Chapter I
THE PROBLEM AND ITS SCOPE
Introduction
This chapter includes the review of related literature and studies, research
questions, theoretical lens, significance of the study, scope and limitation of the study and
the definition of terms used in this study.
Review of Related Literatures and Studies
Reading is a complex process involving word recognition, comprehension, fluency,
and motivation. Reading is more than just making meaning from prints but it involves
interaction with the texts. In school, reading is one of the most important skills a learner
should develop. Reading is a life skill that will enable learners to extend their concepts
and gain information as the basis for other learning.
Learning to read is essential to learners’ well-being. Reading habit is however the
single most important determinant of a student’s success in education and in the modern
complex society (State, n.d.) A child who cannot read at a comfortable level will experience
significant difficulties mastering many types of academic content and may have the risk to
fail in school (Reid, n.d.). It was further stressed that every learner must become fully
proficient in reading to be successful in school (Aina, A J;Okusaga, T.O.; Taiwo,
Adebowale and Ogundipe, 2011). Moreover, Cayubit (2015) added that any Filipino child
with sufficient reading skills would have greater chances of success in school compared to
a child whose reading skills are poor.
Due to the importance of reading, it became a dream of every teacher that every
student in her class is a reader who can acquire knowledge, skills and understanding to
combat the challenges of life in order to meet the global demand. In the journal Reading
Culture: A Panacean for Educational Development published by Delta State, reading is the
Corner stone of learning. Thus, one can safely say that reading is the backbone of learning
Mathematics, Science, Social Studies and other subjects. However, the reality shows that
many young learners are experiencing some kind of difficulty and struggles in learning to
read especially in our present world where there are many distractions like games and other
social media, which make their interest in reading suffer. In fact, because of technological
development and the widespread of the use of social media, students’ reading habits are
changing. Today, while technology is slowly taking a steady control over individual lives,
the reading habit is fast vanishing. Students now lack the skill and interest in reading and
instead they spend more hours on electronic media, playing online games and browsing
their Facebook and Twitter accounts (Adu-sarkodee, Asante, & Akussah, 2015).
This reality is an international scenario. According to the result of the National
Assessment of Educational Progress, more than two thirds of all 14-year-old students in
the United States of America (USA) read below grade level, and more than six million
students in the said country between the ages of 12 and 18 are struggling readers. The
same scenario is happening in Germany where nearly one-fifth of 15-year-olds in their
country are reading below grade level expectations (Kissau & Hiller, 2013). In the
Philippines, the situation is no different from the world. In fact, the government issued
policies and programs to keep children is school as stated in Education for All 2015
National Review. Part of it is to make each child a reader by the time he/she complete
Grade 1(Department of Education of the Philippines & UNESCO, 2015). This policy aims
to keep children in school and eventually help them succeed in life because children with
poor reading skills receive poor grades at school, get easily distracted and frustrated, have
behavior problems, seem to dislike school, often fail to develop to their full potential and
eventually will drop from school works. (Cayubit, 2015). Thus the Philippine government
gave priority on developing learners’ ability to read and write to promote effective readers
and enhance literacy(Davis et al., 2016).
It is for also for these reasons that United States of America Agency for
International Development (USAUD) has invested heavily in raising the reading ability of
millions of children across dozens of countries. It made improvement of reading
instruction, strengthening education delivery systems, and enhancing engagement,
accountability and transparency as part of its Goal 1 of the 2011–2015 Education Strategy.
Between the years 2011 and 2015, USAID had sponsored early grade reading programs
reaching out to 37.7 million primary-aged students(Piper & Spratt, 2016).
According to Mendoza (2015), learning institutions need to intensify renewed
efforts as well as commitment in promoting and sustaining effective skill, in a rapidly
changing condition. Most often, the determinant of a successful learning institution is
through their students’ reading proficiency.
Apparently, in the Philippines, the ability to read and write is our priority that the
government puts effort to promote effective readers and enhance high literacy. One can be
literate, but not necessarily a reader because reading is a skill that requires the development
of a habit that must be exercised regularly, if it is to be retained and enhanced.
Consequently, non-reader can be considered as having with reading disability. A
non-reader is an individual, with a reading disability, who demonstrates difficulties in
reading skills that are unexpected in relation to age, cognitive ability, quantity and quality
of instruction, and intervention. The reading difficulties are not the result of generalized
developmental delay or sensory impairment (Lundberg & Hoien, 2001). Reading disability
may be characterized by: • difficulties in single word reading; • initial difficulties decoding
or sounding out words; • difficulties reading sight words; • insufficient phonological
processing; that is, the understanding that sentences are comprised of words, words are
made up of syllables, and syllables are made up of individual sounds or phonemes;
Definition of reading.
Reading is a complex process made up of several interlocking skills and processes.
These skills and strategies are employed before, during, and after reading. Reading is a
process by which the reader makes personal connections with a text to construct meaning.
Reading and responding to a text are integral parts of language learning. Effective readers
employ a wide repertoire of meaning-making (comprehension) strategies that they can
deploy independently with a range of texts (Tankersley, 2013).
Characteristic of a Non-reader
Non-readers cannot recognize words quickly and efficiently. They could not
demonstrate high word recognition. They possess weak fluency skills. They read with no
good expression, intonation, pitch, and phrasing. To add, non-readers cannot recognize
some letters or words like own name, classroom labels, signs, and other environmental
print (Mather & Goldstein, 2001).
Thus, Saskatchewan (2013) urges that it is important for teachers to understand the
critical elements of reading instruction. Students who have a reading disability will require
intensive direct instruction. The critical elements of reading instruction include; strategies
for reading comprehension, strategies for building meaning using the cues and conventions
of language including phonological awareness, phonemic awareness, phonics, vocabulary
development, awareness of sentence structures, awareness of text structures and
organizational patterns, and the pragmatics of text and reading fluency. In addition,
Saskatchewan (2012), believed that Learning English language arts curricula must focus
on teaching students through an integrated process to help them understand the relationship
among the elements and how they relate to the ultimate goal of reading. Expressive and
receptive oral language provide the foundation for these elements. These critical elements
must be explicitly and intensively taught if students are to become proficient readers and
writers. Students who are at risk for reading failure require direct teaching through a
systematic format.
Further, an extensive research has found out that each of the components is an
important element in teaching children to become proficient readers. A focus on any single
element is not sufficient to comprise an effective reading program. All elements need to be
taught systematically and explicitly through a balanced approach. Only when all the
elements are taught in a balanced approach do students have the opportunity to become
proficient readers who can gain knowledge from print.
The Challenges of Non-Readers
In the study made by Johnston (2010) emphasized that students with very weak
reading skills have serious academic problems, which can develop into social problems as
they reach the middle and high school years. Through years of failure and labeling, they
often develop hard shells of resistance to reading. They compensate with strong auditory
and observational skills, generally trying to avoid notice. Feeling helpless and hopeless,
they may be vulnerable to anti-social behavior.
Moreover, Stanovich (2014) describes the downward spiral of students who start
out having trouble acquiring alphabetic coding skills and recognizing words. With these
barriers, they cannot read for meaning, and find reading increasingly unrewarding. They
practice less and have more negative experiences around reading. Increasingly, they avoid
reading or merely tolerate it, without really engaging in what’s being read. Emotional side
effects begin to be associated with school, and the entire school experience is impacted.
To escape from this spiral, students need an instructional environment that fosters
the optimism that they can improve. Motivation must be as important a focus as skills
development. Effective programs provide students access to interesting reading materials
at their own levels, opportunities to share reading experiences, activities they choose and
direct, interspersed with more prescriptive lessons . . . but above all, effective programs
provide instructors who convey a message of faith in the student’s capability to achieve
success
Designing Reading Programs that Work
To rescue non-readers, we need programs that teach them to read well enough to
profit from their education. The research in this realm is voluminous — and highly
controversial.
Although most would agree that non-readers need explicit phonics
instruction and practice in the beginning phases of reading acquisition, there is serious
disagreement about how, when, and to what degree to integrate contextual reading.
Researches on which types of classroom programs have the greatest benefits for nonreaders, and why specific remediation approaches do and don’t produce results, are not
generally accepted.
Practitioners cannot wait for consensus from the research front. They must develop
approaches based on selected research, balancing theories with direct experience to meet
the pressing needs of their students. By continuous monitoring and adjustment, drawing
from the wide realm of commercially available products, and tapping outside expertise as
resources are available, schools can create programs that make readers of all students. The
only prerequisites are leadership, commitment, and support (Lyons, 2012).
Phonological Awareness and the Graphophonic Cueing System is for beginning
readers who develop their concept of letters and the alphabet. The recognition and naming
of letters is foundational to using the graphophonic cueing system. By noticing letters in
environmental print, singing, and recognizing their own name, students begin to explore
and understand this relationship. Students who do not develop this understanding will
require explicit and direct instruction in phonics. Likewise, Phonics instruction should
begin with a foundational understanding of phonemic awareness and letters of the alphabet.
Most students eventually develop sound-letter relationships that help them decode and spell
words. Effective phonics instruction focuses students’ attention on noticing the lettersound patterns. By embedding phonics instruction in the total language arts program and
by using teachable moments, teachers can assist most students to develop an understanding
of the graphophonic cueing system.
Vocabulary Development and the Semantic Cueing System. Beginning readers
develop a word awareness. Students need to develop a store of words that they recognize
automatically and understand. By repeated reading experiences (e.g., labels, key words,
messages, word walls, lists) students develop recognition of most words they see, hear, and
write. During the reading process, students need to understand the words that allow them
to comprehend what they are reading and the strategies that they need to figure out the
meaning. Vocabulary cannot be left to chance; it has to be developed and extended and
taught. However, for some of our students, developing and expanding their vocabulary
level is a complex process that requires multiple exposure to words and their meanings.
They must be taught to use various word-learning strategies as they approach new words
in their reading and in their environment. Effective vocabulary instruction occurs when
students are provided multiple exposure to words in a variety of contexts, words are taught
in the context of a selection or unit, teachers help students activate prior knowledge when
learning new words, relationships are drawn between new words and known words and
concepts.
Text Forms, Features, and the Textual Cueing System. Students also have to
recognize that words and sentences form different types of text, which are organized in
particular structures or patterns. Typical textual cues and conventions for fiction, for
example, include a setting (when and where), characters (who), and a series of events that
focus on a problem followed by a solution. For students to be able to follow and understand
text, they have to be able to recognize the organizational structures behind the text.
Prevention and early intervention for Non Readers
It is critical that students with reading difficulties and disabilities are identified
early so that the appropriate intervention strategies may be implemented. Students who
have a reading disability require explicit and intensive instruction that is ongoing.
Classroom teachers continually assess students’ learning in order to inform instruction.
More so, when teachers have initial concerns about a student’s lack of progress,
there are many things they can do to support the student. It is important to intervene as
soon as the teacher recognizes that a student is falling behind. A suggestion also focuses
on working together with parents to identify concerns and to develop a classroom
intervention plan. In many situations, these interventions may be effective and no further
input may be required. Teachers in reading class need also to be assisted in identifying the
source of reading difficulty. Because classroom teacher with possible support of special
educator and/or administrator must discuss concerns with parents/guardians, ensures
vision, hearing, and medical assessments are up to date, reviews cumulative record, collects
data through informal assessments, documents observations, identifies areas of strengths
and difficulties If there is sufficient information, develops Classroom Intervention Plan.
Based on the research, 90 to 95 percent of poor readers, prevention and early intervention
provided by well-trained teachers can increase reading skills to average reading levels
(Tankersley, 2013).
These intervention programs must combine instruction in reading comprehension
strategies, the language cueing systems including phonemic awareness, phonics, syntax,
text, and pragmatic and fluency development. However, there is also evidence to suggest
that if we delay intervention until nine years of age, approximately 75 percent of the
children continue to have difficulties learning to read throughout high school (Tankersley,
2013). Successful intervention requires that teachers understand the reading processes and
instruction, think diagnostically, and use this information on an ongoing basis to inform
instruction. Struggling readers need multi-level, flexible, small-group instruction balanced
with whole-class instruction in which the teacher models and explicitly teaches reading
strategies.
Research Questions
The primary purpose of this study is to explore the live experiences of Grade 7
and Grade 8 non-readers, and to go deeper into the heart of the issue and to bring fore the
point of view, perceptions, insights and feelings of the participants. Specifically, the
study seeks to answer the following questions:
1. What are the challenges encountered by the students in their English reading
class?
2. What are the coping mechanisms of the students in overcoming their difficulties
in reading an English language?
3. What are the themes generated from the experiences of non-readers in their
reading classes?
Theoretical lens
This study is anchored on the theory supported by Lev Vygotsky‘ Social
Development theory, which provides the importance of scaffolding lessons in reading by
teachers who are considered as the more knowledgeable others or that affect their learners‘
zone of proximal development in reading. Balaban. N (1995) as cited in To and Vygotsky
(1995) further stressed that scaffolding refers to the way the adult guides the child's
learning via focused questions and positive interactions (To & Vygotsky, 1995). Likewise,
reading teacher manages the scaffolding process may also use sources like worksheets,
online materials, and televisions ads to scaffold students‘ learning.
Scaffolding is justified as a form of prompting the learners to read based on their
existing schema. Karl Jung‘s Schema Theory provides an archetypal convergence of
Vygotsky‘s theory that propels a connection of meaningful learning experiences, where
learners construct their own meanings, in a more constructivist approach of teaching.(“Carl
Jung: Analytical Psychology,” 1875).
This is also anchored on the traditional theory of reading or the so-called Skill
Model wherein it was stated that reading comprehension results in the teaching of reading
skills and comprehension separately in a logical and sequential order. This model is also
called bottom-up or data-driven processing model. In this model, letters are taken in a left
to right order until such a time that words can be taken as a whole. According to this model,
the reader starts reading with letters and, as he attends to them, he begins to have
expectations for the words they will spell. As the reader identifies the words, he has further
expectations for how they combined together and what they will mean when assembled
into phrases and sentences (Note, 2007).
This study is also anchored on the PsychoLingustic Theory of Reading which state
that reading is a process of predicting meaning based on the reader’s knowledge of oral
language syntax, semantics and phonological cues. Basically, it means that reading is
based on the reader’s stored knowledge of the oral language (Sheridan, 1981).
This is also based on the more recent theory of reading which is the Schema Theory.
According to this theory that the underlying assumption of meaning for the readers does
not only depend in the printed material itself, but also in the interaction with the cognitive
structure or the schemata or previous knowledge and experiences the reader had in his
mind. These schemata are the “ideational scaffolding” that will help the reader understand
new information that he will read. So we can say that the reader’s interpretation and
understanding of the meaning of the reading material is greatly influenced by the reader’s
personal background, experiences, knowledge, beliefs and history. As an implication to
the teaching and learning process, this theory emphasized that teachers should utilize preexisting knowledge and experiences of the reader, set clear purposes for reading, ask
appropriate questions before, during and after the reading lessons (Sheridan, 1981).
Significance of the Study
The findings of the study will give future comprehensive strategies on how to
decrease the number of Non-readers and not limited to Grades 7 and 8 participants that are
related to the following:
Students. The findings of this study would help students to understand their own struggles
and struggles of their schoolmates who had difficulty in reading the English
language. This study would further give them insights on how to help such students
in their school.
Parents. This study is beneficial to parents in assessing their children’s reading skills and
challenges. This will also guide them to understand their learners better and
eventually help them in their reading struggles.
English Language Teachers. The results of this study can be beneficial to language
teachers in understanding their struggling readers and eventually aid them in
determining appropriate strategies in assisting non-readers.
Principals/School Heads. The result of the study will provide school administrators
insights of the challenges in decreasing non-readers. It may be of great help in
designing a plan of action in support to the School reading program. The result of
the study will help solve the problem regarding the struggles being experienced by
the non-readers.
Future Researcher. The findings of the study will enable future researchers to conduct
follow up studies to determine the problems and struggles experienced by the nonreaders and on how to address it. This study may also serve as a reference for other
researchers in conducting further studies related to this.
Scope and Delimitation
This study cannot be generalized and cannot go beyond the current informants. As
such, it is confined only to thirteen (13) non-readers, Grade 7 and Grade 8, from public
school of Don Manuel Javellana Memorial National High School from the Division of
Panabo City. The data will be gathered from 7 non-readers through in-depth interviews
and another 6 non-readers who will undergo focus group discussion for triangulation
purposes. The study is dependent on the ability of the informants and participants to
describe their experiences on their challenges encountered and their coping mechanism.
Informants and participants have varied experiences and therefore, may be subjective.
Since administrative permission is necessary to gain access to informants, parents,
principals and superintendents will be informed of the study and its purpose.
The study will be based upon an open-ended questions through one-on-one
interviews and focus group discussion. Due to the fact that there are only 7 informants for
the in-depth interviews and 6 participants for the focus group discussion, the results of the
investigation may not be generalizable to other Divisions of the country. This study is
descriptive in its investigation.
Definition of Terms
Non-readers. These are the Grade 7 and Grade 8 learners from Don Manuel Javellana
Memorial National High School who cannot utter words when they will read.
Reading Challenges. These are the hard experiences encountered by the grade 7 and 8
non- readers when they are on their reading classes.
Reading Strategies. These are the approaches suggested in this study to help nonreaders to cope up with their reading challenges.
CHAPTER 2
METHODOLOGY
Research Design
This study will employ qualitative phenomenological design. This approach will
collect or gather, analyze, interpret and give data results that are enabling to answer the
research questions and provide further recommendations. It seeks to find out the live
experiences and the challenges of non-readers as they encounter problems and struggles in
their reading class. The qualitative approach is deemed appropriate for this investigation
because Creswell (2009) confirms that it is good to adopt case studies for explorative
research, where an analytical approach can be adopted by using theory to collate and
investigate experiences or practices. Creswell (2009) also suggested that the research
embark on the quest to understanding by entering in the field of perception of participants,
seeing how they experienced, live and display the phenomenon, and looking for the
meaning of the participants’ experiences. Thus, the researcher is interested in this design
since Solokowski (2010) believed that phenomenological study contributes to deeper
understanding attributed to the individual lived experiences of non-readers of which
according to McBride and Schostak (2008), a quantitative study could not provide.
Research Locale
This study will be conducted in Panabo City Division particularly in Don Manuel
Javellana Memorial National High School. The school is located at Barangay DAPCO,
Homeland Subdivision of Panabo City that can be found between Municipality of Carmen
and Sto. Tomas. Panabo City is composed of 40 barangays and has 13 public secondary
schools. This school belongs to the 2nd Legislative District of the Province of Davao del
Norte in Region XI.
Research Respondents
Purposive sampling will be used in the selection of informants. Participants to this
study will be the 13 identified non-readers coming from Don Manuel Javellana Memorial
National High School of Panabo City. The names of the participants will not be obscured
in as much as the study is quite non-argumentative in nature for the participants.
Participants are the identified non readers from grade 7 and grade 8. The researcher is
planning to have 13 participants who will be involved in this study. Seven (7) for the indepth informants’ interview of which Guest et al. (2006) declared more than six (6) is a
sufficient number of interviews. According to Guest et al, minimum of six (6) under indepth interviews will enable development of meaningful themes and useful interpretations.
On the other hand, there will be another six non-readers who will serve as participants for
the focus group discussion.
Research Instruments
An interview guide will be used in the data gathering. This contains three (3) openended questions with three (3) sub-questions each that will elicit responses on the
challenges and coping mechanism of grade 7 and grade 8 non-readers. The interview guide
will be enhanced by the English master teachers and then will be pilot tested the three
informants who are not part of the target informants.
1.
1.1.
What are your experiences on the conduct of your reading classes?
How do assigned teacher in your reading class implement the reading
program?
1.2.
Can you cite strategies that usually used by your reading teacher?
1.3.
What are the experiences that motivates you to learn reading?
2. What are the challenges that you encountered during reading class in your
school?
2.1.
What can you say about your reading class?
2.2.
What things/activities in your reading class do you like and dislike most?
2.3.
What are the difficulties that you encountered in your reading class?
3. How do you coped up with your challenges towards reading?
3.1.
How did you discover that you have difficulty in reading?
3.2.
Do you have any strategies in coping up with the challenges that you had
been experienced?
3.3.
How do you use that strategies in coping up with your difficulties in
reading?
Data Gathering Procedures
The researcher will follow research process in collecting data. Below will be the
following: First, the researcher will ask permission letter from the Dean of IMaGoCS
where the researcher is currently enrolled for thesis writing. Second, the researcher will
seek approval from the Division Superintendent of Panabo City, Dr. Dee D. Silva, CESO
VI. Third, the researcher will secure letter of permission from the Principal of Don Manuel
Javellana Memorial National High School to ask permission to conduct in-depth interview.
The researcher will then set the schedule of interview to the informants using guide
questions. Then after that, the researcher will meet up with the other group of non-readers
to conduct clarificatory group discussion to triangulate the information. Then, the
researcher will use qualitative data analysis base from the data gathered. After analyzing
and interpreting the data, the researcher will conduct validity and reliability tests to
guarantee dependability throughout the study by presenting the transcriptions to the
informants for verification purposes. Then, the researcher will make qualitative write-ups
and observe ethical consideration after verification to the selected participants. Lastly, the
researcher will submit the write-ups to the adviser for revisions and discussions.
Data Recording Procedures
Audio recording and field noting will be utilized during the Key Informants
Interview and Focus Group Discussion. Two reading teachers who are also a Grade 7 and
Grade 8 teachers will be asked to do hand noting. Tape recording will also be used
accurately to capture the response of the informants and participants.
Data Analysis Procedures
The data gathered will be accurately transcribed into words by carefully listening
to their answers through the use tape recorder. Next, in field noting during interviews, nonverbal signs of the participants will be considered like gestures and facial expressions. Then
every significant statement will be highlighted because this will provide understanding on
the participants’ experience in their reading activities. Afterwards, the researcher will
make cluster themes and emerging themes. These themes will be used as bases for the
result and discussion of the study.
Reliability. In qualitative research, “reliability” repeatedly refers to the firmness of
answers to multiple coders of data sets. This requires external check on the
highly interpretative coding process (Creswell, 2007) by the researcher
added by the experts and participants. Researcher’s focus on reliability of
this study will be on the transcription of participants’ responses from the
interview and on coding process. The transcriptions of data from the field
notes and audio recorder into words will be used for better analysis and for
the creation of code names for themes. This will be achieved by re-reading
participants transcribed responses. Coding process will also undergo
through consultation from the adviser. After it will be coded and analyzed,
it will be presented to the participants to ensure stability of their responses.
Validity. According to Creswell (2007), the framework of thinking about
validation in qualitative research is to suggest that researchers employ
accepted strategies to document the “accuracy” of their studies. It calls
“validation strategies”. Moreover, the researcher will employ some of the
validation strategies suggested by Creswell (2007). This includes:
Triangulation. Typically, this process involves corroborating evidences
from different sources in order to understand the theme or
prospective of the study.
Content Validity. The researcher will consult English master teachers to
validate the items in the research questions to ensure that the ideas
in the questions to be asked would corroborate in the field of study.
Qualitative Write-Up. Identifying significant statements, clustering into themes
will be the basis in this study to provide the researcher a clear expression in
organizing the reports. Strategies in writing will be used in presenting the
finding and discussions. Various quotations from the participants will root
in the passages. Exact wording from the participants will be used to form
codes and themes. Similarly, quotations will be linked with the researcher’s
interpretation. Moreover, guidelines for formatting of manuscript will be
followed in presenting the finding of the study. Finally, results will be
linked directly to the central questions.
Ethical Considerations. In view to the fact that in this study, data gathered will be
treated with outmost confidentially in order to safeguard personal details
and identity of the participants involved in the study and to ensure the
reliability of the research. Finally, all the responses will remain confidential
and all the statements quoted will be coded to maintain the obscurity of the
informants.
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