Republic of the Philippines
Department of Education
Cordillera Administrative Region
 Selecting relevant literature will entail looking at the various purposes the review can
serve.
EASTERN BONTOC NATIONAL AGRICULTURAL AND VOCATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL
Lingoy, Barlig, Mountain Province
Module in Inquiries, Investigation and Immersion
Learning from Others and Reviewing the Literature
At the end of this chapter, the learner should be able to:







Select relevant materials for the literature review
Undertake meaningfully the literature review process
Cite correctly resources used
Synthesize information by developing scientific organization and note taking skills
Apply and integrate ethical standards in doing literature review
Design an effective and appropriate literature review for research
Write and present a coherent review of literature
SELECTING RELEVANT AND LITERATURE
GOALS OF LITERATURE REVIEW
1. To demonstrate a familiarity with a body of knowledge and establish credibility. A
good review increases a reader’s confidence in the researcher’s professional
competence, ability and background.
2. To show the path of prior research and how a current project is linked to it. This is
making connections to a body of knowledge from previous research projects.
3. To integrate and summarize what is known in an area. A good review points out
areas where prior studies agree, disagree and where major questions remain. It
also indicates the directions for future research.
4. To learn from others and stimulates new ideas.
HOW TO EVALUATE ARTICLES
1. Examine the title. A good title is specific, indicates the nature of the research
without describing the results and avoid asking yes or no question. It describes the
topic, mention one or two major variables and talks about the setting or
participants.
Example of a good title: Parental Involvement in Schooling and Reduced Discipline
Problems among Junior High School Students in NCR”
Introduction
The primary purpose of the literature review is to establish the state of current “knowledge”
or agreement about your research topic. A literature review is not merely a chronicle of who
wrote, what and when but an in-depth examination of texts to identify and investigate more
critical elements where current understanding is unclear and which the new research can
address. The objective of the review is to identify, criticize and synthesize the most recent,
relevant and authoritative texts related to the research being undertaken.
DOING A LITERATURE REVIEW
The literature review:


Reports your critical review of the relevant literature and
Identifies a gap within the literature that your research will attempt to address
2. Read the abstract. It gives the purpose of the study, identifies methods used and
highlights major findings.
3. Read the Article. Begin by reading quickly the conclusion. This will give you a
picture of what the article is about.

To perform a good literature review, you must be selective, comprehensive, critical
and current. List only the most relevant studies. Include part of studies that are
highly relevant and do not omit important ones. Include recent studies in literature
review.
SOURCES OF LITERATURE REVIEW
1
The term sources refer to print, electronic or visual materials necessary for your research.
4. Write the review
1. Primary Sources
Examples: letters, correspondences, diaries, memoirs, autobiographies, official or
research topics, patents and designs and empirical research articles
2. Secondary Sources
Examples: academic journal articles, conference proceedings, books
(mimeographs or chapter of books), documentaries
Source: www.slideshare.net/anaikaalexander/ literature review-14395725
3. Tertiary Sources
Example: Encyclopedias, dictionaries, atlases, handbooks
Martin (2007) found that there was a possible direct relationship between how children saw
and felt about themselves and how they felt about superheroes. This shows that it is
probable that superheroes may be able to influence an adolescent’s perception of
masculinity.



Literature reviews use a combination of primary and secondary sources since the
purpose is to document and analyse what has been published on any given topic
through time.
Secondary sources can be classified as primary depending on context. In science
for example, an academic article reporting the findings of a major study can be
considered primary.
The sources will give you the materials relevant to your topic. To be systematic in
recording the material and its source, you need to employ your note taking skills.
Here is an example of details about a source which you can file and use during the
actual writing of your literature review. (Journal of Moral Education, 36 (2), 239250).

Example:
CITING RELATED LITERATURE USING STANDARD STYLES
Importance of Literature Citation
1. To avoid plagiarism (which is against the student code of conduct or ethical / moral
standards)
2. To assign proper authority to a statement (this adds weight to the paper)


NOTE TAKING TECHNIQUE
Notes Frame and Layout
Category/ classification/ Heading / Sub Heading
Source of Information (Bibliographic Reference) and Location
Notes
Own Thoughts / Comments
Write your review in the past tense except when discussing its significance; in this
case, you use present tense.
Citing Literature – giving credit to the source of any information of ideas done in
text.
There are several styles in citing your sources. What matters is that authorities are
cited in the text and full references are provided at the end of the report.
REFERENCING SOURCES
Referencing Sources means systematically showing what information or ideas you are
quoting or paraphrasing from another author’s works where they come from.
Importance of Referencing:
THE LITERATURE PROCESS
1. Select a topic
2. Select and choose literature
3. Analyze and interpret literature



Adds authority to your work by supporting it with previous research
Demonstrates reading and understanding of relevant literature
Enables the reader to track down the original source to check its quality
2

Ensure that you write in an ethical manner by giving credit to the original authors
(Dempster and Hanna, 2016)
CITING WEB SITES
Source
Web site with author
Web site with
corporate
authorSubstance
Abuse and Mental
Health Services
Web site with
unknown author
Page within a Web site
(unknown author)
Example Citation
Kraizer, S. (2005). Safe child. Retrieved February 29, from
http.//www.safechild org.
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration
(SAMSHA). (2008, February 15) Stop underage drinking.
Retrieved February 29, 2008, from
http.//www.stopalcoholabuse.gov.
Penn State Myths. (2006) Retrieved December 6, 2011, from
http.//www.psoedu.ur/about/myths.
Global warming solutions. (2007, May 21). In union of
Concerned Scientists. Retrieved February 29, 2008,
From http.//www.ucsusa org/globalwarming/solutions
CITING BOOKS
Source
Book by a single
author
Example Citation
Rollin, B.E (2006). Science and ethics. New York, NY:
Cambridge University Press
Sherman, C., & Price, G. (2011). The invisible web:
Book by two authors
Uncovering information sources search engines can’t see
Medford, NJ: Cyber Age Books
Book by three or more Goodpaster, K.E., Nash, L.L., & Betignies, H. (2006) Business
authors
Ethics: Policies and person (3rd ed).
Book by a corporate
American Medical Association. (2004) American Medical
author
Association family medical guide (4th ed).
Winnie, P.H. (2001) Self-regulated learning viewed from models
of information processing. In B.J. Zimmerman & D.H. Schuk
Article or chapter within
(Eds), self-regulated learning and academic achievement
an edited book
(2nd ed,pp 160-192). Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Eribaum
Associates.
CITING ARTICLES FROM PRINT PERIODICALS
Source
Article in monthly
magazine (include
volume number if
given)
Article in a weekly
magazine (include
volume number if
given)
Article in a daily
newspaper
Article in a scholarly
journal
Book Review
Electronic Book
Example Citations
Swedin, E.G. (2006, May/ June). Designing babies: A eugenics
Race with China? The Futurist.
Will, G.G. (2004, July 5) Waging War on Wal-Mart.
Newsweek.
Dougherty, R. (2006, January 11). Jury convicts man in drunk
driving death. Centre Daily Times, p 1A
Stock, C.D., & Fisher, P.A. (2006) Language delays among
Foster children: Implications for policy and practice. Child
Welfare, 85 (3)
Rif kind, D. (2005, April 10). Breaking their vows. Review.
Mc Kernan, B. (2001). Digital cinema: the revolution in
cinematography, postproduction distribution. New York, NY:
Mc-Graw Hill. Retrieved from www. netlibrary.com Post, E.
(1923) Etiquette in society, in business, in politics and at
home. New York, NY: Funk & Wagnalls. Retrieved from
http://books.google.com/books
CITING AN ENTRY IN AN ONLINE REFERENCE WORK
Source
Entry from Gale virtual
Reference Library
Example Citation
Rey, G. (2006) Behaviorism. In D.M. Borchert (Ed.)
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2nd ed). Retrieved from http
//gogalegroup.com
WHEN QUOTE IS LONGER THAN 40 WORDS,



Start the quote on a new line
Indent the entire quote by 5 spaces (1/2 of an inch if you use the ruler in Microsoft
Word).
Don’t use quotation marks
3



(classguides.lib.uconn.edu/content)
Double-space the quote (just like the rest of the paper)
Use brackets enclosing ellipses [ ] to represent omitted text.
If your quote contains a quote, use double quotation marks “ “ around the shorter
quote.
SYNTHESIZING INFORMATION FROM RELEVANT LITERATURE
Synthesis – a discussion that draws on one or more sources. This also refers to
bringing together of materials from different sources and the creation of an
integrated whole.
Example of a Long Quote
Elder and Paul (2006) explain the difference between absolutists and relativists.
Types of Synthesis
Some people, dogmatic absolutists, try to reduce all questions to matter of fact. They think
1. Explanatory Synthesis – Its primary aim is to present the facts in a
reasonably objective manner. Explanations given may entail descriptions,
sequence of events or state of affairs.
2. Argument Synthesis – Its purpose is for you to present your own point of
view with the support of relevant facts drawn from services and presented in a
logical manner.
that every question has one and only one correct answer. Others, subjective relativists, try
to reduce all questions to matters of subjective opinion. They think that no question has
correct or incorrect answers but that all questions whatsoever are matters of opinion.
Neither absolutist nor relativist leaves room for what is crucial to success in human life
matters of judgement.
REFERENCE SECTION

It is an alphabetical list of all the references you cited in the text of your report. It
allows readers to find out more information about the references used and to go to
them if the readers want to. They must match perfectly those found in the
reference section. When writing in APA style, you always include a reference
section not a bibliography (Dempster and Hanna, 2016).

You should always cite other people’s words, ideas and other intellectual property
that you use in your research or that have an influence on your ideas. This
includes what had been presented as different types of materials.

You should always cite whenever you:
o Use a direct quote
o Paraphrase
o Summarize
o Use facts or statistics that are relatively less known or relate directly to
your argument.
Categories of Sources (Fraenkel (2015)
1. Documents – These include written or printed materials that have been produced
in some form or another such as annual reports, books, artwork, cartoons,
circulars, records, diaries, notebooks , etc. They may be published or unpublished;
intended or private or public consumption; they may be original works or copies.
2. Numerical Records – Separate type of source in and of themselves or as a
subcategory of documents. They maybe test scores, attendance figures, census,
reports, school budgets and the like.
3. Oral Statements – These may include stories, myths, tales, legends, chants,
songs and other forms of oral expressions. These materials leave a record for
future generations.
4. Relics – These are types of historical sources. A relic is any object where physical
or visual characteristics can provide some information about the past. Exampes:
furniture artwork, clothing, buildings or equipment.

All information about the subject or problem discussed in the review are presented,
organized and summarized further in the synthesis. This is called as the “synthesis
of the art”.
How to Write a Synthesis
4
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Consider your purpose in writing
Select and read carefully your sources, according to your purpose
Formulate a thesis. Present your main ideas.
Decide how you will use your source material and take down notes.
Develop n organizational plan according to your thesis
Write the first draft of your synthesis, following your organizational plan
Revise your synthesis
Techniques for Writing your Synthesis
1. Summary – It is the simplest way of organizing a synthesis. You write one after
the other the most relevant information and sources you gathered.
2. Example or Illustration – It is a reference to a particularly illuminating example or
illustration that you have included in your review. Credit your source / s.
3. Two (or more) Reasons – Simply state your thesis then give reasons why it is
true. Your reasons need to be supported by evidence from your data and sources.
4. Comparison and Contrast – These techniques will lead to examining two
subjects or data in terms of one another. Comparison considers similarities while
contrast, highlights differences.
SYNTHESIS MATRIX

The synthesis matrix is a chart that will allow you to sort and categorize the
different opinions and arguments given on an issue in relation to your study.

Source #2
Source #3
Source #4
Then, fill up the chart with notes discussed in the work being examined.
EXAMPLE OF A LITERATURE REVIEW SYNTHESIS
Title: World War Two and Its Effect on Women
Source: http//writingcenter.fiu.edu/resource/synthesismatrix-2pdf
The sample shows not only the similarity between the two articles mentioned but it
also points out how they are similar. The excerpt is not a summary of ideas but
draws comparisons between the two articles and synthesizing the two works.
WRITING COHERENT REVIEW OF LITERATURE
This lesson will lead you write the whole review in a coherent manner. Coherence directs to
a well-organized and unified piece of writing. The discussion of the three main sections of
the literature review which are the introduction, body and conclusion can guide you in
writing your own coherent review of literature.

Label: Author’s last name and / or few keywords from the title of the work
Label: Main ideas that your source discussed about your topic
Source #1

PUTTING TOGETHER THE LITERATURE REVIEW
Topic: ________________________________________________
Main Idea A
Main Idea B
While the articles used in this research agree that women made many advances during the
World War Two period, it is crucial to realize that not all these changes were welcomed. In
most cases women faced discrimination from just about everyone around them. Women in
the workplace were even placed in positions of inferiority or treated as being less physically
able to do the same work the men did. Many women were often not trained because they
were viewed as temporary employees who were only there for the duration of the war
(Bruley, 2003, pp. 221-222). Women were very rarely given equal pay as men, even though
some of them did the same work. Women in the military faced not only mental abuse but
also physical harm from their male counterparts. According to Cornelsen (2005), there were
many instances where female aviators were injured or killed due to being made to fly illmaintained air crafts or aircrafts that had been sabotaged. Pp114.
A good review discusses the literature critically, identifies methodological problems
and print out research gaps. It starts with a general introduction of the context and
toward the end which is the recapitulation of the main points covered.
WORKING FOR COHERENCE



Coherence refers to how well a manuscript holds together as a unified document.
Use subheadings
Use transitional expressions and other kinds of rethorical markers to identify
connection among the different sections as in “the next example” or “in a related
study”, “ the most recent or relevant finding in a study”.
5


Use “first, second, third” at the beginning of your paragraphs to mark the
development of related points.
The literature review is an informative, critical and useful synthesis of a particular
topic that helps identify what is known (and unkown) in the subject area: identify
areas of controversy, knowledge gaps or debate and formulate questions that
need further research.
SECTIONS OF A LITERATURE REVIEW
The Introduction
 This is often a single paragraph that:
o Introduces the general topic and provides an appropriate scholarly or
societal (e.g. policy, practice) context for the review
o Identifies the overall state-of-knowledge about the topic (e.g., the conflicts
in theory, methodology, evidence and conclusion; gaps in research and
scholarship; or the specific policy or practice problem, need or
opportunity).
The Body
In the body of the literature review, you need to:
 Address previous research on the topic, grouped according to theme, theoretical
perspective, methodological approach, or chronological development;
 Draw together the significance of previous, individual studies by highlighting the
main themes, issues and knowledge gaps
 Use strong “umbrella” sentences at the beginning and end of each paragraph.
 Include “so what” sentences at intermediate points in the review to connect the
literature to the proposed research objectives.
 Describe the previous work you have accomplished related to the proposed
research.
The Conclusion to the literature review is often a single paragraph that:


Provides a summary statement of the overall state of knowledge about the topic,
including gaps in knowledge and understanding, reconnecting to your introduction;
Reinforces the research purpose or objectives and establishes the potential
significance or importance of your proposed research, relative to the current state
of knowledge.
SAMPLE OF COHERENT REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
The scholarly works provided in this section were adopted from the renowned authors
conducting similar studies on career choice of students. The intellectual contribution of
these people in the world of academics was explored to substantiate the present research
study on career choice of students: basis for curricular offering of senior high schools in
Region XI.
For clarity, the term “career choice” is defined to include broad opportunities that exist for
lifelong vocations. These vocations are set out in a framework of strategies moving toward
personal goals (Kerka, 2007). On the other hand, fields of career in vocational, academic
and sociological endeavours are explored in the study of Oyamo (2008) for the purpose of
satisfying personal economic and intellectual goals.
As mentioned by Khami (2008), exploration of career choices should be a positive
endeavour for high school students. A thoughtfully constructed career choice process will
provide a meaningful, productive, satisfying quality career choices. In the same way,
Mcquid (2006) suggested that a career choice process or outline might provide better
answers than making life decisions based on 18 years of experience.
On one hand, Taylor (2006) implied that personal values and desires have seldom been
realized without the active and conscious efforts on the parts of the student. The students
must be motivated to orchestrate the outcome. If the students want to work in the career
choice process, the student must know and understand the realities of that process.
Perrone (2009) averred that a student develops a practical plan of action to get what he /
she wants from decisions of his / her career choice.
In modern times, one has not only made due career planning but also exhaustive career
research making a career choice so as to adjust with the evolving socio-economic
conditions (Wattles, 2009). He mentioned that career choice is influenced by multiple
factors, including personality, interests, self-concept, cultural identity, globalization,
socialization, role model, social support and available resources such as information and
financial. According to Hewitt (2010), factors influencing career choice can either be intrinsic
or extrinsic or both. He further stated that most people are influenced by careers that their
parents favour; other follow their passion, regardless of how much or little it will make them,
while others choose the careers that give high income.
6
FOLLOWING ETHICAL STANDARDS IN WRITING RELATED LITERATURE
Writing is one activity which needs to subscribe to ethical standards. This is especially
important to prevent writers, in particular, researchers from plagiarism, an act against the
Intellectual Property Rights Law.
UNDERSTANDING ETHICS
Research Ethics are standardized rules that guide the design and conduct of research
(Dempster and Hanna, 2016). The term ethics refers to questions of right and wrong. When
researchers think about ethics, they must also ask themselves if it is “right” to conduct a
particular study or carry out certain procedures. (Frankel and Waller, 2008).
3. Follow informed consent rules. In doing a literature review, you have to abide by
the rule on informed consent. The participants should signify their willingness to be
part of the research and have the right to know about the results of the study.
4. Respect confidentiality and privacy. Letters sent to would be respondents and
participants in a study usually include a statement on the observance of
confidentiality in terms of the data provided by them.
5. Tap into ethics resources. Limitations do not really hamper procedures like data
collection and data analysis but ethical standards will have to be addressed.

Another term related to ethics is research misconduct which is defined as
fabrication, falsification or plagiarism, including misrepresentation of credentials in
proposing, performing or reviewing research or in reporting research results.
Webster’s New World Dictionary defines ethical behaviour as conforming to the standards
of conduct of a given profession or group. Ethical behaviour refers to as being in
accordance with rules or standards for right conduct or practice. Unethical behaviour
constitutes a violation of such conduct of practice.
Plagiarism is committed when authors present the words, data or ideas of others with the
implication that they are their own, without attribution. This act is against the Intellectual
Property Rights Law. It is a form of research misconduct.
If there is a word-for-word copying beyond a short phrase or six or seven words of someone
else’s text, that section should be enclosed in quotation marks or indented and referenced
at the location in the manuscript of the copied material, to the original source.
The work of others should be cited or credited, whether published or unpublished, and
whether it had been written for an oral presentation or material on the website.
ETHICS IN LITERATURE REVIEW
5 PRINCIPLES FOR RESEARCH ETHICS (www.aa.org/monitor/jan03/principles.asp)
1. Discuss intellectual property frankly. It is un ethical to take ideas from sources
without giving credit to the originator.
2. Be conscious of multiple roles. One of the most common multiple roles for
researchers is being both a mentor and laboratory supervisor for students they
teach or advise.
7
Republic of the Philippines
Department of Education
Cordillera Administrative Region
EASTERN BONTOC NATIONAL AGRICULTURAL AND VOCATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL
Lingoy, Barlig, Mountain Province
ACTIVITY SHEET
General Direction: All the activities listed in this module are exercises done vis a vis with
the topics or lessons on review of related literature. Accomplish the activities in this module
using the spaces provided for your answers.
Activity 1: This will test your ability to write correctly references. Select the elements of the
reference in the order in which they should be arranged. Use the APA style. Observe
correct indention, spacing, capitalization and punctuation marks.
1. Qualitative research from start to finish New York Yin, Robert. The Guilford Press
2011
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
2. 2012 Navarro, R and Santos, R. Assessment of learning outcomes
(Assessment)Lorimar Publishing Inc. Second Edition Quezon City
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
4. Principles of Teaching 3rd EDITION LORIMAR Publishing Inc. 2013. Corpuz, B and
Salandaran, G. Quezon City
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
5. Kate, M. & Trochim, W. Thousand Oaks, CA 2007. Concept Mapping for planning
and evaluation.
Activity 2. Read and comprehend each statement then write TRUE or FALSE after
evaluating if the statement is a fact of not. Write your answer in the space provided before
each number.
________________1. Literature review is concerned with adding new knowledge.
________________2. A bibliography is necessary in a literature review.
________________3. A good literature review uses clear lines of argument.
________________4. The film refers to a motion pictures or movie.
________________5. Researchers follow what referencing styles the school prescribes.
Activity 3: Writing Exercises
A. In your own words, discuss the importance of a literature review. Use the space
provided below.
3. Vatterott, Cathy USA 2009 Rethinking homework: Best practices that support
diverse needs, ASC Alexandria, Virginia
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
8
B. Distinguish primary, secondary and tertiary sources by giving examples. Use the
diagram for your answer. Two example in each category of sources.
Source
Example (must be a citation from a source)
Activity 4: Discussion Forum. Make a written report of your answers on each given
question. Write your report in the space provided below each question.
1. What makes the review of literature important in research?
Primary
Secondary
2. Why should ethical standards be observed in the literature review?
Tertiary
3. How can plagiarism be avoided in writing the review of literature?
C. In your own words, discuss what is ethics in literature review. Use the space below
for your answer.
9
4. Can you think of any type of information that should not be included in literature
review? Why? Give example.
Activity 5: Prepare a literature review of your current research study. One paragraph for
the introduction, 2 paragraphs for the body and 1 paragraph for the conclusion. Follow
proper format for in-text citations in the beginning, middle or end of sentences. Write also
the references you used in your literature review. Provide the correct citation for each
source.
Note: You may ask assistance from your classmates, family relatives or other concerned
community members for you to accomplish all the given activities on time. If somebody will
give assistance to you, let them sign on the bottom right corner of the activity. Let them sign
above their printed name then indicate the date when the assistance was given.
10
REFERENCE:
Prieto, N.G., Naval, V.C., & Carey, T.G. Practical Research 2 Qualitative & Quantitative.
Quezon City: Lorimar Publishing Inc., 2017.
Activity 6: Write your acknowledgement or thank you note to all the concerned individual
who helped you in any way to accomplish your module.
Prepared by:
Reviewed & Noted:
FUNNY B. FIADCONG
Research Teacher
ROGELIO K. KINORMAN
Head Teacher III
Approved:
JOSEPH M. MANONGGIT
Secondary School Principal
Accomplished by:
_________________________________________
Student
Assisted: (Sign over printed name)
_________________________
Mother
_____________________________
Father
11
Republic of the Philippines
Department of Education
Cordillera Administrative Region

EASTERN BONTOC NATIONAL AGRICULTURAL AND VOCATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL
Lingoy, Barlig, Mountain Province

Module in Inquiries, Investigation and Immersion
4th Quarter

UNDERSTANDING DATA AND WAYS TO
SYSTEMATICALLY COLLECT DATA
Learning Outcomes:







Choose appropriate quantitative research designs
Describe sampling procedures and derivation of the sample size
Construct instruments for gathering data
Establish validity and reliability of instruments for gathering data
Plan data collection procedures
Choose appropriate statistical measures for data analysis
Analyze the use of hypothesis testing
CHOOSING APPROPRIATE QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN
The choice of correct design is important prior to obtaining information relevant to
your research study. You can review and synthesize literature of studies that have
used the same research design and which are relevant to your research study.
I. TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS
1. EXPLORATORY RESEARCH DESIGN




Often used to establish an initial understanding and background information
about a research study of interest, oftenly with very few or no earlier related
studies found relevant to the research study.
This research design is described as an informal or unstructured way of
investigating available sources. You may conduct library search, secondary
data analysis, experience surveys, opinionnaire, case analysis, focus
groups, projective techniques and internet searches.
Secondary data include information which you can gather from books,
journals, proceedings, newsletters, magazines, annual reports and many
others.
Experience surveys refer to gathering data from key informants about a
research topic.
In case analysis, you may review past experiences or situations that may
have some similarities with the present research problem.
You may also gather small groups of people and conduct focus group
discussions.
Through an unstructured discussion, you can gain information relevant to
the research study that you plan to undertake.
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN




This is used to gather information on current situations and conditions.
It helps provide answers to the questions of who, what, when, where and
the how of a particular research study.
Descriptive research studies provide accurate data after subjecting them to
a rigorous procedure and using large amounts of data from large numbers
of sample.
However, the descriptive research design is dependent to a high degree on
data collection instrumentation for the measurement of data analysis.
CLASSIFICATION OF DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN:

Survey – this is used in securing opinions and trends through the use of
questionnaires and interviews.
12

A survey is used in gathering data from institutions,
government and businesses to help in decision making
regarding change strategies, improving practices,
analysing views on choice of products or market research.

Correlation Research
 This is used for research studies aimed to determine the existence
of a relationship between two or more variables and to determine
the degree of the relationship.
 Examples of correlational research involving two quantitative
variables that can be correlated are: mental ability and grade in
math, gender and math performance, advertising costs and sales
and income expenses.
 Evaluation Research
 This is conducted to elicit useful feedback from a variety of
respondents from various fields to aid in decision making or policy
formulation.
 Commonly used types of evaluation based on the purpose of the
study are FORMATIVE AND SUMMATIVE evaluation.
Formative Evaluation
o This is used to determine the quality of implementation of a project, the
efficiency and effectiveness of a program, assessment of organizational
processes such as procedures, policies, guidelines, human resource
development and the like.
Summative Evaluation
o This is done after the implementation of the program. It examines the
outcomes, products or effects of the program.
PROCESS EVALUATION – Evaluates the process of implementation of a program.
Example: You may want to conduct a study on the implementation of the Student
Information System (SIS) in your school.
Questions: How will students and teachers assess the efficiency of the current
process of SIS? Is it working well? What suggestions maybe implemented to
improve the program? When will the recommendations from teachers and students
be implemented to improve the program considering the cost and other
technicalities?
IMPLEMENTATION EVALUATION – Evaluates the efficiency or effectiveness of a
project or program.
EXAMPLE: How effective is the scholarship program in your school? Are the criteria
followed? How many students availed themselves of said scholarships and how
many students graduated successfully?
PROGRAM MONITORING – Evaluates the performance and implementation of an
unfinished program. The evaluation is done prior to the completion of the program. It
helps improve implementation and achieve best results. The initial implementation
of the Kto12 Program is a very good topic for evaluation under this type of research
design.
EXAMPLES OF SUMMATIVE EVALUATION
Secondary Data Analysis – You may examine existing data for analysis. Example:
You may want to find out the influence of gender and mental ability in the results of
NAT in your school or region.
EXAMPLES OF FORMATIVE EVALUATION
Impact Evaluation – This is used to evaluate the overall effect of the program in its
entirety. Example: You may want to determine the effect of remedial classes on the
performance of students in Mathematics in your school.
NEEDS ASSESSMENT – Evaluates the need for the program or project. For
example: How great is the need for a remedial program in Mathematics? Who
needs the program? When can the program start? Where or in what college will the
program be implemented and what are needed to implement the program?
Outcome Evaluation – This is done to determine if the program has caused useful
effects based on target outcomes. Example: You may want to determine if a
leadership training program for officers of student organizations of a certain public
secondary school have enhanced the leadership skills of the participants.
13
Cost Effectiveness Evaluation (cost-benefit analysis) – It compares the relative
costs to the outcomes or results of some courses of action.
Example: You may conduct a study on the value for money returns of a company
brought about by an intensive training investment for employees in the sales
department.
research
Goals and
Objectives
Sample Size

CAUSAL RESEARCH DESIGN
o This is used to measure the impact that an independent variable
(causing effect) has on another variable (being effected) or why certain
results are obtained. A valid conclusion may be derived when an
association between the independent and dependent variable is
obtained. It can also be used to identify the extent and nature of cause
and effect relationships. Causal research can help businesses
determine how decisions may affect operations.
o A restaurant owner may want to find out why she / he has fewer
customers than neighboring restaurants that resulted in decline in
sales. Thus, the purpose of the research study is to find out the factors
that cause the decline in the number of customers in the said
restaurant.
OTHER POINTS OF COMPARISON ON THE CHARACTERIESTICS OF
EXPLORATORY, DESCRIPTIVE AND CAUSAL RESEARCH
Points of
Comparison
Research
Approach
Degree of
Problem
Identificatio
n
When to
Use?
Exploratory
Research
Unstructured &
flexible
Descriptive
Research
Formal &
structured
Not well-defined
Variables are
defined
Variables and
relationships are defined
Initial research
Often a follow-up
to exploratory
Late stage of decision
making
Causal Research
Highly structured
Type of
Hypothesis
Data
Managemen
t&
Measureme
nts
Provides insights
on a problem
Describe
situations
Small nonrepresentative
sample
Research
questions only
Large
representative
sample
Hypothesis is non
directional
Data may not be
statistically
measurable
Data are
statistically
measurable
Explains the cause &
effect relationship
between variables
Large representative
sample
Hypothesis is directional
Data are statistically
measurable=
DESCRIBING SAMPLE SIZE AND SAMPLING PROCEDURE
Sampling – is securing some of the elements of a population.
Element – is a member of a population who can provide information for the population.
Population – consists of the total elements about which you can make inferences based on
the data gathered from a determined sample size.
SAMPLE SIZE DETERMINATION

Sample (n) – is a selection of respondents for a research study to represent the total
population (N).
RESAONS FOR THE USE OF SAMPLES:
1. A sample saves time compared to doing a complete census which requires more time.
2. A sample saves money because it is less costly than conducting a complete census.
3. A sample allows more particular attention to be given to a number of elements than when
doing a census.
4. There is a greater error in reporting results of a census caused by inexperienced
interviewers. There is less sampling error in a survey.
5. Some research studies in the industry may only be performed on a sample of items. For
example, testing the length of time a battery will last.
14
SLOVINS FORMULA IN DETERMINING THE SAMPLE SIZE
Solution:
The following information is needed to be able to determine the sample size using
the SLOVIN’s formula.
 Population (N) consists of members of a group that a researcher is interested in
studying the members of a group that usually have common or similar characteristics.
 Margin error is the allowable error margin in research. A confidence interval of 95%
gives a margin of error of 5%; a 98% gives a margin of error of 2%; a 99% confidence
interval gives 1% margin of error.
 The sample size can be obtained by the formula:
𝑛=
Where:
𝑛=
=
=
𝑁
1 + 𝑁𝑒 2
SAMPLING PROCEDURES
Using the formula,
Substituting the given data:
𝑁
1 + 𝑁𝑒 2
35,000
1 + 87.5
𝑛 = 395
Example 2: Suppose you plan to conduct a study among 1,500 Grade 11 students
enrolled in the STEM Track. How many respondents are needed using a margin of
error of 2%?
Given:
N=1,500
e= 2%
1 + (1.6)
𝑛 = 938
1. PROBABILITY SAMPLING PROCEDURE – The most important characteristics of
probability sampling procedure is the random selection of the samples. Each sample
(n) or element from the population (N) has an equal chance of selection under a given
sampling technique.
35,000
1 + (35,000)(. 0025)
=
1,500
SAMPLING TECHNIQUES:
35,000
𝑛=
1 + (35,000)(.05)2
=
1,500
1 + (1,500)(.0004)
Sampling – is a formal process of choosing the correct subgroup called a sample from
a population to participate in a research study. The sub group shall be the
representative of the large group from where they were selected.
Example 1: A researcher wants to conduct a survey. If the population of a big university
is 35,000, find the sample size if the margin of error is 5%.
𝑛=
1,500
1 + (1,500)(.02)2
=
𝑛 = 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒
𝑁 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑒 = 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟
𝑁
1 + 𝑁𝑒 2
4 PROBABILITY SAMPLING PROCEDURES

SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING – This is the most frequent used type of probability
sampling technique. This is characterized by the idea that the chance of selection is the
same for every member of the population.
o
Example: Assume that you want to conduct a survey of 100 SHS students in a
certain private school. To get the desired sample size of 100, you can do the
selection process, either manually or electronically, ensuring that each student
in the population has an equal chance of being drawn from the total population
of SHS students in that school.
15

SYSTEMATIC RANDOM SAMPLING – This follows specific steps and procedures in
doing the random selection of the samples. It requires a list of the elements and every
tenth element in the list is drawn for inclusion in the sample. If for instance, you have a
list of 5,000 persons and you need a sample of 500, here are the steps to follow:
o
o
o
o
In this example, if there are 1,200 JHS students, here are the steps to follow:

Divide the no. of elements in the population by the desired sample size. In this
case, you divide 5,000 by 500 which gives a value of 10.
Choose a random no. between one and the value you obtained from step 1. In
this example, you choose a number between 1 and 10, let’s say you choose 5.
Starting from the no. you picked which is 5, you take every tenth (10th) (from
step 1) and you use 5 as your starting point. Thus you have to select the
samples whose numbers are 5, 15, 25, 35, 45 and so on until you reach the
desired sample size of 500.
STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING – the population is first divided into two
or more mutually exclusive categories based on your variables of interest in
the research study. The population is organized into homogenous subsets
before drawing the samples. With stratified random sampling, the population
is divided into subpopulation called strata. If your variable of interest is
economic status based on the family combined income level, you can divide
the population into strata of different income levels (low, average, high income
with specific numerical value of annual family income per level). When this
have been determined, you may draw a sample from each stratum with a
separate draw from each of the different strata. The sample sizes within the
strata can now be determined.
o
Example: Suppose you’re interested in how frequent internet use varies by
level among JHS students. You need to ensure that an appropriate no. of
students are drawn from all levels of the JHS track.
o
In this case, you have to stratify by level (first year, second year, third year
and fourth year) When these have been determined, you may draw a sample
from each stratum with a separate draw from each of the different strata. The
sample sizes within the strata should be pre-determined.
o
o
The primary advantage of this technique is to ensure that cases from each
stratum of the population are given importance as in other groupings.

Get the population of JHS students per level. In this case, the
following data were recorded:

1st Year
350

2nd Year
300

3rd Year
280

4th Year
270

TOTAL
1, 200
Divide each no. of students per level by the total population of 1,200
and then multiply by the desired sample size of 300.
o
1st Year
350 / 1200 x 300 = 87.5 ≅ 88
o
2nd Year
300 / 1200 x 300 = 75
o
3rd Year
280 / 1200 x 300 = 70
o
4th Year
270 / 1200 x 300 = 67.5 ≅ 67

TOTAL
300
o
You can now randomly draw out 88 from the first year level, 75 samples from
the second year , 70 from third year and 67 from the fourth year level of JHS
students. This gives a sample that represents the whole proportionately per
level.
o
Stratified random sampling is preferred by researchers who want to study
subpopulations where categorization of homogenous characteristics of each
stratum is being considered.
o
CLUSTER SAMPLING – this is used when the target respondents in a
research study is spread across a geographical location. In this method, the
16
o
population is divided into groups called clusters which are heterogeneous in
nature and are mutually exclusive. A random sampling technique is used on
relevant clusters to be included in the study.

This technique is applicable when researchers find difficulty in locating special
numbers of a population. The chain referral procedure allows the researcher
to reach the desired samples.
CLASSIFICATION:

Example: An ethnographic research of the indigenous groups called
Mangyans who are living in the island of Mindoro used snowball sampling to
locate respondents. Based on this unpublished research study, the total
population of the eight (8) ethnic groups called Mangyans maybe around
100,000 according to official records. But according to the researcher, they
are difficult to locate because of distance (remote areas) and some have little
contact with the lowlanders or the outside world.

Single Stage Cluster Sampling – All the members from each of the
selected clusters are used in the sampling process.

Two Stage Cluster Sampling – a subset of elements within each
selected cluster is randomly selected for inclusion in the sample.

Multi Stage Sampling – more than two steps are taken in selecting
clusters from clusters. Examples are those which consider
geographical clustering as provinces, towns or cities. This takes a
large population into account.
3. Purposive Sampling – Purposive sampling sometimes called judgmental or subjective
sampling employs a procedure in which samples are chosen for a special purpose. It may
involve members of a limited group of population.

NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING PROCEDURES
1. Convenience Sampling – This is a method of selecting samples that are available and
are capable of participating in a research study on a current issue. This method is
sometimes called haphazard or availability sampling.
Example: Conducting a survey or interview on a captive audience inside a mall or park
or school to obtain a quick response of public opinion on an issue about election of
public officials.
2. Snowball Sampling – This is a technique where the researcher identifies a key
informant about a research of interest and then ask that respondent to refer or identify
another respondent who can participate in the study. The identification of the samples
follows a multiplier effect, that is, one person is asked to refer the researcher to another
respondent and so on.
Example: You may want to conduct a study on why Grade 11 students chose the
Voc-Tech track over the academic track. You, therefore, find your samples and
your first question would be “Are you planning to go to the university?” Those who
will say “no” would not be included in the study.
4. Quota Sampling – This is gathering a representative sample from a group based on
certain characteristics of the population chosen by the researcher. Usually the population is
divided into specific groups. If the specific condition, for example, is for both genders, males
and females are to be represented equally in the sample group, then if 60 representatives
are needed, then you get 30 males and 30 females from each group.

The main difference between stratified random sampling and quota sampling can
be explained in a way that in quota sampling, you use non-random selection.
DESIGNING THE QUESTIONNAIRE AND ESTABLISHING VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY
DESIGNING THE QUESTIONNAIRE
Questionnaire – an instrument for collecting data. It consists of a series of questions that
respondents provide answers to a research study.
17
STEP I – BACKGROUND

You do a basic research on the background of the chosen variable or construct.
Choose a construct that you can use to craft the purpose and objective of the
questionnaire.

In research, the term construct refers to a trait of characteristic that you like to
evaluate or measure.

Examples of constructs: weight, height, intelligence levels, levels of satisfaction,
aggression, skills, academic achievement, or work performance. After identifying
the construct, you can easily state the purpose and objective of the questionnaire
and the research questions as well; only then can you frame the hypothesis of the
study.
5 MAIN TYPES OF VARIABLES:
Dependent Variables – these are the variables that you are trying to explain. An example
is student academic achievement in Mathematics.
STEP 2: QUESTIONNAIRE CONCEPTUALIZATION

o
o
Choose the response scale to use. This is how you want your respondents to
answer the questions in your study. You can choose from the following response
scales:
Yes / No
Yes/No/Don’t Know
This type of response scale allows the respondent to select only one answer. The “don’t
know” answer is the neutral response.
Likert Scale is a very popular rating scale used by the researchers to measure behaviours
and attitudes quantitatively. It consists of choices that range from one extreme to another
from where respondents choose a degree of their opinions. It is the best tool for measuring
the level of opinions.
Here are some Likert-Scale sample ratings:
FREQUENCY OF OCCURENCE
FREQUENCY OF USE
Independent or Explanatory Variables – These are variables that cause, influence or
explain a change in the dependent variable. There maybe one or more independent
variables in a research study.
Very Frequently
Always
Frequently
Often
Example: Some variables which may influence a student’s academic achievement in
Mathematics are: mental ability, age, gender, seating arrangement or educational
qualification of parents.
Occasionally
Sometimes
Rarely
Rarely
Control Variables – These are variables that are used to test for a possible erroneous
relationship between the identified independent and dependent variables. It is possible that
the observed relationship between the dependent and independent variables may be
explained by the presence of another variable.
Very Rarely
Never
Continuous Variables - These are variables defined on a continuous scale. Examples:
time, weight, length, or money.
Discrete Variables – These are variables which can also be counted but must be a whole
number. Some variables are continuous but reported as discrete when they are rounded of.
DEGREE OF IMPORTANCE
QUALITY
Very Important
Strongly Agree
Important
Agree
Moderately Important
Undecided
Of little importance
Disagree
18
o
Not important
Strongly Disagree
LEVEL OF SATISFACTION
Strongly Agree
Satisfied
Agree
Undecided
Undecided
Unsatisfied
Disagree
Very unsatisfied
Strongly Disagree

Generate the items or questions of the questionnaire based on the purpose and
objectives of the research study.

GUIDELINES:
o The questions should be clear, concise and simple using minimum number of
words.
o Avoid lengthy and confusing lay-out.
o Classify your questions under each statement based on your problem
statement.
o Questions should be consistent within the needs of the study.
o Avoid sensitive or highly debatable question.

Choose the types of questions in developing the statements. The type of questions
maybe one of the following:
o
o
What are your favourite movies? (Please specify their titles)
AGREEMENT
Very Satisfied
Dichotomous Question – This is a “Yes/No” or “Like/Dislike” question where
only two(2) choices are provided. “Male/female” and Good/Bad are also
examples of dichotomous choices.
Open-ended Question – This type of question usually answers the question
“Why”. It allows the respondents to give their ideas and insights on a particular
issue. This type of question gives additional challenge to the researcher who
must review each response before assigning codes and analysing the data.
Example 1:
Example 2:
What do you like most about your school?
o
Closed Questions
o
These are also called multiple-choice questions – These questions may
consist of three or more mutually exclusive questions with different categories.
Example 1: How often do you watch TV at home?
Never……………………………………………….. 1
1 or 2 times a week……………………………….. 2
3 or 4 times a week……………………………….. 3
Nearly Everyday…………………………………… 4
Example 2: What is the highest level of education that your mother has
completed? (Please put a check mark (√) on one box only)
Elementary School
High School
College
Don’t Know
19

Rank-order scale questions

Respondents are asked to rank their choices on each statement or
item.

Ranking requires that a set of items be ranked in order to compare
each item to all others.
Example 3: Please rank the following activities in order of importance in your work as a
senior high school student. (Please use “5” as the most important activity, “1” is the least
important activity)
CONTENT VALIDITY – This is often measured by experts or people who are familiar with
the construct being measured. The experts are asked to provide feedback on how well each
question measures the variable or construct under study. The experts make judgments
about the degree to which the test items or statements match the test objectives or
specifications.
CRITERION – RELATED VALIDITY – This type of validity measures the relationship
between a measure and an outcome. This can be further divided into concurrent and
predictive validity
o
Concurrent Validity – This type of validity measures how well the results of
an evaluation or assessment correlate with other assessments measuring the
same variables or constructs.
o
Predictive Validity – This measures how well the results of an assessment
can predict a relationship between the construct being measured and future
behaviour. For example: the academic performance of a student in Grade 11
Math may be predicted by his / her math performance in junior high school.
Importance Ranking
a. Doing homeroom activities
b. Going to the library
c. Using the computer
d. Joining academic organizations
e. Doing homeworks / assignments

Rating Scale Question – You construct a scale like those examples given for Likert
scale ratings.
STEP 3 – Establish the validity of the Questionnaire
CONSTRUCT VALIDITY – This is concerned with the extent to which a measure is related
to other measures as specified in a theory or previous research. It is an experimental
demonstration that a test is measuring the construct it claims to be measuring.
STEP 4: ESTABLISH THE RELIABILITY OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE
Reliability – indicates the accuracy or precision of the measuring instrument (Norland,
1990). It refers to a condition where the measurement process yields consistent responses
over repeated measurements. To apply this concept in research, you need a questionnaire
that is reliable. You need questions that yield consistent scores when asked repeatedly.
Validity – degree to which a test measure what it claims, or purports, to be measuring”
(Brown, 1996). A valid questionnaire helps to collect reliable and accurate data.
WAYS TO ASSESS THE RELIABILITY OF A QUESTIONNAIRE
WAYS TO ASSESS THE VALIDITY OF A SET OF QUESTIONNAIRE

FACE VALIDITY – This is a superficial or subjective assessment. The questionnaire
appears to measures the construct or variable that the research study is supposed to
measure.
Test-retest reliability – This is the simplest method of assessing reliability. The same
test or questionnaire is administered twice and correlation between the two sets of
scores is computed.

Split-half method – This method is also called equivalent or parallel forms. In this
method, two different tests covering the same topics are used and the correlation
between the two sets of scores is calculated.
20

Internal Consistency – This method is used in assessing reliability of questions
measured on an interval or ratio scale. The reliability estimate is based on a single form
of test administered on a single occasion. One popular formula to measure internal
consistency is called Cronbach’s alpha. This can be computed using manual and
electronic computations such as the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences.
Cronbach alpha can range from 0 (poor reliability) to 1 (perfect reliability). Anything
above .70 is considered sufficiently reliable.
STEP 5 – PILOT TESTING OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE
Pre-testing or pilot testing a questionnaire is important before you use it to collect data.
Through this process, you can identify questions or statements which are not clear to the
participants or there might be some problems with the relevance of the questionnaire to the
current study.
After designing the questionnaire, you may find 10-15 people from your target group to retest the questionnaire. You design or provide spaces where the testers can freely indicate
their remarks. Such remarks may be any of the following:

“Delete this statement. I don’t understand the question / statement.”

“Revise the question/statement. Indicate the specific variables to be measured.”

“Retain the question / statement. This is good.”

“There are missing options in the list of choices.”

“The question is too long. It’s getting boring.”
STEP 6 – REVISE THE QUESTIONNAIRE

After identifying the problem areas in your questionnaire, revise the instrument as
needed based on the feedback provided during the pre-testing or pilot-testing. The
best questionnaire is one that is edited and refined towards producing clear
questions arranged logically and in sequential order. The questionnaire should
match with the research objectives.
PLANNING DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURES
Types of Quantitative Data collection Procedures
A. Observation – this is usually used in situations where the respondents cannot answer
the researcher’s question to obtain information for a research study. You have to prepare a
checklist using an appropriate rating scales that may categorize the behaviour, attitude or
attribute that you are observing to answer the questions posed in your study. Record your
observation by using checkmarks or cross marks on your checklist.
B. Survey
a. Sample Survey – the researcher collects data from a sample of a population to
estimate the attributes or characteristics of the population.
b. Administrative Data – This is a survey on the organization’s day-to-day
operations. This kind of data is now supported with various ICT tools and
softwares making it easy for organizations especially government, schools,
industry, NGO to update their records efficiently and effectively and put up their
own Management Information System (MIS).
c. Census – The researcher collects data from the selected population.It is an official
count on survey of a population with details on demographics, economic and social
data such as age, sex, education, marital status, household size, occupation,
religion, employment data, educational qualifications, and housing.
d. Tracer Studies – This is a regular survey with a sample of those surveyed within
specific time or period. These are used by educational institutions to follow up their
graduates. This is used to gather data on work or employment data, current
occupation and competencies needed in the workplace to determine gaps in
curriculum and other related activities between academe and industry.
C. Quantitative Interview – The researcher prepares an interview guide or schedule. The
interview guide may contain closed-ended questions and a few open-ended question as
well, that are delivered in the same format and same order to every respondent. Data from
quantitative interviews can be analysed by assigning numerical values to the responses of
the participants. The numeric responses may be entered into a data analysis computer
program where you can run various statistical measures.
21
D. Questionnaire – A questionnaire may be standardized or researcher made.
A standardized questionnaire has gone through the process of psychometric validation, has
been piloted and revised.
GUIDE IN FORMULATING GOOD QUESTIONS IN A QUESTIONNAIRE
 Avoid leading questions
 Be specific with what you like to measure
o For example, if you want to evaluate program, be specific with what
aspect or measurement you like to evaluate in the program, quality?
Effectiveness?
 Avoid unfamiliar words that the respondents might not be familiar with.
 Multiple choice categories should be mutually exclusive to elicit clear choices.
 Avoid personal questions, which may intrude into the privacy of the respondents
like those questions pertaining to income, family life, beliefs, like religions or
political affiliation.
 Make your questions short and easy to answer.
3. Inferential Data Analysis – this tests hypotheses about a set of data to reach
conclusions or make generalizations beyond merely describing the data. Inferential
statistics include tests of significance of difference such as the t-test, Analysis of Variance
(ANOVA) and tests of relationship such as Product Moment Coeffeicient or Correlation or
Pearson Spearmen rho, linear regression and chi-square test.
4. Quantitative Analysis in Evaluation
Levels of Measurement Scales:



PLANNING DATA ANALYSES USING STATISTICS
Purposes of Data Analysis Plan

Nominal Scale – It is sometimes called the categorical data. Variables measured
on a nominal scale are gender, religious affiliation, race or ethnic group.
o Example: male or female, Yes / No
Ordinal Scale – It involves the ranking of individuals, attitudes and characteristics.
o Order in the honor – first honor, second honor, third honor
o Order of Agreement – strongly agree, agree, strongly disagree
o Economic Status – low, average, high
Interval Scale – It has equal units of measurement, thereby, making it possible to
interpret the order of the scale scores and the distance between them. However,
interval scales do not have a “true zero”.
o With interval data, addition and subtraction are possible but you cannot
multiply or divide.
Ratio Scale – This is considered as the highest level of measurement. It has the
characteristics of an interval scale but it has a zero point. All statistical operations
can be performed on ratio scales. All descriptive and inferential statistics may be
applied. All variables can be added, subtracted, multiplied and divided.
1. describe data sets
2. determine the degree of relationship of variables
3. determine differences between variables
4. predict outcomes
5. compare variables
DESCRIPTIVE DATA ANALYSIS
Data Analysis Strategies
1. MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
1. Exploratory Data Analysis – This uses numerical and visual presentations such as
graphs. It is possible to find some inconsistencies, such as missing values, distribution of
the data or unusually small or too large values or invalid data.
2. Descriptive Data Analysis – Used to describe, show or summarize data in a meaningful
way, leading to a simple interpretation of data. Descriptive data analyses do not allow you to
formulate conclusions beyond the data you have described. The commonly used descriptive
statistics are those that analyse the distribution of data such as frequency, percentage,
measures of central tendency and measures of dispersion.
COMMON MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
1.1. Mean – often called the arithmetic average of a set of data. This is the sum of the
observed values in the distribution divided by the number of observations. It is frequently
used for interval or ratio data. The symbol 𝑋̅ (X bar) is used to denote the arithmetic mean.
The mean is calculated by summing up the observations (items, height, scores or
responses) and dividing by the number of observations.
𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
Mean 𝑋̅= 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
22
The Formula is:
𝑛
𝑋̅ = ∑
𝑖=1
Or
𝑋̅ =
Formula:
∑ 𝑥 1960
𝑋̅ =
=
𝑛
20
̅ = 98
𝑿
𝑋𝑖
𝑛
∑𝑥
𝑛
The following examples show the calculation of the mean for ungrouped data, that is a
list of data that is not recognized in any way.
A. FOR UNGROUPED DATA
̅) =
Mean (𝑿
Solution:
𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
× 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡
1.2. THE WEIGHTED MEAN - The weighted average or weighted mean is necessary
in some situations. Suppose that you are given the means of two or more
measurements and you wish to find the mean of all the measures combined into one
group. The formula for weighted mean is given by:
Substitute the Measurements using the formula.
∑ 𝑥 18 + 26 + 27 + 29 + 30
𝑋̅ =
=
𝑛
5
130
5
∑ 𝑓𝑥
𝑛
f= frequency
x = numerical value or item in a set of data
n = number of observations in the data set
𝑋̅𝑤 =
𝑋̅ = 26
Note that the value of the 𝑋̅ falls near the middle of the data set.
Answer: 𝑋̅ = 26
120
Suppose the 3rd measurement was 17 (rather than 27). The mean would be 5 =24
Thus, the mean is changed when one of the values in the set of observation is
changed.
Example 2:
Find the mean of the following:
90
102
115
93
B. FOR GROUPED DATA
When observations are grouped into classes, the formula for grouped data is as
follows:
Example 1:
Find the mean of the measurement: 18, 26, 27, 29, 30
=
You can use the mean when the numbers you have can be added or when
characteristics are measured on a numerical scale like those used to describe height,
weight, or scores on a test.
Scores in the National Achievement Test (NAT)
95
96
87
95
98
87
96
91
95
105
86
103
110
117
95
106
Example 1: Find the mean of the heights of 50 SHS students summarized as
follows:
Heights (in inches)
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
Frequency
6
15
12
8
5
2
2
∑ 𝑓 = 50
Height x Frequency
336
855
696
472
300
122
124
∑ 𝑓𝑥 = 2905
23
Solution: Using the data above, the weighted mean is equal to the sum of the column
fx, divided by the total number of observation.
𝑋̅𝑤 =
∑ 𝑓𝑥 2905
= 50
𝑛
The two middle values are 18 and 22. If the average of the two middle numbers is
taken, that is, 18 + 22 = 40 and divided by 2, the median is 20.
= 58.1 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠
When the data is grouped into classes, the class midpoint represents the “X” in the
formula.
Solution:
∑ 𝑓𝑥 2965
𝑋̅𝑤 =
=
= 59.3 (answer)
50
1.3. Median –This is the midpoint of the distribution. It represents the point in the data
where 50% of the values fall below that point and 50% fall above it. When the
distribution has an even number of observations, the median is the average of the two
middle scores. The median is the most appropriate measure of central tendency for
ordinal data.
A. FOR UNGROUPED DATA
The median maybe calculated from ungrouped data by doing the following steps:
1. Arrange the items (scores, responses, observations) from lowest to highest.
2. Count to the middle value. For an odd number of values arranged from lowest to
highest, the median corresponds to value. If the array contains an even number of
observations, the median is the average of the two middle values.
Example 1: Consider these odd numbers of numerical values:
7, 8, 8, 9, 10, 12, 23
By inspection, the median is 9 because half of the values (7, 8, 8) are below 9 and half
𝑛+1 𝑡ℎ
)
2
(10, 12, 23) are above 9. Since n=7 is odd, the median has rank (
7+1 𝑡ℎ
( 2 )
= 4𝑡ℎ item and is equal to 9.
Answer: The median is 9
Answer: The median is 20.
Example 3: Find the median for the set of measurements.
15, 20, 12, 26, 3, 30, 14
Example 2: Solve for the mean of the data below.
𝑛
Example 2: Consider these even numbers of numerical values.
12, 15, 18, 22, 30, 32
=
Class
Frequency (f)
Class Midpoint (x)
fx
76-80
3
78
234
71-75
5
73
365
66-70
6
68
408
61-65
8
63
504
56-60
10
58
580
51-55
7
53
371
46-50
7
48
336
41-45
3
43
129
36-40
1
38
38
TOTAL
50
2965
Solution: We first rank the measurements from the smallest to the largest 3, 12, 14, 15,
𝑛+1 𝑡ℎ
)
2
20, 26, 30. Since the number of cases is odd, the median has rank (
7+1 𝑡ℎ
( 2 )
=
= 4𝑡ℎ item and is equal to 15.
Answer: The median is 15.
Suppose the last number is 32 (rather than 30), the median is still 15. Unlike the mean,
the median is not affected by extreme values in the distribution.
A. FOR GROUPED DATA
If the data are grouped into classes, the median will fall into one of the classes as the
𝑛 𝑡ℎ
(2 ) value. The process involves several steps and has for its general formula the
following:
24
𝑛
Substitute all these values using the following formula:
−𝐹
Median = 𝐿 + 𝑖 (2 𝑓 )
𝑛
−𝐹
Where:
L = exact lower limit of the class containing the median (median class)
i = interval size
n = total number of items or observations
F = cumulative frequency in the class preceding the median class
f = frequency of the median class
Median = 𝐿 + 𝑖 (2 𝑓 )
50−34
)
22
= 30.5 + 10 (
16
22
= 30.5 + 10 ( )
In following examples, the use of the step by step procedure will be illustrated.
160
Example 4: The following data show the distribution of the ages of people interviewed
for a survey on a topic about climate change.
Class Interval (x)
11-20
21-30
31-40
41-50
51-60
61-70
Frequency (f)
20
14
22
18
14
12
f=100
Commulative Frequency (F)
20
34
56
74
88
100
Solution: Since there are 100 values in the data set, the median will represent the
𝑛 𝑡ℎ
1𝑜𝑜 𝑡ℎ
(2 ) or the ( 2 ) item, that is the 50th largest value.
Determine in which class the 50th value falls. The first two classes have a commulative
frequency of 34 classes.
We need another 16 values to reach 50. Thus the 50th value falls in the next class
which contains 22 values. The median class then is 31-40.
Thus,
L = 30.5
n = 100
F = 34
f = 22
i = 10
= 30.5 + ( 22 )
= 30.5 + 7.27
= 37.77
This means that 50% of the 100 ages will fall below 37.77 and 50% or 50 will fall above
it.
1.4 MODE
The mode is the most frequently occurring value in a set of observations. In cases
where there is more than one observation which is the highest but with equal
frequency, the distribution is bimodal (with 2 highest observations) or multimodal with
more than two highest observations. In cases where every item has an equal number
of observations, there is no mode. The mode is appropriate for nominal data.
EXAMPLE 1: The ages of fifteen (15) persons assembled in a room are as follows:
16, 18, 18, 18, 25, 25, 25, 30, 34, 36 and 38.
Solution:
An age of 25 is the mode because it has been recorded three times in the
sample, more than any other age.
Answer: Mode = 25
Example 2: The number of hours spent by 10 students in an internet café was as
follows:
2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4, 5, 5
25
Solution: Both 2 and 4 have a frequency of 3. The data is therefore bimodal.
Answer: Mode 2 and 4
Average Deviation (AD) = ∑
Example 3: Referring to the data on the distribution of the ages of 100 people
interviewed for a survey on a topic on national interest, the modal class is 31-40. The
31+40
mode which corresponds to the class midpoint would be 2 = 35.5.
Example 1: Consider a set of values which consists of 20, 25, 35, 40, 45. Solving for
20+25+35+40+45
the mean,
, the mean is 33. Find the average deviation.
5
2. MEASURES OF DISPERSION
Suppose you ask a group of senior high school students to rate the quality of food at
the school canteen and you find out that the average rating is 3.5 using the following
scale: 5 (Excellent); 4 (Very Satisfactory); 3 ( Satisfactory); 2 (Fair); and 1 (Poor).
How close are the ratings given by the students? Do their ratings cluster around the
middle point of 3, or are their ratings spread or dispersed, with some students giving
ratings of 1 and the rest giving ratings of 5?
The extent of the spread, or the dispersion of the data is described by a group of
measures called measures of dispersion, also called measures of variability. The
measures to be considered are the range, average or mean deviation, standard
deviation and the variance.
2.1 THE RANGE – The range is the difference between the largest and the smallest
values in a set of data.
Consider the following scores obtained by ten (10) students participating in a
mathematics contest:
6, 10, 12, 15, 18, 18, 20, 23, 25, 28.
Thus, the range is 22. The scores range from 6 to 28.
2.2 AVERAGE (MEAN) DEVIATION – This measure of spread is defined as the
absolute differences or deviation between the values in a set of data and the mean,
divided by the total number of values in the set of data.
In mathematics, the term “absolute” represented by the sign “l l” simply means taking
the value of a number without regard to positive or negative sign.
|𝑥−𝑋̅|
𝑛
Solution:
AD =
=
|20−33|+|25−33|+|35−33||40−33||45−33|
5
|−13|+|−8|+|2|+|7|+|12|
5
42
=
5
AD = 8.4
Thus, on the average, eah value is 8.4 units from the mean.
Example 2: A set of observations consists of 22, 60, 75, 85, 98. Find the average
deviation.
Solution:
The mean is
∑𝑥
𝑛
=
340
5
= 68
The average deviation is computed as follows:
AD =
=
|22−68|+|60−68|+|75−68|+|85−68|+|98−68|
5
|−46|+|−8|+|7|+|17|+|30|
108
= 5
5
AD=21.6
Thus, the average distance for the set of data is 21.6 units from the mean.
A.FOR UNGROUPED DATA
The formula based on the definition is:
26
2.3 STANDARD DEVIATION – The standard deviation (SD) is a measure of the
spread or variation of data about the mean.
A. For Ungrouped Data
The formula for calculating the standard deviation for ungrouped data is given by:
18
18
20
23
25
28
(18-17.5) =.5
(18-17.5) = .5
(20-17.5) = 2.5
(23-17.5) = 5.5
(25-17.5) = 7.5
(28-17.5) = 10.5
̅ )̅ 2
∑(𝑥−𝑋
SD = √
6.25
.25
6.25
30.25
56.25
110.25
∑(𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2
𝑛−1
= 434.5
Example 1 will outline the steps in computing the standard deviation for a set of data.
Example 1:
Let us consider the same data used in the illustration for using the range. The values
are 6, 10, 12, 15, 18, 18, 20, 23, 25, 28
Solution:
4. Sum all the squares from Step 3 or (𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2
5. Divide the number in Step 4 by n-1. The number of items or scores is denoted by n.
The quantity n-1 is called the degrees of freedom, a statistical concept that produces a
more accurate estimate of the data.
6. Compute the standard deviation using the formula below:
1. Compute the mean
𝑋̅ =
=
̅ 2
∑(𝑥−𝑋 )̅
SD = √
6 + 10 + 12 + 15 + 18 + 18 + 20 + 23 + 25 + 28
10
𝑛−1
434.5
= √10−1
175
10
𝑋̅ = 17.5
=√
2. Subtract the mean 𝑋̅ from each score (x), or X-𝑋̅.
434.5
9
= √48.278 = 6.948
SD = 6.95
2
̅ )̅
3. Square each difference from step 2, or (𝑥 − 𝑋
Score (x)
6
10
12
15
(𝒙 − 𝒙)
(6-17.5) = -11.5
(10-17.5) = -7.5
(12-17.5) = -5.5
(15-17.5) = -3.5
INTERPRETATION OF THE STANDARD DEVIATION
(𝒙 − 𝒙)𝟐
132.25
56.25
30.25
12.25
The standard deviation allows you to reach conclusions about scores in the distribution
the following conclusions can be reached if that distribution of scores is normal:
1. Approximately 68% of the scores in the samples falls within one standard deviation
of the mean.
27
2. Approximately 95% of the scores in the sample falls within two standard deviations
of the mean.
3. Approximately, 99% of the scores in the sample falls within three standard deviations
of the mean.
4. In our example, with a 𝑥̅ of 17.5 and a standard deviation of 6.95, we can say that,
68% of the scores will fall in the range
=(17.5-6.95) to 17.5+(2)(6.95)
=(17.5-13.9) to (17.5+13.9)
= 3.6 to 31.4
Case 3:
𝑡=
1. TEST OF SIGNIFICANCE OF DIFFERENCE (T-TEST)

Between Means – for independent samples (i.e when the respondents consist
of two different groups as boys and girls, working mothers and non-working
mothers, healthy and malnourished children and the like).
2
𝑆2
√ 𝑝
Where:
𝑆𝑝2 =
(𝑛1 − 1)𝑆12 + (𝑛2 − 1)𝑆22
𝑛1 + 𝑛2 − 2

𝑡=
𝑑−𝜇𝑑
𝑆𝑑 ⁄√𝑛
For correlated / dependent samples (i.e when the same set of respondents or
paired sets of respondents are involved)
= (𝑑𝑓 = 𝑛 − 1)

𝑧=
Between Proportions and Percentages
o For independent samples
(𝑝1 − 𝑝2 ) − (𝑝1 − 𝑝2 )
𝑝𝑞 𝑝𝑞
+
𝑛1
𝑛2
√
Case 1: 𝛿1 𝛿2 unknown or 𝑛1 ≥ 30 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛2 30
z=
(𝑥1 − 𝑥2 )− (𝜇1− 𝜇2 )
(𝑑𝑓 = 𝑛1 + 𝑛2 − 2)
𝑆𝑝2
𝑛1 + 𝑛2
B. INFERENTIAL DATA ANALYSIS – Inferential statistics refers to statistical
measures and techniques that allow us to use samples to make generalizations about
the population from which the samples were drawn.
Below is a list of common statistical measures to measure significant differences and
relationships between variables.
(𝑥1 − 𝑥2 ) − (𝜇1− 𝜇 )

For correlated / dependent samples
𝛿2 𝛿2
√ 1+ 2
𝑛1 𝑛2
𝑧=
Case 2: 𝛿1 ≠ 𝛿2 and 𝑛1 < 30 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛2 < 30
t=
(𝑥1 − 𝑥2 )− (𝜇1− 𝜇 )
2
𝑆2 𝑆2
√ 1+ 2
𝑛1 𝑛2
𝐷−𝐴
√𝐴 + 𝐷
𝑜𝑟 𝑧 =
(𝑝1 − 𝑝2 )
√𝑎 + 𝑑
𝑁
(𝑑𝑓 = 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑛1 − 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑛2 − 1)

ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE (ANOVA)
o ANOVA is used when significance of difference of means of two or
more groups are to be determined at one time.
28
One Way Analysis of Variance
Product-Moment Coefficient of Correlation or Pearson r – This is used when data are
expressed in terms of scores such as weights and heights or scores in a test (ratio or
interval).
Case 1: When deviations from the mean are used
A Typical ANOVA Table
Source of
Variation
Between
groups
Within
groups
Total
Degree
F Freedom
Sum
F Squares
Mean
Square
F- ratio
𝜌
𝑟=
∑(𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )(𝑦 − 𝑦̅)
[∑(𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )]2 [∑(𝑦 − 𝑦̅)]2
Case 2: When raw scores on the original observations are used
𝑟=
ANOVA relies on the F-ration to test the hypothesis that the two variances are equal; that is,
the sub groups are from the same population. “Between groups” refers to the variation
between each group mean and the grand or overall mean.
2. TESTS OF RELATIONSHIP
𝑛 ∑ 𝑥𝑦 − (∑ 𝑥)(∑ 𝑦)
[𝑛 ∑ 𝑥 2 − (∑ 𝑥)2 ][𝑛 ∑ 𝑦2 − (∑ 𝑦)2 ]
T-test to test the significance of Pearson r – This is used to determine if the value of the
computed coefficient of correlation is significant. That is, does it represent a real correlation
or is the obtained coefficient or correlation merely brought about by
2
(𝑓°− 𝑓𝑒 )
𝑥 = ∑
𝑓𝑒
Spearman Rank-Order Correlation or Spearman rho. This is used when the data available
are expressed in terms of ranks (ordinal variable)
𝜌 =1−
2
6 ∑ 𝐷2
𝑁 (𝑁 2 − 1)
Chi-Square Test for Independence. This is used when the data are expressed in terms of
frequencies or percentages (nominal variables)
Case 1: Multinominal
Case 2: Contingency Table
2
𝑥2 = ∑
(0 − 𝐸)
[𝑑𝑓 = (𝑟 − 1)(𝑐 − 1)]
𝐸
(𝑑𝑓 = (𝑘 − 1))
𝑛−2
𝑡=𝑟√
1 − 𝑟2
Where:
r = correlation coefficient
n = number samples
The coefficient of determination (𝑟 2 ) can also be used to indicate what proportion of the
total variation in the independent variable is explained by the linear relationship with the
independent variable. You can multiply by 100 to convert the coefficient of determination to
percent.
Where:
(𝑟𝑜𝑤 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙)(𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙)
𝐸=
(𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙)
TESTING THE HYPOTHESIS
29
Hypothesis testing is an important part of the data analysis plan in conducting a research
study. Inferences applied to the total population are valid under two conditions, namely:
a) there is a target population
b) when appropriate random sampling has been used in the selection of the samples
POPULATION AND SAMPLE



A measure based on a population is called a parameter while a measure
based on a sample is called a statistic.
The population mean is called a parameter and is represented by the symbol
“µ” ( a Greek letter). The sample mean is a statistic and is represented by 𝑥.
̅
Inferential statistics requires that the sample be drawn by random sampling. If
there is bias in sampling, it is possible for the inference to be wrong. To
determine if the inference is valid, testing the statistical significance is very
important. To be statistically significant, any relationship or difference must be
due to planned interventions rather than by chance.
STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE
1. either there is a meaningful difference between the two groups, thus, you reject the null
hypothesis.
2. the difference between the two groups is not large enough to conclude that the groups
are different thus you fail to reject the null hypothesis. If the null hypothesis is rejected, then
the alternative hypothesis is accepted.
TYPE I AND TYPE II ERRORS
1. Type I Error – committed when a researcher rejected a null hypothesis when in fact it is
true.
2. Type II Error – is the error that occurs when the data from the sample produce results
that fail to reject the null hypothesis when in fact the null hypothesis is false and should be
rejected.
PARAMETRIC AND NON PARAMETRIC STATISTICS
Parametric – test used for interval and ratio scales of measurement. They require that the
samples and observations are drawn from normally distributed populations and that the
selection of each case should be independent of the other. The population should have
equal variances.
Significant means probably true (not due to chance). When the result is highly significant, it
means that is very probably true.
Nonparametric - tests do not specify normally distributed populations and similarity of
variances. Nonparametric tests are the only tests used with nominal data or ordinal data.
The level of significance shows how likely the results of your data are due to chance. A
chance of being true indicates that the finding has a five percent chance of not being true. A
level of significance means that there is a chance that the finding is true.
STEPS IN HYPOTHESIS TESTING
Statistical hypothesis testing is used to determine whether the result of a data set is
statistically significant.
HYPOTHESIS – is a preconceived idea, assumed to be true and has to be tested for its
truth or falsity.
2 Types:
Null Hypothesis – this is the hypothesis that is always tested by a researcher. This
indicates that there is no difference between the group means in the comparison.
Alternative Hypothesis – This indicates that there is a true difference between the group
means.
The results will show that:
1. State the null hypothesis. The null (𝐻° ) hypothesis is a statement that no difference
exists between the averages or means of two groups.
Example: Let us suppose that an advertising agency is conducting an experiment using two
different methods of marketing strategies (X and Y) to grade 11 students. The results of the
experiment will be measured using the monthly sales of the company.
There are three possible outcomes:
A. Strategy X is equal to strategy that is, (X=Y)
B. Strategy X is better than strategy Y, that is (X>Y)
C. Strategy X is poorer than strategy Y, that is (X<Y)
Outcome A forms the basis of the null hypothesis 𝐻° , a statement of no difference in
monthly sales in the population being compared.
30
Outcomes B and C are statements of differences between populations and are the alternate
hypothesis. For experiment, the following are the hypothesis:
𝐻° Respondent in the population where strategy X will be used to produce monthly sales
equal to that of the population where strategy Y will be used.
𝐻1 Respondents in the population where Method X will be used to show either more or less
monthly sale than those where strategy Y will be used. Therefore, Outcomes B and C are
combined into a single alternate hypothesis. This hypothesis is called a non direction
hypothesis and a two-tailed test is needed for this kind of experiment.
However, if the alternate hypothesis was that respondents using strategy X got higher
monthly sales than those using Method Y, the result would be a directional hypothesis that
should be tested by a one-tailed test.
2. Choose the statistical test and perform the calculation. A researcher must determine the
measurement scale, the type of variable, the type of data gathered and the number of
groups or the number of categories.
3. State the level of significance for the statistical test. The level of significance is
determined before the test is performed. It has been traditionally accepted by various
schools of thought to use alpha ∝, to denote the level of significance in rejecting the null
hypothesis. It is equivalent to the amount of risk regarding the accuracy of the test that the
researcher is willing to accept. The levels most frequently used are .05, .01 and .001. An ∝
level of significance implies that the probability of committing an error by chance is 5 in 100.
4. Compute the calculated value. Use the appropriate formula for the significance test to
obtain the calculated value.
5. Determine the critical value the test statistic must attain to be significant. After you have
computed the calculated measure, you must look at the critical value in the appropriate
table for the distribution. The critical value defines the region of rejection from the region of
acceptance of the null hypothesis. The areas of acceptance and rejection in a standard
normal distribution, using ∝= .05.
6. Make the decision. If the calculated value is greater than the critical value, you reject the
null hypothesis. If the critical value is larger, you conclude that you have failed to reject the
null hypothesis.
Republic of the Philippines
Department of Education
Cordillera Administrative Region
EASTERN BONTOC NATIONAL AGRICULTURAL AND VOCATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL
Lingoy, Barlig, Mountain Province
FOURTH QUARTER ACTIVITY SHEET
SY: 2019-2020
ACTIVITY I
On Quantitative Research Design
A. Determine the research design most appropriate for the following research
problems. Use the following letter codes for each of the following research designs:
a. exploratory research design
b. descriptive research design
c. causal research design
_____1. A description of how parents feel about the K to 12 program implementation.
_____2. The effect of the different amounts of fertilizer on the growth of plants.
_____3. The relationship between a student’s math aptitude test and grade in General
Mathematics.
_____4. The effect of part-time employment on the achievement of working students.
_____5. What are the key/success factors in setting up a small business?
_____6. What are the causes of drop-outs in school?
_____7. Is there a correlation between teacher factor and scholastic achievement of
students?
_____8. What are the best qualities of a good student leader?
_____9. How do personal values and interests relate to the work and lifestyle you may
choose?
_____10. Is there a relationship between the different home factors and the academic
achievement of a student?
_____11. What are the reasons why people engage in business ventures?
_____12. What are the main causes of malnutrition among students?
_____13. What are the opinions of senior high school students on the government’s
solutions to the traffic situations?
_____14. Evaluate the level of implementation of your school of earthquake drills.
_____15. How does the participation of students on extracurricular activities affect their
academic achievement?
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ACTIVITY 2
On Sample Size and Sampling Technique
A. Given a population (N) of 10, 000, complete the table below using Slovin’s formula.
Estimate of Error (e)
1%
2%
3%
4%
5%
Sample Size (n)
B. A public secondary school wishes to assess the students’ views of the quality of
service of specific offices under student services. The population of 2000 students
consists of:
Level
First Year
Second Year
Third Year
Fourth Year
Total
Population (N)
550
500
500
450
N=2000
Sample Size (n)
n = 200
Using stratified sampling procedure, determine the number of samples from each level
based on a sample size of 200.
C. Compare probability and non-probability sampling procedures in terms of the
indicated bases for comparison.
Basis for Comparison
Selective Process
Research Design
Presence of Bias
Generalizability
Probability Sampling
Nonprobability Sampling
ACTIVITY 3
On Questionnaire Design: Its Validity and Reliability
A. Identify the independent variable/s and dependent variable in each of the
following:
1. Relationship between gender and preference for ICT use
Independent_________________________________________________________
Dependent__________________________________________________________
2. Effects of cigarette use on the human body
Independent
____________________________________________________
Dependent
____________________________________________________
3. Relationship between the emotional stability and physical well-being
Independent
____________________________________________________
Dependent
____________________________________________________
4. Influence of online social networks on the academic performance of students
Independent
____________________________________________________
Dependent
____________________________________________________
5. Social, personal and political factors related to high school drop-out rates
Independent
____________________________________________________
Dependent
____________________________________________________
6. Effects of home schooling on the social development of students
Independent
____________________________________________________
Dependent
____________________________________________________
7. Emotional intelligence and Its relation to student academic performance
Independent
____________________________________________________
Dependent
____________________________________________________
8. Math anxiety and its relationship to math achievement in senior high school
Independent
____________________________________________________
Dependent
____________________________________________________
9. Personality attributes and their relationships to Music preference
Independent
____________________________________________________
Dependent
____________________________________________________
10. Relationship between parents’ educational qualification and their children’s academic
achievement in school
Independent
____________________________________________________
Dependent
____________________________________________________
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B. Classify whether the variable used in the following situations is continuous or
discrete
__________________1. The number of times a student was tardy in the last month.
__________________2. Age of the student at his last birthday.
__________________3. Age of a student at his last birthday.
__________________4. Time consumed in finishing a 100 meter run.
__________________5. Amount of money in the bank.
__________________6. Number of enrolees in senior high school.
__________________7. Number of people viewing a movie.
__________________8. Length of time to finish a math test.
__________________9. Weight of babies born in a hospital.
__________________10. Height of beauty contestants.
C. On the Types of Questions in Designing a Questionnaire
1. Explain the uses of the following types of questions:
 Closed Questions
 Dichotomous Questions
 Open-ended Questions
 Rank-order Questions
 Rating scales Questions
2. Construct two (2) closed questions related to your career choice in college.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
5. Draft two (2) additional attitude statements that could be used to construct a scale
for measuring students’ attitudes towards mathematics.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
5.1 In terms of values:
1. Mathematics is very important in everyday life.
2._______________________________________________________________________
3. _______________________________________________________________________
5.2 In terms of self – confidence
1. I am afraid of math.
2._______________________________________________________________________
3. _______________________________________________________________________
5.3 In terms of enjoyment
1. Mathematics is boring for me
2._______________________________________________________________________
3. _______________________________________________________________________
D. On Data Collection Procedures
1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of each one of the types of data
collection methods for quantitative research.
3. Construct two (2) open-ended questions related to your career choice in college.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
4. Formulate a dichotomous question with accompanying instruction.
E. On Planning Data Analysis Using Statistics
 Determine the level of measurement scale of the following:
1. Gender
2. Economic Status
3. Length of service
4. Honor roll
5. Religious preference
6. Time of the day
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
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7. Level of happiness
8. Foot size
9. Eye color
10. Ethnicity
11. Educational attainment
12. Size of shoes
13. Level of agreement
14. Temperature
15. Number of children
16. Political affiliation
17. Income for a year
18. Pain severity
19. Grade point average
20. Pet type
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
5. Explain the procedure on how to go about the specific sampling method. List down
the steps to implement the sampling procedure.
REFERENCE:
Prieto, N.G., Naval, V.C., & Carey, T.G. Practical Research 2 Qualitative & Quantitative.
Quezon City: Lorimar Publishing Inc., 2017.
ACTIVITY 4
Lay down the plan of your research topic which includes the following:
1. Determine the population for your proposed research project.
Prepared by:
Reviewed & Noted:
FUNNY B. FIADCONG
Research Teacher
ROGELIO K. KINORMAN
Head Teacher III
Approved:
2. Determine the sample size
3. Identify the sampling method that your group will use to select the participants or
respondents for your proposed study.
JOSEPH M. MANONGGIT
Secondary School Principal
Accomplished by:
____________________________
Student
Assisted: (Sign over printed name)
4. Discuss the reasons why your group chose the sampling method.
_________________________
Mother
_____________________________
Father
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