questionnaire regarding the long, formal project during those same semesters. The
main source of secondary information for this report was the textbook, Report
Writing for Business.
The text provides many guidelines for and examples of effective written
communication—specifically for business reports. Being able to write effectively
is one of the primary requisites for a promotable executive. Report appearance is
also important, and report writers should take care to ensure that their report is
attractive and formatted correctly. They can enhance their writing by
incorporating graphic aids.
v
EFFECTIVE WRITTEN PRESENTATION:
FORMAL REPORT SAMPLE
INTRODUCTION
Origin of Report
This report originates as a result of students’ desire to have a model report. At their request,
the instructor, Dr. Martha E. Balachandran, wrote the report during the Fall semester, 2004.
Purpose of Report
The purpose of this report is to provide a model for students to follow in writing their long,
formal report. The report relates presentation strategies in four areas: formatting, writing,
incorporating graphics, and documenting sources.
Historical Information
Over the past several years, students have benefited from perusing effective business reports
written by others. They have also asked to take copies of business reports out of the
classroom to use as models. Since this is not feasible, other alternatives were explored.
Students first received two handouts related to the long, formal report: a grade sheet and an
instruction sheet. Since these did not seem sufficient, a model report was developed.
Methodology
Both primary and secondary research were conducted to write this report. Primary data were
collected in two ways. First, student records provided information on performance in
business report writing for the Fall 1999, Spring 2000, and Summer 2000 semesters. Second,
students responded to a questionnaire regarding the long, formal project during those same
semesters. Students responded to the six-item questionnaires during the last week of class
during each semester. Out of the 222 students who finished the course, 200 responded to the
survey, which resulted in a response rate of 90 percent.
The main source of secondary information for this report was the textbook, Report Writing for
Business, Tenth Edition, by Raymond Lesikar and John Pettit (Boston: Irwin Mcgraw-Hill,
1998). Other secondary sources included journal articles and Internet sites.
Preview of Report
This report contains six major sections. The first concerns effective communication. Here,
secondary sources provide information regarding the importance of communicating
effectively.
Sections 2 through 5 provide strategies related to mechanics and writing the report. The
second section covers report formatting, including cover and paper selection, layout, font
selection, page numbering, and use of headings. The third section provides information on
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proper grammar and usage. The fourth section describes how to include graphics in the
report, and the fifth section discusses proper documentation of sources.
Finally, the last section recommends that students follow the guidelines in this report. It also
provides encouragement for student success and a summary of effective business report
writing strategies.
IMPORTANCE OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
In order for communication to be effective, all the people involved must have good
communication skills. Effective communication occurs when the receiver of information
interprets a message the way the sender intended.
Effective communication is “one of the most important functions of management” (Molloy 5).
It is important in increasing productivity, improving employee satisfaction, and being
recognized as an understanding leader (Graham, Unruh, and Jennings 46). In addition, it is
“closely related to managerial effectiveness” (Jackson 101), and it is “a strong predictor of
promotability” (Sypher and Zorn 429). Communicating effectively is a “requisite to success
in contemporary business life” (Inman 30).
Since effective communication is the key to success in business (Effective Communication),
the ability to write well and speak well become important for students.
REPORT FORMATTING
When readers look at a business report, they see not only the message but also the appearance
of the work. Like the words and illustrations, the report appearance is a part of the
communication they receive; and it affects the messages that readers form in their minds.
Writers, therefore, should use care in preparing and arranging their documents so that they
make a positive first impression (Lesikar and Pettit 231).
In order to make a good first impression, business report writers should be familiar with the
general mechanics of report layout. These formatting guidelines include selection of cover
and paper and the basics of layout.
Selection of Cover and Paper
First impressions are important, and written business reports communicate first impressions
nonverbally by their appearance just as individuals do when they meet face to face. Since the
report cover and paper are the first things readers see, report writers should select them
carefully.
Most business reports are printed on good quality white 8½-by-11 inch paper. Report covers
vary, but three basic features should be considered when making a selection: the type of
fastening used, the durability of the cover, and the overall physical appearance.
‰
‰
The fastening device should hold the paper firmly in place; therefore, fasteners that hold
through perforations in the paper are better than clamp-type devices.
Covers should be sturdy enough to be handled by several people; therefore, fabric or
strong plastic covers are better than paper and clear plastic folders.
7
‰
Finally, the overall physical appearance should suggest quality, and the paper color
should be appropriate for the situation (Lesikar and Pettit 232).
Basics of Layout
Layout in a written report refers to the arrangement of text and graphics on a printed page.
Some considerations include conventional page layout, special page layouts, choice of fonts,
numbering of pages, and display of headings.
Conventional Page Layout
The typical report page should have an eye-pleasing layout; text should appear to fit the page
like a picture in a frame. Since reports are generally placed in folders, extra space should be
provided on the left margin so that margins will appear even in the folder. Margins for a
typical page in the long, formal report for BMOM 451/551 should be as follows:
Left
Right
Top
Bottom
1.75 inches
1.25 inches
1 inch
1.5 inches
Reports can be single spaced or double spaced. The long, formal report for BMOM
4510/5510 should be single spaced with double spacing between paragraphs and before and
after headings and graphics. Paragraphs should not be indented.
Special Page Layout
Certain text pages may require layouts that differ from the typical page. Pages displaying
major titles (first page of report, first page of chapter, table of contents, list of graphic aids,
executive summary, works cited, etc.) usually have a larger top margin—a top margin of 1.5
inches. The title page and letter of transmittal are generally centered vertically on the page.
Choice of Font(s)
In addition to margins and spacing used in a report, font selection is also a part of formatting.
Two basic typefaces exist: serif and sans serif. Serif typefaces have feet and are perceived to
be easier to read than sans serif; therefore, document text is generally keyed in a serif font.
(The text in the long, formal report should use the Times New Roman serif font.) Sans serif
typefaces are good for titles and headings where clear, distinct letters are important.
(Headings in the long, formal report should use a sans serif font, such as Arial).
Report writers should use a 12-point font for the text of the report. Headings may be in a
slightly larger size (14 point). Changing fonts and using other formatting features such as
bold, italics, and underline should be kept to a minimum. If used too often, they lose their
impact.
Page Numbering
Typical report pages may be numbered at the top right margin or at the bottom center of the
page. If numbered at the top, the page number is omitted from the first page of the report.
Most prefatory pages (those preceding the report proper) are not numbered. If numbering
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prefatory pages, only those that follow the first page of the table of contents should be
numbered, and the numbering should be lowercase roman numerals placed at the bottom
center of the page. (All prefatory pages are counted as part of the numbered prefatory pages
even though the number does not appear on the page.)
Use of Headings
Headings, which are titles to the report parts, guide the reader through the report. Report
writers relate the importance of the headings using two devices: position and type. Any
logical combination of the two may be used, but the status of each should be considered.
Position and type choices from highest to lowest status are as follows:
Table I
Relative Importance of Headings Within a Report
Position of Heading
Type of Heading
Centered
SOLID CAPITALS UNDERLINED or
SOLID CAPITALS BOLD
Marginal (at left margin on line by itself)
SOLID CAPITALS
Run In (part of paragraph, followed by period)
Capitals and Lowercase Underlined or
Capitals and Lowercase Bold
Capital and Lowercase
Summary
The preceding information provides guides for selecting the report paper and cover and for
formatting the report. Specifically, the section gives directions for formatting both typical
report pages and special pages, choosing fonts, numbering pages, and using headings. Proper
formatting is essential in making a good first impression. After the initial impression, report
readers focus on the writing itself (Lesikar and Pettit 243).
GRAMMAR AND USAGE IN WRITING
Regardless of how attractive and neat the report is and how much they have worked on it,
unless report writers communicate the results of their efforts effectively, they fail in their
objective. In fact, of all the tasks report writers must perform, effectively communicating the
report story to the audience is the most critical. (Lesikar and Pettit 15). In their report
writing textbook, Lesikar and Pettit (15-42) make the following suggestions.
•
•
•
•
•
•
Tailor vocabulary, sentence structure, tone, and style to fit audience.
Aim at the lowest readability level in audience, but make writing interesting for higher
levels.
Simplify report for those who are less informed on the subject.
Use strong, vigorous words.
Prefer active voice to passive voice.
Make sure usage, grammar, punctuation, and spelling are correct.
9
•
•
Keep sentences and paragraphs relatively short.
Apply the seven C’s of effective communication: clear, correct, concise, cohesive,
concrete, courteous, and complete.
INCORPORATING GRAPHICS
Effective business report writers realize the importance of the report’s appearance and of
communicating their information effectively. Because many reports include complex,
voluminous data, report writers can tell their story better by including graphic aids (e.g.,
tables, charts, diagrams, etc.). Graphic aids supplement the text, help communicate the report
content, give emphasis to key points of coverage, and make the report more inviting and
readable. The following guidelines should be considered when incorporating graphics into a
written presentation:
•
•
•
•
Place the graphic as close to the related text as possible (usually following the paragraph
in which it is introduced).
Always refer to a graphic in the report text (e.g., “Figure 1 illustrates” or “as shown in
Figure 1”).
Give a title and number for tables and charts. Tables are usually numbered separately; the
term figure may be used for graphic aids other than tables (e.g., Table 1, Figure 1, Figure
2, Table 2, Figure 3). Or, a numbering scheme identifying the type of figure may be used
(Table 1, Chart 1, Map 1, etc.)
Graphics are usually included in the “findings” section of the report. Generally
individuals who conduct primary research include their results graphically as well as in
written form.
One purpose of this report is to communicate information about student performance. Table
II shows the final grade distribution for students enrolled in the Fall 2003 and Spring 2004
semesters. Of the 200 students, 8.5 percent earned A’s, 27 percent B’s, 44.5 percent C’s, 14.5
percent D’s, and 5.5 percent F’s.
Table II
Report Writing Final Grades
Grade
A
B
C
D
F
Male
7
27
43
13
5
Female
10
27
46
16
6
Total
17
54
89
29
11
Total
95
105
200
Note: Based On Simulated Data From Fall 2003 - Spring 2004.
Charts can also be used to provide information. For example, bar charts compare differences
in quantities. Long report grades correlate with the final grades in report writing. To
illustrate, Chart 1 shows the long report grade distribution for students enrolled in from Fall
10
12000 through Spring 2001. Note that in column and bar charts, total columns/rows are
usually omitted from the data.
Chart 1
Long, Formal Report Grades
Fall 2000 through Spring 2001
MALES
FEMALES
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
A
B
C
D
F
Another type of chart, the pie chart shows parts of a whole. Chart 2 shows the distribution of
test grades for all students. As indicated, 15 percent averaged an A on the three tests.
Chart 2
Report Writing Test Grades
D
15%
C
37%
F
8%
A
15%
B
25%
Fall 2000 - Spring 2001
Other types of graphic aids include line charts (which show trends over time), maps, pictures,
diagrams, flow charts, etc. Tables and charts that use data from another source must include
source information at the bottom of the graphic.
DOCUMENTING SOURCES
In addition to formatting an attractive report, writing effectively, and incorporating graphics,
report writers must be sure to document their sources. They may quote directly or paraphrase
from secondary sources. In either case, sources MUST be documented both within and at the
end of the report. The parenthetic method of documenting (as shown here in MLA style) is a
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common method (Lesikar and Pettit 257) of internal documentation. Students are to follow
the MLA style manual in documenting their sources.
What is the ‘norm’ for us here in Chemnitz in the English department? Where
do we find that norm?
Several other style manuals are available, and each provides unique information on how to
complete the parenthetic notes and bibliographic entries. Among the most popular style
manuals are the Chicago Manual of Style, Turabian, MLA, and APA. The following Web site
provides documentation guidelines from the major style manuals:
http://www.wisc.edu/writing/Handbook/. After accessing the site, choose documentation
styles. (The parenthetic notes and works cited page in this paper is completed in MLA Style.)
When using MLA style, writers include the author’s name and page number (with no
comma). On a separate page at the end of the report, they list alphabetically by author every
secondary source cited in the report, using the basic MLA format. The page is titled Works
Cited (not Bibliography), and it includes only those sources actually cited in the paper. Titles
of books and periodicals are either underlined or italicized. The entries are single spaced with
double spacing between each. They are typed in hanging indent format: Begin each entry at
the margin and indent the remaining lines five spaces (MLA).
Whatever style manual report writers choose, they should be sure to include all referenced
sources in the bibliography, and the bibliography should include only those sources referred
to in the text.
RECOMMENDATIONS
This report serves as a model for the long, formal report required. The report discusses
effective communication, formatting, grammar and usage, graphics, and documentation.
Recommendations for this report are as follows:
1. Communicate effectively. The most important aspect of business communication is
ensuring that receivers interpret the message as the sender intended.
2. Make sure the report is attractive and neat.
3. Apply the seven C’s of effective communication: clear, correct, concise, cohesive,
concrete, courteous, and complete.
4. Format the document appropriately. Follow the guidelines in this paper for margins, font
selection, page numbering, and headings.
5. Include graphic aids to enhance the written presentation and to relate the report story more
effectively.
6. Document all sources using internal parenthetic references and a work cited page
following MLA guidelines.
Within that text we had two tables and two charts. Have a look at them and explain them to us
with your own words. In didactics we speak of ‘reading of illustrations, tables, charts,
diagrams, etc.’. Can you guess why?
12
WORKS CITED
“Activities and Upward Mobility: A Longitudinal Investigation.” Human Communication
Research 12(3) (1986): 420-431.
“Communication Effectiveness in Business.” Harvard Business Review 62 (July 1990). 9
Sept. 1991. <http://www.hbr.com/mag/1991/jul/comm.html.
Graham, Gregory H., John Unruh, and Paul Jennings. “The Impact of Nonverbal
Communication in Organizations: A Survey of Perceptions.” Journal of Business
Communications 28(1) (1991): 45-62.
Inman, T. H. (1990). “Communication and the Entrepreneur.” Business Education Forum,
44(7) (1990): 29-30.
Jackson, Janelle J. The Communications Competence of Managers with Liberal Arts Vs.
Professional/Technical Undergraduate Backgrounds. (Doctoral dissertation,
Memphis State University, Memphis, TN), May 1990.
Lesikar, Raymond V., and John D. Pettit, Jr. Report Writing for Business (10th Edition).
Boston: Irwin McGraw-Hill, 1998.
Molloy, John T. Molloy’s Live for Success. Toronto: Perigord Press, 1981.
Sypher, Benjamin D., and Teresa E. Zorn. “Communication-Related
13
Read the following text very carefully, take notes on the main facts and on
questions you would like to discuss in class (use the techniques of summarywriting and preparing for a discussion), please.
Preparing EFL Learners for Oral
Presentations
Jane King
jane [at] mail.scu.edu.tw
Soochow University (Taipei, Taiwan)
Introduction
This article provides tips and advice to reduce EFL learners' anxieties for oral presentation.
Step-by-step procedures of how to prepare students for oral presentations are included: (1)
handout guidelines; (2) grouping learners; (3) choosing topics and gathering information; (4)
handling technical problems; (5) holding Q & A sessions; and (6) preparing peer and teacher
evaluation forms.
Oral presentation is an effective communicative activity that has been widely adopted by EFL
conversation teachers to promote oral proficiency. However, when oral presentations are
assigned in class, the teacher will get either complete silence or grumbles from students who
find the idea of oral presentations frustrating and intimidating. Students are overwhelmed with
the research and communication skills that are necessary for a successful presentation. Some
serious students who invest time and effort into an oral presentation do not always get the
intended outcomes. Other students try to get through the ordeal as quickly as possible, but do
not improve their speaking skills under such stressful situations. Thus oral presentations can
be a time-consuming project with no guarantee of a satisfactory performance.
The question of whether the adaptation of a mainly student-centered approach would be
appropriate in EFL context, especially in Asia, where are still basically teacher-centered is
often raised. Many Asian teachers wonder how many students can learn from such experience
because oral presentations take quite a large of amount of class time. An obvious gap between
the current level of performance and the intended learning experience often results in a
breakdown of language production and frustration for students.
The need for establishing a comfortable and low-threat learning environment, from the
perspective of second language acquisition, has long been emphasized and recognized. The
less anxious and more relaxed the learner, the better language acquisition proceeds. The
delivery of an oral presentation is a source of extreme anxiety. Anxiety causes performance to
deteriorate and affects novice speakers' self-esteem and confidence. Particularly for Asian
students, oral presentations are a face-threatening activity.
However, oral presentations, if properly guided and organized, provide a learning experience
and teach life long skills that will be beneficial to learners in all school subjects as well as
later in their careers. Among the many advantages of making oral presentations for the
students are: bridging the gap between language study and language use; using the four
language skills in a naturally integrated way; helping students to collect, inquire, organize and
construct information; enhancing team work; and helping students become active and
autonomous learners.
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In addition, with the availability of new technology both at school and home, students
incorporate video cameras, slide projectors, PowerPoint, VCR/DVD and other visual aids into
their presentations which become more exciting and interesting.
Coping with Speech Anxiety and Practicing Presentation
Skills
Speech anxiety and limited presentation skills are the major problems that lead to learners'
oral presentation failures. In order to help students effectively cope with their fear of oral
presentations, it is essential for teachers to acknowledge that speech anxiety is perfectly
normal. Having an open discussion on speech anxiety will assist students to feel that they are
not alone. Fortunately, we can get some insights from psychotherapy and speech
communication literature, which can be used to assist students to overcome their public
speaking anxieties. The following tips and advice to reduce their anxieties will certainly better
prepare students for oral presentations.
1. Emphasize the Difference Between Spoken English and Written English.
A total dependence on memorization is the pattern followed by most EFL presenters who
usually have trouble adapting information to spoken English for the audience. The reading of
written English, with complex sentences and low frequency words, further impedes audience's
listening comprehension. Instead of using a conversational tone and communicative English,
they have long pauses while fiddling with their notes. The audience feels bored when they
have to listen to a tedious reading or word-for-word memorized speech from a presenter who
reads rapidly and monotonously throughout the presentation. Reciting from passages copied
down from references makes the presentations sound canned, machine-like and dull. A
listener's attention span shortens when he/she cannot follow the speech and the speaker gets
worse when he senses that his listeners are inattentive and losing interest in his presentation.
Thus presenters often lose command of their voice, tone, and pacing. Students should use note
cards as reminders of what they are going to say. It is much easier to establish rapport with the
audience by only referring to the note cards occasionally and make eye contact with the
audience.
2. Explain the Purpose of Visual Aids.
There are many advantages in using visual aids during the presentation. Visual aids can create
a powerful effect, help keep students' attention, and illustrate main ideas. The basic rule is to
use visual aids to support the presentation, not to dominate it. However, the disadvantage of
overusing visual aids is that the attention of the audience will be divided and students may
stand aside and have visual aids take their place.
3. Help Students to Conquer the Fear of Making Grammatical or Pronunciation Errors.
Inform the learners that they will not be graded by the mistakes they make. Hand out the
grading criteria to all learners while assigning this activity. Good English learners are willing
to take risks and accept errors. Poor English learners like to use only language that they are
certain is correct.
15
4. Develop Students' Summarizing and Outlying Skills.
If students' past English learning experiences have been basically teacher-controlled and testoriented, they used to work on memorizing detailed grammatical rules, vocabulary out of
contexts and isolated phrases or expressions by which their test grades based on. Learning to
produce a well-organized and coherent outline can be very helpful to learners since an outline
can give audiences a clear and concise overview of the key points of the talk. How can we
overcome ‘school methodology’ quickly?
Preparing students these prerequisite skills is important in getting them ready for any project
work, otherwise students will feel that the teacher has just dumped them into the sea to
struggle for survival. They may feel frustrated and overwhelmed. Passive resistance and
grumbling are common signs manifested by students who do not appreciate and are even
hostile to this project. Lack of experience is usually the main producer of student stress and
nervousness. Experience builds confidence, which is vital to effective oral presentations.
The Teacher's Role
Working with students on oral presentations is a challenging job for teachers because it not
only involves training in other disciplines such as speech communication and public speaking,
but also demands more of teachers in terms of time and effort in lesson planning and teaching
strategies. On the student's part, the student-centered activity asks students to be responsible
for their own learning. When a teacher moves from the traditional role of teacher as an
authoritative expert to the new role of facilitator of learning, students feel a drastic change.
With such a student-led activity as oral presentation, teachers need to have some
psychological preparation for meeting the resistance from students, since some of them are
not receptive to project learning and are uncomfortable when given autonomy. Furthermore,
the importance of creating a supportive learning atmosphere, acquiring interaction skills,
incorporating project work, developing cooperative learning skills and applying
computer/technology in enhancing teachers' facilitative skills should be emphasized. The
teacher is the guide, organizer, consultant, resource person, and supporter.
The teacher's role in oral presentations not only involves preparing detailed guidelines,
organizing groups, helping students to select topics, guiding their research and helping them
learn the use of various visual aids, but also the holding of Q & A sessions, providing
feedback on the sequencing of ideas, and evaluating their performance. Step-by-step
procedures of how to prepare students for successful oral presentations are as follows:
Step 1: Handout Guidelines
Since oral presentations involve multi-skills, a carefully planned and constructed guideline
will help develop students' receptiveness to oral presentations. Listing instructional objectives
and explaining reasons for this activity can increase student participation and may always
result in a heightening of satisfaction and achievement.
•
Hand out assignment forms (Appendix A) to organize students and help them
distribute jobs among themselves.
•
Stress the time limit of presentations. If it is a twenty five-minute presentation, it will
probably be thirty-five minutes in class, allowing for pauses, operating machines, and
receiving questions from students. The teacher may need another five minutes of class
time to have students fill out peer evaluation forms.
•
Offer students a choice of giving the presentation in class or taping their presentation
on a video. However, live presentations work much better than video presentations
that usually detach the audience from the presenter.
16
•
Grading criteria clearly states the teacher's expectations for presentations.
Step 2: Grouping and Scheduling Student Presentations
It is challenging to plan presentations for a large EFL class. Group projects with 4-5 students
in one group will save class time, develop cooperative learning skills and reduce the anxiety
of being a single presenter. In order to have a dynamic group, with a feeling of cohesiveness
and togetherness, even though learners come from diverse learning styles, the teacher needs to
be familiar with a variety of cooperative group techniques.
•
Groups of 4-5 students in a class of 50 work best1 and scheduling two groups every
other week throughout the semester is a good plan..
•
Have students choose their own partners, since it is much easier for students to work
out their own schedules for getting together outside the classroom. If the teacher
groups students from different departments together, there can be time conflicts
among them.
•
One student is chosen as the coordinator or leader, responsible for evenly distributing
the assignments among members.
Step 3: Choosing Topics and Gathering Information
Projects provide opportunities to study interesting topics in detail, and to
explore factors of successful presentation planning. Learners are free to choose any topic they
prefer in three categories: event-or goal-oriented; student-initiated; and in-depth topic studies,
in order to enhance their self-expression and creativity. Low-level students are not required to
choose a topic that necessitates research, although they are encouraged to do so. It is
interesting to see the variety of topics presented by students. Some students enjoy making
skits of fairy tales. The reason for that may be their limited English proficiency, maturity and
interest. Some advanced students' topics deal more with issues pertinent to university students
or current events.
Topics presented by students in the past were categorized as follows: performing arts, culture
and customs, fairy tales and short stories, current issues, sports, holidays and American
culture, the student's field of specialization, hobbies, scripts from the TV shows,
entertainment and shows, traveling and tourist spots, and newspaper articles.
•
Inform students where the resources are --English newspapers, magazines, websites,
questionnaires, surveys, interviews, library research, radio programs, English teaching
institutes, travel brochures, and video.
•
Show topics chosen by students in previous classes and discuss the strengths and
weaknesses of them. Use some previous students' videotapes as demos.
Step 4: Handling Technical Problems
It is important for students to know in advance how to handle the
equipment themselves. A discussion about the equal importance of both the rehearsal and the
performance will prevent students from technical surprises and panic on the day of the
presentation. Usually, students concentrate all their energies on performance and forget to
check machines in advance and assume everything will happen as they plan or expect. Often
they expect the teacher to fix their technical problems at the last minute. However, wasted
class time in fixing facility machinery can adversely affect the presentation, and even be a
cause of failure at worst or the need for presenters to represent their material on another day.
•
Show supporting materials they can use, such as posters, videotapes, props, artwork,
costumes...etc.
17
•
Tell students what facilities are available in the language lab and the school such as
data viewer, VCR/DVD, tape recorder, PowerPoint, and slide projector etc. Answer
possible problems that they may come up with their equipment. For example, for
outdoor V8 shooting, students need to be aware of sound effect.
•
Students should know how to handle the equipment themselves and make sure
everything is working a week before the presentation. They need to come to the class
early to set up the equipment and become familiar with it.
•
Have time count for reviewing video clips and wind them to the correct spot.
•
Make sure writings and illustrations are big enough to be seen from the back of the
room.
•
Prepare a microphone for learners in advance to make sure good voice quality, so the
teacher does not need to ask shy presenters to project their voice in a big room.
•
Ask students to keep eyes on the audience when talking about transparencies or
PowerPoint. If possible, control the lighting by not turning off the lights completely
and always leave a light on in the back of the room, so the audience can still remain
eye contact with the presenter.
•
Also remind students to refer to the image or texts on the projector. Allow time for the
audience to read longer texts, otherwise there is no point putting them on.
Step 5: Holding Q & A Sessions
These short sessions are like quality control that is necessary and helpful in ensuring effective
presentations. Teachers can spot possible difficulties students might encounter and prevent the
problems.
•
Check with the group about what they are going to do a week before their
presentation.
•
Encourage students to contact the teacher if they run into any problems; for example,
students may have difficulties pronouncing words.
Step 6: Preparing Peer and Teacher Evaluation Forms
The peer evaluation form (Appendix B) provides the presenters with feedback from other
students. Students will not only evaluate their peers, but also learn each group's strong and
weak points from presentations. The teacher evaluation form (Appendix C) should be given to
students while assigning the work. It can be used as a guideline for students to prepare their
presentations. In this way, students are informed in advance of the criteria by which their
presentations will be evaluated. It is helpful for students to know the teacher's expectations
and grading criteria.
•
Individual accountability and grades based on the average of the team's individual
scores can help to avoid "free-rider effect" and the "sucker effect" these pitfalls of
using cooperative learning.
Conclusion
Even though there are some arguments about the appropriateness and constraints of oral
presentation in an EFL learning environment as mentioned earlier, however, with structured
planning and organization, oral presentations can be a beneficial and enjoyable activity with
18
learners. Both teachers and students are expecting a break away from textbooks. Each week,
students come to class with great anticipation and excitement. It is a rewarding experience for
low achieving students who had either given up on English or were intimated by past English
learning experiences.
The introduction of oral presentations to EFL classrooms provides a rewarding and
stimulating experience both for teachers in developing facilitating skills and for students in
training themselves to have confident presentations in public.
Appendix A
Assignment Form
Group Number:_________________Presentation Date:______________
Topic:__________________________________________________
Summary of Content:
Resources:__
Group Coordinator:_______________________________________
Group Members:
Name Role Assignment Grade
1_________________________________________________________
2_________________________________________________________
3_________________________________________________________
4_________________________________________________________
5_________________________________________________________
Appendix B
Student Evaluation Form
Topic______________________________________________________
What did you like best about this presentation?
__________________________________________________________
What are some ways to improve this presentation?
__________________________________________________________
Did you learn anything new? What skills or advice could you use in the future?
__________________________________________________________
Appendix C
Teacher Evaluation Form
Group Number____Date____Topic___________________________________________
•
•
Preparation
o
___came to the class early to set up equipment
o
___made sure all equipments in working condition
o
___turned in assignment sheet
Organization
o
___clear introduction
o
___logical development
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•
•
•
o
___strong conclusion
o
___typed and clear outline
Content
o
___variety of resources
o
___amount of research conducted
o
___originality
Presentation
o
___held audiences' attention
o
___spoke with note cards
o
___Eye contact
o
___time control
o
___volume of voice
o
___effectiveness of visual aids
Oral skills
o
___adapted the information for the audience (communicative English)
o
___clarity & fluency
o
___provided discussion questions or class activities
o
___involved the audience
•
Overall Group Rating_____________
•
Teacher comments__________________________________________
20
Example for making a written presentation; the topic is computer
science
Read it with a critical eye; we talk about it. Are there differences
between the social sciences and the natural sciences?
Issues in making a written presentation
Olivier Danvy
DAIMI
(danvy@daimi.au.dk)
DAIMI, March 10, 2000.
1
A report:
the prime medium for reporting scientific results.
In computer science:
the conjunction of
• a good idea / a new idea,
• something sound, and
• something practical.
This talk: some issues behind a report.
2
Plan
• Reading a paper.
• Writing a paper.
3
Reading a paper
• Information acquisition and retrieval.
• Critical reading.
4
Information acquisition
In principle, a scientific paper provides enough information
21
for its reader to reproduce its contents:
• proof,
• experiment.
5
Examples
1. “Introduction to Data Bases”
2. “Advances in Data Bases”
3. “A new technique for query processing
6
Critical reading
Don’t swallow the author’s propaganda,
accepting the paper as the author constructed it.
Instead:
• disassemble it to identify its real thrust;
• appreciate;
• probe / question / stress;
• (if needed) reassemble: minimize / expand.
Writing a paper
A paper is written for others to read:
• yourself in the future,
¨
• other researchers, and
• reviewers.
It should thus reflect all the concerns already mentioned:
readability, clarity, etc.
Organization
• Title / list of authors / abstract.
• Introduction / compelling example / related work /
22
overview.
• Development.
• Conclusion (if any).
• Acknowledgments / references.
1
The title
• It should be informative.
• It should be concise.
• It should be catchy / memorable.
• It needs to be original.
• It does not need to be funny.
Better seek generality than specificity.
E.g., “A study of an LALR(1) parser generator”
is better than “YACC in Unix System V”.
On the temptation of being funny
The messenger can hide the message.
Circus analogy:
Do you want to be remembered as the clown (form)
or as the trapeze artist (contents / achievement).
Besides, most funny titles do not convey concrete
messages: they tend to be puns or insiders’s jokes.
The list of authors
• Alphabetically ordered;
• ordered by “degrees of contribution”;
• student first, adviser second;
• etc.
Key: the message should be more important
than [the order of] the messenger[s].
The abstract
• It should be brief.
• It should be as informative as possible.
• It should be updated last
(to account for the actual contents of the paper).
Fact:
Many more people will read your abstract than your paper
23
(e.g., in a bibliographic data base).
Titles, abstracts, data bases, and search
engines
Abstracts are the key to locate papers on the web.
Abstracts are stored textually,
so they should NOT contain formulae, special symbols,
or bibrefs.
(Ditto for titles.)
As time goes by
It sounds silly, but...
• remember to date your manuscripts, and
• remember to update your bibrefs (“This paper is
superseded by ...”).
The introduction
• It should start with a bang.
• It should stop with an overview of the rest of the paper.
• It should mention which prerequisites are expected
from the reader.
• It should say clearly what is the achievement of the
paper.
• A compelling example is always good.
(cf. Mozart’s piano concerti)
Starting with a bang
• “Real programs have effects.” (Mason and Talcott, JFP)
• “It was a dark and stormy night.” (Bulwer-Lytton)
• “Little Peggy was very careful with the eggs.” (Card)
• “The maid screamed, that was the problem with live
servants.” (Goulart)
Eye catchers
• First words.
• Last words (of paragraph / section / chapter / thesis).
• Capitalization (in an abstract).
24
Pitfalls
• Exaggerating.
• Seeking effect for seeking effect:
“This paper bridges a much needed gap.”
(quoted by Neil Jones)
• Practicing Cooper’s prose style (cf. Mark Twain on
Fenimoore Cooper).
• Misspelling (always use a spell checker!).
Positivise – for example:
• the goal is blah, and it would be great to reach it;
• what has been done so far is remarkable,
but it does not quite reach the goal;
• in this paper, we take one step further towards the goal.
Development
• Organized in sections / chapters.
• Should be progressive.
• Should be as complete as possible.
• Should be as concise and precise as possible.
Make each chapter have
• an introduction, and
• a summary and conclusion.
This will force you to articulate your report.
Use passive tense for work done by others: “it is known”,
“it has been done”, etc.
Use active tense for reporting what you have done: “we
have found out”, “we have done”, etc.
Related work
• Mandatory.
• Situates the novelty and significance of your work.
• Where: either part of introduction, or part of conclusion,
or stand-alone section (second or second to last).
Pitfalls:
• forgetting or mispresenting someone else’s work; and
25
• reinventing the wheel.
Bibliographical references ( Style sheet?)
Bibrefs should be used parenthetically, so that they do not
interrupt one’s reading.
Example: “...as seen in [2].” is awful, and so is
“[KAZAM97] shows that...”
Better: “...as introduced by Church in his monograph
on the -calculus [2].”
The conclusion
None in the mathematical tradition.
Minimally:
• recapitulates the problem and the contribution;
• assesses the significance of the contribution;
• suggests / outlines future work.
The references
They must be impeccable:
• accurate (correct year, etc.);
• complete (page numbers, etc.).
Standard pitfall: misspellings in titles.
Tips for writing a report
• Top-down approach: goal and significance first.
• Bottom-up approach: results first.
A rule of thumb:
put in your paper what you (would) like to find
in other’s papers.
Methodological pitfall
Avoid core dumps.
• The report should be focused on what it achieves.
• Tangents should be eliminated.
26
Summary and conclusion
Writing reports is part of computer science.
It is the means for reporting results.
It should be clearly organized and clearly detailed.
27