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EIGHTH EDITION
Research Methods in Physical Activity
Jerry R. Thomas, EdD
Philip E. Martin, PhD
Jennifer L. Etnier, PhD
Stephen J. Silverman, EdD
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Thomas, Jerry R., author. | Martin, Philip E. (Philip Edward), 1955-author. | Etnier, Jennifer L., author. | Silverman, Stephen J.,
author.
Title: Research methods in physical activity / Jerry R. Thomas, Philip E. Martin, Jenny L. Etnier, Stephen J. Silverman .
Description: Eighth edition. | Champaign, IL : Human Kinetics, Inc., 2023. | Includes bibliographical references and indexes.
Identifiers: LCCN 2021042222 (print) | LCCN 2021042223 (ebook) | ISBN 9781718201026 (paperback) | ISBN 9781718201033 (epub) |
ISBN 9781718201040 (pdf)
Subjects: LCSH: Physical education and training--Research. | Health--Research. | Recreation--Research.
Classification: LCC GV361 .T47 2023 (print) | LCC GV361 (ebook) | DDC 613.7/1072--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021042222
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021042223
ISBN: 978-1-7182-0102-6 (paperback)
ISBN: 978-1-7182-1304-3 (loose-leaf)
Copyright © 2023 by Jerry R. Thomas, Philip E. Martin, Jennifer L. Etnier, and Stephen J. Silverman
Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2005 by Jerry R. Thomas, Jack K. Nelson, and Stephen J. Silverman
Copyright © 2001, 1996, 1990, 1985 by Jerry R. Thomas and Jack K. Nelson
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Jack Kimberly Nelson
(September 14, 1932-January 12, 2018)
Dr. Jack K. Nelson grew up in Valier, Montana, where he worked on a ranch, survived polio, and enlisted in the Air
Force, where he was a pilot. He graduated from the University of Montana at Missoula, then matriculated to the
University of Oregon, where he earned his PhD working with H. Harrison Clark. He was a professor at Louisiana State
University (1962-1990) and University of Idaho (1990-1996).
Jack Nelson and Jerry Thomas taught, as a team, research methods at Louisiana State University and, as a result,
wrote the first edition of this textbook. This was the beginning of a long, professional partnership and a deep, personal
friendship. Jack had a quick and dry wit, often offered a helping hand, and was always a trusted friend. Among his
numerous accomplishments and contributions to the field of research methods, he taught research methods for 35 years;
conducted research; had over 80 publications, including authoring multiple textbooks; was an adviser on more than 100
doctoral dissertations and master’s theses combined; and served as editor of research publications. A fellow in the
Research Consortium, he was also a member of American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and
Dance (now SHAPE America), American Educational Research Association (AERA), and American College of Sports
Medicine (ACSM). He also served as president of the Association for Research, Administration, Professional Councils
and Societies (now AAALF) and as vice president of AAHPERD.
Jack was a remarkable kind of friend who was easygoing and could make you laugh until it hurt. He was very proud
of his children and grandchildren and was loved by his family, friends, colleagues, and students. Jack had a spirit of
adventure and was keen to taking a spur-of-the-moment trip on a houseboat or train and yet perfectly content with sitting
on the screened-in porch, completing a New York Times crossword. Professionally, he brought to each project a
combination of superior intellect, strong work ethic, integrity, abundant kindness, and humor. As our careers diverged, we
found ourselves looking forward to subsequent editions of this book because the work brought us together again. It was
an honor to have him in our lives; we are so thankful for all the wonderful and comforting memories of him. And so,
nearly 40 years after its original publication, we’ve developed this latest edition without Jack. It is our sincerest hope that
he would be proud of our work.
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CONTENTS
Preface
Study Tips
Acknowledgments
PART I
Overview of the Research Process
1
Introduction to Research in Physical Activity
The Nature of Research
Unscientific Versus Scientific Methods of Problem-Solving
Alternative Models of Research
Types of Research
Overview of the Research Process
Parts of a Thesis: A Reflection on the Steps in the Research Process
Summary
2
Developing the Problem and Using the Literature
Identifying the Research Problem
Purpose of the Literature Review
Basic Literature Search Strategies
Steps in the Literature Search
Summary
3
Presenting the Problem
Choosing the Title
Developing the Introduction: Background and Justification
Stating the Research Purpose
Presenting the Research Hypothesis
Operationally Defining Terms
Basic Assumptions, Delimitations, and Limitations
Presenting the Significance of the Study in a Thesis or Dissertation
Differences Between the Thesis and the Journal Article
Summary
4
Formulating the Method
How to Present Methods
Why Planning the Methods Is Important
Two Principles for Planning Experiments
Describing Participants
Selecting and Describing Instruments
Describing Procedures
Describing Design and Analysis
Establishing Cause and Effect
Interaction of Participants, Measurements, and Treatments
Summary
5
Ethical Issues in Research and Scholarship
Seven Areas of Research Misconduct
Ethical Issues Regarding Copyright
Model for Considering Scientific Misconduct
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Working With Faculty
Protecting Human Participants
Protecting Animal Subjects
Summary
PART II
6
Statistical and Measurement Concepts in Research
Becoming Acquainted With Statistical Concepts
Why We Need Statistics
Use of Computers in Statistical Analysis
Description and Inference Are Not Statistical Techniques
Ways to Select a Sample
Ways to Assign Participants to Groups
Post Hoc Justifications
Difficulty of Random Sampling and Assignment: Good Enough?
Measures of Central Tendency and Variability
Basic Concepts of Statistical Techniques
Data for Use in the Remaining Statistical Chapters
Summary
7
Statistical Issues in Research Planning and Evaluation
Probability
Hypothesis Testing
Meaningfulness (Effect Size)
Power
Using Information in the Context of the Study
Summary
8
Relationships of Variables
What Correlational Research Investigates
Understanding the Nature of Correlation
What the Coefficient of Correlation Means
Using Correlation for Prediction
Partial Correlation
Semipartial Correlation
Procedures for Multiple Regression
Logistic Regression
Discriminant Function Analysis
Moderators and Mediators
Multivariate Forms of Correlation
Summary
9
Differences Between Groups
How Statistics Test Differences
Types of t Tests
Interpreting t
Relationship of t and r
Analysis of Variance
Analysis of Covariance
Experiment-Wise Error Rate
Understanding Multivariate Techniques
Summary
10
Nonparametric Techniques
Chi Square: Testing the Observed Versus the Expected
Procedures for Rank-Order Data
Correlation
Differences Between Groups
Summary
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11
Measuring Research Variables
Validity
Reliability
Methods of Establishing Reliability
Intertester Reliability (Objectivity)
Standard Error of Measurement
Using Standard Scores to Compare Performance
Measuring Movement
Measuring Written Responses
Measuring Affective Behavior
Scales for Measurement
Measuring Knowledge
Item Response Theory
Summary
PART III Types of Research
12
Sociohistorical Process in Sport Studies
Development of the Discipline
Theory and Sport History
Relationship Between Theory and Method
Research Sources
Research Topics
Research Design
Data Analysis and Interpretation
Research Findings
Exemplary Studies in Sport History
Summary
13
Philosophical Research in Physical Activity
Identifying the Purposes of Philosophical Research
Philosophical Inquiry Continuum
Locating a Research Problem
Analyzing a Research Problem
Summary
14
Research Synthesis
Purpose of Research Synthesis
Using Systematic Review for Research Synthesis
Summary
15
Surveys
Questionnaires
Additional Considerations for Online Surveys
Delphi Method
Personal Interviews
Normative Surveys
Summary
16
Other Descriptive Research Methods
Developmental Research
Case Studies
Observational Research
Unobtrusive Research Techniques
Correlational Research
Summary
17
Physical Activity Epidemiology Research
U.S. National Physical Activity Guidelines and Plan
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Observational Versus Experimental Research
What Is Physical Activity Epidemiology?
Definitions of Physical Activity and Its Components
Assessment of Physical Activity
Epidemiological Study Designs
Reading and Interpreting a Physical Activity Epidemiological Study
Summary
18
Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Research
Sources of Invalidity
Threats to Internal Validity
Threats to External Validity
Controlling Threats to Internal Validity
Controlling Threats to External Validity
Types of Designs
Summary
19
Qualitative Research
Procedures in Qualitative Research
Data Analysis
Concluding Remarks
Summary
20
Mixed-Methods Research
Combining Quantitative and Qualitative Methods
Designing Mixed-Methods Research
Issues in Mixed-Methods Research
Examples of Mixed-Methods Research
Summary
PART IV Writing the Research Report
21
Completing the Research Process
Research Proposal
Thesis and Dissertation Proposals
Advisor and Dissertation Committee
The Good Scholar Must Research and Write
Scientific Writing
First Things Are Sometimes Best Done Last
Developing a Good Introduction
Describing the Methods
The Proposal Process
Preparing and Presenting Qualitative Research Proposals
Writing Proposals for Granting Agencies
Submitting Internal Proposals
Completing Your Thesis or Dissertation
Results and Discussion
Handling Multiple Experiments in a Single Report
Using Tables and Figures
Summary
22
Ways of Reporting Research
Basic Writing Guidelines
A Brief Word About Acknowledgments
Thesis and Dissertation Format: Traditional Versus Journal
Helpful Hints for Successful Journal Writing
Revising Research Papers
Writing Abstracts
Making Oral and Poster Presentations
Summary
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Appendix
References
Author Index
Subject Index
About the Authors
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PREFACE
The first edition was published in 1985 and was titled Introduction to Research in Health, Physical Education,
Recreation and Dance. Publishing the eighth edition is rewarding and surprising. In 1985, Human Kinetics was a new
publisher. We could not have guessed that we would do this many editions nor did we expect the field to evolve so
dramatically. The second edition recognized the evolving field with a title to represent its breadth, Research in Physical
Activity. The title was inclusive of the field: sport science, exercise science, kinesiology, physical education, and so forth.
In 1985, we could not have predicted that physical activity would become a key factor in public health. By 1990, however,
it was clear that physical activity was becoming important and of interest to those outside sports, exercise, dance, and
physical education. Research in physical activity was published in the parent journals—for example, Developmental
Psychology, Physiology—and in other highly regarded journals such as Journal of the American Medical Association.
Scholars in physical activity were recognized for their high-quality work. Further, Human Kinetics was growing.
We take this opportunity to thank all the people who have used this book over the years. Once again, we hope that
you have learned about research methods in the study of physical activity such that you will be an informed consumer of
research and a knowledgeable scholar. Maybe you have even enjoyed the humorous stories, jokes, and pictures that we
have included to enliven the reading. We also thank the reviewers for their helpful comments and suggestions, which we
have tried to address in this edition. When we read reviews, we feel as Day (1983, p. xi) did when he read that a
reviewer described his book as both good and original, but then went on to say that “the part that is good is not original,
and the part that is original is not good.” We are also delighted that many of you in other English-speaking countries have
also used this book. In addition, we appreciate that earlier editions have been translated into Chinese (twice), Greek,
Korean, Italian, Japanese, Spanish, and Portuguese.
Dr. Stephen Silverman joined us as a coauthor on the fifth edition and, in spite of our sense of humor, agreed to
continue on the subsequent editions. Dr. Silverman is a well-known scholar and methodologist in physical education
pedagogy and is a former editor-in-chief of Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport. Joining the team on this edition
are Dr. Philip E. Martin and Dr. Jennifer L. Etnier. Dr. Martin is a professor and the chair emeritus at Iowa State University
and a biomechanist with an impressive scholarly record. Dr. Etnier is a distinguished professor and department chair at
the University of North Carolina–Greensboro. She is an exercise psychologist who has led research on Alzheimer’s
disease as well as national professional organizations in sport psychology and kinesiology, all while producing a stellar
scholarly record. All members of this team have taught research methods.
The main use of this text still appears to be in the first graduate-level research methods courses, although it is also
being used in undergraduate research methods courses and as a resource for those engaged in research planning and
analysis. Our use of the term physical activity in the book title is meant to convey the broadly conceived field of study
often labeled kinesiology, exercise science, exercise and sport science, human movement, sport studies, or physical
education, as well as related fields such as physical therapy, rehabilitation, and occupational therapy. We hope that
everyone who reads, understands, plans, carries out, writes, or presents research will find the book a useful tool to
enhance their efforts.
This eighth edition retains the basic organization of the seventh edition, as follows:
• Part I is an overview of the research process, including developing the problem, using the literature, preparing a
research plan, and understanding ethical issues in research and writing.
• Part II introduces statistical and measurement issues in research, including statistical descriptions, power,
interrelationships of variables, differences between groups, nonparametric procedures, and measurement issues in
research.
• Part III presents the types of, or approaches to, research, including historical, philosophical, research synthesis,
survey, descriptive, epidemiological, experimental, qualitative, and mixed methods.
• Part IV will help you complete the research process, which includes writing the results and discussion, organizing
the research paper, developing good figures and tables, and presenting research in written and oral forms.
• The appendix includes statistical tables.
Instructors using this text in their courses will find an instructor guide, test package, chapter quizzes, presentation
package, and image bank in HKPropel. The image bank includes most of the art, tables, and example elements from the
text, which can be used to create custom presentations. The instructor guide includes chapter overviews, sample course
syllabuses, supplemental class activities, and student handouts. The test bank includes over 600 questions. The chapter
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quizzes contain ready-made quizzes, with about 10 questions per chapter drawn from the test package, to assess
student comprehension of the most important concepts in each chapter.
Although the format of the book remains similar to that of the seventh edition, we have made a number of changes
that we hope improve and update the text. Following is a short review of the changes in this eighth edition:
• Part I: Overview of the Research Process. Each chapter includes minor revisions that reflect updated information
and more recent reports. Chapter 1 includes examples that more broadly represent physical activity research and the
inclusion of cases studies. We have again made a significant revision to chapter 2 about using library techniques by
adding much more on electronic searches. In addition, chapter 5 on ethical issues has been updated with particular
attention to procedures for the use of human and animal subjects with expanded focus on security.
• Part II: Statistical and Measurement Concepts in Research. We strive in each edition to increase the relevance of
the examples and provide easy-to-understand calculations for basic statistics. We have reduced the examples of hand
calculations and formulas and replaced them with sample output from the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences.
We have included 2019 player performance data for outcome and skill variables from the Professional Golfers
Association website as examples for analysis in the statistical chapters. In chapter 6, we have added a more in-depth
introduction to the need for and types and uses of statistics. More information on sampling, as well as greater detail on
the stem-and-leaf technique, has been included. Chapters 7, 8, and 9 have been reorganized with some information
shifted among the chapters in this section. Along with the chapter examples, the learning activities in the instructor guide
should help students grasp the fundamentals of statistical techniques. We continue to use a unified approach to
parametric and nonparametric techniques.
• Part III: Types of Research. We have continued our use of expert authors to present coherent views of
sociohistorical research (David Wiggins and Daniel Mason), philosophical research (Tim Elcombe and R. Scott
Kretchmar), and epidemiological research in physical activity (Duck-chul Lee and Angelique Brellenthin). These three
types of research are outside our expertise, and we wanted them presented by expert scholars. Chapter 14 has been
expanded to include systematic reviews. In addition, we have made minor revisions and updates to all the other chapters
in this part.
• Part IV: Writing the Research Report. The two chapters in this section remain essentially the same, with changes
and updates. Chapter 21 includes these headings: Thesis and Dissertation Proposals, Advisor and Dissertation
Committee, The Good Scholar Must Research and Write, Scientific Writing, and First Things Are Sometimes Best Done
Last. Chapter 22 has greater focus on all aspects of presenting research results.
As we have said in each edition, we are grateful for the help of our friends, both for help that we acknowledge in
various places in the book and for help in other places where we have inadvertently taken an idea without giving credit.
After the passage of time, one can no longer remember who originated what idea. After the passage of even more time, it
seems to me that all of the really good ideas originated with me, a proposition which I know is indefensible. (Day, 1983, p. xv)
We believe that this book provides the necessary information for both the consumer and the producer of research.
Although no amount of knowledge about the tools of research can replace expertise in the content area, good scholars of
physical activity cannot function apart from the effective use of research tools. Researchers, teachers, clinicians,
technicians, health workers, exercise leaders, sport managers, athletic counselors, and coaches need to understand the
research process. If they do not, they are forced to accept information at face value or on the recommendation of others.
Neither is necessarily bad, but the ability to evaluate and reach a valid conclusion based on data, method, and logic is
the mark of a professional.
Inserted into some chapters are humorous stories, anecdotes, sketches, laws, and corollaries. These are intended to
make a point and enliven the reading without distracting from the content. Research processes are not mysterious
events that graduate students should fear. To the contrary, they are useful tools that every academic and professional
should have access to; they are, in fact, the very basis on which we make competent decisions.
Jerry R. Thomas
Philip E. Martin
Jennifer L. Etnier
Stephen J. Silverman
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STUDY TIPS
Dear Student of Research Methods:
We want you to learn the material here, and most of you are learning it in a classroom setting as well as by reading
the textbook. From many years of teaching research methods, we have arrived at the following recommendations:
1. Attend and participate in class—90% of life is showing up!
2. Take notes in class—writing it down is an effective way to learn.
3. Read the assigned materials before class—duh!
4. Plan for and ask at least one question in every class.
5. At the conclusion of class, recall everything you can about the class content—research shows this enhances
learning.
6. Develop and work with a study group.
7. Prepare for exams and tests—do not cram; study over several days.
8. Use campus resources to improve learning—library, computer, the Internet.
9. Visit often with your professor—those of us teaching research methods are likable folks!
The following list will help you determine your readiness to be a student of research methods.
Score one point for each of the following statements that describes you:
Your library carrel is better decorated than is your apartment.
You have taken a scholarly article to a bar or coffee shop.
You rate coffee shops on the availability of Wi-Fi and outlets for your electronic devices.
You have discussed academic matters at a sport event.
You actually have a preference between microfilm and microfiche.
You always read the reference lists in research articles.
You think that the sorority sweatshirt Greek letters are a statistical formula.
You need to explain to children why you are in the 20th grade.
You refer to stories as “Snow White et al.”
You wonder how to cite talking to yourself in APA style.
Scoring Scale
5 or 6—definitely ready to be a student in research methods
7 or 8—probably a master’s student
9 or 10—probably a doctoral student
Humorously yours,
Professors of Research Methods
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
As with any work, numerous people contributed to this book, and we want to recognize them. Many are former
students and colleagues who have said or done things that better developed our ideas as expressed in these pages.
Also, a number of faculty members who have used previous editions have either written reviews or made suggestions
that have improved the book. Although we cannot list or even recall all these contributions, we do know that you made
them, and we thank all of you.
In particular, Scott Kretchmar, Tim Elcombe, David Wiggins, Daniel Mason, Duck-chul Lee and Angelique G.
Brellenthin made invaluable contributions with their chapters on research methods in the areas of philosophy, history,
and exercise epidemiology, which are areas we simply could not write about effectively.
Finally, we thank the staff at Human Kinetics—in particular Diana Vincer and Melissa Zavala, for their support and
contributions. They have sharpened our thinking and improved our writing.
Jerry R. Thomas
Philip E. Martin
Jennifer L. Etnier
Stephen J. Silverman
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PART I
Overview of the Research Process
The researches of many have thrown much darkness on the subject and if they continue, soon we shall
know nothing at all about it.
—Attributed to Mark Twain
Part I provides an overall perspective of the research process. The introductory chapter defines and reviews the
types of research done in physical activity and provides some examples. We define science as “systematic inquiry,” and
we discuss the steps in the scientific method. This logical method answers the following four questions (Day, 1983, p. 4),
which constitute the parts of a typical thesis, dissertation, or research report:
1. What was the problem? Your answer is the introduction.
2. How did you study the problem? Your answer is the materials and methods.
3. What did you find? Your answer is the results.
4. What do these findings mean? Your answer is the discussion.
We also present alternative approaches for doing research relative to a more philosophical discussion of science and
ways of knowing. In particular, we address qualitative research, the use of field studies, and methods of introspection as
strategies for answering research questions instead of relying on the traditional scientific paradigm as the only approach
to research problems.
Chapter 2 suggests ways of developing a problem and using the literature to clarify the research problem, specify
hypotheses, and develop the methodology. In particular, we emphasize the use of new electronic technology for
searching, reading, analyzing, synthesizing, organizing, and writing literature reviews.
The next two chapters in part I present the format of the research proposal with examples. This information is
typically required of the master’s or doctoral student before collecting data for the thesis or dissertation. Chapter 3
addresses defining and delimiting the research problem, including the introduction, statement of the problem, research
hypotheses, operational definitions, assumptions and limitations, and significance. Information is provided for both
quantitative and qualitative approaches. Chapter 4 covers methodology, or how to do the research, using either
quantitative or qualitative methods. Included are the topics of participant selection, instrumentation or apparatuses,
procedures, and design and analysis. We emphasize the value of pilot work conducted before the research and how
cause and effect may be established.
Chapter 5 discusses ethical issues in research and scholarship. We include information on misconduct in science;
security of data, ethical considerations in research writing, collaborative work with advisors, and copyright; and the use of
humans and animals in research.
When you have completed part I, you should have a better understanding of the research process. Then comes the
tricky part: learning all the details. We consider these details in part II (Statistical and Measurement Concepts in
Research), part III (Types of Research), and part IV (Writing the Research Report).
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1
Introduction to Research in Physical Activity
Everything that can be invented has been invented.
—Charles H. Duell, Commissioner, U.S. Office of Patents, 1899
To each person, the word research conjures up a different picture. One might think of searching the Internet or going
to the library; another might visualize a lab filled with test tubes, vials, and perhaps little, white rats. Therefore, as we
begin a text on the subject, we must establish a common understanding of research. In this chapter, we introduce you to
the nature of research. We do this by discussing methods of problem-solving and types of research. We explain the
research process and relate it to the parts of a thesis. By the time you reach the end of chapter 1, you should understand
what research really involves.
The Nature of Research
The object of research is to determine how things are as compared to how they might be. To achieve this, research
implies a careful and systematic means of solving problems and involves the following five characteristics (Tuckman,
1978):
• Systematic. Problem-solving begins with and is accomplished by identifying and labeling variables. Research is
then designed to test the relationships of these variables. Data are collected that, when related to the variables, allow the
evaluation of the problem and hypotheses.
• Logical. Examination of the procedures used in the research process allows researchers to evaluate the
conclusions they’ve drawn.
• Empirical. Researchers collect data on which to base decisions.
• Reductive. Researchers take individual events (data) and use them to establish general relationships.
• Replicable. The research process is recorded, enabling others to test the findings by repeating the research or to
build future research on previous results.
Problems to be solved come from many sources and can entail resolving controversial issues, testing theories, and
trying to improve present practices. For example, a popular topic of concern is obesity and the methods for losing weight.
Suppose we want to investigate this issue by comparing the effectiveness of two exercise programs in reducing body fat
in people who are overweight. Since we know that caloric expenditure can contribute to a reduction in body fat, we will
try to find out which program does this better under specified conditions. Note: Our approach here is to give a simple,
concise overview of a research study. We do not intend it to be a model of originality or sophistication.
This study is an example of applied research. Rather than try to measure the calories expended and so on, we
approach it strictly from a programmatic standpoint. Let’s say we operate a health club and offer aerobic dance and
jogging classes for people who want to lose weight. Our research question would be: Which program is more effective in
reducing fat?
applied research—A type of research that has direct value to practitioners but limits researchers’ control over the research setting.
Suppose we have a pool of participants to draw from and can randomly assign two-thirds of them to the two exercise
programs and one-third to a control group. We have their scout’s honor that no one is drastically dieting or engaging in
any other strenuous activities for the duration of the study. Both classes are one hour long and held five times a week for
10 weeks. The same enthusiastic and immensely qualified instructor teaches both classes.
Our method for measuring body composition is by using a portable bioelectric impedance system. Of course, we
could use other measures, such as hydrostatic weighing or DXA scanning (or some other estimate of adiposity). In
any case, we can defend our measures as valid and reliable indicators of adiposity, and bioelectric impedance is a
functional field measure. We measure all the participants, including those in the control group, at the beginning and the
end of the 10-week period. During the study, we try to ensure that the two programs are similar in procedural aspects,
such as motivational techniques and the aesthetics of the surroundings. In other words, we do not favor one group by
cheering them on and not encouraging the other, nor do we have one group exercise in an air-conditioned, cheerful, and
healthful facility while the other has to sweat it out in a dingy room or a parking lot. We make the programs as similar as
possible in every respect except the experimental treatments: The control group does not engage in any regular
exercise.
bioelectric impedance—Bioelectric impedance analysis is a non-invasive technique in which a very small current is passed through the body
between electrodes attached to the skin at two distant locations (e.g., right wrist and left ankle). Because the body’s tissues impede or resist current
flow, a measure of the impedance allows for the estimation of total body water, fat mass, and fat-free mass.
hydrostatic weighing—A technique for measuring body composition in which body density is estimated from the ratio of a person’s weight in air
and the loss of weight underwater.
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DXA scanning—Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA, or DEXA) uses X-ray beams at two different energies and measures the differential
attenuation of the beams by fat, muscle, and bone tissues in scanned regions to predict body composition.
After we have measured all the participants on our criterion of adiposity at the end of the 10-week program, we are
ready to analyze our data. We want to see how much change in fat mass has occurred and whether differences have
occurred between the two types of exercise. Because we are dealing with samples of people (from a whole universe of
similar people), we need to use some type of statistics to establish how confident we can be in our results. In other
words, we need to determine the significance of our results. Suppose the mean (average) scores for the groups are as
follows:
Aerobic dance: −3.1%
Jogging: −3.7%
Control: +1.1%
These hypothetical values represent the average changes in percent body fat for each group. The two experimental
groups lost fat, but the control group actually showed an increase over the 10-week period.
Basic research and applied research can be thought of as two ends of a continuum. Basic research addresses theoretical problems, often
under highly controlled conditions in laboratory settings, and has limited direct application. Applied research addresses immediate
problems, often in less-controlled, real-world settings, and is more closely linked to application than basic research.
We decide to use the statistical technique of analysis of variance. We find a significant F ratio, indicating that
significant differences exist between the three groups. Using a follow-up test procedure, we discover that both exercise
groups significantly differ from the control group. But we find only a slight difference between the aerobic dance and the
jogging groups. (Many of you may not have the foggiest idea what we are talking about with the statistical terms F ratio
and significance, but do not worry about it! All that is explained later. This book is directly concerned with those kinds of
concepts.)
We conclude from our study that over a course of 10 weeks, both aerobic dance and jogging are effective (and,
apparently, equally so) in reducing adiposity in people (such as those in our study). Although these results are
reasonable, remember that this is a hypothetical scenario. We could also pretend that this study was published in a
prestigious journal and that we won the Nobel Prize.
Research Continuum
Research in our field can be placed on a continuum that has basic research at one extreme and applied research at
the opposite extreme. The research extremes are generally associated with certain characteristics. Basic research
usually deals with theoretical problems. It uses the laboratory as the setting, sometimes uses animals as subjects,
carefully controls conditions, and produces results that have limited direct application. At the other extreme, applied
research tends to address immediate problems. It is conducted in real-world settings, uses human participants, and
involves limited control over the research setting. Applied research provides practitioners with results that have direct
value.
basic research—A type of research that may have limited direct application but allows researchers to have careful control of the conditions.
Christina (1989) suggested that basic and applied forms of research are useful in informing each other as to future
research directions. Table 1.1 demonstrates how research problems in motor learning might vary along a continuum from
basic to applied depending on their goals and approaches.
To some extent, the strengths of applied research are the weaknesses of basic research and vice versa.
Considerable controversy exists in the literature on social science (e.g., Creswell, 2009; Jewczyn, 2013) and physical
activity (e.g., Christina, 1989) about whether research should be more basic or more applied. This issue, labeled
ecological validity, deals with two concerns: Is the research setting perceived by the research participant in the way
intended by the experimenter? Does the setting have enough of the real-world characteristics to allow generalizing to
reality?
ecological validity—The extent to which research emulates the real world.
TABLE 1.1
Levels of Relevance of Motor Learning Research for Finding Solutions to Practical Problems in Sport
Ultimate goal
Level 1
Least direct relevance
Basic research
Level 2
Moderate direct relevance
Applied research
Level 3
Most direct relevance
Applied research
Develop theory-based knowledge
appropriate for understanding motor
learning in general with no requirement
to demonstrate its relevance for solving
practical problems
Develop
theory-based
knowledge
appropriate for understanding the learning
of sport skills in sport settings with no
requirement to find immediate solutions to
learning problems in sport
Find immediate solutions to
learning problems in sport with no
requirement to demonstrate, or
develop theory-based knowledge at
either level 1 or level 2
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Level 1
Least direct relevance
Basic research
Level 2
Moderate direct relevance
Applied research
Level 3
Most direct relevance
Applied research
Test hypotheses in a laboratory
Test hypotheses in a sport setting or in
Test solutions to specific learning
setting using experimenter-designed an applied laboratory setting using sport problems in sport in the settings
Main approach
motor tasks
skills or motor tasks that have properties of described
under
the
applied
those skills
research at level 2
From R.W. Christina, “Whatever happened to applied research in motor learning?” in Future Directions in Exercise and Sport Science Research, edited by
J.S. Skinner et al. (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 1989). By permission of Robert W. Christina.
Most research incorporates elements of both basic and applied research to some degree. We believe that systematic
efforts are needed in the study of physical activity to produce research that moves back and forth across Christina’s
(1989) levels of research (table 1.1). Excellent summaries of this type of research and the accumulated knowledge are
provided in three edited volumes representing exercise physiology, exercise and sport psychology, and motor control:
Physical Activity and Health (Bouchard, Blair, & Haskell, 2012), Psychobiology of Physical Activity (Acevedo &
Ekkekakis, 2006), and Motor Control: Theories, Experiments, and Applications (Danion & Latash, 2011). Experts
prepared each chapter in these books to summarize theories as well as to present basic and applied research about
areas related to exercise physiology, exercise and sport psychology, and motor control. The novice researcher would do
well to read several of these chapters as examples of how knowledge is developed and accumulated in the study of
physical activity. We need more efforts to produce a related body of knowledge in the study of physical activity. Although
the research base has grown tremendously in our field over the past 40 years, much remains to be done.
There is a great need to prepare proficient consumers and producers of research in kinesiology. To be proficient,
people must thoroughly understand the appropriate knowledge base (biomechanics, exercise physiology, exercise
psychology, motor control, pedagogy, and the social and biological sciences) as well as research methods (qualitative,
quantitative, and mixed methods). In this book, we attempt to explain the tools necessary for consuming and producing
research. Many of the same methods are used in the various areas of kinesiology (as well as in the fields of psychology,
sociology, education, and physiology). Quality research efforts always involve some or all of the following actions:
Identifying and delimiting a problem
Searching, reviewing, critically analyzing, integrating, and effectively summarizing relevant literature
Specifying and defining testable hypotheses
Designing the research to test the hypotheses
Selecting, describing, testing, and treating the participants
Analyzing and reporting the results
Discussing the meaning and implications of the findings
Practicality and Accessibility
We recognize that not everyone is a researcher. Many people in kinesiology have little interest in research per se. In
fact, some have a decided aversion to it. The public at large sometimes may view researchers as people with
eccentricities who deal with “insignificant” problems and are out of touch with the real world. In an informative yet
entertaining book on writing scientific papers, Gastel and Day (2016, pp. 213) related the story about two men who, while
riding in a hot-air balloon, encountered some cloud coverage and lost their way. When they finally descended, they did
not recognize the terrain and had not the faintest idea where they were. It so happened that they were drifting over the
grounds of one of our more famous scientific research institutes. When the balloonists saw a man walking alongside a
road, one of them called out, “Hey, mister, where are we?” The man looked up, took in the situation, and after a few
moments of reflection said, “You’re in a hot-air balloon.” One balloonist turned to the other and said, “I’ll bet that man is a
researcher.” The other balloonist asked, “What makes you think so?” The first replied, “His answer is perfectly accurate—
and totally useless.”
All kidding aside, the need for research in any profession cannot be denied. After all, one of the primary distinctions
between a discipline or profession and a trade is that the trade deals only with how to do something, whereas the
discipline or profession concerns itself not only with how but also with why something should be done in a certain
manner (and why it should even be done at all). But although most people in a discipline or profession recognize the
need for research, most do not read research results. This situation is not unique to our field. It has been reported that
only 1% of chemists read research publications, that fewer than 7% of psychologists read psychological research
journals, and so on. The big question is why? Our best guess is that most professionals believe that the findings either
are not practical enough or do not directly pertain to their work, rendering the act of reading such publications
unnecessary. Another reason practitioners give for not reading research publications is the literature is indecipherable:
The language is too technical, and the terminology is unfamiliar and confusing. This complaint is valid, but we could
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argue that if the professional preparation programs were more scientifically oriented, the problem would diminish.
Nevertheless, the research literature is extremely difficult for most people to understand. We must continue efforts to
decrease this communication gap.
Reading Research
Someone once said (facetiously) that scientific papers are meant not to be read but to be published. Unfortunately,
we find considerable truth in this observation. We writers are often guilty of trying to use language to dazzle the reader
and perhaps to give the impression that our subject matter is more esoteric than it really is. We tend to write for the
benefit of a rather small audience of readers—that is, other researchers in our field.
We have the problem of jargon, of course (Plaven-Sigray et al., 2017). In any field, whether it is physics, football, or
cake baking, jargon confounds the outsider. The use of jargon serves as a kind of shorthand. It provides meaning to the
people within the field because everyone uses those truncations in the same context. Research literature is famous for
using a three-dollar word when a nickel word would do. As Gastel and Day (2016) asked, “who would use the three-letter
word now instead of the elegant expression at this point in time” (p. 209)? Researchers never do anything, they perform
it; they never start, they initiate; and they terminate instead of end. Gastel and Day further remarked that “an occasional
author will slip and use the word drug, but most will salivate like Pavlov’s dogs in anticipation of using chemotherapeutic
agent” (p. 209).
The need to bridge the gap between the researcher and the practitioner has been recognized for years. For example,
the Translational Journal of the American College of Sports Medicine was created to communicate implications of basic,
clinical, and policy research to practitioners. The website for the American Kinesiology Association (www
.americankinesiology.org) regularly has a section on applied research. Yet despite these and other attempts to bridge the
gap between researchers and practitioners, the gap is still imposing.
It goes without saying that if you are not knowledgeable about the subject matter, you cannot read the research
literature. Conversely, if you know the subject matter, you can probably wade through the researcher’s jargon more
effectively. For example, if you know baseball and the researcher is recommending that by shortening the radius, the
hitter can increase the angular velocity, you can figure out that the researcher means to choke up on the bat.
One of the big stumbling blocks is the statistical analysis part of research reports. Even the most ardent seeker of
knowledge can be turned off by such descriptions as this: “The tetrachoric correlations among the test variables were
subjected to a centroid factor analysis, and orthogonal rotations of the primary axes were accomplished by Zimmerman’s
graphical method until simple structure and positive manifold were closely approximated.” Please note that we are not
criticizing the authors for such descriptions, because reviewers and editors usually require them. We are just
acknowledging that statistical analysis is frightening to someone who is trying to read a research article and does not
know a factor analysis from a plank exercise.
How to Read Research
Despite all the hurdles that loom in a practitioner’s path when reading research, we contend that you can read and
profit from the research literature even if you are not well grounded in research techniques and statistical analysis. We
offer the following suggestions on reading the research literature:
• Become familiar with a few publications that contain pertinent research in your field. You might get some help on
choosing the publications from a professor or librarian.
• Learn to use search tools (e.g., Web of Science, Pubmed, Scopus) for identifying research literature relevant to
your interests.
• Read only studies that are of interest to you. This point may sound too trite to mention, but some people feel
obligated to wade through every article.
• Read as a practitioner would. Do not look for eternal truths. Look for ideas and indications. No study is proof of
anything. Only when it has been verified repeatedly does it constitute knowledge.
• Read the abstract first. This saves time by helping you determine whether you wish to read the whole thing. If you
are still interested, then you can read the study to gain a better understanding of the objectives, hypotheses, methods,
and interpretations, but do not get bogged down with details.
• Do not be too concerned about statistical significance. Understanding the concept of significance certainly helps,
but a little common sense serves you about as well as knowing the difference between the 0.02 and the 0.01 levels, or a
one-tailed test versus a two-tailed test. Think in terms of meaningfulness. For example, if two regimens of resistance
training result in an average difference in strength improvement of 0.5%, does it matter whether the difference is
significant? On the other hand, if a big difference is present but not significant, further investigation is warranted,
especially if the study involved a small number of participants. Knowing the concepts of the types of statistical analysis is
certainly helpful, but it is not crucial to being able to read a study. Just skip that part.
• Be critical but objective. You can usually assume that a national research journal selects studies for publication by
the jury method. Two or three qualified people read and judge the relevance of the problem, the validity and reliability of
the procedures, the efficacy of the experimental design, and the appropriateness of the statistical analysis. Certainly,
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some studies are published that should not be. Yet if you are not an expert in research, you do not need to be suspicious
about the scientific worth of a study that appears in a recognized journal. If it is too far removed from any practical
application to your situation, do not read it.
You will find that the more you read, the more you will understand, simply because you enhance your familiarity with
the language and the methodology, like the person who was thrilled to learn they had been speaking prose all their life.
An Example of Practical Research
To illustrate our research consumer suggestions, consider the following fictional account of Sonjia Roundball, a newly
trained physical education teacher and coach (Nelson, 1988).
In a moment of curiosity, Coach Roundball began browsing the Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, which had
been left in her car by a graduate student friend. An article titled “The Effects of a Season of Basketball on the
Cardiorespiratory Responses of High School Girls” immediately caught her attention. In its introductory passages, the
article stated that only a negligible amount of information was available on the specific physiological changes in girls that
result from sport participation. The article cited a few studies on swimmers and other sport participants, and the rather
broad takeaway of these studies was that the female athletes possessed higher levels of cardiorespiratory fitness than
nonathletes. The author emphasized that no studies had tried to detect changes in girls’ fitness during a season of
basketball.
The article’s next section described methods used in one particular study as well as noting the length of the season,
numbers of games and practices (including their lengths), and a breakdown of time devoted to drills, scrimmages, and
individual practice. Participants were placed into two groups. The first group comprised 12 girls who played on a high
school basketball team. The control group was made up of 14 nonplayers who took physical education classes and had
academic and activity schedules similar to the basketball players. All participants in the study were tested at the start and
end of the season for maximal oxygen consumption and various other physiological measurements dealing with
ventilation, heart rate, and blood pressure. Since these were concepts Coach Roundball remembered from her exercise
physiology course several years earlier, she was willing to accept them as appropriate indicators of cardiorespiratory
fitness.
Coach Roundball was inexperienced with interpreting the kinds of results that were presented in tables, so she was
inclined to trust the author’s claims. No significant increases in any of the cardiorespiratory measures from the pre- and
postseason tests for either group were detected, which raised the first red flag. Surely, a strenuous sport such as
basketball should produce improvements in fitness. The coach continued to read with more skepticism. The author
reported that the basketball players had higher values of maximal oxygen consumption than the control group did at both
the beginning and the end of the season. The discussion mentioned that the values were actually higher than similar
values in other studies. So what? Coach Roundball thought. Additionally, the author stated that the number of
participants was small and some changes may not have been detected. Despite these and other potentially flawed
aspects of the study, the author still concluded that the training program used in this study was not strenuous enough to
induce significant improvement in cardiorespiratory fitness.
discussion—The chapter or section of a research report that explains what the results mean.
Coach Roundball understood the limitations of the single study. Nevertheless, the practice schedule and general
practice routines used in the study were similar to her own. The article’s references section listed three studies from a
journal she had never read called Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise. The following weekend, she visited the
university library and found the journal’s latest issue, which happened to have an article on the conditioning effects of
swimming on college-age women. Although a different sport and age group, Coach Roundball reasoned that this article
could contain useful information that might resolve some questions about the earlier article she had read. The Medicine
& Science in Sports & Exercise article cited, of all things, a recent study on aerobic capacity, heart rate, and energy cost
during a season of girls’ basketball. The coach quickly located that study and was pleasantly surprised at how she could
read this study with ease now that she was more familiar with the terminology and general organization of the research
literature.
Coincidentally, this study also reported no improvement in aerobic capacity during the season. While monitoring heart
rates during games by telemetry, researchers rarely observed heart rates above 170 beats per minute (bpm). They
concluded that the practice sessions were apparently too moderate in intensity and that the training should be structured
to meet both the skill and the fitness demands of the sport.
Coach Roundball returned to her school determined to take a more scientific approach to her basketball program. To
start, she had one of her managers chart the number of minutes players were actually engaged in movement in the
practice sessions. She also had the players take their pulses at various intervals throughout the sessions. She was
surprised to find that the heart rates rarely surpassed 130 bpm. As an outgrowth of her recent literature search, she
recalled that an intensity threshold would be necessary to bring about improvement in cardiorespiratory fitness. She
knew that for this age group, a heart rate of about 160 bpm was needed to provide a significant training effect. By
adjusting practice sessions to include more conditioning drills and make the scrimmages more intensive and game-like,
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Coach Roundball’s team would go on to have an overall stronger competitive advantage in district and state
championships.
Summarizing the Nature of Research
Thomas Huxley, the famous British scientist who promoted Darwin’s theory of evolution, wrote that science is simply
common sense at its best. However, the status science holds is based on findings being correct most of the time as well
as finding the instances in which reported findings are not correct. Science is systematic; if you and I do the same
experiment at the same time or two years apart, we should get the same answer. Unfortunately, several recently reported
attempts to replicate earlier studies have not been successful. Of the more than two million scholarly papers published in
journals each year, an important question might be, How many reported findings are wrong?
science—A process of careful and systematic inquiry.
Having said that about science, discovery can be rewarding, whether that discovery is research that applies to and
can improve your situation or is simply new knowledge obtained while researching your thesis or dissertation. We must
work against the common misperception that research is some dark and mysterious realm inhabited by impractical
people who speak and write in baffling terms. In general, research should be viewed for what it is: a methodic approach
for solving problems. We firmly believe that practitioners can read research literature. Our intent with this book is to help
facilitate that process of turning our readers into research consumers.
Unscientific Versus Scientific Methods of Problem-Solving
Although the term research has many definitions, nearly all characterize research activity as some type of structured
problem-solving. The word structured refers to the fact that a number of research techniques can be used as long as
they are considered acceptable by scholars in the field. Thus, research is concerned with problem-solving, which then
may lead to new knowledge.
The problem-solving process involves several steps whereby the problem is developed, defined, and delimited;
hypotheses are formulated; methods are planned and employed to gather and analyze data; and the results are
interpreted with regard to the acceptance or rejection of the hypotheses. These steps are often referred to as the
scientific method of problem-solving. The steps also constitute the chapters, or sections, of the research paper,
thesis, or dissertation. Consequently, we devote much of this text to the specific ways these steps are accomplished.
scientific method of problem-solving—A method of solving problems that uses the following steps in this order: (a) define and delimit the
problem; (b) form a hypothesis; (c) gather data; (d) analyze the data; and (e) interpret the results.
Some Unscientific Methods of Problem-Solving
Before we go into more detail concerning the scientific method of problem-solving, we should recognize some other
ways by which humankind has acquired knowledge. All of us have used these methods, so they are recognizable.
Helmstadter (1970) labeled the methods tenacity, intuition, authority, the rationalistic method, and the empirical method.
Tenacity
People are prone to clinging to certain beliefs despite a lack of supporting evidence. Our superstitions are good
examples of the method called tenacity. Coaches and athletes are notoriously superstitious. A coach may wear a
particular sport coat, hat, tie, or pair of shoes because the team won the last time he wore it. Athletes frequently have a
set pattern that they consider lucky for dressing, warming up, or entering the stadium. Although they acknowledge no
logical relationship between the game’s outcome and their particular routine, they are afraid to break the pattern.
tenacity—An unscientific method of problem-solving in which people cling to certain beliefs regardless of a lack of supporting evidence.
For example, take the man who believed that black cats bring bad luck. One night while he was returning to his
ranch, a black cat started to cross the road. The man swerved off the road to keep the cat from crossing in front of him
and hit a hard bump that caused the headlights to turn off. Unable to see the black cat in the dark, he sped frantically
over rocks, mounds, and holes until he came to a sudden stop in a ravine and wrecked his car. Of course, this episode
just confirmed his staunch belief that black cats do indeed bring bad luck. Obviously, tenacity has no place in science. It
is the least reliable source of knowledge.
Intuition
Intuitive knowledge is sometimes considered common sense or self-evident. Many self-evident truths, however, often
turn out to be false. That the earth is flat is a classic example of the intuitively obvious; that the sun revolves around the
earth was once self-evident; that no one could run a mile (1.6 km) in less than four minutes once was self-evident.
Furthermore, for anyone to shot-put more than 70 ft (21 m) or pole-vault more than 18 ft (5.5 m), or for a woman to run
distances over 0.5 mi (0.8 km), such feats were impossible. One fundamental tenet of science is that we must be ever
cognizant of the importance of substantiating our convictions with factual evidence.
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Authority
Reference to some authority has long been used as a source of knowledge. Although this approach is not necessarily
invalid, it does depend on the authority and the rigidity of adherence. But the appeal to authority has been carried to
absurd lengths. Even personal observations and experiences have been deemed unacceptable when they dispute
authority. For example, people purportedly refused to look through Galileo’s telescope when he disputed Ptolemy’s
explanation of the world and the heavens. Galileo was later jailed and forced to recant his beliefs. Bruno also rejected
Ptolemy’s theory and was burned at the stake. (Scholars read and believed Ptolemy’s book on astrology and astronomy
for 1,200 years after his death!) In 1543, Vesalius wrote a book on anatomy, much of which is still considered correct
today. But because his work clashed with Galen’s theories, he met with such ridicule that he gave up his study of
anatomy.
Perhaps the most crucial aspect of the appeal to authority as a means of obtaining knowledge is the right to question
and to accept or reject the information. Furthermore, the authority’s qualifications and the methods by which the authority
acquired the knowledge also determine the validity of this source of information.
Rationalistic Method
In the rationalistic method, we derive knowledge through reasoning. A good example is the following classic
syllogism:
All men are mortal (major premise).
The emperor is a man (minor premise).
Therefore, the emperor is mortal (conclusion).
Although you probably would not argue with this reasoning, the key to this method is the truth of the premises and
their relationship to each other, as shown in the following example:
Basketball players are tall.
Tom Thumb is a basketball player.
Therefore, Tom Thumb is tall.
In this case, however, Tom is very short. The conclusion is trustworthy only if it is derived from premises
(assumptions) that are true. Also, the premises may not in fact be premises but rather descriptions of events or
statements of fact. The statements are not connected in a cause-and-effect manner. Consider the following example:
There is a positive correlation between shoe size and mathematics performance among elementary school
children. In other words, children with large shoe sizes do well in math.
Herman is in elementary school and wears large shoes.
Therefore, Herman is good in mathematics.
Of course, in the first statement, the factor common to both mathematics achievement and shoe size is age. Older
children tend to be bigger and thus have bigger feet than younger children. Older children also have higher achievement
scores in mathematics, but there is no cause-and-effect relationship. You must always be aware of this when dealing
with correlation. Reasoning is fundamental in the scientific method of problem-solving, but it cannot be used by itself to
arrive at knowledge.
Empirical Method
The word empirical denotes experience and the gathering of data. Certainly, data gathering is part of the scientific
method of solving problems. But relying too much on your own experience (or data) has drawbacks. First, your own
experience is limited. Furthermore, your retention depends substantially on how the events agree with your experience
and beliefs, on whether things “make sense,” and on what your state of motivation to remember is. Nevertheless, the use
of data (and the empirical method) is high on the continuum of methods of obtaining knowledge as long as you are
aware of the limitations of relying too heavily on this method.
empirical—A description of data or a study that is based on objective observations.
Scientific Method of Problem-Solving
The methods of acquiring knowledge previously discussed lack the objectivity and control that characterize the
scientific approach to problem-solving. The scientific method involves several basic steps. Some authors list seven or
eight steps, and others condense these steps into three or four. Regardless, all the authors are in general agreement as
to the sequence and processes involved. The steps are briefly described next. The basic processes are covered in detail
in other chapters.
Step 1: Developing the Problem (Defining and Delimiting It)
This step may sound contradictory, because how could the development of the problem be part of solving it? Actually,
the discussion here is not about finding a problem to study (ways of identifying a problem are discussed in chapter 2);
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the assumption is that the researcher has already selected a topic. But to design and execute a sound investigation, the
researcher must be specific about what is to be studied and to what extent it will be studied.
Many ramifications constitute this step, an important one being the identification of the independent and dependent
variables. The independent variable is what the researcher is manipulating. If, for example, two training programs for
improving balance in older adults are being compared, then type of training program is the independent variable; this
item is sometimes called the experimental, or treatment, variable.
independent variable—The part of the experiment that the researcher is manipulating; also called the experimental variable or treatment variable.
The dependent variable is the effect of the independent variable. In the comparison of balance training programs,
the measure of balance is the dependent variable. If you think of an experiment as a cause-and-effect proposition, the
cause is the independent variable and the effect is the dependent variable. The latter is sometimes referred to as the
yield. Thus, the researcher must define exactly what will be studied and what will be the measured effect. When this
question is resolved, the experimental design can be determined.
dependent variable—The effect of the independent variable; also called the yield.
Step 2: Formulating the Hypothesis
The hypothesis is the expected result. A person setting out to conduct a study generally has an idea as to what the
outcome will be. This anticipated solution to the problem may be based on some theoretical construct, on the results of
previous studies, or perhaps on the experimenter’s own experiences and observations. (Remember: The last source is
least likely and least defensible because of the weaknesses of the unscientific methods of acquiring knowledge
discussed previously.) Regardless, the research should have some experimental hypothesis about each subproblem in
the study.
hypothesis—The anticipated outcome of a study or experiment.
If a hypothesis is testable, a study will either support or refute it. Testability is a necessary feature of a hypothesis.
One of the essential features about the hypothesis is that it be testable. The study must be designed in such a way
that the hypothesis can be either supported or refuted. Obviously, then, the hypothesis cannot be a type of value
judgment or an abstract phenomenon that cannot be observed.
For example, you might hypothesize that success in athletics depends solely on fate. In other words, if a team wins, it
is because it was meant to be; similarly, if a team loses, a victory was just not meant to be. Refuting this hypothesis is
impossible because no evidence could be obtained to test it.
Step 3: Gathering the Data
Next, the researcher must decide on the proper methods of acquiring the necessary data to be used in testing the
research hypothesis. The reliability of the measuring instruments, the controls that are employed, and the overall
objectivity and precision of the data-gathering process are crucial to solving the problem.
In terms of difficulty, gathering data may be the easiest step because in many cases, it is routine. Planning the
method, however, is one of the most difficult steps. Good methods attempt to maximize both the internal validity and
the external validity of the study.
internal validity—The extent to which the results of a study can be attributed to the treatments used in the study.
external validity—The generalizability of the results of a study.
Internal validity and external validity relate to the research design and controls that are used. Internal validity refers to
the extent to which the results can be attributed to the treatments used in the study. In other words, the researcher must
try to control all other variables that could influence the results. For example, Jim Nasium wants to assess the
effectiveness of his exercise program in developing physical fitness in young boys. He tests his participants first at the
beginning and then at the end of a nine-month training program and concludes that the program brought about
significant improvement in fitness. What is wrong with Jim’s conclusion? His study contains several flaws. The first is that
Jim did not consider maturity. Nine months of maturation produced significant changes in size and in accompanying
strength and endurance. Also, what else were the participants doing during this time? How do we know that other
activities were not responsible, or partly so, for the changes in their fitness levels? Chapter 18 deals with these threats to
internal validity.
External validity pertains to the generalizability of the results. To what extent can the results apply to the real world? A
paradox often occurs for research in the behavioral sciences because of the controls required for internal validity. In
motor-learning studies, for example, the task is often something novel so that it provides a control for experience.
Furthermore, being able to measure the performance objectively and reliably is desirable. Consequently, the learning
task is frequently a maze, a rotary pursuit meter, or a linear position task, all of which may meet the demands for control
with regard to internal validity. But then you face the question of external validity: How does performance in a laboratory
setting with a novel, irrelevant task apply to learning a real-world motor skill? These questions are important and
sometimes vexing, but they are not insurmountable. (They are discussed later.)
Possible Misinterpretations of Results
We will never run out of math professors because they always multiply.
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When the body is fully immersed in water, the telephone rings.
If there are only two people in a locker room, they will have adjacent lockers.
The ocean would be much deeper without sponges.
Step 4: Analyzing and Interpreting Results
Any researcher new to the field finds this step to be the most formidable for several reasons. First, this step usually
involves some statistical analysis, and the novice researcher (particularly a graduate student) often has a limited
background in and a fear of statistics. Second, analysis and interpretation require considerable knowledge, experience,
and insight, which the novice may lack.
It goes without question that analyzing and interpreting results is the most crucial and challenging of all the steps in
the scientific method of problem-solving. It is here that the researcher must provide evidence for the support or rejection
of the research hypothesis. In doing this, the researcher also compares the results with those of others (the related
literature) and perhaps attempts to relate and integrate the results into some theoretical model. Inductive reasoning is
employed in this step (whereas deductive reasoning is primarily used in the statement of the problem; we’ll more
thoroughly address inductive and deductive reasoning in chapter 2). The researcher attempts to synthesize the data from
their study along with the results of other studies to contribute to the development or substantiation of a theory.
Alternative Models of Research
In the preceding section, we summarized the basic steps in the scientific method of problem-solving. Science is a
way of knowing and is often defined as structured inquiry. One basic goal of science is to explain things or to generalize
and build a theory. When a scientist develops a useful model to explain behavior, scholars often test predictions from this
model using the steps of the scientific method. The model and the approaches used to test the model are called a
paradigm.
Normal Science
For centuries, the scientific approaches used in studying problems in both the natural and the social sciences have
been what Thomas Kuhn (1970), a noted science historian, termed normal science. This manner of study is
characterized by the elements we listed at the beginning of this chapter: systematic, logical, empirical, reductive, and
replicable. Its basic doctrine is objectivity. It is quantitative in nature; that is, phenomena are described or measured
numerically. Normal science is grounded in the natural sciences, which have long adhered to the idea of the orderliness
and reality of matter—that is, that nature’s laws are absolute and discoverable by objective, systematic observations and
investigations that are not influenced by (i.e., independent of) humans. The experiments are theory driven and have
testable hypotheses.
normal science—An objective manner of study grounded in the natural sciences that is systematic, logical, empirical, reductive, and replicable.
Normal science received a terrific jolt with Einstein’s theory of relativity and the quantum theory, which indicated that
nature’s laws could be influenced by humans (that is, that reality depends to a great extent on how one perceives it).
Moreover, some things, such as the decay of a radioactive nucleus, happen for no reason at all. The fundamental laws
that had been believed to be absolute were now considered statistical rather than deterministic. Phenomena could be
predicted statistically but not explained deterministically (Jones, 1988).
Challenges to Normal Science
Relatively recently (since about 1960), serious challenges have arisen regarding normal science’s concept of
objectivity (i.e., that the researcher can be detached from the instruments and conduct of the experiment). Two of the
most powerful challengers to the idea of objective knowledge were Michael Polanyi (1958) and Thomas Kuhn (1970).
They contended that objectivity is a myth and has no basis in reality. From the first inception of the idea for the
hypothesis through the selection of apparatus to the analysis of the results, the observer is involved. The conduct of the
experiment and the results can be considered expressions of the researcher’s point of view. Polanyi was especially
opposed to the adoption of normal science for the study of human behavior.
Kuhn (1970) maintained that normal science does not really evolve in systematic steps the way that scientific writers
describe it. Kuhn discussed the paradigm crisis phenomenon, in which researchers who have been following a
particular paradigm begin to find discrepancies in it. The findings no longer agree with the predictions, and a new
paradigm is advanced. Interestingly, the old paradigm does not die completely; rather, it, metaphorically speaking, just
develops varicose veins and fades away. Many researchers with a great deal of time and effort invested in the old
paradigm are reluctant to change, so it is usually a new group of researchers who propose the new paradigm. Thus,
normal science progresses by revolution, with a new group of scientists breaking away and replacing the old.
Nevertheless, normal science has been and will continue to be successful in the natural sciences and in certain aspects
of the study of humans. Martens (1987), however, contended that it has failed miserably in the study of human behavior,
especially in human behavior’s more complex functions.
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paradigm crisis phenomenon—The development of discrepancies in a paradigm leading to proposals of a new paradigm that better explains the
data.
As a sport psychologist, Martens asserted that laboratory experiments have limited use in answering questions about
complex human behavior in sport. He considered his role as a practicing sport psychologist to have been far more
productive in gaining knowledge about athletes and coaches and the solutions to their problems. Other workers in the
so-called helping professions have made similar observations about both the limitations of normal science and the
importance of alternative sources of knowledge in forming and shaping professional beliefs. Schein (1987), a noted
scholar of social psychology, related an interesting (some might call it shocking) revelation concerning the relative
influence of published research results as opposed to practical experience. At a conference, he and a number of his
colleagues were discussing what they relied on most for their classroom teaching. These professors seemed to agree
that the data they really believed in and used in the classroom came from personal experience and information learned
in the field. Schein was making the point that different categories of knowledge can be obtained by different methods. In
effect, some people are more influenced by sociological and anthropological research models than by the normal
science approach.
For some time, many scholars in education, psychology, sociology, anthropology, sport psychology, physical
education, and other disciplines have proposed methods of studying human behavior other than those of conventional
normal science. Anthropologists, sociologists, and clinical psychologists have used in-depth observation, description,
and analysis of human behavior for nearly three-quarters of a century. For over 60 years, researchers in education have
used participant and nonparticipant observation to obtain comprehensive, firsthand accounts of teacher and student
behaviors as they occur in real-world settings. More recently, physical educators, sport psychologists, and exercise
specialists have also become engaged in this type of field research. This general form of research is referred to by
several names: ethnographic, qualitative, grounded, naturalistic, and participant observational research. Regardless of
the names and the commitments to and beliefs of the researchers, this type of research was not well received initially by
the adherents of normal science and the scientific method. In fact, this form of research (we include all its forms under
the name qualitative research) has often been labeled by normal scientists as superficial, lacking in rigor, and just plain
unscientific. As qualitative research methods have evolved, so has the thinking of many of these people. As you will see
in chapters 19 and 20, many of the research tenets listed by Kuhn (1970) are found in contemporary qualitative research.
qualitative research—A research method that often involves intensive, long-term observation in a natural setting; precise and detailed recording of
what happens in the setting; and the interpretation and analysis of the data using description, narratives, quotes, charts, and tables. Also called
ethnographic, naturalistic, interpretive, grounded, phenomenological, subjective, and participant observational research.
Martens (1987) referred to such adherents of normal science as the gatekeepers of knowledge because they are the
research journal editors and reviewers who decide which research gets published, who serves on the editorial boards,
and whose papers are presented at conferences. Studies without internal validity are not published, yet studies without
external validity lack practical significance. Martens charged that normal science (in psychology) prefers publication to
practical significance.
The debates over qualitative and normal (often classified as quantitative) research methods have been heated and
prolonged. The qualitative proponents have gained momentum as well as more researchers’ confidence in recent years
and qualitative research is now recognized as a viable method of addressing problems in the behavioral sciences.
Credibility is established by systematically categorizing and analyzing causal and consequential factors. The naturalistic
setting of qualitative research both facilitates analysis and precludes precise control of so-called extraneous factors, as
does much other research occurring in field settings. The holistic interrelationship of observations and the complexity and
dynamic processes of human interaction make it impossible to limit the study of human behavior to the sterile,
reductionistic approach of normal science. Reductionism, a characteristic of normal science, assumes that complex
behavior can be reduced, analyzed, and explained as parts that can then be put back together as a whole and
understood. Critics of the conventional approach to research believe that the central issue is the unjustified belief that
normal science is the only source of true knowledge.
quantitative research—Research involving measurement of phenomena or outcomes numerically using reliable and objective data gathering and
analysis methods consistent with normal science and the scientific method of problem solving.
reductionism—A characteristic of normal science that assumes that complex behavior can be reduced, analyzed, and explained as parts that can
then be put back together to understand the whole.
Implications of Challenges to Normal Science
The challenges to normal science involve many implications. For example, when we study simple movements, such
as linear positioning in a laboratory to reflect cognitive processing of information, do we learn anything about movements
and performance of sport skills in real-world settings? When we evaluate EMG activity in specific muscle groups during a
simple movement, does the result really tell us anything about the way the nervous system controls complex movements
in athletics in natural settings? Can we study the association of psychological processes related to movement in
laboratory settings and expect the results to apply in sport and exercise situations? When we conduct these types of
experiments, are we studying nature’s phenomena or laboratory phenomena?
Do not misinterpret the intent of these questions. They do not mean that nothing important can be discovered about
physical activity from laboratory research. What they suggest is that these findings do not necessarily accurately model
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the way humans plan, control, and execute movements in natural settings associated with exercise and sport.
Kuhn’s (1970) explanations of how science advances and of the limitations of applying normal science to natural
settings demonstrate that scientists need to consider the various ways of obtaining knowledge and that the strict
application of the normal scientific method of problem-solving may sometimes hinder rather than advance science. If the
reductionistic approach of the scientific method has not well served the natural scientists who developed it, then certainly
human behavior researchers need to assess the relative strengths and weaknesses of conventional and alternative
research paradigms for their particular research questions.
Alternative Forms of Scientific Inquiry
Martens (1987, p. 52) suggested that we view knowledge not as being either scientific or unscientific or as being
either reliable or unreliable but rather as existing on a continuum, as illustrated in figure 1.1. This continuum, labeled DK
for degrees of knowledge, ranges from “don’t know” to “damn konfident.” Considered in this way, varying approaches to
disciplined inquiry are useful in accumulating knowledge. As examples, Martens (1979, 1987) urged sport psychologists
to consider the idiographic approach, introspective methods, and field studies instead of relying on the paradigm of
normal science as the only answer to research questions in sport psychology. Thomas, French, and Humphries (1986)
detailed how to study children’s sport knowledge and skills in games and sports. Costill (1985) discussed the study of
physiological responses in practical exercise and sport settings. Locke (1989) presented a tutorial on the use of
qualitative research in physical education and sport. In later chapters, we provide greater detail about some of these
alternative strategies for research, particularly the historical, philosophical, qualitative, and mixed methods.
Figure 1.1 The degrees of knowledge theory with examples of methods varying in degree of reliability.
Reprinted by permission from R. Martens, “Science, Knowledge, and Sport Psychology,” The Sport Psychologist 1, no. 1 (1987): 46.
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What we hope you gain from this section is that science is disciplined inquiry, not a set of specific procedures.
Although advocates of alternative methods of research are often persuasive, we do not want you to conclude that the
study of physical activity should abandon the traditional methods of normal science. We have learned much from these
techniques and will continue to do so. Furthermore, we certainly do not want you to toss away this book as being
pointless. We have not even begun to tell you all the fascinating things that we have learned over the years—it is hard to
tell whether some of these things should be classified as normal or abnormal science. In addition, we have many stories
of the abnormal humor variety yet to tell. Aside from these compelling reasons for continuing with the book, we want you
to realize and appreciate that so-called normal science is not the solution to all questions raised in our field. Furthermore,
none of the alternative methods of research denounces the scientific method of problem-solving.
The bottom line is that different problems require different solutions. As we said before, science is disciplined inquiry,
not a set of specific procedures. We need to embrace all systematic forms of inquiry. Rather than argue about the
differences, we should capitalize on the strengths of all scholarly methods to provide useful knowledge about human
movement. The nature of the research questions and setting should drive the selection of approaches to acquiring
knowledge. In fact, just as Christina (1989) suggested, researchers might move among levels of research (basic to
applied), and so researchers might move among paradigms (quantitative to qualitative to mixed methods) to acquire
knowledge. In addressing this issue, we highlight qualitative and mixed-method research in chapters 19 and 20, which
focus on using varying types of research approaches. Of course, we do not want to be perceived like Danae in Wiley’s
comic strip Non Sequitur. Danae, a young girl, says to her horse that she wants to grow up to be a preconceptual
scientist. Her horse asks, “What is that?” to which Danae responds “The new science of reaching a conclusion before
doing any research and then simply dismissing anything contrary to your preconceived notions.”
Types of Research
Research is a structured way of solving problems. Different kinds of problems attend the study of physical activity;
thus, different types of research are used to solve these problems. This text concentrates on five types of research:
analytical, descriptive, experimental, qualitative, and mixed methods. A brief description of each follows.
Analytical Research
As the name implies, analytical research involves in-depth study and the evaluation of available information in an
attempt to explain complex phenomena. The types of analytical research are historical, philosophical, reviews, and
research synthesis.
analytical research—A type of research that involves in-depth study and the evaluation of available information in an attempt to explain complex
phenomena; can be categorized in the following way: historical, philosophical, reviews, and research synthesis.
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My research methods teacher will love this idea.
Historical Research
As its name indicates, historical research deals with events that have already occurred. Historical research focuses
on events, organizations, institutions, and people. In some studies, the researcher is interested mostly in preserving the
record of events and accomplishments. In other investigations, the researcher attempts to discover facts that will provide
more meaning and understanding of past events to explain the present state of affairs. Some historians have even
attempted to use information from the past to predict the future. The research procedures associated with historical
studies are addressed in considerable detail in chapter 12.
Philosophical Research
Critical inquiry characterizes philosophical research. The researcher establishes hypotheses, examines and analyzes
facts, and synthesizes the evidence into a workable theoretical model. Many of the most important problem areas must
be dealt with by the philosophical method. Problems involving objectives, curricula, course content, requirements, and
methodology are but a few of the important issues that can be resolved only through the philosophical method of
problem-solving.
Although some authors emphasize the differences between science and philosophy, the philosophical method of
research follows essentially the same steps as other methods of scientific problem-solving. The philosophical approach
uses scientific facts as the basis for formulating and testing research hypotheses.
An example of such philosophical research is Morland’s 1958 study in which he analyzed the educational views held
by leaders in American physical education and categorized them into educational philosophies of reconstructionism,
progressivism, essentialism, and perennialism.
Having an opinion is not the same as having a philosophy. In philosophical research, beliefs must be subjected to
rigorous criticism in light of the fundamental assumptions. Academic preparation in philosophy and a solid background in
the fields from which the facts are derived are necessary. Other examples and a more detailed explanation of
philosophical research are given in chapter 13.
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Reviews
A review is a critical evaluation of recent research on a particular topic. The author must be extremely knowledgeable
about the available literature as well as the research topic and procedures. A review involves an analysis, evaluation,
and integration of the published literature, often leading to important conclusions concerning the research findings up to
that time. For good examples of reviews, see Blair (1993) and Silverman and Subramaniam (1999).
review—A critical evaluation of research on a particular topic.
Certain publications consist entirely of reviews, such as Psychological Review, Annual Review of Physiology,
Exercise and Sports Sciences Reviews, Review of Educational Research, Sports Medicine, and Kinesiology Review. A
number of journals publish reviews periodically, and some occasionally devote entire issues to reviews. For example, the
75th anniversary issue of Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport (Silverman, 2005) contains some excellent reviews
on various topics.
Research Synthesis
Reviews of literature are difficult to write because they require the synthesis of a large number of studies to determine
common underlying findings, agreements, or disagreements. To some extent, this is like trying to make sense of data
collected on a large number of participants by simply looking at the data. Glass (1977) and Glass, McGaw, and Smith
(1981) proposed a quantitative means of analyzing the findings from numerous studies; this method is called metaanalysis. Findings between studies are compared by changing results within studies to a common metric called effect
size. Over the years, many meta-analyses have been reported in the physical activity literature (e.g., Lee, Folsum &
Blair, 2003; Rawdon, Sharp, Shelley, & Thomas, 2012; Sibley & Etnier, 2003; Schieffer & Thomas, 2012; Vazou, Pesce,
Lakes, & Smiley-Oyen, 2019). This technique is discussed in more detail in chapter 14.
Descriptive Research
Descriptive research is concerned with status. The most prevalent descriptive research technique is the survey,
most notably the questionnaire. Other forms of surveys include the personal interview, online polling, and the normative
survey. Chapter 15 provides detailed coverage of these techniques. The following sections briefly describe three types of
survey research techniques.
descriptive research—A type of research that attempts to describe the status of the study’s focus. Common techniques are questionnaires,
interviews, normative surveys, case studies, job analyses, observational research, developmental studies, and correlational studies.
Questionnaire
The main justification for using a questionnaire is the need to obtain responses from people, often from a wide
geographical area. The questionnaire usually strives to secure information about present practices, conditions, and
demographic data. Occasionally, a questionnaire asks for opinions or knowledge. Online polling has become an
increasingly common approach for questionnaire research in recent years.
Interview
The interview and the questionnaire are essentially the same technique insofar as planning and procedures are
concerned. Obviously, the interview has certain advantages over the questionnaire. The researcher can rephrase
questions and ask additional ones to clarify responses and secure results that are more valid. Becoming a skilled
interviewer requires training and experience. Telephone interviewing has been used for decades. It costs half as much as
face-to-face interviews and can cover a wide geographical area, which is generally a limitation in personal interviews. We
discuss some other advantages of the telephone interview technique in chapter 15.
Normative Survey
A number of notable normative surveys have been conducted in the fields of physical activity and health. The
normative survey generally seeks to gather performance or knowledge data on a large sample from a population and to
present the results in the form of comparative standards, or norms. The AAHPER Youth Fitness Test Manual (American
Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 1958) is an outstanding example of a normative survey.
Thousands of boys and girls ages 10 to 18 throughout the United States were tested on a battery of motor fitness items.
Percentiles were then established for comparative performances to provide information for students, teachers,
administrators, and parents. The AAHPER youth fitness test was developed in response to another survey, the KrausWeber test (Kraus & Hirschland, 1954), which revealed that American children scored dramatically lower on a test
battery of minimum muscular fitness when compared with European children.
Other Descriptive Research Techniques
Among the other forms of descriptive research are the case study, the job analysis, observational research,
developmental studies, and correlational studies. Chapter 16 provides detailed coverage of these descriptive research
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procedures.
Case Study
The case study is used to provide detailed information about an individual person, institution, or community, and so
on. It aims to determine unique characteristics about the subject or condition. This descriptive research technique is used
widely in such fields as medicine, psychology, counseling, and sociology. The case study is also a technique used in
qualitative research.
Job Analysis
This type of research is a special form of case study. It is done to describe the nature of a particular job, including the
duties, responsibilities, and preparation required for success in the job.
Observational Research
Observational research is a descriptive technique in which behaviors are observed in the participants’ natural setting,
such as the classroom or play environment. The observations are frequently coded, and then their frequency and
duration are analyzed.
Developmental Studies
In developmental research, the investigator is usually concerned with the interaction of learning or performance with
maturation. For example, a researcher may wish to assess the extent to which the ability to process information about
movement can be attributed to maturation as opposed to strategy, or to determine the effects of growth on a physical
parameter such as aerobic capacity.
Developmental studies can be undertaken by what is called the longitudinal method, whereby the same participants
are studied over a period of years. Obvious logistical problems are associated with longitudinal studies, so an alternative
is to select samples of participants from different age groups to assess the effects of maturation. This is called the crosssectional approach.
Correlational Studies
The purpose of correlational research is to examine the relationship between performance variables, such as heart
rate and ratings of perceived exertion; the relationship between traits, such as anxiety and pain tolerance; or the
correlation between attitudes and behavior, as in the attitude toward fitness and the amount of participation in fitness
activities. Sometimes correlation is employed to predict performance. For example, a researcher may wish to predict the
percentage of body fat from skinfold measurements. Correlational research is descriptive in that a cause-and-effect
relationship cannot be presumed. All that can be established is that an association is (or is not) present between two or
more traits or performances.
Epidemiological Research
Another form of descriptive research that has become a viable approach to studying problems concerning health,
fitness, and safety is the epidemiological research method. This type of research pertains to the frequencies and
distributions of health and disease conditions among populations. Rate of occurrence is the basic concept in
epidemiological studies. The size of the population being studied is an important consideration in examining the
prevalence of such things as injuries, illnesses, or health conditions in a specified at-risk population.
Although cause and effect cannot be established by incidence and prevalence data, a strong inference of causation
can often be made through association. Chapter 17 is devoted to epidemiological research.
Experimental Research
Experimental research has a major advantage over other types of research in that the researcher can manipulate
treatments to cause things to happen (i.e., establish a cause-and-effect situation). As an example of an experimental
study, assume that Virginia Reel, a dance teacher, hypothesizes that students would learn more effectively through the
use of video. First, she randomly assigns students to two sections. One section is taught by the so-called traditional
method (explanation, demonstration, practice, and critique). The other section is taught in a similar manner except that
the students are filmed while practicing and can thus observe themselves as the teacher critiques their performances.
After nine weeks, a panel of dance teachers evaluates both sections. In this study, the teaching method is the
independent variable, and dance performance (skill) is the dependent variable. After the groups’ scores are compared
statistically, Virginia can conclude whether her hypothesis can be supported.
experimental research—A type of research that involves the manipulation of treatments in an attempt to establish cause-and-effect relationships.
In experimental research, the researcher attempts to control all factors except the experimental (or treatment)
variable. If the extraneous factors can be controlled, then the researcher can presume that the changes in the dependent
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variable are due to the independent variable. Chapter 18 is devoted to experimental and quasi-experimental research.
Qualitative Research
In the study of physical activity, qualitative research is the relatively new kid on the block, although it has been used
for many years in other fields, such as anthropology and sociology. Researchers in education have been engaged in
qualitative methods longer than researchers in our field have. As previously mentioned, several names are given to this
type of research (ethnographic, naturalistic, interpretive, grounded, phenomenological, subjective, and participant
observational). Some are simply name differences, whereas some have different approaches and points of focus. We
have lumped them all together under qualitative research because that term seems to be the most commonly used in our
field.
Qualitative research is different from other research methods. It is a systematic method of inquiry, and it follows the
scientific method of problem-solving to a considerable degree, although it deviates in certain dimensions. Qualitative
research rarely establishes hypotheses at the beginning of the study; instead, it uses more general questions to guide
the study. It proceeds in an inductive process in developing hypotheses and theory as the data unfold. The researcher is
the primary instrument in data collection and analysis. Qualitative research is characterized by intensive, firsthand
presence. The tools of data collection are observation, interviews, and researcher-designed instruments (Creswell,
2009). Qualitative research is described in chapters 19 and 20.
Mixed Methods of Research
In mixed methods of research, both quantitative and qualitative approaches are included (or mixed) within a research
effort. This approach, often viewed as a pragmatic one, suggests that both qualitative and quantitative techniques are
useful when studying real-world phenomena. For capturing behavioral data, the notion is that a researcher should use
the best approach; in this case, it is the mixed method in which quantitative techniques are integrated within a single
study. In other words, the whole study comprises two smaller studies—one that is quantitative and the other qualitative.
Figure 1.2 The total research setting.
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Overview of the Research Process
A good overview of the research methods course, which serves well as an introduction to this book, is provided in
figure 1.2. This flowchart provides a linear way to think about planning a research study. After the problem area is
identified, reading and thinking about relevant theories and concepts, as well as a careful search of the literature for
relevant findings, lead to the specification of hypotheses or questions. Operational definitions are needed in a research
study so that the reader knows exactly what the researcher means by certain terms. Operational definitions describe
observable phenomena that enable the researcher to examine empirically whether the predictions can be supported. The
study is designed, and the methods are made operational. The data are then collected and analyzed, and the findings
are identified. Finally, the results are related back to the original hypotheses or questions and discussed in relation to
theories, concepts, and previous research findings.
Parts of a Thesis: A Reflection on the Steps in the Research Process
This chapter has introduced the research process. The theme has been the scientific method of problem-solving.
Generally, a thesis or research article has a standard format. This feature is for expediency, so that the reader knows
where to find the pieces of information, such as purpose, methods, and results. The format also reflects the steps in the
scientific method of problem-solving. We now look at a typical thesis format and see how the parts correspond to the
steps in the scientific method.
Sometimes, theses and dissertations are done in a chapter format in which each chapter represents a separate part
of the research report (e.g., introduction). This model has been commonly used over the years. We believe that it is more
appropriate for graduate students to prepare their theses or dissertations in a form suitable for journal publication
because that is an important part of the research process. Writing the theses or dissertation in a journal format also
prepares students for future writing. In chapter 22, we provide considerable detail about how to use a journal format for a
thesis or dissertation and the value of doing so. Throughout this book, we refer to the typical parts of a research report.
These can be considered either as parts of a journal paper or as chapters, depending on the format selected.
Introduction
In the introduction, the problem is defined and delimited. The researcher specifically identifies the problem and often
states the research hypotheses. Certain terms critical to the study are operationally defined for the reader, and limitations
and perhaps some basic assumptions are acknowledged.
The literature review may be in the introduction, or it may warrant a separate section. When it is part of the
introduction, the literature review more closely adheres to the steps in the scientific method of problem-solving; that is,
the literature review is instrumental in the formulation of hypotheses and the deductive reasoning leading to the problem
statement.
Methods
The purpose of the methods section is to make the thesis format parallel to the data-gathering steps of the scientific
method. First, the researcher explains how the data were gathered. The participants are identified, the measuring
instruments are described, the measurement and treatment procedures are presented, the experimental design is
explained, and the methods of analyzing the data are summarized. The major purpose of the methods section is to
describe the study in such detail and with such clarity that a reader could replicate it.
The introduction and methods section often comprise the research proposal and are presented to the student’s
thesis committee before the research is undertaken. For the proposal, methods are often written in future tense and then
changed to past tense when the final version of the thesis is completed. Of course, presenting methods in past tense in
the proposal eliminates the need to make this conversion later in the research process. Discuss with your advisor which
tense is preferred for the proposal. The research proposal also often contains some preliminary data demonstrating that
the student has the required expertise to collect the data using the instrumentation needed.
research proposal—A formal preparation that includes the introduction, literature review, and proposed method for conducting a study.
Results
The results present the pertinent findings from the data analysis and represent the contribution to new knowledge.
The results section corresponds to the step in the scientific method in which the meaningfulness and reliability of the
results are scrutinized.
Discussion and Conclusions
In this last step in the scientific method, the researcher employs inductive reasoning to analyze the findings, interpret
the findings relative to those of previous studies, and integrate them into a theoretical model. In this part of a research
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paper, the acceptability of the research hypotheses is judged. Then, based on the analysis and discussion, conclusions
are usually made. The conclusions should address the purpose and secondary purposes that were specified in the
introduction.
Qualitative and Mixed-Method Studies
When the qualitative or mixed-method approach is used, the format for the thesis or dissertation often varies from the
preceding (i.e., introduction, method, results, and discussion). However, the general notion of explaining the problem,
describing how data were collected, presenting the results, and providing a discussion remain the same. Chapters 19,
20, 21, and 22 provide a more in-depth discussion of this.
Summary
Research is simply a way of solving problems. Questions are raised, and methods are devised to try to answer them.
There are various ways of approaching problems (research methods). Sometimes the nature of the problem dictates the
method of research. For example, a researcher who wants to discover the origins of a sport would use the historical
method of research. A researcher who wants to look at a problem from a particular angle may select a research method
that can best answer the question from that angle.
Research on the topic of teaching effectiveness, for example, can be approached in several ways. An experimental
study could be conducted in which the effectiveness of teaching methods in bringing about measurable achievement is
compared. Or a study could be designed in which teachers’ behaviors are coded and evaluated using some
observational instrument. Or another form of descriptive research could be used that employs the questionnaire or the
interview technique to examine teachers’ responses to questions concerning their beliefs or practices. Or perhaps a
qualitative study could be undertaken to observe and interview one teacher in one school systematically over an
extended period to portray the teacher’s experiences and perceptions in the natural setting. And of course, qualitative
and quantitative approaches can be combined in a mixed-method format.
The point is that there is not just one way to do research. Some people do only one type of research. Some are
critical of the methods used by others. However, anyone who believes that their type of research is the only “scientific”
way to solve problems has a narrow-minded and downright foolish understanding of how to conduct research. Science is
disciplined inquiry, not a set of specific procedures.
Basic research deals primarily with theoretical problems, and the results are not intended to have immediate
application. Applied research, on the other hand, strives to answer questions that have direct value to the practitioner.
There is a need to prepare proficient consumers of research as well as researchers. Thus, one purpose of a book on
research methods is to help the reader understand the tools necessary both to consume and to produce research.
We presented here an overview of the nature of research. The scientific method of problem-solving was contrasted
with “unscientific” methods by which people acquire information. Multiple research models were discussed to emphasize
that there is not just one way to approach problems in our discipline and profession of kinesiology. We identified the five
major types of research used in the study of physical activity: analytical, descriptive, experimental, qualitative, and mixed
methods. These categories and the techniques they encompass are covered in detail in later chapters.
Check Your Understanding
1. Look through some recent issues of Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport. Find and read a research article of interest that is
quantitative in nature and another that you believe is qualitative. Which of these did you find easier to understand? Why?
2. Find an article that describes a study that you would classify as an applied research study and another that you believe describes a basic
research study. Defend your choices.
3. Think of two problems that need research in your field. From the descriptions of the types of research in this chapter, suggest how each
problem might be researched.
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2
Developing the Problem and Using the Literature
The library banned drinks after someone poured milk on the serials.
—Early Bird Books
Getting started is the hardest part of almost any new venture, and research is no exception. You cannot do any
meaningful research until you have identified the area that you want to investigate, learned what has been published in
that area, and figured out how you are going to conduct the investigation. In this chapter, we discuss ways to identify
researchable problems, search for literature, and write the literature review.
Identifying the Research Problem
Of the many major issues facing the graduate student, a primary one is identifying a research problem. Research
ideas may arise from a student’s curiosity about some aspect of human performance, be stimulated by real-world
settings, or be generated from theoretical frameworks. Regardless, a fundamental requirement for developing and
appropriately limiting a good research problem is in-depth knowledge about the area of interest. But sometimes, as
students become more knowledgeable about a content area, everything seems to be already known. Thus, although you
want to become an expert, do not focus too narrowly, because doing so can limit topics. Relating your knowledge base to
other areas often provides insight into significant areas for research.
Ironically, we ask students to start thinking about possible research topics in their research methods course, typically
a course taken in the first semester (or quarter) of graduate school before students have had the opportunity to acquire
in-depth knowledge. As a result, many of their research problems are ill-conceived, infeasible, unattainable, or
superficial; lack a theoretical base, or are replications of earlier research. Although this shortcoming is considerable, the
advantages of taking the research methods course early in the program are substantial in terms of success in other
graduate courses. In this course, students learn the following:
To approach and solve problems in a scientific way
To search the literature
To write in a clear, concise, scientific fashion
To understand basic measurement and statistical issues
To use an appropriate writing style
To be intelligent consumers of research
To appreciate the wide variety of research strategies and techniques used in an area of study
Problems That Have Not Been Resolved by Humankind
9. Is there ever a day when mattresses are not on sale?
8. If people evolved from apes, why are there still apes?
7. Why does someone believe you when you say there are four billion stars but checks when you say the paint is wet?
6. Why do you never hear father-in-law jokes?
5. If swimming is so good for your physique, how do you explain whales?
4. How do those dead bugs get into enclosed light fixtures?
3. Why does Superman stop bullets with his chest but duck when you throw a revolver at him?
2. Why do banks charge a fee on “insufficient funds” when they know there is not enough money in the account?
… drum roll …
1. Why doesn’t Tarzan have a beard?
How, then, does a student without much background select a problem? As you devote ever-greater effort to thinking
of a topic, you may become increasingly inclined to think that all the problems in the field have already been solved.
Adding to this frustration is the pressure of time. To assure you that important questions have yet to be addressed, we
have provided the Problems That Have Not Been Resolved by Humankind sidebar.
Guidelines for Finding a Topic
To help alleviate the problem of finding a topic, we offer the following suggestions. First, be aware of the research
being done at your institution, because research spawns other research ideas. Often a researcher has a series of studies
planned. Second, be alert for any controversial issues in some area of interest. Lively controversy prompts research in
efforts to resolve the issue. In any case, be sure to talk to professors and advanced graduate students in your area of
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