Republic of the Philippines
POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
College of Social Science and Development
DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY & ANTHROPOLOGY
INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL FOR
GEED 10043 Contemporary World
Compiled by :
Aguinaldo, Mieca
Cabalatungan, Simon
Lazaro, Angelica
Nabong, Guillen
Santero, Gil Mari
Tena, Mejedin
Contact Information:
mmaguinaldo@pup.edu.ph
cabalatungansimonf@gmail.com
angelicatatlongharilazaro@gmail.com
gmnabong@pup.edu.ph
santerogilmari@gmail.com
mejedin.tena@gmail.com
The Contemporary World
ABOUT YOU
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Student Name: ________________________
Student Number: ______________________
Course and Section: ___________________
Email Address: ________________________
Contact Number: _______________________
Address: ______________________________
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The Contemporary World
COURSE SYLLABUS
WEEKS
Week 1
TOPIC
Understanding the
Contemporary World
Week 24
Understanding Global
Inequalities
• Colonialism &
Neocolonialism
• Theories on
Global Inequality
RESOURCES/ READINGS
• Mills, C.W. (1967) The Promise.
In the Sociological Imagination.
New York. Anchor Books
• Claudio, L.E., and Abinales,
P.N. (2018) Lesson 1. In the
Contemporary World. Quezon
City: C and E Publication
• Claudio, L.E., and Abinales,
P.N. (2018) Lesson 2. In the
Contemporary World. Quezon
City: C and E Publication
• Hardin, Garrett (1986). “The
Tragedy of the Commons”
Science, New Series Vol. 162
Pp 1243-1248
• Benczes, Istvan Chapter 9
(2014), in the SAGE Handbook
of Globalization
• De Leon, Hector S. (2011)
Textbook on the Philippine
Constitution
Rex Printing
Company Inc.
•
•
•
•
•
Logan, Amanda L. (2016) “
Why Can’t People Feed
Themselves”: Archaeology
Alternative Archive of Food
Security in Banda , Ghana.
American Anthropologist. Vol.
118 No. 3
Lappe, Frances Moore &
Collins, Joseph (o.n) Why
Can’t People Feed
Themselves? Article 33
Claudio, Lisandro E. (2014) “
Locating the Global South” The
Sage Handbook of
Globalization
Wallerstein, Immanuel (2006) “
The Modern World System as a
Capitalist World- Economy. The
World System Theory Pp 20-29
Namkoong, Young (1999) “
Dependency Theory: Concepts,
Classifications and Criticism”
ASSESSMENT
Assessment 1
Understanding the
Contemporary
World
Assessment 2
Understanding
Global Inequalities
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International Area Review Vol
2. No 1.
Week 35
Structures of
Globalization
• The
Globalization of
World
Economies
• Global Politics
and
Contemporary
Global
Governance
Week 68
The World of Regions
Week 911
Contemporary Forms
of Connectivity
• Religion and
Globalization
• Media and
Globalization
•
•
Global Demography
• Global City
• Demography
and Migration
Term Paper 1 :
The Globalization
of World
Economies
Assessment 3:
Global Politics and
Contemporary
Global
Governance
Term Paper 2:
The World of
Regions
•
•
•
Week
12-14
Claudio, L. E., & Abinales, P. N.
2018. The Contemporary world.
South Triangle, Q.C.: C & E
Publishing, Inc.
Quintos P. June 2020. Policy
Paper: The Philippines’ COVID19 Response: Symptoms of
Deeper Malaise in the
Philippine Health Systems.
University of the Philippines
National College of Public
Administration and Governance
•
Atkinson et.al. 2015. The
Sociology Book: Big Ideas
Explained.DK publishing 345
Hudson Street, New York.
Pew Research Center, April 5,
2017, “The Changing Global
Religious Landscape”.
Lule, Jack .2014. “Globalization
and Media: Creating the Global
Village” Sage Handbook on
Globalization
Assessment 5:
Media and
Globalization
Aoki, H. 2008. Globalization
and the Street Homeless in
Metro Manila. Philippine
Studies, Vol. 56, No. 1, Blair &
Robertson. Ateneo De Manila
University.
Term Paper 3:
The Global City
Assessment 6:
Demography and
Migration
INTRODUCTION:
Why do we study the contemporary world? We all study history and it makes us believe
that the events in the past have something to do with the present, then we should also study the
present which is relevant to us. With this, the concept or process of globalization is being brought
up. For Manfred Steger, globalization refers to “the expansion and intensification of social
relations and consciousness across world-time and world-space”. It forms various kinds of
connectivity, not just only in terms of economic activity. When we say expansion, it is the formation
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of various connections in social, political, economic, cultural, and technological. As for
intensification, it refers to acceleration or maintaining these affiliations globally. With these
processes of intensification and expansion that globalization allows, globalism emerged that
explains the belief that the integration of economic markets is beneficial for everyone in global
connections. If people criticize globalization, they are, more often than not, criticizing the indication
of globalism and not globalization as globalization is not only focused on economic
affiliation. More so, Globalization is widely recognized to remake the traditional social structures
that transform the reality of people in every corner of the world.
ABOUT THE SUBJECT:
This course introduces students to the contemporary world by examining the multifaceted
phenomenon of globalization. Using the interdisciplinary approach, the subject examines the
social, economic, political, and technological context of the contemporary world and the
increasing awareness and interconnected relationship of people from different places in the
world. Moreover, the course provides an overview of the contemporary problems faced by the
globalizing world and the different discourses on development and governance. Beyond this
course’s description, the instructional materials to be discussed in the class desire to enrich the
student’s understanding of the world by which they act as agents of change.
COURSE DESCRIPTION
This will be a completely online course that will be delivered to you by the instructor once
the class schedule is finalized. Course content, including lecture PowerPoints, readings, videos,
quizzes, and instructions for term paper requirements will be sent to the class via google drive.
Also, lecture presentations will be conducted via video sessions through google meet where the
instructor will virtually meet with you to discuss the week’s lecture. All course requirements must
be completed during the semester. All discussions, term papers, quizzes, exams and other
requirements the instructor finds necessary to accomplish must be completed by the due dates
shown on the subject syllabus.
COURSE OUTCOMES
The subject is to provide an educational experience for students to understand the world by
examining social, economic, political, processes that shape it. By completing the course
students should be able to:
1. Understand the different social issues that presently exist in the contemporary world
2. Understand and apply the theories discussed in class to make sense of social issues.
3. Examine the general social problems faced by urban and rural settlers alike in the
contemporary world and critically provide solutions through research.
4. Demonstrate their skills in conducting social research through the methodologies
discussed in class
GRADE PERCENTAGE BREAKDOWN:
70%
Subject Assessment
30%
Term Paper
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100
TOTAL
COURSE RULES:
1.MISSED REQUIREMENTS: If a student misses any class activities such as quizzes, recitations,
and group activities, the faculty-in-charge will not provide any make-up class activities. If the
reason for the absence of the student is excusable, the faculty-in-charge will grade him or her
according to her current standing on the activity he or she missed. On the other hand, if the
absence is not excusable, then said student will receive a grade of zero (0) for the missed activity.
2.SUBMISSION OF REQUIREMENTS: Submission of papers and other requirements will only
be allowed during the class session unless otherwise provided for by the faculty-in-charge.
Outputs of students who have failed to adhere to the format given by the faculty-in-charge will
suffer grade deductions.
3.PLAGIARISM AND ACADEMIC DISHONESTY: The faculty-in-charge will require her students
to submit home works and other outputs from time to time. She need not remind you to always
cite your sources in APA (6th edition). Your failure to do so will tantamount to a grade of zero (0)
for the said output. Students who willfully engage in acts of academic dishonesty shall be given a
grade of zero or F on the academic exercise concerned.
4. CONTACT SCHEDULE: The faculty-in-charge strictly implements a schedule on
approaching her in this new mode of learning. For any clarification and concerns, send a
message through email provided by the faculty-in-charge only every Saturday to avoid influx
and unread emails, you will receive a response the next day. Do not forget to state your name,
section, and concern clearly on your email.
OUTPUT FORMAT:
Since this will be an online course that will be delivered to you, the instructor will divide the
following output formats into two for two kinds of students – Offline and Online Students.
What is an Online Student?
The online students are those who have access to the internet and can participate in online
video lectures. Online students will receive a google drive containing the readings, PowerPoint,
and other instructional materials to be used throughout the semester. The instructor will send a
soft copy of this module- Understanding the Contemporary World Module, as well as the
google drive link to the class at the start of the semester. If you are one of these students you
must use this file to answer each self-test and term paper output. These student modules will then
be compiled by a designated student in one google drive folder and sent to the instructor via email
by the end of the term. All the Course Assessments must be passed to the instructor by the end
of the semester. Online students must use this word document to answer each assessment, will
serve as their main work book.
Format for Self-Tests and Term Papers:
●
●
●
Arial 11
Single spaced
Justified
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What is an Offline Student?
Offline students are those who do not have the means to participate in online lectures. If
you are one of these students a printed version of this module- The Contemporary World
Module, will be delivered to you. For offline students, this course will imitate the practice of
homeschooling where students will be graded based on their outputs by the end of the term.
Offline students could put their answers in a short bond paper to be attached with this module, to
be sent back to the instructor by the end of the semester.
Format for Self-Test and Term Papers:
Students could answer the self-tests and term papers in the blank spaces provided per
section. Additional bond papers could be used by the students to answer each self- test and
term paper as long as it remains true to the format.
Contents
LESSON 1: UNDERSTANDING THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD ........................................... 9
UNIT 1: Defining Globalization ............................................................................................... 9
Sociological Imagination ......................................................................................................... 9
The Approach to this Course: Interdisciplinary......................................................................11
Defining Globalization............................................................................................................11
Nation-State, Nations, and Nationalism .................................................................................13
UNIT 2: Understanding Global Inequalities ............................................................................17
The History of Colonialism .....................................................................................................18
The Consequence of Colonialism ..........................................................................................19
Neoliberal Globalization .........................................................................................................19
Theories on Global Inequality ................................................................................................24
LESSON 2: STRUCTURES OF GLOBALIZATION ...................................................................32
UNIT 1: The Globalization of World Economies ....................................................................32
What is economic globalization?............................................................................................32
Early historical traces of exchange up to present ...................................................................33
Economic Crisis into Social Crisis (Atkinson et.al 2015) ......................................................35
UNIT 2: Global Politics & Contemporary Global Governance ................................................36
Politics’ Premise ....................................................................................................................37
The International State System..............................................................................................37
Internationalism .....................................................................................................................38
The Global Governance ........................................................................................................39
The United Nations ................................................................................................................39
LESSON 3: THE WORLD OF REGIONS ..................................................................................47
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The Global North and South ..................................................................................................47
Defining Regionalism.............................................................................................................47
What are Regions? ................................................................................................................48
Why form Regions? ...............................................................................................................48
What is a Non-State Regionalism? ........................................................................................49
What are contemporary challenges to regionalism? ..............................................................49
LESSON 4 CONTEMPORARY FORMS OF CONNECTIVITY ..................................................50
Unit 1: Religion and Globalization ..........................................................................................50
What is Religion ....................................................................................................................51
Connection between religion and economic structures ..........................................................51
Religion and Globalism ..........................................................................................................52
Realities in Religion ...............................................................................................................52
Religion and Globalization .....................................................................................................53
The Global Religious Change Landscape..............................................................................53
UNIT 2: Media and Globalization ...........................................................................................54
Media’s role in glocalization ...................................................................................................56
How media affect societies? ..................................................................................................56
LESSON 5: GLOBAL DEMOGRAPHY ......................................................................................57
UNIT 1: Global City................................................................................................................57
Global cities are strategic for new types of operations ...........................................................58
Different Societies appropriate the materials of modernity differently .....................................59
Global Issues, Local Perspectives (Atkinson et.al 2015) p.146 ..............................................61
Globalization and the Street Homeless in Metro Manila .........................................................61
UNIT 2: Demography and Migration ......................................................................................64
Global Demography...............................................................................................................65
Overpopulation ......................................................................................................................66
Population Growth and Food Security ...................................................................................67
What is Migration ...................................................................................................................67
References ...............................................................................................................................70
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LESSON 1: UNDERSTANDING THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD
UNIT 1: Defining Globalization
Learning Objectives:
By the end of this unit students must be able to:
1. Understand and apply the sociological imagination
2. Understand the Interdisciplinary Approach
3. Demonstrate critical thinking in comprehending contemporary event in light of the
globalizing economic, social, political and cultural processes.
Sections of the Unit:
1. The Sociological Imagination
2. Defining Globalization
3. Nation-State, Nation, Nationalism
Sociological Imagination
Source(s): Mills, C.W. 1967. “The Promise. In the Sociological Imagination”. New York. Anchor Books
Why should we care? Why
is it important to know the different
global processes that influence
our society? Because, as C Wright
Mills argues, we must understand
our problems in light of the greater
context of social structures. By
doing this, we can cure the
parochial
outlook to one's
immediate community. A person
who only looks at his community's
problems without looking at the
wider context of society is
parochial. Also, one who looks at
his country's problems without
analyzing the larger global context
is close-minded. This course aims
to stretch the limits of your imagination. To get under the hood and examine the intricate
mechanisms of the different global structures working hand in hand to maintain social equilibrium.
As mentioned before, one of the purposes of this course is to broaden your imagination to
understand the relationship between different structures of the contemporary world that produce
our social realities. It is then critical for us to understand what I mean by using the word
imagination to achieve this level of understanding. Before further discussing its implication, I
would like to invite you to first read C Wright Mills' (1916-1962) first chapter in his book,
"sociological imagination."
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As C Wright Mills (1916-1962) discussed, sociological imagination is the ability to see the
social patterns that influence individuals, families, groups, and organizations. It is the individual’s
awareness of the relationship between the individual and the wider society, both today and in the
past. By exercising it, we make connections to the root cause of structures and move away from
seeing things through our own personal lens. Through it we will be able to understand and explain
how some of our problems are caused by underlying structural obstacles caused by certain social
issues. As C Wright Mills explains (1916-1962), neither the life of an individual nor the history of
a society can be understood without understanding both,” For example, when a single person
is without employment in a nation whose population is close to a hundred million, the problems in
employment remains a personal problem. Possibly, the person just doesn’t have the desire to put
himself to work. If, however, thousands are without jobs in a nation of a hundred million people,
then there may be a larger barrier that must be addressed. It may be the issue of job mismatched
where many students graduate with credible degrees but remain jobless due to the inadequacy
of finding the jobs that fit their particular skills within the country. My point in this matter is that
when people share a common problem, a common experience of difficulty there may be an
underlying social issue that must be addressed. Since these issues are outside of the personal
sphere of an individual it calls into action a collective to address it by its roots. When personal
problems are collectively shared it may be the expression of larger social issues that must be
addressed.
Let us try to illustrate this by mapping out the cause of certain personal problems
experienced by students daily to its structural cause.
Given the provisions from the Polytechnic
University of the Philippines’ student manual, illness
excused by a medical certificate as well as absences
authorized in writing by the University, are the only
grounds for excusing tardiness or absence. Given
the urban circumstances of massive traffic and
frequent public transport malfunctions, increasing
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student’s travel time, it may be appropriate to interpret student tardiness beyond the student’s
conduct and inspect its social cause. Just as we may refer to the graph, student tardiness may
usually be caused by either traffic or public transportation malfunctions. Let us for a minute, try
and trace the web of influence that transcends the student’s personal sphere. Let us then ask,
why is traffic in Metro Manila so congested? One of its sources would likely be the state of the
urban population in the city. Why are there so many people living in Metro Manila? Well, we could
trace three social roots: First, it may be because of the Filipino Families’ lack of basic knowledge
in family planning. One that we could also link to the opposing views of the church and longstanding Christian values embedded into Filipino families’ traditions and social norms. Because
of the inadequacy of knowledge in this subject, a surge in the population may be expected. More
so, there is also the issue of migration, not from country to country but from rural to urban. Many
Filipinos flock into urban centers with the prospect of finding a sustainable job to match their
standard of living. Why are they migrating? One probable cause is the unbalanced discourse on
development. As traditional livelihoods found in rural areas continue to become unsustainable
and harder some Filipinos decide to settle inside cities to find jobs. Why so? As technology
advanced people are finding new innovative ways to work and get paid. These kinds of jobs are
usually found in urban centers. This may also be attributed to the in flock of Transnational
Companies who enter the country to provide people with jobs through either services or
manufacturing processes conducted in infrastructures that are usually located within the city. This
exercise merely demonstrates the networked system of relations that exist within the
contemporary world. For a true scholar of society to understand it , he must broaden his horizon
to trace the interlocked webs of relations and understand how his personal problems are also
consequences of larger social issues.
The Approach to this Course: Interdisciplinary
Source(s): Claudio, L. E., & Abinales, P. N. (2018) The Contemporary world. South Triangle, Q.C.C & E
Publishing, Inc.
Our study of Globalization and the
Contemporary World must be inherently
interdisciplinary. Using the illustration, we
notice that the conclusions of different
experts are different from each other all
though they are studying the same thing.
Why do you think they differ in conclusions?
Because of their parochial perspective, they
do not consider each part as a member of a
larger whole. With an interdisciplinary
approach, we could paint an accurate picture
of the various globalizing processes. Our
study of the process of globalization must
then be inherently interdisciplinary so that we will be able to accurately understand the social,
economic, political, and cultural processes that shape its structures. We will be able to see the
whole elephant as it is and conclude a more accurate diagnosis of current events and the world
in general.
Defining Globalization
Let us first clarify what it is not. As opposed to popular/ activist definition globalization is
not neoliberal globalization or market globalism. Market Globalism or Neoliberal Globalization
specifically conceptualize how neoliberal policies desire to create an international framework for
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economies to raise profit by minimizing the cost of investment. Globalization on the other hand,
according to Steger, refers to the expansion and intensification of social relations and
consciousness across world time and world space. Fulcher and Scott (2007) on the other hand,
defined Globalization as a complex of interrelated processes, which have in common the idea
that relationships and organizations have increasingly spread across the world. Globalization is a
process that has destroyed distance in the sense that its processes are no longer limited to
geographic boundaries. Moreover, with the intensified social relations that have linked people
across the globe, men have a greater awareness of the events that are continually happening in
the world.
Attributes of Globalization
Source(s): Claudio, L. E., & Abinales, P. N. (2018) The Contemporary world. South Triangle, Q.C.C & E
Publishing, Inc.
1. Various Form of Connectivity
-
These are forms of connections that may be economic, political, or cultural. For
example, the Philippines and Vietnam as both members of the ASEAN ( Association
of Southeast Asian Nations) engaging with trade with each other may be considered
as an economic form of connectivity. On the other hand, the friendship or courtship of
Ed and Rose forged within the platforms of social media sites may also be a form of
connectivity that transcend world space and time.
2. Expansion and Stretching of Social Relations
-
An example of this is the expanding function of NGO ( non-government organization)
in protecting the rights and dignity of Overseas Filipino Workers abroad ( OFWs).
Migrante International, for instance, is a non-government organization based on the
Philippines that seeks to form a global alliance because of its mission to safeguard the
rights and wellbeing of Filipinos who are working abroad.
3. Intensification and Acceleration of Social Exchanges and Activities
-
As we have already stated, the intensification of social relations and consciousness
across world time and world space is one of the key components of globalization. The
stated intensification of social relations is largely attributed to the advanced
technologies that are invented to improve human communication. For example, in the
past, it would take two to three days before a message may be received by another
person in the next city due to the slow-paced transportation of mail. With the discovery
of Facebook and many social media sites, communication is instant and easily
accessible from our fingertips. This is an example of how globalization has restructured
our concept of time and space. Usually, due to the slow-paced mailing system, the
further the receiver of the message is the longer it would take to communicate its
content. However, with the invention of the World Wide Web and various social media
platforms, our messages could reach other people, no matter the distance in mere
seconds. Another example would be the screening of live television. No matter where
you are in the world, you could all share the same experience of watching a Pacquiao
fight through our televisions and computers. This is how globalization reshaped our
concept of time and space. We seemingly are liberated more from its constraints.
4. Occurs Subjectively
-
Lastly, Globalization occurs subjectively in the sense that we are more conscious of
the world we are living in. We live in a network where we could trace the various forms
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of social connectivity that shape our perception of the world and at the same time
influence our actions within it. For example, we now think about the world; we voice
out our opinions and our position in social issues that do not necessarily involve us.
We are affected by campaigns such as the #BlackLivesMatters that happened in the
United States to end police brutality against African Americans. We grieve and pray
for the Australians who lost their homes in the forest fires that torched their houses.
We do our part to alleviate climate change because we become more conscious that
there are also problems without passports that demand our collective actions.
Nation-State, Nations, and Nationalism
Source(s): Claudio, L. E., & Abinales, P. N. (2018) The Contemporary world. South Triangle, Q.C.C & E
Publishing, Inc. & Dannug, Roman D.(2005) Politics and Governance C&E Publishing, Inc. & De Leon,
Hector S. (2011) Textbook on the Philippine Constitution Manila: Rex Book Store
With the intensified social relations reaching across the globe, it is expected that there has
been an increasing rate of interdependence between nations from different parts of the world. Let
us first define the Nation-State. It is considered as a political unit that has:
1. A National Citizen (People)
2. A National Territory (Land)
3. A National Administration (Government)
The State
The State is considered to be the main political actor inside the global political and economic
arena. It is based on the objective realities that define a country. Meaning, it is measurable and
quantifiable in the sense that the citizens are numbered, its territories have bounds and the
national government is recognized and defined by the constitution of the land. Moreover, the State
is considered as a community of persons more or less numerous, permanently occupying definite
portion of territory, having a government of their own to which the great body of inhabitants render
obedience, and enjoying freedom from external control.
Elements of the State
a. People- this refers to the inhabitants living within the state. Without people there
can be no functionaries to govern and no subjects to be governed. There is no
requirement as to the number of people that should compose a state. Ideally, it
should be neither too small nor too large: small enough to be well-governed and
large enough to be self-sufficing.
b. Territory- it includes not only the fixed portion of land over which the jurisdiction
of the state extends ( territorial domain), but also the rivers and lakes therein, a
certain area of the sea which abuts upon its coasts ( fluvial and maritime domain)
and the air space above the land and the waters( aerial domain). Thus, the domain
of the state may be described as terrestrial, fluvial, maritime and aerial.
c. Government- Usually used to refer person/s who has the function of political
control/ administration. It is the agency that carries the will of the state.
▪ Constitution- a body of rules and principles in accordance with which the
power of sovereignty is regularly exercised.
• Nature and Purpose/ Function of Constitution
1. Serve as the supreme or fundamental law
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2. Establishes basic framework and underlying principles of
government.
d. Sovereignty- Supreme power of the state to command or enforce obedience. The
term may be defined as the supreme power of the state to command and enforce
obedience to its will from people within its jurisdiction and corollary, to have
freedom from foreign control. It has, therefore, two manifestations:
i. Internal- the power of the state to rule within its territory
ii. External- the freedom of the state to carry out its activities without
subjection to or control by other states. External sovereignty is usually
referred to as independence.
Origin of the States
Source(s): Dannug, Roman D.(2005) Politics and Governance C&E Publishing, Inc & De Leon, Hector
S. (2011) Textbook on the Philippine Constitution Manila: Rex Book Store & Laskar, Manzoor Elahi (2013)
Summary of Social Contract Theory by Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau SSRN Electronic Journal.
There are several theories concerning the origin of states, among which are:
1. Divine Right Theory - It is ordained by God to govern the people references to the
law which Moses receive at Mount Sinai.
Laws are from God; the tablet of our hearts bear His signature and our conscience
bears witness of it (Romans 2:14-15).We know that God has set natural laws as moral
laws- rights that come from God, written into the human conscience (Romans 1:19;
Romans 2:12;14-15; 27). Natural Laws are considered as general principles inherent to
Human Nature. It is what God has written in our hearts as the universal standard for
recognizing good and bad (Romans 2:14-15). Positive Law, on the other hand, are the
rights granted by the State. It is the cornerstone for our notion of social justice; which
artificially materializes the provision of natural laws and creates regulations for civil life. In
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other words, positive laws as laws created by men merely recognize the natural laws
predisposed by God. We notice how both are recognized in the United States’ Declaration
of Independence:
We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that
they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among
these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. — That to secure these rights,
Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the
consent of the governed, — That whenever any Form of Government becomes
destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and
to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and
organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to affect their
Safety and Happiness.
As expressed, there are unalienable rights that are appointed to men as God’s
creation, among which is - Life, Liberty and the Pursuit of Happiness. The US government,
having been instituted by men, must then uphold these rights. With this in mind, natural
laws are the foundation of our government. Laws are then framed by the state to restrain
sin and promote righteousness. The very purpose of the Constitution is to uphold and
recognize these natural laws by obstructing the government. The Constitution not only
recognizes people’s natural rights, endowed by God but also recognizes that men are free
to exercise these rights. It is through the laws that our inherent , God given rights are
recognized. As Attorney Patrick Henry also interpreted, “The Constitution is not an
instrument for the government to restrain the people, it is an instrument for the people to
restrain the government...- lest it comes to dominate our lives and interests.” This is what
happens in governance, the government pass laws and remove certain liberties in the
name of the “greater good” according to the pronouncement of natural laws and uphold “
social justice,” as long as it is not unconstitutional and a violation of “unalienable rights”
outlined by the Constitution. Furthermore, based on the provision of human rights,
recognizing both the written and unwritten nature of legal and moral entitlement, citizens
are protected through the constitution from the government. It is these rights that limit the
state's use of its power against the citizens ( Wahiu 2011; Sarmiento 2014).
2. Necessity or Force Theory – It maintains that states must have been created through
force, by some great warriors who impose their will upon the weak
3. Social Contract Theory (Laskar 2013) - It asserts that the early states must have been
formed by deliberate and voluntary compact among the people to form a society and
organize government for their common good. This theory justifies the fight of the people
to revolt against a bad ruler. It is not known exactly which of the above theories is the
correct one. History, however, has shown that the elements of all the theories have played
an important part in the formation and development of the state. This theory is largely
credited to Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau. The concept of social contract is found in man’s
essential need to for regulation from an independent body or institution. It comes from two
kinds of agreement.
a. Pactum Unionis - people sought protection of their lives and property. With this
in mind, people under pursued a life of peace, respecting each other’s life and
property.
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b. Pactum Subjectionis- refers to people united together to obey a common
authority in which, in exchange for protection they have to surrender a part of their
freedom to an authority. The authority must guarantee to protect their life and
property. To escape their state of Nature, without a proper authority they must all
agree to live together under the provision of a common law and create for
themselves a system of enforcement. This is the social contract and the laws that
constitute it. The source of regulation is ultimately from the people and for the
people.
According to Thomas Hobbes, men lived in the state of nature where men were poor,
nasty and savage. To establish order, man puts into place his innate desire for security
and order. Man, voluntarily surrenders some rights and freedoms to an authority, signing
a contract of obedience in exchange for protection and preservation. This is the evident
relationship of monarchs to their subjects. Subjects had no right against the absolute
authority of the land. They merely obeyed in all situations. Hobbes asserts that man
without subjection to a common power of rights and freedom will inevitably be at war.
Locke and Rousseau, on the contrary set forth the idea that the state exist to preserve
and protect the natural rights of men endowed by the creator. When the governing
authority fail in this matter, the people have the right to withdraw their support and rebel.
More so, Hobbes viewed the State as absolutely just. All of society mirror the will of the
authority of the ruler. Locke on the other hand, emphasized that the role of the state is to
ensure that justice is done to the people. While Rousseau viewed the State as the
protector of the people’s liberty.
The Nation
On the other hand, the concept of nation is based on the idea that a political unit corresponds
to nations. It is somewhat subjectively defined through the people’s sense of collective or
communal identity. It is what Max Weber considers as a “community of sentiment” with a specific
sentiment of solidarity in the face of other groups. Whereas, Benedict Anderson considers it an
“Imagined Community.” He considers it as such because this sense of community is not
necessarily defined by the objective provision of the law or the constitution.
Confronting Discourses
To ask what came first, the idea of a nation or the structures of a State, is like asking what
came first, the chicken or the egg. Giddens (1985) argued that a nation did not exist until the
state had constructed a national administration that stretched over its territory. To illustrate, we
can put Giddens explanation to the metaphor of a Body and Spirit- the Body signifying the
objective and physical structures of the state and the Spirit as the unseen essence of a nation as
a “community of sentiment.” For Giddens then, the objective vessel of the State (measurable,
quantifiable) is first constructed for the people to build a communal sense of shared sentiments,
stretched over the State’s territory. As Giddens (1985) argued it was the state’s unification of its
citizens that created the nation. On the other hand, the ideals of a nationalist movements run
contrary to the sequenced relationship explained by Giddens. The Ideals of a Nationalist
Movements typically seek to create new states on the basis of a presumed national identity (a
community of sentiments). Nationalist Movements argue that the objective structures of a State
is born out of the struggle of a community with a common national identity. They struggle to claim
that a nation has the right to self-government through its own independence.
__________________________________________________________________________
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ASSESSMENT 1
Instruction: In this section of the module, your general knowledge and understanding of
the subject so far will be tested. Please answer the following questions in a 150-word
essay. Please answer each question using the following format- Arial 11, single-spaced.
For those who will receive a printed version of this module please answer the following in a
short bond paper. Indicate the Self Test #_ and write your name ( Last Name, First Name ,
M.I) and your Course and Section .
1. What is Globalization and How does it occur subjectively?
2. Why should we use the interdisciplinary approach in studying Globalization?
3. Why do we need to exercise our sociological imagination to make sense of the
contemporary world?
4. Explain the difference between the State and The Nation.
___________________________________________________________________________
UNIT 2: Understanding Global Inequalities
Introduction:
What is global inequality and why does it exist? This section of the course desires to
answer this question in light of the contemporary theories and studies that will be discussed in
class. Specifically, it will examine the source of global inequalities and their effects. The theories
that will be discussed in class will give the students a clear understanding of the structures of
global inequalities and their social, economic, and political consequences.
___________________________________________________________________________
Learning Objectives:
By the end of this unit students must be able to:
1. Understand and apply theories on examining world inequalities
2. Examine contemporary problems in light of the theories discussed in class
3. Demonstrate critical thinking in comprehending contemporary realities in light of global
economic relationships.
Sections of the Unit:
1. The History of Colonialism
2. The Consequence of Colonialism
3. Theories on Global Inequalities
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The History of Colonialism
Source(s): Lappe, Frances Moore & Collins, Joseph (o.n) Why Can’t People Feed Themselves? Article
33 & Logan, Amanda L. (2016) “Why Can’t People Feed Themselves”: Archaeology Alternative Archive of
Food Security in Banda, Ghana. American Anthropologist. Vol. 118 No. 3
According to Francis Moore Lappe and Joseph Collins, the world is only divided into two:
Minority of Nations and Majority of Nations. The Minority of Nations represents the countries that
prioritize agricultural and industrial revolution. Whereas, the majority of nations are the countries
that remain primitive and underdeveloped. This expresses the conditions of global inequality in
the contemporary world. Francis Moore Lappe and Joseph Collin desire to understand why some
nations are not able to feed themselves. They traced its cause to the history of colonialism.
Colonialism according to Moore and Collins destroyed the already and initially built cultural
patterns of production and change. For them, hunger and underdevelopment must always be
thought of as a process. The reason why so many countries remain to be in poverty and
underdeveloped is its history of colonialism. Lappe and Collins further express the reasons why
colonialism destroyed the initial built cultural pattern of production.
1. Colonial Mind
This is the mentality of the colonizers who colonize other people to be their subjects.
The colonizers see agriculture in the subjugated lands as primitive and backward.
Because of this, their process of colonization is not only justified but they see it as a
necessary process. John Stuart Mill, an English economist, philosopher, and
colonizer-apologist argued that, “ Colonies should not be thought of as civilizations or
countries, but as agricultural establishments whose sole purpose is to supply the larger
community to which it belongs.”
2. Forced Peasant Production
As Walter Rodney recounts in his book, "How Europe Underdeveloped Africa," cash
crops were often grown literally under the threat of guns and whips. The communities
that were colonized by neighboring countries were forced to plant cash crops instead
of food crops. The initial practice of planting food crops was for the sole purpose of
feeding the community; whereas, due to the desire of the colonizing nation to gain
profit through the peasant’s production of crops, they were forced to plant cash crops.
This are the crops that are planted for its market value. They are planted not on the
basis of its ability to feed the populace but rather its price in the global market. Because
of this change the people were no longer dependent to their own practice of
production. More so, the colonial government ensured to continue this peasant
production of cash crops in two ways:
i. Taxation- This was the most preferred colonial technique to
force Africans to grow cash crops. The colonial administration
simply put taxes on cattle land, houses and even to the people
themselves.
ii. Marketing Board- this emerged in the 1930s in Africa. It was
defined as an organization set up by the government to regulate the
buying and selling of a certain commodity such as coffee, cotton
and cocoa. Within a special area. These marketing boards of Africa
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were only the institutionalized rendition of what is the essence of
colonialism, which is the extraction of wealth.
3.
Plantation- The second approach was direct takeover of the land either by the
colonizing government or by private foreign interests. Some farmers were forced
to work in plantations fields through either enslavement or economic coercion.
4.
Suppressing Peasant Farmers - The colonial government formulated a policy of
keeping the price of imported food low through removal of tariffs and subsidies.
Peasants were told that they do not need to grow their own food, for they can
always buy it cheaply through imported goods. However, the cheap food imports
In conclusion, Francis Moore Lappe and Collins answered, why people can’t feed
themselves? It is as they expressed the result of a history of colonialism that has destroyed
the initial pattern of production. Colonialism Forced peasants to replace food crops with cash
crops that were expropriated at very low rates. More so the colonial government, took over
the best agricultural land for export crop plantations and then forced the most able-bodied
workers to leave the village fields to work as slaves or for very low wages on plantations.
Policies that were also implemented encouraged a dependence on imported food; and
blocked native peasant cash crop. Cash produced by settlers or foreign firm.
The Consequence of Colonialism
Colonialism as expressed to be a practice of domination, which involves the subjugation
of one people to another remains in contemporary forms as many scholars would argue. It is
usually called as Neocolonialism. Neocolonialism is an indirect form of control through
economic or cultural dependence. This is expressed in the continued control of former
colonies through ruling native elites compliant with neocolonial powers, populations that are
exploited for their labor and resources in order to feed an insatiable appetite. Neocolonialism
is defined as the continuing active control exercised by the past colonizer government to
control the affairs of the newly independent state. It perpetuates a system where great powers
(usually the past colonizer countries) maintain their exploitative relationship with past colonies.
This covert and indirect form of control creates a system of dependency. The metropolitan
centers in seeking to be even more developed by “underdeveloping” the peripheries through
trade exploitation. The peripheral countries (usually bearing the mark of colonial history) is
extremely vulnerable to fluctuations in price and demand. The products they market have a
higher ratio of competition. It is because many other neighboring countries produce the same
products. According to Harold Nyikal in his article- “Neocolonialism in Africa: The Economic
Crisis in Africa and the Propagation of The Status Quo By the World Bank /IMF and WTO,”
Neocolonialism is colonialism in its modern dress. Western countries masked under the
pretext of economic support for Africa, directly enforced or institutionalized in the World Bank,
the International Monetary Fund ( IMF) and the World Trade Organization ( WTO) . The
policies that are implemented in Africa because of the loan conditionalities with this institutions
chained it to western economies to continue to be dependent upon them. Their discourse on
development prevents self-help programs and perpetuate the continuing relationship of
dependence.
Neoliberal Globalization
Neoliberal globalization is the main driving system that continue systems of exploitation.
It is generally marked by three essential characteristics:
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1. Economic Liberalization- it is characterized by the flooding of the local market with
imported goods that destroy the local industries and livelihood of the populace.
Because of this, poverty and unemployment increase because locally produced goods
suffer from the unfair competition brought about by the cheaper imports from the global
market. The consequence of economic liberalization may be expressed in the state of
Food Insecurity in the Philippines. Under the WTO Agreement on Agriculture (AOA)
the Philippines is required to allow the progressive importation of rice ( 1% of domestic
consumption in 1995, 2% in 2000 and 4% by 2004). More so, the unregulated market
cause the transnational corporations and richer foreign nations to control the local
market, forcing local production and local entrepreneurs out of the market.
2. Deregulation – the price of the products sold in the local markets of the peripheral
states are no longer regulated by the government. Many commodities and products
consumed by local consumers are privatized.
3. Privatization- This is the core of IMF/WB’s structural adjustment policies. Trade
liberalization and market deregulation also lead to the privatization of public utility. This
eliminates public subsidies on social services and public sector corporations.
Privatization of state-owned water utilities was one of the conditions for loan in the
1995-1997 structural adjustment of IMF. Metropolitan Waterworks and Sewerage
System was privatized.
4. Labor Export- More so, the exportation of labor force becomes the government’s
strategy to pay debt ad regulate unemployment. In 2000, Philippines become one of
the most top labor exporter. This had also led to the feminization of migrant labor,
since majority of Filipino women comprise majority of the export labor
5. International Division of Labor – Under the old international division of labor,
underdeveloped areas were incorporated into the world economy principally as
suppliers of mineral and agricultural commodities. As developing economies are
merged into the world economy, more production takes place in these economies.
The Unholy Trinity
Sources(s): Cavanagh, John & Manderm Jerry (2003) “World Bank, IMF turned poor Third World nations
into loan addicts” A Critique of Corporate Globalization (Part III). & Peet, Richard (2003) Unholy Trinity,
The IMF , World Bank and WTO London & New York: Zed Books
The World Trade Organization (WTO), World Bank (WB) and IMF (International Monetary
Fund) are usually considered as the unholy trinity. WTO and WB were institutionalized in Bretton
Woods NH in July 1944. It was set up to regulate and govern the contemporary global economy.
IMF was established to promote international monetary cooperation and provide policy advice
and capacity development support to help countries build and maintain strong economies. IMF
provide loans (short and medium term) funded by the pool of quota contributions from its members
to countries that need it. Whereas, the World Bank for a time was called IBRD(International Bank
for Reconstruction and Development) was established to help stimulate economic activity within
poor countries. It was established in the aftermath of World War II to help finance the
reconstruction of European nations. In the modern age, The World Bank promotes long-term
economic development and poverty reduction by providing technical and financial support to help
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in countries reform and development projects – such as building schools, health centers, providing
water and electricity, fighting disease, etc. To an unsuspecting eye, these intentions are good
intentions to help developing countries get up on their own feet and compete with other nations
in the global market. The problem however, lies on the loan conditionalities and structuraladjustment programs imposed on low- and intermediate-income countries by these institutions.
According to Cavanagh and Mander (2003) structural adjustment requires governments to do the
following:
a. Cut government spending on education, healthcare, the environment, and price
subsidies for basic necessities such as food, grains and cooking oil
b. Devalue the national currency and increase exports by accelerating the plunder of
natural resources, reducing real wages and subsidizing export oriented foreign
investment
c. Liberalize (open) financial markets to attract speculative short-term portfolio
investment that create enormous financial instability and foreign liabilities while
serving little, if any, useful purpose
d. Eliminate tariffs and other controls on imports, thereby increasing the import of
consumer goods purchased with borrowed foreign exchange, undermining local
industry and agricultural producers unable to compete with cheap import,
Increasing the strain on foreign exchange accounts, and deepening external
indebtedness.
With these loan conditionalities and structural adjustment programs Countries suffer from
trade liberalization and the increasing privatization of public utility. By Liberalizing the financial
market and eliminating the tariff the country’s local producers suffer because of the global
competition.
Globalization, Liberalization and Protectionism: The Global Framework Affecting Rural
Producers in Developing Countries
Source(s): Khor, Martin (2007) Globalization, Liberalization, and Protectionism: The Global Framework
Affecting Rural Producers in Developing Countries. Malaysia: Third World Network
Globalization according to Khor (2007) is often taken to mean a process that is
synonymous with liberalization, or the opening up of the local and national markets to the global
market. However, the economic globalization process is much more nuanced than this simple or
automatic linkage between globalization and liberalization; for example, the internationalization
of intellectual property rights (IPR) systems through the WTO has led to increased
monopolization, especially by transnational corporations, that are better able to charge higher
prices for their products then if they there were greater competition. Also, the high subsidization
of and high tariffs on agricultural products constitute the continuation of high protection of the
agricultural sector in the rich countries. in many developing countries, the process of liberalization
and trade, investment, and finance has been taking place at significant rate and scope. This
process has promoted by the loan conditionalities of the international finance institutions, the rules
of the world trade organization, and unilateral policy measures.
Thus, the policies associated with the globalization process are a strange combination of
liberalization and protectionism (the theory or practice of shielding a country's domestic industries
from foreign competition by taxing imports). The strangeness is perhaps accentuated by the fact
that in some important instances developing countries are asked to undertake more intensive
liberalization, whilst the developed countries are proposing to retain or even increased protection
is policies. it is strange because normally it is accepted that the poorer and weaker countries
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should be given more time and flexibility to liberalize as they have to prepare and be ready to face
competition from the bigger and stronger and surprises of the developing world; and that the
already developed countries should liberalize more and faster as they have already reached a
high level of development and can compete. perhaps the most important aspect of globalization
is the globalization of policymaking. policies and decisions on a range of issues that for once
under the sole or main purview of national governments are now made through international
agencies or under their influence. many developing countries are policymakers in the sense that
they had little "say" in the making of the rules or policies of some of the powerful international
agencies, particularly the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank and the World Trade
Organization, and they have to implement the policies at national level which have been laid out
through these agencies. Ocean, as its decisions are made on a one country one vote system and
as the developing countries are better organized to represent their interests there. However, in
recent years the influence of the united nation over economic and social matters has declined
significantly and the mandate and influence of the IFI ( International Finance Institution) and the
WTO have expanded this shift of power to institutions that are dominated by the developed
countries has meant the reduction of the influence of the developing countries in decision-making
over economic and social issues at the international level
There have been increasing concerns that the policy is adopted at or by some the major
international agencies have not been appropriate or effective in meeting the development needs
of developing countries. in the area of trade and trade-related rules, the concerns of particularly
centered on the disappointment of developing countries that have not benefited much in terms of
trade or income from the implementation of world trade organizations rules and some of them
have suffered cause and losses. they are also concerned that the implementation of the traderelated aspects of intellectual property rights or TRIPS Agreement in the world trade organization
may arrow the rights of farmers and holders of traditional knowledge. there are also concerns that
alone conditionalities of the IFI have caused many developing countries to liberalize their import
successively and to rapidly, especially as the high subsidies and protection continued to dominate
in the developing countries. for many developing countries, the potential benefits of meeting
export opportunities have not been realized, whilst the risk of import liberalization have become
very real and a half already adversely affected rural livelihood and national incomes.
The Global Agriculture Policy Framework
Source(s): Khor, Martin (2007) Globalization, Liberalization, and Protectionism: The Global Framework
Affecting Rural Producers in Developing Countries. Malaysia: Third World Network
Many developing countries that at one stage or another suffered a debt default situation
came under the purview of the world bank and IMF, which were agreeable to arranging death
rescheduling and new credit on condition the countries agreed to implement conditions, now
commonly known as structural adjustment policies. The policies normally include the following
approaches and measures as they pertain to the rural sectors: the withdrawal of the state from
economic activities, the closure or downgrading of state marketing boards, privatization, reduction
or removal of subsidies, elimination of import control such as quantitative restrictions, reduction
of import tariffs, free orientation towards exports, and investment liberalization and deregulation,
or the opening up of assets to for rent ownership. The structural adjustment policies have had a
major impact on agricultural policies in developing countries. In particular, the removal of
subsidies and protection from imports has made the rural producers more vulnerable to the direct
effects and vagaries of the global markets, as the interventionist measures and capacity of the
state were withdrawn. In many countries, rural producers are facing intense competition from
imports that are cheaper than their own produce. the effects of loan conditionalities began to be
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felt in the 1980s and 1990s for most of the affected countries. The WTO made a later entry, as it
is published in 1995. at first, to developing, country governments were hopeful that they would
benefit from the new rules in agriculture, as the incorporation of agriculture into the system of the
WTO would presumably lead to the dismantling of protection in the developed countries.
agriculture is one area where the developing countries are widely believed to have a comparative
advantage, and thus they expected to benefit from expanded exports to the rich markets.
However, they were sorely disappointed, as the expected benefits have not accrued, due
to the continued protectionism in the North. This maintenance of protectionist measures was
allowed within the framework of the Agreement on Agriculture (AoA) On the other hand, the
developing countries had, under the AoA, also committed to play strict limits on their domestic
subsidies, to give quantitative restrictions placed on imports, and to reduce their boundaries.
these commitments made it even more difficult for them to promote and protect the interest of
their rural producers.
The global economic framework on agriculture shaped to a large extent by the loan
conditionalities of the IFS and the rules of the WTO has resulted in a situation where the
developed countries are able to continue with an even expanding domestic subsidies and to
continue with a significant level of export subsidies, as well as high tariffs on their sensitive
agricultural products, while the developing countries are constrained ( by the WTO rules, by loan
conditionalities and by budget constraints) from increasing their farm subsidies, and have strong
pressure( through loan conditionalities) to maintain low applied tariff rates and even reduce these,
as well as to significantly reduce their bound tariffs( through existing WTO rules and new proposed
rules).
The imbalances in the global framework have handicapped to developing countries, which
already have week starting points due to their lack of financial and technical resources and their
low level of development. The unilateral policies taken under structural adjustment have been
reinforced or complemented by multilateral commitments that the countries are obliged to
implement under the world trade organization rules. This combination of policies initiated under
loan conditionality and then reinforce under multilateral rules as bound the developing countries
in a web of commitment and policy constraints and measures and they find it difficult within this
context to maneuver or to be able to choose between policy options that are suitable for their
agricultural development. More so, many developing countries that had faced a debt default
situation has come under the influence of loan conditionalities of the IFI ( IMF and WB). The
'structural adjustment' programs and policies include measures that affect rural producers directly.
These include the liberalization of imports, the dismantling of state marketing boards and state
procurement systems, and the reduction or elimination of subsidies. These policies resulted in
the rural communities of many of these countries facing greater vulnerability.
Effect of Inequality to the Rural Population
Source(s): Ibon Facts and Figures (2014) Worsening Peasant Situation. Vol. 37, No.18
Worsening Exploitation
The exploitative landlord-tenant relationship with crop sharing systems such as 50-50, 1/32/3, ¼-3/4 of the gross harvest in favor of the landlord remain widespread. Farmers get only 21%
of the value of their fross harvest in Southern Tagalog and Only 19% in Eastern Visayas.
Farmworkers also continue to receive low wages ranging from Php35 to Php200 per day. In
Hacienda Luisita, sacadas (farmworker) earn only an average of Php 35 to Php 80 per day. IN
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Eastern Visayas, farmworkers earn an average of 18,000 a year or only Php 49 per day. In
Cagayan Valley, farm workers are paid only Php40-Php70 per day in cassava and sugarcane
plantations. All these are way below the so-called minimum wages set by the Regional Wage
Boards. In Eastern Visayas, rice farmers’ incomes average Php 23.50 per day. In Southern
Tagalog copra famers are left with nothing and driven deeper to debt. For fishermen working in
fish cages and fish farms, they earn only Php100 to Php150 for 20 hours of work.
Labor flexibilization is enforced in the plantations through the systems of gang labor and
contractualization. Under these systems, regular farmworkers have been displaced and the
hacienderos deal only with contractors or labor gang foreman. Prices of farm inputs, from seeds
to fertilizers and agri-chemicals, increase every year. Fertilizer prices are now at Php 2,000 per
bag from Php436 per bag in 2001. Other agrichemicals such as pesticides cost between PHp800
to Php1,600 per bag. On the other hand, rent for farm tools is also exorbitant. For example, the
rent for a tractor is Php6,000 per hectare; the rent for thresher is 1/10 of the threshed palay.
Peasant Struggles
Despite the continuing hardship and repression, Filipino farmers are undaunted. For
centuries, they have suffered the same forms of exploitative relation and repression. The
struggles against Spanish and American colonization were largely pushed by agrarian demands
and peasant revolts where hundreds of thousands of peasants fought and perished. Even after
the country gained nominal independence from the US, peasant struggles have continued
precisely because of the same feudal and semi-feudal condition has persisted.
Land Occupation
Farmers and farmworkers also wage successful land occupation campaigns across the
country. The network of advocates from the church and non-government organizations (NGOs)
including lawyers and international organizations provide support to such campaigns. In the
Visayas area members of the San Roque Farmers Association (SRFA) in Bgy. Bonbon,
Aloguinsan, Cebu stood up for their rights over the 168-hectare corn lands claimed by the
Gantuangco family and other vested interests. They made their claim stronger the disputed lands
by cultivating the lands for organic farming and strengthening their organization. In Bohol, the
Trinidad Talibon Integrated Farmers Association (TTIFA) successfully occupied and cultivated
1,900 hectares of idle lands which were once a cattle farm issued to Marcos crony Danding
Cojuangco and partners. The farmers have occupied and cultivated the land since the 1980s and
struggle to have their organization and members reorganized by the DAR and be issued
certificates of land ownership awards (CLOAs). They asserted their rights for support services
such as paved roads and water supply including farm implements from the DA and the LGU. To
date, even as they are threatened with land-use conversion to oil palm plantation promoted by
the DA, the TTIFA members remain steadfast in their struggle to assert their right to decide what
to plant and how to appropriate their produce. They have their rice mill, trade their rice, and set
their price independent from big rice traders in Bohol
Theories on Global Inequality
World System Theory
Source(s): Wallerstein, Immanuel (2006) “ The Modern World System as a Capitalist World- Economy.
The World System Theory Pp 20-29 & Internet Modern History Sourcebook (o.n) Summary of Wallerstein
on World System Theory Modern History Sourcebook
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Immanuel Wallerstein in his book, The Modern World System: Capitalist Agriculture and the
Origins of the European World Economy in the Sixteenth Century, developed a theoretical
framework to understand the historical changes involved in the rise of the modern world. The
modern world system of capitalism emerged after the crisis of the feudal system. Wallerstein in
developing this theory explained how Western Europe rose to supremacy between 1450 and
1670. As Wallerstein argued, before the 16th century Western Europe was dominated by the
feudal system. A system of relation between those who “have” and “have not”— the landlords
who own the land and the peasants who do not own the land but work within it for wages.
Wallerstein argued that Europe moved towards a capitalist world economy to ensure the
continuing economic growth of the nation. This however, meant the expansion of geographical
size in controlling the process of production across different states. The new world economy was
not forged through imperial system of government which used political force (usually showing
brute colonial control) to direct the flow of economic goods from the periphery to the center. The
modern world economy did not rely on political force or colonial systems of exploitation but rather
through economic coercion. Immanuel Wallerstein argues that nations co-exist in a world
economy- a large geographic zone where there is a division of labor, exchange of basic goods
and constant flow of capital and labor. In this kind of world structure capitalism strives. Capitalism
as Wallerstein simply defines is an economic system based on the private ownership of the means
of production and their operation for profit. Characteristics central to capitalism include private
property, capital accumulation, wage labor, voluntary exchange, a price system, and competitive
markets. The World-Economy and a Capitalist System coexist because of the international
division of labor. A capitalist system cannot exist within any framework except that of a worldeconomy.
Wallerstein as he defined the world-system as the necessary condition for capitalism to thrivethe linkage of sate’s economically through the international division of labor. Wallerstein (1974)
said that a world-system is a "multicultural territorial division of labor in which the production and
exchange of basic goods and raw materials is necessary for the everyday life of its inhabitants."
This international division of labor can be illustrated through these categories:
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Core Countries
Countries that are classified under the
category of core- exploit other countries for labor
and raw materials. They benefit most from the
capitalist world economy. They are referred to
as the “haves”. These countries have industries,
government, social elites, financial power and
systems of education. For the period under
discussion, Wallerstein argued that much of
northwestern Europe (England, France and
Holland) developed as the first core region.
Politically, these states developed strong central governments, extensive bureaucracies and
large mercenary armies. This permitted the bourgeoisie or the local capitalist to extend his
international commerce to extract capital surpluses from other countries through trade. They
are at the forefront of technological progress and have significant influence on less developed
non-core nations
Semi-Periphery
Between the two extremes the semi-peripheries are the countries that attempt to improve
their relative position in the world economic system. They often serve as buffers between the
core regions and the peripheries. Economically, these countries fail to predominate in
international trade and do not benefit as much from a capitalist world economy as the core
countries. They are countries that are exploited by the core but are also able to exploit other
peripheral countries.
Periphery
These countries are considered to be those who “have not” By contrast, the periphery
countries possess mining, forestry, agriculture, less power, poor systems of education and
low wages that are incapable of sustaining affluent lifestyles. These areas lacked strong
central governments or were usually controlled by other states. They export raw materials to
the core, and relied on coercive labor practices. These countries usually have a colonial
history that have damaged the structures of their local economy. In our context for example,
America is the core state and the Philippines is the peripheral state. We export raw materials
(i.e. electronic parts) to America, which they, in turn, process into a product because they are
the ones who have capital (i.e. cellphones). Then sell it back to us. The core countries
dominate and exploit the peripheral countries for labor and raw materials. The peripheral
countries are dependent on core countries for capital. Moreover, it is usually characterized by
high percentages of uneducated people who can mainly provide cheap unskilled labor to the
core nations. There is also a high level of social inequality, together with a relatively weak
government which is unable to control country’s economic activity and the extensive influence
of the core countries.
Capitalism as a World System
Source(s): Wallerstein, Immanuel (2006) “ The Modern World System as a Capitalist World- Economy.
The World System Theory Pp 20-29
& Internet Modern History Sourcebook (o.n) Summary of Wallerstein on World System Theory Modern
History Sourcebook & Vela, Carlos Martinez A. (2001) World System Theory ESD. 83
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The Contemporary World
Within Immanuel Wallerstein’s work the theme of inequality marks the gap between the Third
World and the West. Only a transformation of the world-system itself, dealing with the structures
of the international division of labor can inequality truly be resolved. According to Wallerstein
Capitalism de-territorialized meaningful state boundaries. As he argued, “the techniques of
modern capitalism and the technology of modern science, the two being somewhat linked as we
know, enabled this world-economy to thrive, produce and expand without the emergence of a
unified political structure.” Wallerstein also mentioned in his book- The Modern World System:
Capitalist Agriculture and the Origins of the European World Economy in the Sixteenth Century,
how capitalism continue to thrive in the modern world economy. He used the Kondratieff Cycle
developed by Nikolai Kondratiev as a reference. In the 1930s the Soviet Union asked Nikolai
Kondratieff a mathematician, to create a model that would prove that capitalism would fall and
communism would endure. However, Kondratiev’s work proved to be contrary to the ideals of the
Soviet Union. In his study of economic history, he reached the conclusion that economics was
better explained by technology than class struggle. Kondratiev observed that technology did not
evolve linearly but rather it leaps every 50 to 60 years.
Cycle
Period
Description
1st Cycle
1770-1820
Initial mechanization
2nd Cycle
1820-1870
Steam power, railroads and telegraphs
3rd Cycle
1870-1930
Electricity, internal combustion and heavy engineering
4th Cycle
1930-1980
Mass production, Fordism and nuclear energy
5th Cycle
1980-2030
Telecommunications and informatics
6th Cycle
2030-2080
Robotics, alternative
Technologies
energies,
and
Human
Enhancement
Karl Marx predicted that capitalism was crisis prone and that it would soon fall apart. But
Kondratieff found that capitalism reinvented itself with each crisis. As the saying goes, “ desperate
times call for desperate measures” Crisis give rise to new solutions( investment in technology
and new business models). These periods of crisis and struggle, lasting generally between 1215 years, eventually creates a new form of capitalism.
Crisis Sub-phases of Kondratieff Cycles
Cycle
Period
Description
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The Contemporary World
Pre-cycles
1770-1820
Seven years’ War (1756-63)
1st Cycle
1820-1870
Napoleonic Wars
2nd Cycle
1870-1930
Crimean War, Triple Alliance War, American Civil War, Unification
of both Germany and Italy
3rd Cycle
1930-1980
World War I and inter-war period
4th Cycle
1980-2030
Vietnam War, Space Race, Cold War, Arab-Israeli Wars
(1967,1973)
5th Cycle
2030-2080
??
The 1939-1945 period was one of intensive technological development and economic growth, in
the face of massive destruction. The post-war period gave us strong and fast expansion with a
new public “business model” of the Welfare State. As the K wave propose it is in times of
desperation that people are investing in new technologies and thinking out of the box, trying new
things and accepting the previously unacceptable. This is when a set of new technologies that
have bene too risky to develop becomes more feasible due to the increased tolerance of risk.
How Business Models Adapt
When technology changes, capitalism adapts. Business models evolve for companies to
continue to gain profit. As technology and the economy co-evolved new business models are
created. Models like retail business, public companies, franchises, manufacturing, joint ventures,
Private-Public Partnership, etc. have been developed to cope with the increasing complexity of
the modern world. To simplify, Kondratiev argued, every technological revolution gives capitalism
the opportunity to reinvent itself. For example, we have recently seen the invention of new extranational currencies such as bitcoin and commercial transactions are focused on reducing
bureaucratic barriers between the provider of service and monetization, like Pay Pal.
Understanding the consumersis important in developing new dynamic business models. The
users may change over time which is why businesses must remain flexible. We could use the
manufacture of drones as an example. It was initially created for military used; however, after
some tie, it is also used as a tor or in agriculture to dust crops with insecticide.
The Kondratieff Cycle or K Wave as some would call it is a long duration economic cycle
of capital goods expansion that plays at over a period of about 50 years and underlies the usual
boom-bust cycles characteristics of a capitalist economy. It may be divided into four phases.
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The Contemporary World
Spring- A time of new innovation sparks production and growth. People start investing into new
technologies and think outside the box to try and find new things previously unacceptable. This is
when a set of new technologies that had been too risky to develop becomes more feasible.
Summer- increase in the general affluence level leads to changing attitudes toward work that
result in a deceleration of economic growth.
Autumn- Stagnating economic conditions give rise to a deflationary growth spiral that gives rise
to isolationist policies, further curtailing growth prospects.
Winter- Economy in the throes of a debilitating depression that tear the social fabrics of society.
This is when the dwindling number of the “haves” and the expanding number of the “have-nots”
increases dramatically.
The first resulted from the invention of the steam engine and ran from 1780 to 1830.The
second cycle arose because of the steel industry and the spread of railroads, and ran from 1830
to 1880.The third cycle resulted from electrification and innovation in the chemical industry, and
ran from 1880 to 1930.The fourth cycle was fueled by autos and petrochemicals, and lasted from
1930 to 1970.The fifth cycle was based on information technology and began in 1970 and ran
through the present, though some economists believe we are at the start of a sixth wave that will
be driven by biotechnology and healthcare.
Stages of Growth
The development of the modern world economy according to Wallerstein lasted centuries.
During this time, different regions changed their positions within the system. Wallerstein
divided the emergence of the capitalist world economy into four stages.
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The Contemporary World
Stage 1 & 2
Wallerstein believed that this emerged between 1450-1670m, when the Hapsburg Empire
failed to convert the emerging world economy to a world empire. Since it cannot be politically
united under the same system of empire what emerged was the modern world system
sustained by the international division of labor among states- existing interdependently.
Bureaucratization was the process that aided the limited but growing power of the king.
Because of the state’s power to collect taxes the king increased the state power to borrow
money and thereby further expand the state bureaucracy. Homogenization also helped the
process of solidifying the modern world economy. To underline the state involvement in the
new capitalist system they encouraged the rise of indigenous capitalist groups. Minorities
were expelled from the core states. Spain and France were expelled with the rise of absolute
monarchy. Next, the Expansion of the militia (military force that is raised from the civil
population), to support the centralized monarchy through military resources. More so, it would
prevent the state from invasion. Next, Diversification was also important to improve the
economic activities of the state to maximize its profits and strengthen the position of the local
bourgeoisie. According to Wallerstein, by 1640 northwestern European states secured their
position as core states in the emerging economy. Spain and Northern Italy was displaced;
declining to the category of semi-periphery.
Stage 3 & 4
Industrial rather than agricultural capitalism represented this era. With the shifting
emphasis on industrial production. European state participated in exploration for the
exploitation of new markets across the globe. The competitive world system emerged such
as the Indian Ocean system. Asia and Africa entered the system in the 19th Century as
peripheral zones. During this phase, the core region shifted to a combination of agricultural
and industrial interest to purely industrial concern.
Through this theory, Wallerstein attempts to explain why modernization had such wideranging and different effects on the world. He showed how political and economic conditions
after the breakdown of feudalism transformed northwestern Europe. With his theory in mind,
we could see how the geographic expansion of the capitalist world economy altered the
political system and labor condition wherever it was able to penetrate. In hindsight the world
system analysis gives us a narrative of world historical development from the 16th century to
the present, with boundaries, structures, member groups, rules of legitimation and coherence.
Dependency Theory
The dependency theory explains the economic
development of states. The theory was developed in the 1950s.
to explain how both the development and the
underdevelopment of countries are related in the international
system. It in itself is a mixture of various theories that also
include Wallerstein’s world system theory. This theory simply
answers why there are countries that are poor and some rich.
Economically, it argues that neoliberal policies continue the
system of dependence that chain developing countries’
economic status to the developed countries. This is why
developing countries remain poor. They fit in the mold of the
economic hierarchy of the world economy. The core countries,
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The Contemporary World
1st world countries perpetuate their dominance through resource bondage. Where instead of the
practice of self-help- where developing countries produce goods and resources for themselves,
they are economically coerced through the neoliberal policies and loan conditionalities
established by the World Bank, World Trade Organization and the International Monetary Fund.
These countries continue to be dependent to the core countries since synonymously the core
countries need the infinite supply of raw material sand cheap labor that these peripheral countries
provide to maintain their economic status.
According to Romanuik (2017) there are three main characteristics of the dependency
theory worth taking note of. First, the international system seen as the sum of two set of statesthe dominant and the dependent. Secondly, the dependency theory holds that external forces are
critical in terms of economic activity of dependent states. Lastly, the relationship of the two is
based on historical patterns and dynamics. The years that followed the end of the Second World
War in 1945 and the swift and extensive process of decolonization could be traced as the roots
of state’s dependency. After the Second World War the United States and the Soviet Union acted
as the new leaders of the new world (a world where there are more independent states liberated
from their past masters). Both acted to lead the world into a new although with opposing ideals in
mind. Neocolonialism was the dominating and expanding ideology of the United States and
Socialism for the Soviet Union. Many countries did not follow the international framework of the
United States, rather they pursued the influence of the Soviet Union’s socialist model. The
economic system established by the neocolonial ideology of the United States explain the
continuing structure of relationship between past colonies to their past colonizers. Peripheral
countries become dominated by the foreign interest that originates from core countries. Although
underdevelopment can be overcome, for it to be accomplished, countries need to be disconnected
from the dominance of the core countries and the system or structure that their interest and
policies produce.
ASSESSMENT 2
Instruction: In this section of the module, your general knowledge and understanding
of the subject so far will be tested. Please answer the following questions in a 150word essay. Please answer each question using the following format- Arial 11,
single-spaced. For those who will receive a printed version of this module please
answer the following in a short bond paper. Indicate the Self-Test #_ and write your
name ( Last Name, First Name , M.I) and your Course and Section .
·
Write a short paper (1,000 words min) that addresses the contemporary condition
of the Philippines by applying both the dependency theory and the world system
theory. By doing so, students must apply the theories discussed in this module to
shed light on the present circumstance of the country’s economy. Students are
advised to use newspaper articles to try and make sense of the Philippine’s
position in the world economy.
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The Contemporary World
LESSON 2: STRUCTURES OF GLOBALIZATION
UNIT 1: The Globalization of World Economies
Introduction:
We learn that politics, culture, and economy are interconnected. This chapter will focus on
the economic area of globalization and how it came to be. This section will not only focus on the
the global history but apply the theories on the present situation, specifically with the global
pandemic we are experiencing. The discussion will provide how important the economy is. At the
same time the discussion will also focus on the matter of macro (global market) perspective and
micro perspective (community /individuals). The discussion will give the students a clear
understanding of the structure of the global economy and its consequences.
Learning Objectives:
By the end of this unit students must be able to:
1. Define economic globalization
2. Identify the actors that facilitate economic globalization
3. narrate the short history of global market integration in the twentieth century
4. Demonstrate critical thinking in comprehending contemporary realities in light of global
economic relationships.
5. And articulate stance on global economic integration
Sections of the Unit :
1. What is economic globalization?
2. Early historical traces of exchange up to present
3. Economic Globalization today
4. Economic Crisis into Social Crisis
What is economic globalization?
According to Held et. Al (1999), globalization may be
thought of initially as the widening, deepening, and speeding up
of worldwide interconnectedness in all aspects of contemporary
social life. Globalization is best thought of as a multidimensional
phenomenon. It refers to the increasing integration of economies
around the world, particularly through the movement of goods,
services, capital and even people (labor) & knowledge
(technology) across borders.
In this discussion’s context these are the important terms
and concepts:
Internationalization- Extension of economic Activities.
Economic Globalization - Integration between dispersed activities. As defined by Szentes, ‘in
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The Contemporary World
economic terms globalization is nothing but a process making the world economy an organic
system by extending transnational economic processes and economic relations to more and
more countries and by deepening the economic interdependencies among them. Nation State is
still a relevant factor on globalization.
Globalization- Globalization is nothing but a process making the world economy an “organic
system”Globalization transforms the national economy into a global one.Globalization is an
effective manager of the national economy.
The International Monetary Fund (IMF) regards “economic globalization” as a historical
process representing the result of human innovation and technological progress (Claudio and
Abinales 2018). It is characterized by increasing integration of economies around the world
through movement and exchange of goods, services and capital. (Claudio and Abinales 2018).
Much like globalization, the definition of integration along with other consequences of it is
qualitative and subjective. Are the increase in Growth Domestic Product (GDP) and Foreign Direct
Investment
(FDI)
are
good
indicators
of
the
increasing
integration?
According to the United Nations Conference on Trade and development (UNCTAD), the
amount of FDIs flowing across the world was 57 billion US dollars in 1982, by 2015 that number
was 1.76 trillion dollars (Claudio and Abinales 2018). These dramatic increases in global trade
happened in the span of just a few decades.
Considering the increased speed in exchange and frequency of trading due to
technological advancements, the world is quickly evolving. From songs Compact Disks to MP3
format that you can download online. Physical exchange was gradually replaced or supplemented
by online virtual access. On the other hand, there is a cultural lag between not only nations but
also in the communities that belong to it. Internet connection is now considered as an essential
commodity especially now that everything that we do is now anchored to the world wide web. In
these trying times of the COVID-19 pandemic, access to the internet and personal priorities were
the problems of a poor student. The discrepancies between the rich and poor are still significant.
This chapter assesses economic globalization and examines who benefits and who is left out.
Early historical traces of exchange up to present
Gills and Thompson (2006) suggests that globalization
processes have been ongoing since Homo sapiens began migrating
from the African continent ultimately to populate the rest of the
world. International Trading Systems is not new, the oldest known
international trade was the Silk Road – a network of pathways in the
ancient world that spanned from China to what is now the Middle
East and to Europe. Traders used the Silk Road from 130 BCE when
the Chinese Han Dynasty opened the trade to the West up until
1453 BCE when the Ottoman Empire closed it.
However, the Silk Road was not considered “global”
because it had no ocean routes that could reach the American
continent. According to historians Dennis O. Flynn and Arturo
Giraldez, “all important populated continents began to exchange
products continuously – both with each other directly and indirectly
via other continents – and in values sufficient to generate crucial impacts on all trading partners.”
Flynn and Giraldez, trace this back to 1571 when the galleon trade was established, that
connected Manila in Acapulco. This was the first time that the Americas were connected to Asian
trading routes.
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The Contemporary World
Important concept: International Monetary System (IMS)-Rules, customs, instruments, facilities,
and organizations for affecting international payments (Salvatore, 2007).Reflects economic power
and interests.
Galleon trade was part of the age of mercantilism. Mercantilism was thus also a part of
the global trade but with multiple restrictions. A more open trade system emerged in 1867, when
the United States and other European nations adopted the gold standard at an international
monetary conference in Paris. Mainly, the goal is to establish a common system that would allow
more efficient trade. The countries established a common basis for currency prices and a fixed
exchange rate system – all based on the value of gold.
The gold standard, despite being the simpler trade, is a very restrictive system, as it
compelled countries to back their currencies with fixed gold reserves. During World War I, many
countries were forced to abandon the gold standard, when they depleted their gold reserves.
Since European countries had low gold reserves, they adopted floating currencies that were no
longer redeemable in gold.
Returning to a pure standard became more
difficult as the Great Depression came in the 1920s and
extended until up to the 1930s. This depression was the
worst and longest recession ever experienced by the
Western world. Some economists argued that this was
largely caused by the gold standard, since it limited the
amount of circulating money and therefore, reduced
demand and consumption.
Economic historian Barry Eichengreen argues
that the recovery of the United States began when they
abandoned the gold standard and the US government
was able to free up money to spend on reviving their
economy. At the height of World War II, other
industrialized countries, other industrialized countries
followed suit.
Though more indirect versions of the gold standard were used until the 1970s, the world
never returned to the gold standard of the early 20th century. Now, the world operates using what
is called the fiat currencies – currencies whose value is determined by their cost relative to other
currencies. This system allows governments to freely and actively manage their economies by
increasing or decreasing the amount of money as they see fit.
Economic Globalization Today
Exports make national economies grow. In the past, the countries who benefited most
from the free trade were the advanced nations that were producing and selling industrial and
agricultural goods. The United States, Japan, and the member-countries of the European Union
were responsible for 65 percent of global exports, while developing countries only accounted for
29 percent. More countries opened up their economies to take advantage of the increased free
34
The Contemporary World
trade, which results in higher percentages accumulated by the developing countries. The trade
liberalization has altered the dynamics of the global economy.
In the recent decades, economic globalization has spiked in global growth rates, partly as
a result of the increased exports. According to the IMF, the global per capita GDP rose over fivefold in the second half of the 20th century.Yet, economic globalization remains an uneven process,
with some countries, corporations, and even individuals are benefitting a lot more than others.
Economic Crisis into Social Crisis
Source(s): Atkinson et.al. 2015. The Sociology Book: Big Ideas Explained.DK publishing 345 Hudson
Street, New York.
Karl Marx reiterated that capitalist societies are more
prone to economic crises and that this will worsen over time,
which will lead to workers’ revolution. But why is it that when a
society falls in a crisis, a different change in the political climate
often follows?
This question was posed by Jurgen Habermas in the
early 1970s. Habermas was intrigued by the relationship
between capitalism and crises.
He also suggests that traditional Marxist theories of crisis
tendencies are not applicable to some Western late-capitalist
societies. The reason is because these societies have become
more democratic and have changed significantly because
welfare-state policies, such as free healthcare provision. Also,
collective identities have fragmented and there is increased
individualization, and fewer class-based conflicts.
Although the economic cycles of prosperity and recession
continue, policy measures by nation-states have enabled them
to avert major crises. Unlike earlier capitalist societies, under
state-regulated late-capitalism, the primary site of crisis and
conflict has shifted to the cultural and political spheres. The
crisis of modern Western society is, according to Habermas,
one of legitimation. Legitimacy has become the focal concern
because the state, as manager of the “free market” economy,
has simultaneously to solve economic problems, ensure
democracy, and please the voters. If the public feels
government policies are unfair, it withdraws its support for the
government. The state therefore has the difficult task of
balancing the pursuit for capital with maintaining mass
support. In other words, state policies must favor business and
property owners while appearing to represent the interests of
35
The Contemporary World
all. This means the conditions exist for government institutions to suffer a large-scale loss of
legitimacy.
If citizens sense that the government is just and
benevolent, then they will show support. If, however, they
feel that policies are not in their interests, people will
respond with political apathy or even large-scale
discontent and protests. Given a threat to the status quo,
a government may try to appease its citizens with short
lived social welfare measures.
TERM PAPER 1
Instruction: Students will be tasked to write a critical paper that addresses the contemporary
condition of the Philippines by applying both the economic relations and the status of the
country on battling the COVID-19 Pandemic. How has the world economy and the global
pandemic influence the state of the Philippines’ economy? Please answer each question
using the following format- Arial 11, single-spaced. For those who will receive a printed
version of this module please answer the following in a short bond paper. Indicate the
Term Paper #_ and write your name ( Last Name, First Name , M.I) and your Course
and Section .
•
Supplementary reading (optional):
Policy Paper: The Philippines’ COVID-19 Response: Symptoms of Deeper Malaise in
the Philippine Health Systems (June 2020) by Paul Quintos.
https://ncpag.upd.edu.ph/wp-content/uploads/covid19response.pdf
UNIT 2: Global Politics & Contemporary Global Governance
Introduction:
Governance and Government are usually expressed as synonyms in most dictionaries,
indicating the authority exercised by an institution, state, or organization. However, governance,
unlike the objectively defined institution of the government, is defined more as the process of
exercising political, economic, and administrative authority to manage national or international
affairs. It ensures the distribution of power to manage public resources and provide solutions for
existing problems. In this lesson, we focus on how connectivity or integration of countries occur
in globalization and shed light in the discussion of international order and world government. It
puts United Nation as the main platform for the integration of world leaders in terms of politics,
economy, and military affairs. The principal institution in charge of the process of governance is
the United Nations- founded in 1945 in the wake of the Second World War. The institution was
established to limit future conflicts that bring catastrophic global consequences that endanger the
innate rights and dignity of men. The United Nations' primary mandate is to preserve global
security and settle international legal issues that jeopardize the sovereignty of some Nation
States.
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The Contemporary World
Learning Objectives:
By the end of this unit students must be able to:
1. Analyze the dynamics of global politics and governance
2. Explain the drivers of global governance
3. Understand the process of governance and how it influences the relationship of Nation
States.
4. Examine the implications of established universal principles to the manner of national
governance.
Sections of the Unit:
1.
2.
3.
4.
What is state and nation?
The interstate system and internationalism
Global governance and the United Nations
Universal Declaration of Human Rights
As discussed briefly in Lesson 1, the state and nation are different but highly related to each
other. A state is independent and has sovereignty over its territory while nation is a population
having shared culture, history, territory and more. Sovereignty is a power to control its state
externally (its relationship to other sovereign state) and internally (its relationship to citizens
and other governing bodies).
Politics’ Premise
1. There are countries or states that are independent and govern themselves
2. These countries interact with each other through diplomacy
3. There are international organizations, like the UN, that facilitate these interactions (such
as UN)
4. International organizations has its own focus on specific sector (ILO, WHO, UNICEF)
The global politics recognize that nation states are sovereign but they opt to participate in the
global community as these international organizations tend to organize interactions between
countries to avoid conflicts.
The International State System
The concept of sovereignty (present-day) can be traced back to Treaty of Westphalia (1648), a
set of agreements to end the Thirty Years’ War between the major continental powers of Europe
(Claudio & Abinales, 2018). A long brutal war between the Catholics and Protestant. The birth of
interstate system avoided wars in the future by recognizing state sovereignty. From then on, state
begins to grow in power. It started in Europe and spread to the rest of the world. Europeans
experienced fast development necessary (tax systems and military power) to spread influence
and power around the world. The expansion of the Interstate system began in Europe, spread
globally through imperialism, resulting in over two hundred states and most existing in poverty.
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The Contemporary World
Internationalism
The internationalism is the desire for greater unity among states and people. It comes in two
different forms:
Liberal Internationalism – it offers
orderliness and protection, without a form
of world government, international system
would be chaotic.





Immanuel Kant – likened states in a
global system
Kant imagined a form of global
government.
Jeremy Bentham – creation of
international law for inter-state
relations.
Giuseppe Mazzini – system of free
nations that cooperated with each
other to create an international
system
Woodrow Wilson – prominent
advocate for the creation of the
League of Nations.
Socialist Internationalism - the greatest
happiness of all nations taken together.


Karl Marx – economic equality
Joseph Stalin – Communist
International Bureau
The liberal advocates for participative global community where integration for politics and
economy is highly encourage while the socialist advocates for economic equality. They do not
problematize the divided nations as it is not a problem for them, their main concern is the
economic division of people. For the post-war period, liberal internationalism would once again
prosper and the best evidence to this is the United Nations as the center of global governance.
The first attempt to build a global system is the creation of League of Nations at the end of World
War I. American President Woodrow Wilson is highly associated in the formation of League of
Nations. Although he was advocating for the formation of it, he was not able to join the league the
moment it was formed due to opposition of the Senate.
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The Contemporary World
The Global Governance
Governance is the action or the manner of governing. In the contemporary global governance,
there is no one organization that various states are accountable to follow and more likely no
organization can militarily force a state to follow the global rules. But there are, somehow, existing
general behavior of states such as following navigational route and recognizing respective
territorial boundaries. If they would not, it will be a global concern. Maintaining the international
order is by following the global norms despite the lack of holistic single world government. Global
governance is the different intersecting processes that create this order.
Sources of Global Governance
International Organizations refers to international intergovernmental organizations or groups that
are primarily made up of member states (e.g. United Nations). IOs can become influential as an
independent organization. They are merely a union of various state interest and that is where the
conflict
occurs.
Powers of IOs (from Michael Barnett and Martha Finnemore):
•
Power of Classification (e.g. urban vs. rural in which affects the salary rate, and land
value of a place)
•
Power to fix meanings (e.g. setting the spread of the virus from outbreak to pandemic in
which the countries rely their response)
•
Power to diffuse norms (e.g. declaring the use of mask as not important if you are not
exposed to an infected person)
IOs can create great good or great harm. They can promote relevant norms such as
environmental protection and human rights while turning an eye to the communities that challenge
their beliefs.
The United Nations
It was not perfect but so far it achieved its primary goal of preventing another global war.
Five Active Organs:
1. The General Assembly
2. Security Council
3. Economic and Social Council
4. Trusteeship Council
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The Contemporary World
5. International Court of Justice
The General Assembly
▪
▪
▪
▪
▪
”main deliberative policymaking and representative organ”
annually elects GA President to serve a one-year term
all member states (currently at 193) have seats in the GA.
Philippines played a prominent role when Carlos P. Romulo
was elected
(1949-1950)
Although GA is the most representative organization, Security Council is
considered to be the most powerful
Security Council
▪
▪
▪
Consists of 15 member states
GA elects 10 of these 15 to two-year terms
Other 5 (sometimes referred to as permanent 5 (P5)) are China, France, Russia, United
Kingdom & United States
Security Council’s P5
•
•
•
Each country holds veto power over the council’s decisions. It only takes one veto vote
from a P5 member to stop an SC action dead in its tracks.
Russia has threatened to veto any SC resolution against Syria
United States sought to Iraq in 2001, claiming that Saddam Hussein had weapons of
mass destruction (WMS) that threatened the world. UN vetoed the resolution for
intervention. There were no WMS.
IOs can be an effective tool in meddling global problems but it can also turn it backs on the major
global issues of today if it has conflict of interest in dominant countries. That is why this
contemporary governance is not an end point, and UN was never perfect governing body for
global community, but it is recognized because of its eminent role. International institutions like
the UN are always in precarious position in global governance. We knew that they are composed
of several sovereign states which makes them a collective group, but they are also an organization
with their own rationalities and agendas creating conflict on their own interests.
Defending Dignity: The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (From: Amnesty International)
Source(s): The following are resources gathered verbatim to a short course offered by Amnesty
International
One of the accomplishments of the end of the barbarous Second World was that the need
to consider human rights to be universally respected was recognized to be important. The
extermination of almost 17 million people during the Holocaust horrified the entire world. After the
war, governments worldwide made a concentrated effort to foster international peace and prevent
conflict This resulted to the establishment of the United Nations in June1945. In 1948,
representatives from the 50 member states of the United Nations came together under the
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The Contemporary World
guidance of Eleanor Roosevelt (Delegate to the United Nations General Assembly) to devise a
list of all the human rights that deserve universal protection in order for every individual to live
their life freely, equally and in dignity. Two of the chief drafters of the Declaration were Charles
Malik from Lebanon and Peng Chun Chang from China. Women from a range of countries played
a crucial role in shaping the Declaration, including Minerva Bernardino from the Dominican
Republic, Hansa Mehta from India and Begum Shaista Ikramullah from Pakistan. The drafting
committee of the Declaration and the Human Rights Commission that contributed to the
development of the Declaration further consisted of members from France, India, the former
Soviet Union, Chile, Australia, United Kingdom and Canada.
On 10 December 1948, the General Assembly of the United Nations adopted a
revolutionary new document, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Human Rights were not
invented in December 1948. The need for security, dignity and freedom is part of human nature,
and the idea that those in power have an obligation to respect and realize these needs has been
around for hundreds of years. What made the Declaration of 1948 truly revolutionary was that the
UN member states acknowledged that all human beings, all over the world and without any
discrimination, were born with the same, indivisible human rights that deserved international
protection, and all nations and every people had a right and a duty to stand up for the rights of
everybody else.
1. Right to Equality (Article 1): All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
We are all born free. We all have our own thoughts and ideas. We should all be treated in the
same way. The notion of human dignity and freedom is the very essence of the Declaration.
2. Right to Life, Liberty and Personal Security (Article 3): We all have the right to life, and to
live in freedom and safety. The right to life is the prerequisite for the enjoyment of all other human
rights.
3. Freedom from torture and other ill-treatment (Article 5): Nobody shall be subjected to
torture or other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment. Freedom from torture is an absolute right
and can never be taken away from us. Torture is considered as one of the most severe human
rights violations and a gruesome attack on our dignity as human beings.
4. Right to recognition as a person before the law (Article 6): We are all entitled to all human
rights and we all have the same right to use the law wherever we go. Being recognized as a
person before the law enables us to enjoy and exercise the rights tied to our dignity. To put it
simply, Article 6 is “the right to have rights”.
5. Right to privacy (Article 12): Privacy enables us to protect our dignity from unjust interference
in our lives by states or any other power holders. It enables us to determine who we are and how
we want to engage with others.
6. Right to social order (Article 28): We have a right to a social and international order in
which we can all enjoy our human rights. States have an obligation to respect, protect and fulfill
our rights and create a society that preserves the dignity of everyone.
7. Freedom from interference in these human rights (Article 30): Nobody, no government,
company, individual or group can take away the rights and freedoms from us.
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights relates to all aspects of our lives, whether it
is work, education, health, food or housing. When human rights are respected, they often go
unnoticed and only become visible when they are being denied.
Important Issues Addressed by the Declaration
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1. People should receive equal pay for equal work regardless of their gender
- Art. 1 (Right to Equality)
- Art. 2 (Right to Non-discrimination)
- Art. 23 (Right to Work)
2. People who have to flee their country because of war or persecution should be able to
seek shelter
- Art. 14 (Right to seek asylum)
- Art. 13 (Freedom of Movement)
- Art. 25 (Right to Food and Shelter)
3. When People Love each other they should be able to express it and marry
- Art. 2 (Right to Non-discrimination)
- Art. 16 (Right to Family life)
- Art. 19 (Freedom of Expression)
4. Children should be able to play and sing, grown ups should be able to have a break from
work
- Art. 25 (Right to Health)
- Art. 2 (Right to Non-discrimination)
- Art. 22 (Right to Social security
5. People should be allowed to play music, read books, dance or engage in other cultural
activities
- Art. 24 (Right to Leisure)
- Art. 22 (Right to Social security & Culture)
- Art. 19 (Freedom of Expression)
Human Rights in your Every Day Life
Article 25: Right to a standard of living adequate for health and well-being. When I buy food
and clothes, and have a place to sleep
Article 3: Right to life and to live in freedom and safety. When I walk freely in my town without
fearing for my life
Article 19: Right to freedom of expression. When I post issues, I’m interested in on social
media.
Article 23: Right to work and form or join trade unions. When I get the same salary as other
people doing the same job as me
Article 12: Right to privacy. When I know the information I provide to websites I use is not
going to be shared with other
Article 26: Right to education. When I am able to attend school
Principles of Human Rights
Interdependent and Indivisible: All human rights in the Universal Declaration have equal
standing. There is no hierarchy of human rights. The guarantee of one human right facilitates
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the guarantee of the others. Likewise, the deprivation of one human right often causes the
violation of others.
Inalienable: Human rights are unconditional and do not have to be bought, inherited or earned.
Human rights cannot be taken away, renounced or exchanged – no one has the right to deprive
another person of their rights or to give up their rights for any reason.
Universal: All human beings, everywhere in the world, have human rights. While the
significance of national, regional and cultural particularities must be kept in mind, it is the duty of
all states to promote and protect all human rights. Rights belong to and are to be enjoyed by all
human beings without distinction of any kind, such as race, color, sex or language, religion,
political and other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other stature. In other
words, human rights belong to everyone. More so, it means that it must be internationally
recognized that human rights are the basic core minimum to be observed everywhere.
The Notion of Equality
Right to Equality (Article 1): Without equality there
cannot be justice. If people are viewed as “less than”
others it opens doors to further discrimination, and
communities without equality are more likely to
suffer additional human rights violations.
Freedom from Discrimination (Article 2):
Regardless of race, color, gender, sexual
orientation, gender identity, religion or belief,
ethnicity, disability, age, political opinion, nationality,
language or any other status, we deserve to be
treated equally. Freedom from discrimination is
important in every community because it shapes the
relationships that exist between individuals and
power holders.
Right to equality before the law (Art. 7): The law
is the same for everyone. It must treat us all fairly.
Every human being is different, but we are all equal
before the law.
Right to seek asylum (Article. 14): If we are being
persecuted in our community or country for who we
are, we all have the right to go to another country
and ask for protection as a refugee.
Right to adequate living standard (Article 25):
Right to adequate living standard (Article. 25): We
all have the right to an adequate standard of living,
including food, clothing, housing, and healthcare.
Mothers and children, people without work, old
people and persons living with disabilities all have
the right to receive special care.
Right to education (Article. 26): We all have the
right to an education, and to primary school, which
FACTS ABOUT GLOBAL INEQUALITY
*The richest 1% is twice as wealthy as the poorest
50% (World Inequality Report 2018, World Wealth
and Income Database)
•Only 22.8 per cent of all national parliamentarians
were women as of June 2016 (UNWOMEN)
•More than 1 in 5 young persons are not in
employment, education or training (NEET). 3 out
of 4 of these are women (ILO)
•19.5% of the world’s children (387 million) live in
extreme poverty ($1.90 a day) compared to just
9.2% of adults (UNICEF)
•57% of refugees today are from just three
countries, Syria, Afghanistan and South Sudan
(UNHCR, Global Trends Report 2018)
•In the least developed countries, barely 60% of
girls complete primary school and just 30% enroll
in secondary school (UNWOMEN)
•Globally, 1 in 3 (35%) of women worldwide have
experienced either physical and/or sexual intimate
partner violence or non-partner sexual violence in
their lifetime (WHO, 2017)
•Children in sub-Saharan Africa will be 10 times
more likely to die before their fifth birthdays than
children in high-income countries (UNICEF)
•99% of all maternal deaths occur in developing
countries. (WHO)
•Average life expectancy in Central African
Republic is less than 55 years old compared to 80
years old in Japan. (WHO, World Health Statistics,
2018)
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should be free. At school, we should be able to develop all our talents and learn to respect others,
whatever their race, religion or nationality.
Right to Participate in cultural life of the community (Article. 27): We have the right to
participate in the traditions and learnings of our community, to enjoy the arts and to benefit from
scientific progress.
• Responsibilities to the community (Art. 29): We have a duty to other people, and we
should protect their rights and freedoms in our communities and beyond
Participation and Social Inclusion
Our rights to participate in decision making processes and shape our societies is key to
further developing the rights enshrined in the Declaration and crucial to fulfilling the promise to
ensure all of us live free from want and fear. Below are some of the rights that enable people to
participate in and influence the processes and decisions which affect their lives.
1.Freedom from slavery (Article. 4): Under no circumstance can a human being be enslaved
or perform forced labor. Nobody has any right to make us a slave. We cannot make anyone else
our slave. A truly fair and inclusive society must be free of slavery, servitude, forced labor and
trafficking. Slavery is the most severe form of social exclusion.
2. Right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion (Article. 18): We all have the right to
believe in what we want to believe, to have a religion, or to change it if we want, and to manifest
it in public or private. We also have a right not to profess any religion or belief. No one can be
compelled to reveal his or her thoughts or adherence to a religion or belief, nor interfere with our
own choices.
3. Freedom of opinion and expression (Article 19): Without being able to freely receive, seek
and impart information, we cannot form an opinion and make informed decisions, engage in public
debate or share our thoughts and concerns. We all have the right to make up our own minds, to
think what we like, to say what we think, and to share our ideas with other people wherever they
live, through books, radio, television and in other ways.
4.Freedom of association and peaceful assembly (Article. 20): When people join forces, they
can hold governments to account, draw attention to an issue and stand up against power-holders
that commit human rights abuses. We all have the right to group with others and to work peacefully
together to defend and promote human rights and shape our societies accordingly.
5.The right to participate in public affairs (Article. 21): Being able to choose who represents
us in government, or being able to be part of the government ourselves, is essential to shape our
societies and influence decisions that affect us.
6. Right to work and to form and join trade unions (Article. 23): Every grown up has the right
to a job, to get a fair wage for their work, to have just and favorable conditions of work and to join
or form a trade union. Being a part of a trade union allows for workers to unite and have collective
power to make their voices heard. Participating in a trade union allows workers to enjoy fair
treatment in the workplace. Employers can not penalize you for participating in trade union
activities or for trade union memberships nor force you to join a particular trade union.
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Crucial Elements of a Participatory Society
1.Free and Independent Press: A participatory society allows opinions, ideas and information
to flow freely through various media, newspaper, radio, blogs and social media.
2.Participation in Decision Making: Ensure that all people can take part in the conduct of
public affairs and have effective opportunities to make their voices heard. The right to political
participation and to take part in government is protected by the UDHR and is an essential
element of inclusive society
3.Independent and Impartial Court: Every person whose rights have been violated, including
their right to non-discrimination, has the right to an effective remedy. And anyone who is accused
of a crime has the right to a fair trial. Independent and impartial courts are crucial for this, and
thus they should not be subject to improper influence from the other branches of government or
from private or partisan interests. This is to ensure that the judiciary is impartial and independent
of all external pressures so that those who appear before them and the wider public can have the
confidence that their cases will be decided fairly and in accordance with the law.
Local Implication
Source(s): Dannug, Roman D.(2005) Politics and Governance C&E Publishing, Inc & Sarmiento, Rene
V. (2014) Human Rights Law, Human Rights Culture Quezon City : Rex Printing Company, Inc
1987 Constitutions contains an Incorporation Clause found in its Article II, Section 2,
stating, " the Philippines renounces war as an instrument of national policy adopts the generally
accepted principles of international laws as part of the land...." This clause made possible the
application in the Philippines of the human rights principles stated in the International Bill of Rights
(composed of the three- Universal Declaration of Human Rights, International Covenant on Civil
and Political Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights).
The preamble to the declaration is important because it refers to the concept of inherent human
dignity and one inalienable human rights as the philosophical sources of the declaration and
inspiration for further development of human rights. The preamble calls for inter-cultural
consensus by indicating that, a common understanding of the rights and freedom is of the greatest
importance for the full realization" of the pledge of members of the united nations which if the
promotion of universal respect for and observance of human rights and fundamental freedoms.
Conceptualizing Social Justice
Source(s): Dannug, Roman D.(2005) Politics and Governance C&E Publishing, Inc & Sarmiento, Rene
V. (2014) Human Rights Law, Human Rights Culture Quezon City : Rex Printing Company, Inc
Social justice is not defined in the 1987 constitution. What commissioner Teresa,
chairperson of the committee on social justice in the 1986 constitutional commission, said that
social justice is the centerpiece of the 1987 constitution and rights, dignity, and participation
remain illusory without social justice. It was Jose P. Laurel in Calalang vs. Williams (70 Phil.726)
who defined social justice as, " neither communism nor despotism, not atomism, nor anarchy, but
the humanization of laws and the equalization of social and economic forces by the state so that
justice in its rationale and objective lee secular conception may at least be approximated.
ASSESSMENT 3
Instruction: Search for more UN activities/decisions and discuss its advantages and
disadvantages.
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Event
Advantages
Disadvantages
1.
2.
Supplementary reading/material (optional):
●
●
●
Esmaquel II, Paterno (2016) “Philippines wins case vs China” Rappler
https://www.rappler.com/nation/137202-philippines-china-ruling-case-westphilippine-sea
Santos, Matikas (2016) “PH win arbitration case over South China Sea”
Inquirer.Net https://globalnation.inquirer.net/140358/philippines-arbitrationdecision-maritime-dispute-south-china-sea-arbitral-tribunal-unclos-itlos
Williams, Robert D. (2016) “ Tribunal Issues Landmark Ruling in South China
Sea Aritration” Lawfare https://www.lawfareblog.com/tribunal-issues-landmarkruling-south-china-sea-arbitration
46
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LESSON 3: THE WORLD OF REGIONS
The Global North and South
Introduction
What is Regionalism and why is it important to understand in a Globalizing world?
There is an idiom: There is strength in numbers. In this discussion, formation of Regions and
Regionalism will be tackled. From each basic feature, formation, and the significance of its
continuing existence in the era of globalization. This lesson will try to merge the previous lessons
regarding the political, social, and economic factors that inspired the countries into forming these
regional alliances.
Further, this lesson will discuss the new emerging form of Regionalism that identify alliances
based on its causes rather than geographic location.
Learning Objectives
Students are expected to learn the following, by the end of this lesson:
1. Able to differentiate the State Regionalism with Non-State Regionalism
2. Understand historical events that inspired the countries to form these alliances
3. Explain the significance of keeping the regions in the era of globalization
Sections of the Unit:
1. Defining Regionalism
What Are Regions?
2.
Defining Regionalism
Source(S): Claudio, Lisandro E. (2014) “Locating the Global South” The Sage Handbook of Globalization
From the previous lessons, you understand the processes and impacts of Globalization. From the
aspect of the political to the economic aspect, globalization seemed to identify each country as a
player in this worldwide phenomenon. If you understood globalization as a seemingly formal
conference table with each country representatives shaking hands with one another, then you
understood globalization in an optimistic manner with free trade and free market as its foundation.
But for this lesson, I need you to imagine globalization as a stadium of a fight, or stadium of
performances. There is this certainty that there will be losing country (usually those who do not
have as many resources and machineries as others), and there will be a winning country (those
who have the means to innovate success).
With that in mind, Regionalism was established by groups of neighboring countries as a way of
coping in the “stadium of performances/fight” or the Globalization.
Regionalism is a political and economic phenomenon. You can disaggregate the motivations of
a particular phenomenon whether it was established through similar identities, ethics, religion,
ecological sustainability, or health. Further, it is also a process. Forming of Regionalism is not
inevitable, it is not a “natural process” in society. Formation of regionalism is observed to be
inspired by socially emergent issues that needs to be addressed. Regionalism is constructed and
defined by policymakers (Claudio & Abinales, 2018:50).
For further definition of Regionalism, this is its definition from the World Atlas:
Regionalism is defined as a political ideology that favors a specific region over a greater area. It
usually results due to political separations, religious geography, cultural boundaries, linguistic
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regions, and managerial divisions. Regionalism emphasizes on developing the administrative
power and swaying the available or some inhabitants of a region. Activists of regionalism claim
that instituting the governing bodies and civil authorities within an area, at the expense of a
national regime, will significantly increase local populations by improving the local economies
through the distribution of resources and execution of local policies and strategies.1
What are Regions?
• Basic features:
•
A group of countries located in the same geographically specified area
•
Regionalization vs. Regionalism
•
Regionalization – regional concentration of economic flows
•
Regionalism – political process characterized by economic policy cooperation
and coordination among countries
Why form Regions?
A way of coping with globalization – this does not only apply on the small lesser developed
countries. Forming alliances between neighboring countries is also a tactic used by the developed
countries in terms of protecting or solidifying their strengths. Following alliances with different
motivations are briefly discussed below:
For military defense
•
Example: NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) Formed during the Cold War
when several Western European countries plus the United States agreed to protect
Europe against the threat of the Soviet Union...The Soviet Union imploded in
December 1991, but NATO remains in place (Claudio & Abinales, 2018:52).
For pooling of resources
•
Example: OPEC (Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries) [In order to] get
better returns for their exports, as well as expand their leverage against trading
partners, [and] regulate the production and sale of oil…Iran, Iraq, Kuwait Saudi Arabia,
and Venezuela…established OPEC in 1960 (Claudio & Abinales, 2018:52).
To protect a country’s independence from the pressures of superpower politics
•
Example: NAM (Non-Aligned Movement) …Egypt, Ghana, India, Indonesia, and
Yugoslavia created the NAM in 1961 to pursue world peace and international
cooperation, human rights national sovereignty, racial and national equality, nonintervention, and peaceful conflict resolution (Claudio & Abinales, 2018:52).
To mitigate economic crisis
•
1
1997 Asian Financial Crisis The International Monetary Fund (IMF) tried to reverse the
crisis, but it was only after the ASEAN countries along with China, Japan, and South
Korea agreed to establish an emergency fund to anticipate a crisis that the Asian
economies stabilized. The crisis made ASEAN more “unified and coordinated”
(Claudio & Abinales, 2018:53).
https://www.worldatlas.com/what-is-regionalism.html
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What is a Non-State Regionalism?
• Also called as the “New regionalism”
•
•
Unlike with the first part of the discussion having the basic feature of forming a Regions
is the geographic location, with Non-State Regionalism, countries actually form an
alliance based on their common motivations regardless of their geographic proximity.
The way they identify problems may:
•
•
•
Differ as to form
•
Tiny associations vs. huge continental unions
•
Non-state regionalism is relatively as a smaller association compared to many
established regions before them. Participating countries in non-state regions
may be less compared to the participating countries in established alliance
created before them.
Differ as to tactics and strategies
•
Working with the government vs. Not working with the government
•
Non-state regionalism may also have a relatively difficult budget source
compared to alliances established before them.
Differ as to causes
•
Specialized and general
What are contemporary challenges to regionalism?
• Resurgence of militant nationalism and populism
•
•
Continuing economic crisis
•
•
#Brexit – Amid the worsening economic crisis, Britain finally aimed for a more
flexible economic transactions that the European Union alliance was limiting them
for the longest time.
Sovereignty vs. Regional stability
•
•
For example, Trump’s standpoint regarding NATO does nothing for America any
more than taking advantage of the military resources; the urge to dismantle these
alliances.
Take for example the China and Philippine territorial dispute. Even the international
ruling favored the Philippines, votes and statements from fellow ASEAN countries
were about pursuing diplomacy over confrontation against China.
Differing visions of what regionalism should be for
•
Singapore, China, and Russia are some of the countries that are not in favor of
this democratic style of decision-making. The lengthy debate before an economic
policy rolls out simply means a delayed in probable economic growth.
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TERM PAPER 2
Instruction: Students will be tasked to write a critical paper that addresses the contemporary
condition of the Philippines by applying both the economic relations and the status of the
country on battling the COVID-19 Pandemic. How has the world economy and the global
pandemic influence the state of the Philippines’ economy? Please answer each question
using the following format- Arial 11, single-spaced. For those who will receive a printed
version of this module please answer the following in a short bond paper. Indicate the
Term Paper #_ and write your name (Last Name, First Name, M.I) and your Course and
Section.
•
Creative thinking: Situate one (1) of the Philippines contemporary (social/ political/
economic) issues. Assess and outline the root cause of this problem and create a
new regionalism. Propose the ideal countries to have an alliance with, in line with the
chosen problem. Justify how this created alliance will resolve the chosen problem.
This policy report should consist of not more than 1,500 words.
LESSON 4 CONTEMPORARY FORMS OF CONNECTIVITY
Unit 1: Religion and Globalization
Introduction
Religion is one of the binding forms of networks that have intensified people’s sense of
community across the world. The study of religion involves the study of religious practices,
customs, beliefs, and rituals in the context of social structures such as -religious institutions,
education, community, and family. The class will learn how the distinct belief systems embedded
in distinct forms of religion bind people together across different areas of the world. It is a
significant phenomenon to examine since it illustrates how globalization has transformed the
contemporary world through these forms of connectivity.
______________________________________________________________________
Learning Objectives
By the end of this unit students must be able to:
1. Understand Religion as a social system that binds people together
2. Explain how globalization affects religious practices and beliefs
3. Understand how globalization changes the religious landscape of the contemporary
world
______________________________________________________________________
Sections of the Unit:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
What is Religion
Connection between religion and economic structures
Religion and Globalism and its realities
Religion and Globalization
The Global Religious Change Landscape
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______________________________________________________________________
What is Religion?
Source(s): Durkheim, Émile, 1858-1917. The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life, a Study in
Religious Sociology. London : New York :G. Allen & Unwin; Macmillan, 1915. & Claudio, L. E., &
Abinales, P. N. (2018) The Contemporary world. South Triangle, Q.C.C & E Publishing, Inc.
According to Emile Durkheim, ” religion is a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to
sacred things, i.e., things set apart and forbidden—beliefs and practices which unite in one
single moral
community called
a Church,
all
those
who
adhere
to
them.”
There are three elements in defining religion.
●
●
●
Beliefs that some things are sacred, set apart from the ordinary things
Practices (rituals) centering on the things considered sacred
A moral community (a church) resulting from a group’s beliefs and practices.
There are two types of church: The literal church (the structure), and the Church with one moral
community.
Durkheim has three main findings in his study of Religion.
●
●
●
That the world’s religions are so varied that they have no specific belief or practice in
common.
That all religions develop a community centering on their beliefs and practices.
That all religions separate the sacred from the profane
What is Sacred and Profane
•
•
Sacred represented the interests of the group, especially unity, which were
embodied in sacred group symbols, or totems. An aspect of life having to do with the
supernatural that inspires awe, reverence, deep respect, even fear.
Profane, on the other hand, involved mundane individual concerns or aspects of life
that are not concerned with religion or religious purposes but, instead, are part of the
ordinary aspects of everyday life.
For example: CASE STUDY: India’s Sacred Cow.
In India they treat cows as sacred, why? They used Cow as a main source of living, killing a
cow is a taboo especially female cow. It gives them livelihood. Cow serves as a symbol of
wealth, strength, and abundance.
Read “India’s Sacred Cow” by Marvin Harris
Connection between religion and economic structures
In the book of Max Weber, Protestant Ethics and the Spirit of Capitalism, Weber (1904/1958)
theorized that the Roman Catholic belief system encouraged followers to hold on to their
traditional ways of life, while the Protestant belief system encouraged its members to embrace
change. Roman Catholics were taught that because they were Church members they were on
the road to heaven, but Protestants, those of the Calvinist tradition, were told that they would
not know if they were saved until Judgment Day. Uncomfortable with this, the Calvinists began
to look for a “sign” that they were in God’s will. They found this “sign” in financial success, which
they took as a blessing that indicated that God was on their side. To bring about this “sign” and
receive spiritual comfort, they began to live frugal lives, saving their money and investing it in
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order to make even more. This, said Weber, brought about the birth of capitalism (Henslin,
2015). Protestant ethic as to describe the ideal of a self–denying, highly moral life
accompanied by thrift and hard work and Spirit of Capitalism Weber’s term for the desire to
accumulate capital—not to spend it, but as an end in itself—and to constantly reinvest it.
Religion and Globalism
Religion has the most difficult relationship with globalism. Globalism as widespread belief among
powerful people that the global integration of economic markets is beneficial for everyone, abides
by human made laws and Religion as a divine commandment. Religion is concerned with our
sacred beliefs and globalism on our material wealth.
•
•
•
•
Religion
A Divine Entity that defines and
judges’ human action in moral terms,
what is good or bad.
Religious people are less concerned
with wealth and all that comes along
with it.
When a religious person aspires to be
a saint.
Religious people are ascetic because
they avoid anything material for
simplicity. From what clothes should
be worn and food to eat.
•
•
•
•
Globalism
A globalist is not worried whether he
will end up in hell or heaven.
Globalism deals with how much of
human action can lead to the highest
material satisfaction and subsequent
wisdom that this new status produces
The globalist trains to be a shrewd
businessperson.
Globalists deals more in the seal
trade, raise the profits of private
enterprises, improve government
revenue collections, protect the elites
form being excessively taxed by the
state and naturally enrich themselves.
The main duty of Religious person is to live morally upright to be assured of a place other than
this world ( ex: Heaven) and the globalist values politics and humanity as both means and ends
to open up further the economies of the world.
As religion and globalism clash, Religious evangelization itself is a form of globalization.
For example, how Islam and Christianity spread their words to the world.
The religious are concerned with spreading holy ideas globally, while the globalist wishes to
spread goods and services.
Realities in Religion
Peter Berger argues that the contemporary world is … furiously religious. There are veritable
explosions of religious fervor, occurring in one form of another in all the major religious traditions
like Christianity, Judaism, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, and in many places’ imaginative syntheses
of one or more world religious with indigenous faiths. `
Religions are the foundations of modern republics, for example, in Malaysia the government
places religion at the center of the political system. Also, Religious movements do not hesitate to
appropriate secular themes and practices, like in Indonesia, the moderate Muslim association
Nahdlatul Ulama has Islamic School where students are taught not only about Islam but also
about modern science, the social science, modern banking, civic education, rights of women,
pluralism, and democracy.
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Religion has been at the very center of all great political conflicts and movements of social reform,
from independence to abolition, from nativism to women’s suffrage, from prohibition to the civil
rights movement, religion has always been at the center of these conflicts.
Religion and Globalization
Globalization less as an obstacle and more as an opportunity to expand and spread to
reach all over the world. Globalization has freed communities from the constraints of the nationstate but in the process, it threatens to destroy the cultural system that binds them together. For
example, Religion as a form of solidarity, as Ferdinand Tonnies analyzed the fundamental shifts
in relationship, Gemeinschaft as type of society in which life is intimate; a community in which
everyone knows everyone else and people share a sense of togetherness, sharing similar beliefs
and practices, has a traditional ties in the community. And in contrast, Gesellschaft, a type of
society that is dominated by impersonal relationships, individual accomplishments, and selfinterest. Religion seeks to take the place of these broken “traditional ties'' to either help
communities cope with their new situation, a Gesellschafts type of society or organize them to
oppose this major transformation of their lives and remain Gemeinschaft type of society.
Religion can provide the “moral codes” answering problems like people’s health and personal
happiness. Religion is not the regressive force that stops or slows globalization, it is a pro-active
force that gives communities a new and powerful basis of identity. It is an instrument with which
religious people can put their mark in the reshaping of this globalizing world.
Religious fundamentalism may dislike globalizations materialism, Fundamentalism as a form of
religion that upholds belief in the interpretation of scripture. But with globalization it continues to
use the full range of modern means of communications and organizations that is associated with
economic transformation, which enabled the spread of almost promiscuous propagation of
religious forms across the globe in all sorts of directions. Religious Fundamentalism is the result
of the spread of globalization; both find ways to benefit or take advantage of each other.
The Global Religious Change Landscape
•
Muslims are the fastest-growing major religious group, largely because they have the
highest fertility rate and the youngest population. As a result, the Muslim population
is expected to increase from 1.6 billion people (23% of the world’s population as of
2010) to 2.76 billion people (30% of all people in 2050). At mid-century, Muslims will
nearly equal Christians – the world’s largest religious group – in size.
•
The share of the world’s population that is Christian is expected to remain steady (at
about 31%), but the regional distribution of Christians is forecast to change
significantly. Nearly four-in-ten Christians (38%) are projected to live in sub-Saharan
Africa in 2050, an increase from the 24% who lived there in 2010. And the
percentage of the world’s Christians living in Europe – which fell from 66% in 1910 to
26% in 2010 – will continue to decline, to roughly 16% in 2050.
•
The number of religiously unaffiliated people, also known as religious “nones,” is
increasing in places such as the United States and Europe, and we project continued
growth. Globally, however, the opposite is true: The unaffiliated are expected
to decrease as a share of the world’s population between 2010 and 2050 (from 16%
to 13%). This is attributable mostly to the relatively old age and low fertility rates of
large populations of religious “nones” in Asian countries, particularly China and
Japan.
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The Contemporary World
•
•
•
•
In the United States, Christians will decline from more than three-quarters of the
population in 2010 to two-thirds in 2050, with corresponding rises of religious “nones”
as well as Muslims, Hindus and others. At mid-century, Judaism will no longer be the
largest non-Christian religion in the U.S.: Muslims are projected to be more
numerous than people who identify as Jewish based on religion.
Buddhists, concentrated in Asia, are expected to have a stable population (of just
under 500 million) while other religious groups are projected to grow. As a
result, Buddhists will decline as a share of the world’s population (from 7% in 2010 to
5% 2050).
Indonesia is currently home to the world’s largest Muslim population, but that is
expected to change. By 2050, the study projects India to be the country with the
largest number of Muslims – more than 310 million – even though Hindus will
continue to make up a solid majority of India’s population (77%), while Muslims
remain a minority (18%). Indonesia will have the third-largest number of Muslims,
with Pakistan ranking second.
The farther into the future we look, the more uncertainty exists, which is why the
projections stop at 2050. But if they are extended into the second half of this
century, the projections forecast Muslims and Christians to be roughly equal in
number around 2070, with Muslims the slightly larger group after that year.
Read: The Changing Global Religious Landscape by Pew Research Center (Link:
https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1luwz3R_y6F2V_uOc3LNhU6lIrUiZlO_6?usp=sharing )
With all the changes in Religion because of Globalization, between religious and globalist,
differences, and struggles, one is true that Religion is here to stay, it is within society and every
one of us. As changes take place, Religion remains.
Supplementary reading/material (optional):
●
●
●
Read “India’s Sacred Cow” by Marvin Harris
Watch Why Are Cows Sacred in India?
(Link:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jvjle50pByg) and Do Hindus Worship Cows? Hindu Beef Taboo Explained (Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8ReneZkyGHI ).
Read: The Changing Global Religious Landscape by Pew Research Center
ASSESSMENT 4
Instruction: In this section of the module, your general knowledge and understanding of the
subject so far will be tested. Please answer the following question.
1. In your own understanding in Religion and Globalization, what is the current state of Religion
in the Philippines. You can use your observation in your religion as an example.
2. Essay (500 words): Using the Pew Research Center’s research, explain how the changing
religious landscape expresses the condition of the globalizing world.
UNIT 2: Media and Globalization
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The Contemporary World
Introduction:
In the previous lessons, it is given that globalization is a process which is currently occurring as
of now. On its impact, it is easily seen in culture and technology. With the movies from Hollywood
and Pop songs from South Korea that circulates across the globe, people now can explore various
cultures and way of living in the world. The development of technology even made way for more
accessible in food industry. Foods from the other country is not anymore exclusive to them such
as McDonalds from United States dominates the world food chain and the obsession to South
Korean’s Samgyeopsal. In this lesson, we tackle more of the development of media and culture
in the globalizing world.
Learning Objectives:
By the end of this unit students must be able to:
1. Analyze how global integration form through various media
2. Explain the process between local and global cultural production
3. Derive cultural consumption and consumer pattern from the impact of globalization in
media
Sections of the Unit:
1. What is media?
2. What is global village and imagined community?
3. Impact of globalization in media and culture
It can be true that globalization fueled the spread of values culture, but it can also be true that via
media, globalization was pushed through. By any means, such as oral, script, print, electronic,
and digital, media influenced globalization and even the way of living of the people. With the
invention of the television, people start sitting around their homes just watching the pictures and
stories across the globe. The global village, an imagined community, emerged merely because
of the television. People start seeing how other people live, eat, or work as if we knew everyone
without seeing each other face to face. They imagined themselves acting the things other people
do. Since then, the interaction of cultures was intensified than ever before. Lule (2012) claimed
that we cannot imagine globalization occurring without the media which is crucial to human life.
Media, as defined by Lule (2014), is “a means of conveying something, such as a channel of
communication”. Medium is the plural word and it is the technologies of mass communication. As
we have mentioned above, globalization enabled the large amount of interaction of cultures and
it tends to influence each other. In the Globalization and Culture: Global Mélange of Jan
Nederveen Pieterse (2004: 41–58 cited in Lule, 2014) argues that there are actually three aspects
to consider the influence of globalization on culture:
•
•
Cultural differentialism - suggests that cultures are different, strong, and resilient. It
can suggest that cultures are destined to clash as globalization continually brings them
together
Cultural convergence - suggests that globalization will bring about a growing
sameness of cultures. A global culture, likely American culture, some fear, will overtake
many local cultures, which will lose their distinctive characteristics.
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The Contemporary World
‘cultural imperialism’, in which the cultures of more developed nations ‘invade’ and
take over the cultures of less developed nations. (homogenized)
● Cultural hybridity – suggests that globalization will bring about an increasing blending
or mixture of cultures.
With the greater amount of interaction of cultures due to globalization, the term glocalization
existed. It specifies for the media and globalization as the facts of life in local cultures (Lule, 2014).
▪
Media’s role in glocalization
o Site – i.e. American Idol
o Agents – i.e. KPop music spread globally through television, radios and magazines,
Philippine starts producing girl/boy band group
Korean song’s fame from Psy’s Gangnam Style craze
Surely, local culture was the result of multiple interactions with the other previous culture.
Influencing the local culture, in the times of globalization, is inevitable.
How media affect societies?
• Extend and amputate human senses – dulled our capacity to remember because of
digital development; with this development, people can now communicate easily but with
lesser intimacy.
• Creation of “global village”
• Homogenization of culture – as culture tend to homogenize, the spread of dominant
culture (e.g. American hegemony could create cultural imperialism where their values
and culture is spread and even manifested in consumer patterns nowadays as if it was
dictated by the Americans to them.)
❖
Cultural imperialism is criticized because consumers/audiences are active
participants and stressed that they are not passive thinkers in accepting/watching
media messages. Also, not all of the popculture refers to American culture, such
as Hello Kitty, Pokemon, and Korean novelas, this was due to Renewed strength
of regional trends in the globalization process.
• Democratization of access – knowledge can now easily access even using a smart
phone.
• “Cyberbalkanization” – eco chambers (e.g. people tend to make their own world by
hiding some post from their news feed. With this, people prevent other users from
listening to or opinions and information that challenges their viewpoints, thus, making
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The Contemporary World
them more close-minded as if they are placed in a chamber. This can even manipulate
political events manifested in the film The Great Hack which discussed how Trump
organization influenced voters through Facebook algorithms.
ASSESSMENT 5
Write an essay answering this question: Has McLuhan's ideal of a ‘global village’ become a
reality? (if handwritten, capitalize your writing for better understanding) minimum of 150 words.
Supplementary reading/material (optional):
The Globalization of K-pop: Korea‘s 1 Place in the Global Music Industry by Ingyu Oh (2014)
https://journals.ateneo.edu/ojs/index.php/aiks/article/view/2008
KPop Explained in Netflix
LESSON 5: GLOBAL DEMOGRAPHY
UNIT 1: Global City
Introduction
The global structure is reflected upon the cities itself. Global and local are merging forming
global cities. These cities represent the interconnection and interrelation of nations in constant
exchanging of resources. This chapter provides discussions on the relationship of the global and
local. This chapter discusses the image of progress that cities portray and the contrasting poverty
within it.
Learning Objectives:
By the end of this unit students must be able to:
1. Defining the Global City
2. Relate the contemporary global issues and local problems and
3. Explain how local context affects the global ideas and vice versa.
4. Demonstrate critical thinking in comprehending contemporary issues and problems of
modernity
Sections of the Unit:
1. Global Cities Global cities are strategic for new types of operations
2. Different Societies appropriate the materials of modernity differently
3. Global Issues, Local Perspectives
4.Globalization and Urban Problems
Defining the Global City
Globalization is spatial, you can see it when foreign investments and capital move through
the city and when skyscrapers are built by companies. Bridges connect the flow of goods and
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The Contemporary World
services and many infrastructures assist or mediating exchanges. Accompanied by these events
are jobs generated by the demand created by this economic flow. As all these happen, the poor
are driven to city centers to make way for opportunities.
Saskia Sassen popularized the term “global city” in
the 1990s using the economic criteria as the primary
indicator. She initially identified three global cities: New York,
London and Tokyo, which all are hubs of global finance and
capitalism. They are homes of the world’s top stock
exchanges where investors buy and sell shares in major
corporations. Limiting the discussion of global cities to these
three metropolises, however, proving more and more
restrictive.(Claudio and Abinales 2018). The definition of
global city has expanded beyond the realm of economics.
Some cities are not as wealthy as these three
aforementioned cities but , an example of this is San
Francisco being home to Facebook, Twitter and Google.Another is Los Angeles having cultural
influence over the world through Hollywood.
Global cities are strategic for new types of operations
Source(s): Atkinson et.al. 2015. The Sociology Book: Big Ideas Explained.DK publishing 345 Hudson
Street, New York.
Global cities, Sassen advises, produce goods in the form of technological innovations, financial
products, and consulting services (legal, accounting, advertising, and so on). These service
industries are highly intensive users of telecommunications technologies and are therefore
integrated into business networks that stretch across national borders. They are also part of the
postindustrial or “service” economies of the developed world, in that their main products are
knowledge, innovation, technical expertise, and cultural goods. Sassen argues in The Global City
(1991, revised 2001) that the emergence of a global market for financial and specialized services
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The Contemporary World
gives global cities a “command and control function” over economic globalization. This is because
the headquarters of many major transnational companies are located in global cities. Consultant
Firms are also “over-represented”in these urban hubs. These Companies make the decisions that
direct global flows of money and knowledge, and that can cause economic activity to expand or
contract in other regions.
Global cities are supported by multifunctional infrastructure. Central business districts
provide employment clusters where the employees of local, national, and multinational firms
interact. Influential universities and research facilities also contribute to the production of
knowledge and innovation, which are central to information-based economies. Sassen’s research
shows that global cities are sites where the human activities behind the processes of globalization
are performed and their consequences dispersed through the socio economic networks of the
global economy. While global cities are not free from poverty and other forms of social inequality,
they are nevertheless cosmopolitan sites of diverse economic and social opportunities.
Different Societies appropriate the materials of modernity differently
Source(s): Atkinson et.al. 2015. The Sociology Book: Big Ideas Explained.DK publishing 345 Hudson
Street, New York.
Indian social anthropologist and sociologist Arjun Appadurai has taken this debate in a
different direction. He argues that the conventional view of globalization as a form of cultural
imperialism fails to reflect the reality of the changes global -ization has set in motion. Instead,
Appadurai suggests that different societies appropriate the materials of modernity differently.
What this means is that one society, such
as China, may take up one aspect of global
change (such as economic change) very
rapidly, and another aspect (such as
ideological change) very slowly, while
another society will be different altogether.
The results that globalization does not
necessarily denote a uniform and allencompassing process; rather, nations are
more positively disposed toward certain
facets of globalization than others,
depending on a range of factors, such as
the state of the economy, political stability,
and
strength
of
cultural
identity.
Appadurai’s
work
addresses
how
globalization diminishes the role of the
nation-state in shaping cultural identity and
argues that identity is increasingly
becoming deterritorialized by mobility,
migration, and rapid communications.
The
key
to
understanding
globalization, says Appadurai, is the human
imagination. He argues that rather than living in face-to-face communities, we live within imagined
ones that are global in extent. The building blocks are five interrelated dimensions that shape the
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The Contemporary World
global flow of ideas and information. He Calls these dimensions ``scapes”—ethnoscapes,
mediascapes, technoscapes, finanscapes, and ideoscapes. Unlike landscapes, which are
characteristically fixed, Appadurai’s “scapes” are constantly changing, and the manner in which
they are experienced depends largely on the perspective of the social actors involved. In this
context, social actors may be any one of a number of groupings, such as nation-states,
multinational corporations, diasporic communities, families, or individuals. The different ways in
which these five scapes can combine means that the imagined world that one person or group
perceives can be radically different, and no more real, than that seen by another observer.
Appadurai first used the term “ethnos cape” in a 1990 essay, “Disjuncture and Difference
in the Global Cultural Economy,” to describe the flow of people—immigrant communities, political
exiles, tourists, guest workers, economic migrants, and other groups—around the globe, as well
as the “fantasies of wanting to move” in pursuit of a better life. The increasing mobility of people
between nations constitutes an essential feature of the global world, in particular by affecting the
politics of nation-states. Mediascapes refer to the production and distribution of information and
images through newspapers, magazines, TV, and film, as well as digital technologies. The
multiplying ways in which information is made accessible to private and public interests
throughout the world is a major driver of globalization. Mediascapes provide large and complex
repertoires of images and narratives to viewers, and these shapes how people make sense of
events taking place across the world. Technoscapes represent the rapid dissemination of
technology and knowledge about it—either mechanical or informational—across borders. For
example, many service industries in Western Europe base their customer-care call centers in
India, and Indian software engineers are often recruited by US companies. Finanscapes reflect
the almost instantaneous transfer of financial investment capital around the globe in the fastmoving world of currency markets, stock exchanges, and commodity speculations. Ideoscapes
are made up of images that are “often directly political,” either state-produced and intended to
bolster the dominant ideology, or created by counter ideological movements “oriented to capturing
state power or a piece of it.” Examples include ideas about a state built through concepts such as
“national heritage,” countered by social and political movements that promote the rights of minority
groups and freedom of speech.
By conceptualizing globalization in terms of the five scapes, Appadurai is able to
undermine the view of globalization as a uniform and internally coherent process;instead,
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globalization is understood as a multilayered, fluid, an irregular process—and one that is
characterized by ongoing change.
Global Issues, Local Perspectives
(Atkinson et.al 2015) p.146
Globalization is giving rise to
new cultural forms as global products,
values, tastes, combine with their
local equivalents. According to British
sociologist Roland Robertson, the
intermixing of global and local, is a key
feature of society which produces new
creative possibilities.
Robertson argues that that the
cultural dynamics at the heart of
globalization can be understood by
focusing on the relationships between
four areas: “individual selves,” “nationstate,” a “world system of societies,”
and “a notion of a common humanity.”
This allows him to examine the
interacting aspects of a person’s selfidentity and their relationship with
national and global cultural influences.
Robertson emphasizes the term “global unicity” in which globalization and cultural exchange is
giving rise to a global culture. But, the emergence of “global unicity” does not mean we are moving
in a single global culture.
Also, Robertson popularized the term “glocalization.” Glocalization is a twofold process of
“universalizing and particularizing tendencies.” Glocalization also refers to a localization of global
cultural products or forms.
Globalization and the Street Homeless in Metro Manila
Source(s): Aoki, Hideo.(2008) “Globalization and the Street Homeless in Metro Manila.” Philippine
Studies Vol. 56, No1 Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University.
New types of homeless people have emerged simultaneously in cities around the world.
In cities of industrial countries the numbers of the "new homeless" have increased since the 1980s
(Baumohl 1996; Aoki 2006). In cities of developing countries the numbers of the "street homeless"
have also increased since the end of the 1990s (Levinson 2004). According to MariaCecilia
Loschiard Dos Santos (2001), a professor at São Paulo Universitywho studies homelessness in
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Brazil, the numbers of street homeless in SãoPaulo increased in the 1990s and reached more
than 100,000 people at the beginning of the 2000s. Government officers, NGO activists, and
social scientists whom I interviewed from September 2006 to March 2007 said that the numbers
of the street homeless are increasing in Metro Manila. There Have been many street homeless in
the past but their ranks are increasing rapidly now. A writer calls them the permanent and visible
homeless in contrast with the squatter homeless (Padilla 2000, 5-6). The street homeless are
becoming noticeable everywhere in the urban center. "They can be seen with their pushcarts
along the seawall, on the sidewalks, under bridges and flyovers, in the middle of traffic islands,
on the empty streets at night, on the lawns of cathedrals and in parks" (ibid.).
There are theoretical and operational problems about the definition of the street homeless.
How can we distinguish the street homeless from the people who work on the streets and sleep
at their houses at night? How can we distinguish the street homeless from the squatter homeless?
What is a shelter or a house? Even though these definitional problems exist, we can insist that
the street homeless are becoming a peculiar social group in Metro Manila. How many street
homeless are there in Metro Manila? We can only make inferences. The Department of Social
Welfare and Development estimates that there are 50,000 to 70,000 street children in Metro
Manila (Maligalig 2004, 10). Most street children live with their families on the streets.According
to Manuela Loza (2006), a staff member of the Jose Fabella Center (JFC), one of the public
accommodation units for the street homeless managed by the Mandaluyong City government,
almost all children who are accommodated in their center have parents. Moreover, a short
technical report made by the JFC points out that 61.4 percent of the 2,799 people who were
accommodated in the first half of 2006 were street homeless who lived alone (JFC 2006). Based
on these data, we can infer roughly but surely that there are much more than 100,000 street
homeless, including street children, in Metro Manila.Administrative officers and researchers told
me that it is impossible to count the numbers
of street homeless because they always
move and have no permanent place where
they sleep. However, most sleep constantly
in the same general area because it is hard
for them to look for new safe places to sleep
on a daily basis. Therefore, it is possible to
count their numbers at least roughly, as we
have done in Japan. It may be the job of the
local government to get an accurate
estimate. Certainly, it is not easy to discern
the street homeless from the people who
work on the streets but actually have their
own houses and from the squatter homeless.
But we can solve this problem by coming up
with an operational definition of the street
homeless.
Who are the street homeless? As far as I have observed, the people who were on the
streets at the main points of Metro Manila and some of whom I talked with, the street homeless
are composed of the following people: people working on the streets who have been evicted from
squatter areas, who recently arrived from the provinces, ethnic minority groups of people who
work as seasonal laborers, and street children and their families. There is some overlap between
these categories, which also include those who are not actually street homeless. Keeping this in
mind, a tentative definition of the street homeless may be given as follows: the street homeless
are people who do not have permanent and fixed houses, who do not have relatives with whom
they can live, and who live alone or in a family unit on the street. . The accommodated people
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The Contemporary World
were composed of various street homeless such as wanderers,beggars, and victims of squatter
eviction. Males comprised almost two-thirds of those people. They were distributed over a broad
age hierarchy ranging from infants to those with advanced ages. Similarly, the civil status of the
accommodated people ranged from single to the widowed. The Sidewalk Operation Group of the
Metropolitan Manila Development Authority found some of them in the metropolitan central areas,
while others were found in the neighboring areas, and were persuaded to go to the center. Many
street homeless were former squatters who had been evicted from squatter areas,who rejected
to go to relocation sites, and who came back from the relocation sites. Finally, they supported
themselves by working as vendors, scavengers, car watchers, "barkers," beggars, and so on, and
sometimes through illegal activities such as those of snatchers, pickpockets, drug sellers, and
prostitutes. The big three jobs of the street homeless are those of the vendor,scavenger, and
beggar, each of which can be divided into further subgroups.
Why have the numbers of the street homeless in Metro Manila increased recently? We
can obtain a clue from globalization theory. The emergence of the new homeless in industrialized
countries has been analyzed in many studies by using "globalization" as a key concept, such as
in the analyses of the new homeless in the United States (Koegel, Burman, and Baumohl1996)
and of the nozyukusya (homeless) in Japan (Aoki 2003). The concept of globalization has also
been used in the analysis of the new marginality in Mexico (Castells 1983) and of other developing
countries' homeless people (Levinson 2004). It may be said that globalization theory isone of the
most influential theories that explains the relationship between globalization and
homelessness.How about the case of Metro Manila? The increase of the street homeless in Metro
Manila can be explained by globalization theory, at least partly.But we have two theoretical
problems to be solved before we apply it toMetro Manila. First, is Metro Manila a global city? What
is a global city?Second, what was the process by which Metro Manila was globalized?What
Economic and political conditions prescribed by the economic history of the Philippines were there
behind this process? These questions have to be answered. But it is not our purpose to answer
these questions here. Keeping This in mind, we ask why globalization has resulted in the increase
of thestreet homeless in Metro Manila. An answer may be found in a process that itself is
composed of four sub processes, which function and relate to each other as discussed
below.Globalization has resulted in the expansion of the service economy,which has increased
the life chances of the street homeless. First, because of the increase in business facilities,
convenience stores, family restaurants, and the like in Metro Manila, life resources (such as scrap)
on which the street homeless survive have increased. The opportunity for the street homeless to
beg money has increased, too. This is the first pull factor that attracts poor people to the streets.
Second, the expansion of the service economy has increased job chances on the street such as
those of vendors, scavengers, barkers, and carriers. Moreover, it has brought various new
occupations, such as cleaner, sandwich man, car watcher, errand boy, and others, the poor could
engage in with only a small equity capital and without any special knowledge and skills. These
livelihood conditions have augmented the life chances of the street homeless, and form the
second pull factor that draws the poor to the streets. Globalization has brought about the
informalization of work, the flexibilization of labor, and the contractualization of employment in the
Philippines (Sardaña 1998, 69-74). These trends have made workers' employment status
unstable and have cut back real wages. They have worsened workers' livelihood conditions and
strengthened the downward pressure on workers' status. This is the general background in which
poor people became homeless. It constitutes the first push factor that drives the poor to the
streets. This is particularly the case among those who do not have any safety net coming from
relatives or friends. Globalization has accelerated land redevelopment (Payot 2004, 11). The
market for real estate has expanded. Unused and abandoned lands have been redeveloped, and
the gentrification of the inner city has proceeded. Government policies, such as the privatization
of public land, the improvement of dangerous areas, and the beautification of streets, have
accelerated these processes too. As a result, the eviction of squatter settlements in the inner city
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The Contemporary World
has taken place. People who were not given residential lots, who rejected to transfer to relocation
sites, and who returned from their relocation sites to Metro Manila have increased. Among them,
people who did not have any relatives to rely on to have stayed on the streets. The biggest part
of the street homeless is made up of former squatter residents. This makes up the second push
factor that forces the poor to go to the streets. Globalization has brought on the financial crises of
the government, which has been forced to cut down on expenditures. As a result, the government
could not achieve the purpose of its policies for the poor sufficiently.
Firstly, it could not improve the unemployment situation. The unemployment rate of Metro
Manila was 17.8 percent in 2000, 17.1 percent in 2003, and 17.2 percent in 2006 (NSCB 2007,
11-14). This situation can be seen as exerting a strong pressure on the poor. Secondly, the
government could not enforce the housing policy for poor people sufficiently. Only a few of the
squatter people who had been evicted from squatter areas were given residential lots in relocation
sites (Karaos and Payot 2006, 83). Thirdly, there has not been any fully articulated policy on
employment and welfare targeted at the street homeless. There are no measures to assist the
street homeless worthy of special mention, except emergency aid for medical treatment and six
small temporary accommodation units in Metro Manila. All these policies have not been able to
stop the poor from becoming street homeless. . The street homeless are formed as a social
stratum through processes in which push and pull
factors operate in tandem. The street homeless are the symbolic and representative product of
globalization. The emergence of the street homeless,from which we can draw many theoretical
implications, informs us that the labor and housing conditions among the people at the bottom of
the urban hierarchy are changing.
TERM PAPER 3
Instruction: Students will be challenged to write a critical paper (1,000 words minimum) that
addresses the contemporary condition of the Philippines by applying Appadurai’s concept of
“scapes” discussed above to answer the guide question. Please answer each question
using the following format- Arial 11, single-spaced. For those who will receive a printed
version of this module please answer the following in a short bond paper. Indicate the
Term Paper #_ and write your name ( Last Name, First Name , M.I) and your Course
and Section .
•
Guide Question: What is the connection between the proliferation of homelessness
in urban cities and urban cities itself despite being the nexus of global exchange in the
country?
____________________________________________________________________________
UNIT 2: Demography and Migration
Introduction
Demography has the empirical, statistical, and mathematical size, composition, and spatial
distribution of human populations and changes over time through fertility, mortality, nuptiality
(marriage), migration, and even social mobility. Looking at the populations and discuss the
relationship between economic welfare and populations. This final unit will discuss the various
impacts of globalization on human populations. How migration is a part of globalization and its
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impact on both the sending and receiving countries. And discuss the effects of global migration
on the economic well-being of states.
______________________________________________________________________
Learning Objectives
1. Understand what is demography and identify the relationship between population and
economic welfare
2. Identify the effects of overpopulation and why control population
3. Understand what is migration and why people migrate
4. Discuss the effects of global migration on the economic and individual well-being
______________________________________________________________________
Sections of the Unit:
1. What is Demography
2. Overpopulation and Economy
a. Women and Reproductive Rights
b. Food sovereignty and Food security
c. Population Growth and Food Security
3. What is Migration
4. Benefits and detriments of Migration
______________________________________________________________________
Global Demography
What is Demography
The study of statistics such as births, deaths, income, or the incidence of disease, which illustrate
the changing structure of human populations. It deals with fertility, mortality, marriage, migration,
and social mobility. All of this is connected to social, economic, culture, and any other field. For
example, let us look at how children view in different field:
•
•
•
In religious, they see children as a gift, a symbol of successful union
In culture, they see children as the successor to the next generation, a kinship
network.
In economic, they see children as critical investments
Let us focus on economics, answering the question will the child be an economic asset or a
burden to the family? Looking at the rural and urban communities.
Rural
Farmers want more children to have an extra
hand to help on crop cultivation or in their
small family business
Rural families view multiple children and
large kinship as critical investments. Children
can take over the agricultural work and their
houses become the retirement house of their
Urban
Educated or professional families desire just
one or two children because they are tied
with their jobs and no time to devote having a
kid or to parenting
Urban families may not have the same
kinship network because couples live on their
own, or they already move out of their
farmlands.
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parents, who will proceed to take care of their
children
These differing versions of family life determine the economic and social policies that countries
craft regarding their respective populations. Countries in the less developed regions of the world
that rely on agriculture tend to maintain high levels of population growth. And urban populations
grow not because families are having more children but because of migration. People seeking
jobs in more modern sectors of society. They tend to move in urban communities where industries
and business are at peak. International Migration also plays a part in changing populations.
Countries welcome immigrants as they offset the debilitating effects of an aging population for
example in Canada and Japan, but they are also perceived as threats to the job market they
compete against citizens.
Overpopulation
As Thomas Malthus argued that although population grows geometrically (from 2 to 4 to 8 to 16
and so forth), the food supply increases only arithmetically (from 1 to 2 to 3 to 4 and so on). This
meant, he claimed, that if births go unchecked, the population will outstrip its food supply. And
Paul R. Ehrlich and his wife wrote The Population Bomb, which argued that overpopulation will
bring food shortage and mass starvation. They proposed to promote a global population control
in order to reduce the growth rate to zero. The following are some remedies in overpopulation:
●
●
●
●
Chemical castration
Monetary incentives
Institution-building
➢ Ex. Department of Population and Environment
Policy-oriented
➢ Taxing on additional child and luxury taxes on child-related products
➢ Family Planning
As population growth rate increased after World War II, by limiting the population, vital
resources could be used for economic progress and be the basis for the government on
population control programs worldwide. For example, the one child policy in China. And in the
Philippines, the Republic Act No. 10354 on Responsible Parenthood and Reproductive Health.
Economy and Population
Betsy Hartmann criticized the use of population control to prevent crisis, he accused governments
of using population control as a substitute for social justice and much needed reforms such land
distribution, employment creation, provision of mass education and health care, and
emancipation. Population growth aided economic development by spurring technological and
institutional innovation and increasing the supply of human ingenuity. And noted that these
megacities have become and continue to be centers of economic growth and activity, but also
clusters in which income disparities along with transportation, housing, air pollution, and waste
management are major problems.
If the working age increases, for example, the median age of females is 29.4 years and 30.9 years
in males it means it has a young working population, there are more workers than per dependent.
Demographers called it a window of opportunity, opportunity to the government to develop and
boost the economy, but the period is limited.
Women and Reproductive Rights
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The Contemporary World
●
Women must have control over their bodies
●
The more educated a woman is, the better are her prospects of improving her economic
position.
●
The health of the mother and child comes first.
●
Feminist perspective
➢ Against any form of population control because they are compulsory by nature
➢ Unequal distribution of wealth, universal health care, education, and gender equality
As the United Nations Population Fund latest transformative goals,
✔ Zero Maternal Mortality
✔ Zero unmeet need for modern family planning, and
✔ Zero Gender-based violence and other harmful practices
Food sovereignty and Food security
●
●
Food sovereignty
➢ The right of peoples, communities, and countries to determine their own production
system related to agricultural labor, fishing, food and land, and associated policies
which are ecologically, socially, economically, and culturally appropriate to their
unique circumstances
Food security
➢ Providing food that is available at all times, that all persons have the means to
access to it, that it is nutritionally adequate in terms of quantity, quality and variety,
and that it is acceptable within the given culture
Population Growth and Food Security
✔ The Food and Agriculture Organization warns that in order for countries to mitigate the
impact of population growth, food production must increase by 70 percent.
✔ Increase investment in agriculture
✔ Long-term policies aimed at fighting poverty
✔ Invest in research and development
✔ Move towards a global trading system that is fair and competitive, and that contributes to
a dependable market for food.
What is Migration
The movement of people from one place to another with the intentions of settling, permanently
or temporarily in a new location. There are two types of migrations:
➢ Internal migration refers to people moving from one area to another within one
country. (See figure 2 example here in the Philippines)
➢ International migration refers to people crossing borders of one country to another.
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The Contemporary World
It can further break down into five groups:
●
●
●
●
●
Immigrants or those who move permanently to another country
Workers who stay in another country for fixed period, for example, OFWs
Illegal immigrants
Petitioned migrants
Refugees (asylum-seekers)
Migration Statistics
247 million people are currently living outside of the countries of their birth, 90% of them moved
for economic reasons and the 10% were refugees and asylum-seekers. The top three regions of
origin are Latin America, Eastern Europe, and Central Asia. As per country basis, India, Mexico,
and China are leading, and Philippines only ranking 6th in the world. 50 % of global migrants have
moved from the developing countries to developed countries and contribute from 40 to 80 percent
of their labor force. The majority of migrants remain in the cities and they contribute enormously
to raising the productivity of their host countries. See table 1.
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Table 1. Migrants contribution to destination country in dollar and as % of national GDP,
2015
Country
Contribution
Percentage of GDP
United States
$ 2 trillion
11 percent
Germany
$ 550 billion
17 percent
United Kingdom
$ 390 billion
14 percent
Australia
$ 330 billion
25 percent
Canada
$ 320 billion
21 percent
The migrant influx has led to a debate in destination countries over the issue of whether
migrants are assets or liabilities to national development. Anti-immigrant groups and
nationalist argue that governments must control legal immigration and put a stop to illegal entry
of foreigners. Many of these anti-immigrant groups are gaining influence through political
leaders who share the same beliefs as US President Donald Trump. Also, a 2011 Harvard
Business School survey on the impact of immigration concluded that the likelihood and
magnitude of adverse labor market effects for native from immigration are substantially weaker
than often perceived. The fiscal impact of immigration on social welfare is “small”. And as the
International Monetary Fund predicted, the flow of refugees fleeing Syria and Iraq would grow
Europe’s GDP.
Benefits and detriments for the sending countries
Benefits
Detriments
●
●
●
Remittances make significant
contributions to the development of small
and medium-term industries that help
generate jobs
●
●
●
Change the economic and social standing
of migrants
●
Remittances do not rebalance growth.
Brain Drain means loss of professionals
because they choose to migrate.
Human trafficking
Million men, women, & children became
victims of forced labor.
Integration
Creation of networks that exacerbate
differences and discrimination, it can be
good or bad depend on the country where
you migrate.
Xenophobia
Governments are aware of this long-term handicap but have no choice but to continue promoting
migrant work as part of state policy because the remittances’ impact on GDP. Migration is also
uneven, as the broader globalization process, some migrants experience their movement as a
liberating process. A highly educated professional may find moving to another country financially
rewarding but to others, it is sacrifice that can experience or can be victim of sec trafficking or
forced labor that may view the process of migration as dislocating and disempowering. Like
globalization is dual, there is positive and negative effect, migration also produces different and
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The Contemporary World
often contradictory responses. Global interdependence will ensure global migration will continue
to be one of the major issues in the contemporary world.
ASSESSMENT 6
Instruction: In this section of the module, your general knowledge and understanding of the
subject so far will be tested. Please answer the following question in 500 words.
1. Under what circumstances is rapid population growth beneficial to societies? Or not? Explain
your answer.
2. What do you think are the reasons why migrants are mostly beneficial for receiving countries?
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