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ART Appreciation 1 Module
Philosophy (University of San Carlos)
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ART APPRECIATION
Bernardo Nicolas Caslib, Jr.
Dorothea C. Garing
Jezreel Anne R. Casaul
Published & Distributed by
REX Book Store
856 Nicanor Reyes, Sr. St.
Tel. Nos. 736-05-67  735-13-64
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Tel. Nos. 735-55-27  735-55-34
Manila, Philippines
www.rexpublishing.com.ph
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Contents
Preface
…………………………………………………………………………………… v
Unit I.
Introduction to Art Apprciation
Lesson 1
Lesson 2
Lesson 3
Lesson 4
Lesson 5
Lesson 6
What Is Art: Introduction and Assumptions …………………………….
Art Appreciatio,Creativity,Imagination,AndExpression…………………
Functions and Philosophical Perspectives on Art ……………………….
Subject and Content ……………………………………………………..
Artists and Artisans ……………………………………….......................
Elements and Principles of Art …………………………………………..
Unit II.
Western Art History
Lesson 7
Lesson 8
Lesson 9
Art in EarlyCivilizations………………………………………………...
81
Art of Emerging Europe ………………………………………………..
92
Contemporary Art ……………………………………………………… 100
Unit III.
Culture and the Arts
Lesson 10
Lesson 11
Soulmaking, Appropriation, and Improvisation ……………………….. 110
Art in Asia ……………………………………………………………… 118
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Preface
There is nothing that grounds men and women more concretely than the work of their
hands. When Plato claimed that man, more than anything else, is his soul, his capacity to think
and Aristotle added that his being social and political is what sets him apart, the masters of
thought disappointed by missing out on one of the most important aspects of man: his capacity
to create and appreciate these creations. The result of this facet of man is art and the humanities.
It is no puzzle then why the field was called humanities. It is the work of man: his hymns,
verses, paintings, sculptures that define his humanity, his being man or woman. Without the
great works of civilization, man would not have been man.
This book is a survey of the most important elements of the study of the humanities.
Art Appreciation, as a course, attempts to develop in students the ability to appreciate,
scrutinize, and appraise works of art. This book was written these aims in mind.
The book will begin with the preliminaries on what art is, what its assumptions are,
what it normally amounts to, and its functions. There will also be a survey of a few philosophies
that were made and conceived by thinkers about art and beauty. After these, the subject and
content of art, as well as the actors in art, the artisans, will be dealt with. Then, the history of
art, from the cavemen to the contemporary ones will be charted. How did art evolve through
time? Has there been unifying element throughout the history? The book will end with a
discussion of Philippine and Asian art, and how art has made us who we are. Through and
through, each lesson is comprised of opportunities for the students not just to learn passively
but also to actively contribute to and participate in art. We hope that teachers and students alike
will take these opportunities for engagement to heart.
Toward the end, the book only wishes to contribute to the holistic development of each
Filipino learner in the hopes that every college students does not just become a skilled
professional, an expert in his field, but one who is truly human, a kind that does not just think
and socialize but one who appreciates the work of the hands and the beauty that he is capable
of producing and beholding.
-The Authors
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Unit I. Introduction to Art Appreciation
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Lesson 1
What Is Art: Introduction and Assumptions
Learning Outcomes
By the end of the lesson, the students must be able to:
1. understand the role of the humanities and the arts in man9s attempt at fully realizing his
end;
2. clarify misconceptions about art;
3. characterize the assumptions of the arts; and
4. engage better with personal experiences of and in art.
Art is something that is perennially around us. Some people may deny having to do with
the arts but it is indisputable that life presents us with many forms of and opportunities for
communion with the arts. A bank manager choosing what tie to wear together with his shirt
and shoes, a politician shuffling her music track while comfortably seated on her car looking
for her favorite song, a student marveling at the intricate designs of a medieval cathedral during
his field trip, a market vendor cheering for her bet in a dance competition on a noontime TV
program all manifest concern for values that are undeniably, despite tangentially, artistic.
Despite the seemingly overflowing instances
of arts around people, one still finds the need to
see
more
consciously
and
or
experience
more,
unconsciously.
One
whether
whose
exposure to music is only limited to one genre
finds it lacking not to have been exposed to more;
one whose idea of a cathedral is limited to the
locally available ones finds enormous joy in
Figure 1. A Medieval Cathedral
seeing other prototypes in Europe. Plato had the sharpest
foresight when he discussed in the Symposium that beauty, the object of love of any love, truly
progresses. As one moves through life, one locates better, more beautiful objects desire (Scott
200, 26). One can never be totally content with what is just before him. Human beings are
drawn toward what is good and ultimately, beautiful.
This lesson is about this yearning for the beautiful, the appreciation of the all-consuming
beauty around us, and some preliminary clarifications on assumptions that people normally
hold about art.
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Pre-test
Let’s Get Started
In the first column of the table below, list down your most striking encounters with arts.
On the second column, explain why you think each encounter is an experience with art.
My Encounters with Arts
Why?
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Let’s Get Down to Business
Why Study the Humanities?
For as long as man existed in this planet, he has cultivated the land, altered the
conditions of the fauna and the flora, all in order to survive. Alongside these necessities, man
also marked his place in the world through his works. Through his bare hands, man constructed
infrastructures that will tend to his needs, like his house. He sharpened swords and spears. He
employed fire in order to melt gold. The initial meaning of the word art has something to do
with all these craft.
The word <art= comes from the ancient Latin ars which means <craft= or specialized
form of skill, like carpentry or smithying or surgery= (Collingwood 1938, 5). Art the suggested
the capacity to produce an intended result for carefully plans step or method. When a man
wants to build a house, plans meticulously to get to what the prototype promises, executes the
steps to produce the said structure, he is engaged in art. The Ancient World did not have any
conceived notion of art in the same way that we do now. To them, art only meant using bare
hands to produce something that will be useful to one9s day-to-day life.
Arts in Medieval Latin came to mean something different. It meant 8any special form
of book-learning, such as grammar or logic, magic or astrology= (Collingwood 1938, 6). It was
only during renaissance that the word reacquired a meaning that was inherent in its ancient
form-craft. Early renaissance artists saw their activities merely as craftsmanship, devoid of a
whole lot of intonations that are attached to the word now. It was seventeenth century when
the problem and idea of aesthetics, the study of beauty, began to unfold distinctly from the
notion of technical workmanship that
is the original conception of the word
<art=. It was finally in the eighteenth
century when the word has evolved to
distinguish between the fine arts and
useful arts. The fine arts would come
to mean <not delicate or highly skilled
arts,
but
(Collingwood
8beautiful9
1938).
This
arts=
is
something that is more akin to what is
Figure 1. Cave Paintings
now considered art.
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The humanities constitute one of the oldest and most important means of expression
developed by man (Dudley, Faricy, and Company 1960, 3). Human history has witnessed how
man evolved not just physically but also culturally, from cave painters to men of exquisite
paintbrush users of the present. Even if one goes back to the time before written records of
man9s civilization has appeared, one can find cases of man9s attempts of not just crafting tools
to live and survive but also expressing his feelings and thoughts. The Galloping Wild Boar
fond in the cave of Altamira, Spain is one such example. In 1879, a Spaniard and his daughter
were exploring a cave when they saw pictures of a wild boar, hind and bison. According to
experts, these paintings were purported to belong to Upper Paleolithic Age, several thousands
of years before the current era. Pre-historic men, with their crude instruments, already
showcase and manifested earliest attempts at recording man9s innermost interests,
preoccupations, and thoughts. The humanities, then, ironically, has started even before the term
has been coined. Human persons have long been exercising what it means to be a human long
before he was even aware of his being one. The humanities stand tall in bearing witness to this
magnificent phenomenon. Any human person, then, is asked to participate, if not totally partake
in this long tradition of humanizing himself.
Assumptions of Art
I.
Art is universal.
Literature has provided key works of art. Among the most popular ones being
taught in school are the two Greek epics, the lliad and the Odyssey. The Sanskrit
pieces Mahabharata and Ramayana are also staples in this field. These works,
purportedly written before the beginning of recorded history, are believed to be
man9s attempt at recording stories and tales that have been passed on, known, and
sung throughout the years. Art has always been timeless and universal, spanning
generations and continents through and through.
In every country and in every generation, there is always art. Oftentimes,
people feel that what is considered artistic are only those which have been made
long time ago. This is a misconception. Age is not a factor in determining art. An
<…art is not good because it is old, but old because it is good= (Dudley, Faricy, and
Company 1960, 4). In this Philippines, the works of Rizal and Francisco Balagtas
are not being read because they are old. Otherwise, works of other Filipinos who
have long died would have been required in Junior High School too. The pieces
mentioned are read in school and have remained to be with us because they are
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good. They are liked and adored because they meet our needs and desires. Florante
and Laura never fails to teach high school students the beauty of love, one that is
universal and pure. Ibong Adarna, another Filipino masterpiece, has always
captured the imagination of the young with its timeless lessons. When we recite the
Psalms, we feel in communion with King David as we feel one with him in his
conversation with God. When we listen to a kundiman or perform folk dances, we
still enjoy the way our Filipino ancestors whiled away their time in the past. We do
not necessarily like kundiman for its original meaning. We just like it. We enjoy it.
Or just as one of the characters in the movie <Bar Boys= thought, kundiman makes
one concentrate better.
The first assumption the about the humanities is the art has been crafted by all
people regardless of origin, time, and place, and that it stayed on because it is like
and enjoyed by people continuously. A great piece of work will never be obsolete.
Some people say that art is art for its intrinsic worth. In John Stuart Mill9s
Utilitarianism, enjoyment in the arts belongs to a higher good, one that lies at the
opposite end of base pleasures. Art will always be present because human beings
will always express themselves and delight in these expressions. Men will continue
to use art while art persists and never gets depleted.
II.
Art is not nature.
In the Philippines, it is not entirely novel to hear some consumers of local
movies remark that these movies produced locally are unrealistic. They contend that
local movies work around certain formula to the detriment of substance and
faithfulness to reality of the movies. These critical minds argue that a good movie
must reflect reality as closely as possible. Is that so?
Paul Cezanne, a French painter, painted a scene from reality entitled <Well and
Grinding Wheel in the Forest of the Chateau Noir. = The said scene from the forest
is inspired by a real scene in the forest which photograph is available to us.
Comparing the two, one can see that Cezanne9s landscape is quite different from
the original scene. Cezanne has changed some patterns and details from the way
they were actually in the photograph. What he did is not nature. It is art.
One important characteristic of art is that it is not nature. Art is man9s expression
of his reception of nature. Art is man9s way of interpreting nature. Art is not nature.
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Art is made by man whereas nature is given around us. It is in this juncture that they
can be considered opposites. What we find in nature should not be expected to be
present in art too. Movies are not meant to be direct representation of reality. They
may, according to the moviemaker9s perception of reality, be a reinterpretation, or
even distortion, or even distortion of nature.
This distinction assumes that all of us see nature, perceive its elements in
myriad, different, yet ultimately valid ways. One can only imagine the story of the
five blind men who one day argue against each other on what an elephant looks
like. Each of the five blind men was holding a different part of the elephant. The
first was touching the body and thus, thought that an elephant is like a wall. Another
was touching the beast9s ear and was convinced that an elephant is like a fan. The
rest were touching other different parts of the elephant and concluded differently
based on their perception. Art is like each of these men9s view of the elephant. It is
based on an individual9s subjective experience of nature. Artists are not expected to
duplicate nature just as even scientists with their elaborate laboratories cannot make
nature.
Once this point has been made, a student of humanities can then ask further
questions such as: What reasons might the artist have in creating something? Why
did Andres Bonifacio write <Pag-ibig sa Tinubuang Lupa=? What motivation did
Juan Luna have in creating his masterpiece, the Spolarium? In whatever work of
art, one should always ask why the artist made it. What is it that he wants to show?
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III.
Art involves experience.
Getting this far without a satisfactory definition of art can be quite weird for
some. For most people, art does not require a full definition. Art is just experience.
By experience, we mean the <actual doing of something= (Dudley, Faricy, and
Company 1960, 6). When one says that he has an experience of something, he often
means that he knows what that something is about. When one claims that he has
experienced falling in love, getting hurt, and bouncing back, he in effect claims that
he knows the (sometimes) endless cycle of loving. When one asserts having
experienced preparing a particular recipe, he in fact asserts knowing how the recipe
is made. Knowing a thing is different from hearing from others what the said thing
is. A radio DJ dispensing advice on love when he is talking about. A choreographer
who cannot execute a dance step himself is a bogus. Art is always art an experience.
Unlike fields of knowledge that involve data, art is known by experiencing. A
painter cannot claim to know how to paint if he has not tried holding a brush. A
sculptor cannot produce a work of art if one is to know art, he must know it not as
fact or information but as experience.=
A work of art then cannot be abstracted from actual doing. In order to know
what an artwork is, we have to sense it, see it, or hear it, see AND hear it. To fully
know the Rizal monument in Luneta, one must go to Luneta and see actual
sculpture. In order to know Beyonce9s music, one must listen to it. One must have
heard her songs and to actually experience them. A famous story about someone
who adores Picasso goes something like this, 8Years ago, Gertrude Stein was asked
why she bought the pictures of the then unknown artist Picasso. 8I like look at them,9
said Miss Stein= (Dudley, Faricy, and Company 1960). At the end of the day, one
fully gets acquainted with art if one immerses himself into it. In the case of Picasso,
one only learns about Picasso9s work by looking at it. That is precisely what Miss
Stein did.
In matters of art, the subject9s perception is of primacy. One can read hundreds
of reviews about a particular movie, but at the end of the day, until he sees the movie
himself, he will be in no position to actually talk about the movie. He does not know
the movie until he experiences it. An important aspect of experiencing art is its
being highly personal, individual, and subjective. In philosophical terms, perception
of art is always a value judgment. It depends on who the perceiver is, his tastes, his
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biases, and what he has inside him. Degustibus non disputandum est (Matters of
taste are not matters of dispute). One cannot argue with another person9s evaluation
of art because one9s experience can never be known by another.
Finally, one should also underscore that every experience with art is
accompanied by some emotion. One either likes or dislikes, agree or disagrees that
the work of art is beautiful. A stage play or motion pictures is particularly one of
those art forms that evokes strong emotions from its audience. With experience
comes emotions and feelings, after all. Feelings and emotions are concrete proofs
that the artworks has been experiences.
Let’s Wrap It Up
Humanities and the art have always been part of man9s growth and civilization. Since
the dawn of time, man has always tried to express his innermost thoughts and feelings about
reality through creating art. Three assumptions on art its universality, its not being nature, and
its need for experience. Art is present in every part of the globe and in every period of time.
This is what is meant by its universality. Art not being nature, not even attempting to simply
mirror nature, is the second assumption about art. Art is always a creation of the artist, not
nature. Finally, without experience there is no art. The artsis has to be foremost, a perceiver
who is directly on touch with art.
Let’s Work On This
Answer the following questions as precisely yet as thoroughly as possible.
1. If you were an artist, what kind of artist would you be?
2. Why is art not nature?
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3. Why is art ageless and timeless?
4. Why art does involves experience?
Let’s Make It Happen
Choose one artwork under each category that you are familiar with. This can be the last
artwork you have come across with or the one that made the most impact to you. Criticize each
using the sheet below.
Categories:
1. Movie
2. Novel
3. Poem
4. Music
5. An architectural structure
6. A piece of clothing
Category: _____________________________
Artwork: ______________________________
1.
2.
3.
4.
What is it about? What is it for?
What is it made of?
What is its style?
How good is it?
Sources and References:
Collingwood, R.G (1938). The Principles of Art. Read Books lLtd.
Dudley, L., and Faricy, A. (1960). The Humanities. New York. McGraw-Hill.
Scott, D. (2000). <Socrates and Alcibiades in the 8Symposium.9= Hermathena, no.
168:25-37.
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Lesson 2
Art Appreciation: Creativity, Imagination, and Expression
Learning Outcomes
By the end of the lesson, the students must be able to:
1. Differentiate art from nature
2. Characterize artistic expression based on personal experiences with art.
3. Discuss the nature of art9s preliminary expression; and
4. Categorize works of art by citing personal experiences.
It takes an artist to make art. One may perceive beauty on daily basis. However, not every
beautiful thing can be seen or experienced may truly be called a work of art. Art is a product
of man9s creativity, imagination, and expression. No matter how perfectly blended the colors
of a sunset are and no matter how extraordinarily formed mountains are, nature is not
considered art simply because it is not made by man. Not even photographs or sketches of
nature, though captured or drawn by man, are works of art, but mere recordings of the beauty
in nature (Collins & Riley 1931, 3). An artwork may be inspired by nature or other works of
art, but an artist invents his own forms and patterns due to what he perceives as beautiful and
incorporates them in creating his masterpiece.
Perhaps not everyone can be considered an artist, but surely all are spectators of art. In
deciding what pair of shoes to buy, we carefully examine all possible choices within our budget
and purchase the one that satisfies our beauty and practical standards. We are able to distinguish
what is fine and beautiful from what is not, what has good quality from poor, and that gives us
a role in the field of art appreciation.
Let’s Get Started
In one of your encounters with art through museum visits, musicals, plays, etc., have
you ever felt disconnected with an artwork? Was there a pint in time when you did not
understand what message the art was trying to convey? If yes, write the name of the artwork in
the box and attach the image of the artwork, if possible. Explain why you think you did or did
not understand the art.
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Let’s Get Down to Business
Art Appreciation as a Way of Life
Jean-Paul Sartre, a famous French Philosopher of the twentieth century, described the
role of art as a creative work that depicts the world in a completely different light and
perspective, and the source is due to human freedom (Greene 1995, 382). Each artworks
beholds beauty of its own kind that the artist sees and wants the viewers to perceive. More
often than not, people are blind to this beauty and only those who have developed a fine sense
of appreciation can experience and see the art the same way the artist did. Because of this,
numerous artworks go unnoticed, artists are not given enough credit, and they miss
opportunities that are supposed to be meant for them. It sometimes takes a lifetime before their
contribution to the development of art is recognized. Hence, refining one9s ability to appreciate
art allows her to deeply understand the purpose of an artwork and recognize the beauty it
possesses (Collins & Riley 1931, 6).
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In cultivating an appreciation of art, one should also exercise and develop her taste for
things that are line and beautiful. This allows individuals to make intelligent choices and
decisions in acquiring necessities and luxuries, knowing what gives better value for time or
money while taking into consideration the aesthetic and practical value (Collins & Riley 1931,
7). This continuous demand for aesthetically valuable things influences the development and
evolution of art and its forms.
Frequently museums, art galleries, performing art theaters, concert halls, or even malls
that display art exhibitions which are free in admission during leisure time will not only develop
an understanding of the art, but will also serve as a rewarding experience. Learning to
appreciate art, no matter what vocation or profession you have, will lead to a fuller and more
meaningful life (Collins & Riley 1931, 7).
The Role of Creativity in Art Making
Creativity requires thinking outside the box. It is often used to solve problems that have
never occurred before, conflate function and style, and simply make life a more unique and
enjoyable experience. In art, creativity is what sets apart one artwork from another. We say
something is done creatively when we have not yet seen anything like it or when it is out of the
ordinary. A creative artist does not simply copy or imitate another artist9s work. He does not
imitate the lines, flaws, colors, and patterns in recreating nature. He embraces originality, puts
his own flavor into his work, and calls it his own creative piece.
Yet, being creative nowadays
can be quite challenging. What you
thought was your own unique and
creative idea may not what it seems
to be after extensive research and
knowing that the idea has been
coincidentally devised before by
someone else in another part of the
world. For instance, the campaign ad
<It9s More Fun in the Philippines=
Figure 1. <It9s More Fun in the Philippines=
By The Misadventures of Maja
used by the Department of Tourism (DOT)
boomed popularity in 2011, but later on it was found out that it was allegedly plagiarized from
Switzerland9s tourism slogan <It More Fun in Switzerland,= back in 1951. In DOT9s defense,
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former DOT Secretary Ramon Jimenez Jr. claimed that it was <purely coincidental.= Thus,
creativity should be backed with careful research on related art to avoid such conflicts.
Art as a Product of Imagination, Imagination as a Product of Art
Where do you think famous writers, painters, and
musicians get their ideas from? Where do ideas in making
creative solutions begin? It all starts in the human mind. It all
begins with imagination.
German physicist Albert Einstein who had made
significant and major contributions in science and humanity
demonstrates that knowledge is actually derived from
imagination. He emphasizes this idea through his words.
Figure 5. <Imagination= by Bob Wierdsma
<Imagination is more important than knowledge. For
knowledge is limited to all we now know and understand, while
imagination embraces the entire world, and all world, and all
there ever will be to know and understand.=
Imagination is not constrained by the walls of the norm, but goes beyond that. That is
why people rely on curiosity and imagination for advancement. Through imagination, one is
able to craft something bold, something new, and something better allows endless possibilities.
In an artist9s mind sits a vast gallery of artworks. An artworks does not need to be a real
thing, but can be something that is imaginary (Collingwood 1938, 130). Take for example a
musician who thinks of a tune in his head. The making of this tune in his head makes it an
imaginary tune, an imaginative creation, an imaginary art (Collingwood 1938, 134). It remains
imaginary until he hums, sings, or writes down the notes of the tune on paper. However,
something imaginary does not necessarily mean it cannot be called art. Artist use their
imagination that gives birth to reality through creation.
Figure 6. <Cave Paintings= by Thomas Quine
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In the same way that imagination produces art, art also inspires imagination. Imagine
being an empty room surrounded by blank, while walls and floor. Would you be inspired to
work in such a place? Often times you will find coffee shops, restaurants, libraries with
paintings hung or sculptures and other pieces of art placed around the room to add beauty to
the surroundings. This craving and desire to be surrounded by beautiful things dates back to
our early ancestors (Collins and Riley 1931, 5). Cave walls are surrounded by drawings and
paintings of animals they hunted: wild boars, reindeers, and bison (Figure 3). Clays were
molded and stones were carved into forms that resemble men and women; burial jars were
created with intricate designs on them, but also because beauty gave them joy (Collins and
Riley 1931, 4).
Art as Expression
There may have been times when you left something is going on within you, you try to
explain it but do not to know how. You may only be conscious about feeling this sort of
excitement, fear, or agitation, but you know that just one word is not enough to describe the
nature of what you truly feel. Finally, you try to release yourself from this tormenting and
disabling start by doing something which is called expressing oneself (Collingwood 1938,
109). Supposed this feeling is excitement. It is frustrating to contain such feelings, so you
relieve it by expressing through shouting or leaping in excitement. An emotion will remain
unknown to a man until he expresses them.
Robin George Collingwood, an English philosopher who is best known for his work in
aesthetics, explicated in his publication The Principles of Art (1938) that what an artist does to
an emotion is not to induce them, but express them (109). Through expressions, he is able to
explore his own emotions and at the same time, create something beautiful out of it.
Collingwood further illustrated that expressing emotions is something different from
describing emotions. In his example, explicitly saying <I am angry= is not an expression of an
emotion, but a mere description (111). There is no need in relating or referring to a specific
emotion, such as anger, in expressing one9s emotion. Description actually destroys the idea of
expression, as it classifies the emotion, making it ordinary and predictable. Expression on the
other hand, individualizes (112). An artist has the freedom to express herself the way she wants
to. Hence, there is no specific technique in expression. This makes people9s art not a reflection
of what is outside or external to them, but a reflection of their inner selves.
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There are countless ways of expressing oneself through art and below is a list of popular
art expressions including, but is not limited to the following:
Visual Arts
Creations that fall under this category are those that appeal to the sense of sight and are
mainly visual in nature. Artist produce visual arts driven by their desire to reproduce things
that they have seen in the way that they perceived the (Collins
and Riley 1931, 149). We will not be too strict on the
definition since there are other artistic disciplines that also
involve a visual aspect, such as performance arts, theater,
applied arts, which will be discussed in detail later on. Visual
Arts is the kind of art form that the population is most likely
more exposed to, but its variations are so diverse they range
from sculptures that you see in art galleries to the movie you
saw last night.
Some mediums of visual arts include paintings,
Figure 7. Camellia in Old Chinese Vase on
Black Lacquer Table by John La Farge
drawings, letterings, printing, sculptures, digital imaging, and more.
Film
Film refers to the art of putting together successions of still images in order to create an
illusion of movement. Filmmaking focuses on its aesthetic, cultural, and social value and is
considered both as an art and an industry. Films can be created by using one or a combination
of some or all of these techniques: motion-picture camera, also known as movie camera,
animation techniques, computer-generated imagery (CGI), and more. Filmmaking simulates
experiences or creates one that is beyond the scope of our imagination as it aims to deliver
ideas, feelings, or beauty to its viewers.
The art of filmmaking is so complex it has to take into account many important elements
such as lighting, musical score, visual effects, direction, and more. This is why in famous film
festivals and awards such as the Metro Manila Film Festival and Oscars, a long list categories
is considered to recognize excellence in the art of filmmaking.
Performance Art
Performance art is live art and the artist9s medium is mainly the human body which he
or she uses to perform, but also employs other kinds of art such as visual art, props, or sound.
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It usually consists of four important
elements: time, where the performance took
place, the performer9s or performers9 body,
and a relationship between the audience and
the
performer/performers
(MoMa
Conceptual Art). The fact that performance
art is live makes it intangible, which means
it cannot be bought or traded as a
commodity, unlike the previously discussed art
Figure 8. Performance Art
expressions.
Poetry Performance
Poetry is an art form where the artist expresses his emotions not by using paint,
charcoal, or camera, but expresses them through words. These words are carefully selected to
exhibit clarity and beauty and to simulate strong emotions of joy, anger, love, sorrow, and the
list goes on. It uses a word9s emotional, musical, and spatial values that goes beyond its literal
meaning to narrate, emphasize, argue, or convince. These words, combined with movements,
tone, volume, and intensity of the delivery, add to the artistic value of the poem. Some poets
even make poems out of their emotions picked up from other works of art, which in turn
produces another work of art through poetry.
Architecture
As discussed, art is the pursuit and
creation of beautiful things whilst
architecture is the making of beautiful
buildings. However, not all buildings
are beautiful. Some building only
embody the functionality it needs, but
the structure, lines, forms, and colors
are not beautifully expressed. Thus, not
all
Figure 9. The Grand Thẻậtre de Bordeaux
buildings
can
be
considered
architecture. Take, for example, the Grand
Theatre de Bordeaux (Figure 11) where the functionality of the theater remains, but the striking
balance of the lines, colors, and shapes completes the masterpiece. Buildings should embody
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these three important elements-plan, construction, and design-if they wish to merit the title
architecture (Collins and Riley 1931, 107).
Dance
Dance is series of movements that follows the rhythm
of the music accompaniment. It has been an age-old debate
whether dance can really be considered an art form, but here
we primarily describe dance as a form of expression. Dancing
is a creative form which allows people to freely express
themselves. It has no rules. You may say that choreography
does not allow this, but in art expression, dancers are not
confined to set steps and rules but are free to create and invent
their own movements as long as they deem it graceful and
beautiful.
Figure 10. Olga Spessiva in Swan Lake
Costume
Literary Art
Artists who practice literary arts use words-not
paint,
musical
instruments,
chisels-to
express
themselves and communicate emotions to the readers.
However, simply becoming a writer does not make
one a literary artist. Simply constructing a succession
of sentences in a meaningful manner is not literary art.
Literary art goes beyond the usual professional,
academic, journalistic and other technical forms of
writing. It focuses on writing using a unique style, not
Figure 11. <William Shakespeare= by
tonynetone
following a specific format or norm. It may include both
fiction and non-fiction such as novels, biographers, and
poems. Examples of famous literary artists and their works include The Little Prince by
Antoine de Saint-Exupery and Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare.
Theater
Theater uses live performers to present accounts or imaginary events before a live
audience. Theater art performances usually follow a script, though it should not be confused
with literary arts. Much like in filmmaking, theater also consider several elements such as
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acting, gesture, lighting, sound effects, musical score,
scenery, and props. The combination of these elements is
what gives the strongest impression on the audience and
the script thus becomes a minor element. Similar to
performance art, since theater is also a live performance,
the participation of the viewer is an important element in
theater arts. Some genre of theater include drama, musical,
tragedy, comedy, and improvisation.
Figure 12. Macbeth
Applied Arts is incorporating elements of style and
design to everyday items with the aim of increasing their aesthetical value. Artists in this field
bring beauty, charm, and comfort into many things that are useful in everyday life (Collins and
Riley 1931, 95). Industrial design, interior design, fashion, and graphic design are considered
applied arts. Applied is often compared to fine arts, where the latter is chiefly concerned on
aesthetic value. Through exploration and expression of ideas, consideration of the needs, and
careful choice and techniques, artists are able to combine functionality and style.
Let’s Wrap It Up
Art is a product of a man9s creativity, imagination, and expression. An artwork may be
inspired by nature or other works of art, but an artist invents his own forms and patterns due to
what he perceives as beautiful, and incorporates them in creating his masterpiece. Perhaps not
everyone can be considered an artist, but surely all are spectators of art, which gives us all a
role in the field of art appreciation. Refining one9s ability to appreciate art allows him to deeply
understand the purpose of an artwork and recognize the beauty it possesses.
Creativity is what sets apart one artwork from another. A creative artist does not simply
copy or imitate another artist9s work. He does not imitate the lines, flaws, colors, and patterns
in recreating nature. While through imagination, an artist is able to craft something bold,
something new, and something better in the hopes of creating something that will stimulate
change. In the same way that imagination produces art, art also inspires imagination. Lastly,
through expression, an artist able to explore his own emotions, at the same time, create
something beautiful out of it. Expressing emotions is something different from describing
emotions, description actually destroys the idea of expression, as it classifies the emotion,
making it ordinary and predictable. Expression on the other hand, individualizes.
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Some forms of art expression include visual arts, film, performance art, poetry
performance, architecture, dance, literary arts, theater arts, and applied arts.
Let’s Work On This
Answer the following questions as precisely yet as thoroughly as possible.
1. What art field will you explore? Why?
2. How can you utilize the arts to express yourself, your community, and your relation to
others?
Let’s Make It Happen
On the table below, write down examples of the different art forms studied in this
lesson. Provide ways on how these art forms express nd how they unmask creativity from the
artist.
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Type of Art
Expression
Example
How does this
express?
How does this
unmask the artist’s
creativity
Sources and References:
Collingwood, Robin George. The Principles of Art, 1938
Collins, Mary Rose and Olive Riley. Art Appreciation for Junior and Senior High Schools.
Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc., 1931.
Greene, Maxine. <Art and Imagination: Reclaiming the Sense of Possibility.= The Phi Delta
Kappan 76, no. 5 (January 1995): 378-382.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/20405345?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents
Moma Learning. <Conceptual Art.= Accessed October 14, 2017.
https://www.moma.org/learn/moma_learning/themes/conceptual-art/performance-into-art
The Visual Center. <Poetry is Art Form.= Accessed October 15, 2017
https://www.theaterscenter.org/art-exibitions/poetry-art-form.html
Unbound Visual Arts. <What is Visual Art?= Accessed October 15, 2017.
https://www.unboundvisualarts.org/what-is-visual-art/
Fig.
1.
https://www.flickr.com/photos/misadventuresofmaja/10589877215/in/photolistW6KyJJ-mbz7D8-dBYUq-mUKQLn-c5EChW-dmrHyo-dB5vb4-gUvMRT-h8MTxVeY6Qqf-go9kEj-fdw7Jr-fLH5E9-fqHy9D-dxGN6w
Fig.
2. https://www.flickr.com/photos/94365028/14662071178/in/photolist-okCWWEIPBCNN-iHgDyb-iHbGva-ab1FTs-ab1BE9-ab1EML-aaXGaH-aaXQaH-aaXWqz-cd6763ab1KeN-iHarpc-ab1CsD-chs6i3-iHeoSSdaHYo6-iGZxwk-5jdfed-aaXPDF-ab1HmU-itrhEDab1LWb-aaXPfp-ab1KP1-aaXYNg-ab1Nry-aaXPRjP-aXRb2-ab1Liu-boN8tZ-aaXXBVayiXbx-csAAej-ccXjnW-dPigoE-qEqGTd-dfhJx4-ab1EwY-dfhLh5-abBCW-7jk8cDJ2YWM-cqYenL-iqRHsA-99f9MW-5gHitB-3YtpAv-5gMDAw-oiYi2c
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Fig. 3. https://www.flickr.com/photos/quinet/5706166714/in/photolist-9GeAyJ-9mj8WVaqBaGt-otjPb-otjPa-dE7keU-a6MaG1-qK751S-phxkF9-7WRWam-7WNJv6-8abSrEm4wmjp-a6J6fB-dYH12v-FGGRA-aV1WMK-4ahtbW-dPSUVh-fqRMks-Eml3j4-anngkya6HSJ2-fEif3-SnLdo5-bqsX5K-HQoU4R-75AaE6-aFxcxK-3VBNMJ-SZCU4i-8a8wezjZtGxr-8fZVRt-75A3Hr-dNXQ42-6M8j3-eFjgsj-5FdgBb-75Amai-8a8Vm6-cQumnb4syqHv-fqBwBa-4CgftZ-53ZQkC-dMoN4ea6HQ6e-3PeA9j-U8QzF
Fig.
4.
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Fig. 5. https://www.flickr.com/photos/molasses/2518941430/in/photoslist-3L78v-X5XNN1UQeB1n-W6evQi-Vv5K4E-UKFedU-RTQFHM-V7J7Ph-4QAewE-Va7NmD-VzPACCUpRPQk-RTQC6g-VS2deD-UdqCwp-Sk8QnM-V5xXwf-VSZgHZ-VJn3T8-TwL2bWUJCLRY-VReXKj-VReYkN-U89EbZ-SZ3F2b--Shufo1-U23SNk-TkeAtd-U5eKYEUDmXud-U89Cmr-WmRHVf-WCRPJG-XcxpWe
Fig.
6.
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Fig. 7. https://www.flickr.com/photos/statelibraryofnsw/5714449933/in/photolist-9GY3SR7Ss1Wy-dtLdrc-kgcsag-huNUAE-a4DhqQ-7q1EqA-axzg1B-TdNfAB-apxabt-dn3m9STnNEGt-ouuXM2-qs9Hfq-7VEgKT-afgZfd-65o4hi-d7dnCY-jz5Qqd-e6p3oc-81xnZbodn15X-gmqyJH-je58ZF-ezFFCq-7HgC9H-bm6HRu-dyLgah-rmT1gL-mPfuvn-r7ySPoor9NKs-dSkZCZ-UQJZ9c-owRpYa-osNKuY-pEbs3m-5JPKng-pJy1a5-65C4oS-5JU2smeucbWV-axAag2-rp5LQh-bK3jCK-od8Ksu-6nKKvj-7Hkyw9-aZtQ5p-awMdGT
Fig. 8. https://www.flickr.com/photos/tonynetone/2688212829/in/photolist-56xN24-uJovDuJoEr-o3QNoq-uJnPq-uJoPx-o3Ra7j-uJqa1-uJn6z-o3RwWv-59LetW-STfQKK-uJntguJm8E-dj9bnc-d1AX7-o3QJAA-9L7n-uJpb7-uJmUc-ok8P8s-u-JmHk-uJszL-q9hDT75TfQDK-bim64r-7UtrUQ-o3SENv-uJmkF-okkKXr-61BJch-on7588-fGTYTZ-uJsLmaBpHAj-8ChSJn-ozA8uJ-Nu77v-a6EMUQ-8V5fzZ-uJpZ1-W7fVnG-8fLozu-466WZC82RtJn-4wrr1-73Dv2K-f3WFyT-4wrq9-fZKQ7V
Fig. 9. https://www.flickr.com/photos/fiberdrunk/18353813853/in/photolist-tXS56qr-5ZipTLDz5Jx9-HZ7uwh-BaYyyo-zHzT2f-kkuyJi-RNTbEU-pm1sQq-qasJqg-uVjC2H-uVn3Kry13br5-aEVZh4-V2H165-gU6q2v-5ZiszC-sps-PLm-rz5DEm-rx37oa-px2dAX-5ZemMF-hs3bqs-5JNRR4-6qU9r9-5ZisxU-5Fu14D-7AQD5b-dak9T5-c4XjWL-odn15X-UQJZ9cd7hiT9-5QyK3W-osNKuY-6h8yyi-rPPuJCc-6X4sqJ-6rMk3F-uCD2mb-6VspmJ-JnSYNjJDXf7E-8UQPgJ-y13eyY-w5eCGM-rsZR2R-7GBSJD-qiLA7Z-SEWcvJ
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Lesson 3
Functions and Philosophical Perspectives on Art
Learning Outcomes
By the end of the lesson, the students must be able to:
1.
2.
3.
4.
distinguish between directly functional and indirectly functional art;
explain and discuss the basic philosophical perspectives on the art;
realize the function of some arts forms in daily life; and
apply concepts and theories on beauty and aesthetics in real life scenarios
The Greek philosopher Aristotle claimed that every particular substance in the world
has an end, telos in Greek, which translates to <purpose=. Every substance, defined as a formed
matter, according to fixed path toward its aim. A seed is bound to become a full-grown plant.
A cocoon can look forward to flying high when it morphs into a butterfly. A baby will
eventually turn into a grown man or woman.
This telos according to Aristotle is
intricately linked with function. For a thing to
reach its purpose, it has to also fulfill a function.
Man, in Aristotle9s view of reality, is bound to
achieve a life of fulfillment and happiness, or in
Greek, eudaimonia. All men move toward this
final end. Happiness, however, the supposed end
of man, is linked with his function, which is
being rational. One can only be happy when he
is rational. This means that to Aristotle, plants
can never be happy because they are not rationl,
as well as tables and chairs. Man9s natural end, telos, is
Figure 13. Aristotle
connected with his function, which is his rationality.
Moreover, the telos and function of a thing are both related to a thing9s identity. What
makes a table is the fact that it does perform its function and thereby, reach its telos. If a table
does not have a surface on which we can put on our books or our plates and glasses, then it
ceases to be table. The same goes for the human being. What makes a human neing a human
being, according to some schools of thought, is its capacity for thinking, its supposed function.
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Without this function, the human being ceases to be a human being. The telos, the function,
and the <whatness= of a thing are all interconnected.
In contemporary life, the connection between the end, the function, and the <whatness=
of a thing have become closer and more interlaced, suggesting sometimes that the end is the
function and vice versa, and that they determine what kind of a thing a thing is. When one sees
a new kitchen appliance in the department store, one tries to know first what functions the
appliance has. After knowing these functions, one can claim to know the purpose of the
appliance and then begins to realize what appliance one is holding in his arms.
Does art necessarily have an end? When an artist creates a work of art, does she have
an end in mind? What function does an artwork perform? Does it have any purpose? Do all
artworks have a function? Does the function make an object a work of art? This lesson is an
attempt to clarify these questions.
Let’s Get Started
Visit your school or city/town museum. In the table below, list down as many different
artworks that you have witnessed. On the second column, identify what is it for? You can either
research this or sunrise intelligently. Write them down on the corresponding column.
Artwork
What is it for?
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Let’s Get Down to Business
Functions of Art
When one speaks of function, one is practically talking about the use of the object
whose function is in question. An inquiry on the function of art is an inquiry on what art is for.
Alternatively, the answer to the question <what is it for= is the function of whatever <it= in the
question refers to. Suppose one asks, what is the Rizal monument for? Why was it erected in
Luneta, or what then was called Bagumbayan? Is it for pure sentimental value? In this string
of questions, the inquirer is hoping to get the function of the piece of art in Luneta.
When
it
comes
to
function, different art forms
come with distinctive functions.
There
is
no
one-to-one
correspondence between an art
and its function. Some art forms
are more functional than others.
Architecture, for example, as an art is highly
Figure 14. Jewelry-making in Maalaysia
functional just like most applied arts. A building as a work of art is obviously made for a
specific purpose. The Taj Mahal, a massive mausoleum of white marble built in Agra was
constructed in memory of the favorite wife of the then emperor, Shah Jahan. On the other hand,
jewelry-making as an art is known by its product. The name of the art in these applied arts is
basically denoted by its specified function. In this and other such functional arts, <…function
is so important that it has usurped the name of the art on the identification of individual works=
(Dudley, Faricy, and Company 1960). Other examples are paintings, poems, and statues. The
name of the art basically points toward the direction of the product or its function.
On the other end of the spectrum, one can only think of painting and literature s those
forms of art which have a least to do with purely practical values. When one examines and
thinks of painting or a work of literature such as a poem or a novel, one looks at the value of
the art in itself and not because of what it can do and benefit us. Unlike practical arts where the
value of the art (in pottery, jewelry-making, architecture, among others) in question lies in the
practical benefits one gains from it (a pot, a jewelry, or a house or building), with painting and
literature, one can only look at the value of the product of art in and for itself. A poem is
beautiful regardless of its possible ramifications in the society. Joyce Kilmer9s <Trees= has
maintained its popularity through the years regardless of its application or practical benefit.
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This definitely is not to say that paintings and literary works can never have any function. The
two masterpieces of our national hero, Dr. Jose P. Rizal, the Noli Me Tangere and El
Filibusterismo served as a catechist for Filipino revolutionaries to gather strength in rejecting
the oppressive of the Spaniards in the Philippines in the nineteenth century. The novels accrued
value and as consequence, function, that is over and beyond its literary worth. They are
functional <in so far as they are designed to accomplish some definite end= (Dudley, Faricy,
and Company 1960). In the case of Rizal9s novels, they spelled out country9s independence.
They continue to be treasured even a hundred years after their supposed functions.
Roughly and broadly, the functions of art are classified into three: personal (public
display, expression), social (celebration, to, affect collective behavior), and physical
(utilitarian). Let us try to understand each of these three.
Personal Functions of Art
The personal functions of art are varied and are highly subjective. This means that it
depends on the person-the artist who
created the art. An artist may create an
art out of the need for self 3expression.
This is the case for an artist who needs
to communicate an idea to his audience.
It can also be a mere entertainment for
his intended audience. Oftentimes, the
artist may not even intend to mean
anything with his work.
Figure 15. An Adult Coloring Book
An art may also be therapeutic. In some orphanages and home for abandoned elders,
art is used to help residents process their emotions or while away their time. Recently, the use
of adult coloring books to de-stress has been apparent too with a lot of designs being sold in
bookstores nationwide. These all fall under personal functions of art.
Social Functions of Art
Art is considered to have a social function if and when it addresses a particular
collective interest as opposed to a personal interest. Political art is a very common example of
an art with a social function. Art may convey message of protest, contestation, or whatever
message the artist intends his work to carry. Oftentimes, art also depict social conditions.
Photography, as an art form, delivers this kind of functions by taking photos of subjects in
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conditions that people do not normally take a look at or give attention to. Pictures of poverty
may carry emotional overtones that may solicit action or awareness from their audience.
Moreover, performance art like plays, or satires can also rouse emotions and rally people
toward a particular end. In this end more, the social function of art is apparent.
Physical Function of Art
The physical functions of art are easiest to
spot and understand. The physical functions of art
can be found in artworks that are crafted in order
to serve some physical purpose. A Japanese raku
bowl that serves a physical function in a tea
ceremony is an example. Architecture, jewelrymaking, in even interior design are all forms of arts
Figure 16. A Japanese Raku bowl
that have physical function.
Other Functions of Art
Music as an art is also interesting to talk about in relation to function. Music in its
original form was principally functional. Music was used for dance and religion. Unlike today
when one can just listen to music for the sake of music9s sake, the ancient world saw music
only as an instrument to facilitate worship and invocation to gods. Music also was essential to
dance because music assures synchronicity among dancers. Moreover, music also guarantees
that marches, in the case of warriors, are simultaneous.
Today, music has expanded its function and coverage. Music is listened to and made
by people for reasons that were foreign to early civilizations. There is now a lot of music that
has no connection whatsoever to dance or religion. Serenade is one example. People composes
hymns of love to express feelings and emotions. Music is also used as wonderful
accompaniment to stage plays and motion pictures. Interestingly, piece of music can mean a
multitude of meanings to different people, proof that as an art, music has gone a long way.
Sculpture, on the other hand, is another functional art form that has long existed for
various purposes. Just like music, from the early days of humanity, sculptures have been made
by man most particularly for religion. People erect
statues for the divine, in the Roman Catholic
world, the employment of sculptures for religious
purposes has remained vital, relevant, and
symbolic.
Sculptures were also made in order to
commemorate important figures in history. Jose
Rizal9s monument in Luneta and Andres
Bonifacio9s Monumento in Caloocan are common
examples. In the University of the Philippines, the
Figure 17. Pope Francis Commemorative Coin
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iconic statue Oblation by Guillermo E. Tolentino has remained a pillar of the university and
constant of reminder of the need to offer oneself up selflessly for the country.
Coins are also manifestations of sculpting9s function. Every can in the Philippines
features a relief of a famous hero or personality. Recently, the Central Bank of the Philippines
produced special, commemorative coins for certain personalities like Pope Francis and the
Jesuit, Horacio de la Costa.
Another art from that readily lends itself to multiple functions is architecture. In fact,
architecture might be the most prominent functional art form. Buildings are huge, expensive,
and are not easily constructed and replaced. Unlike other forms of art like pots, furniture,
poetry, or even paintings, buildings take so much time to erect and also to destroy. A lot of
investment is put into making megastructures like the pyramids of Giza, the acropolis, of the
great cathedrals of the medieval world. One cannot simply dismiss taking into consideration
the function of a building before construction.
It
is
also
in
architecture where one can
find the intimate connection
of function and form. In
planning out an architectural
structure,
one
seriously
consider
the
conditions
like
national
has
to
Figure 18. A Spanish House in the Philippines
topography and climate of
the place of erection and the social conditions such as the purpose of the building itself. In the
Philippines, climate is a huge factor in building a house. Spanish colonial houses were designed
to allow for air to circulate inside the house. Large windows were staples then. Capiz shells
were also utilized to allow for light to enter the house even if the windows were closed.
Moreover, social conditions such as purpose play a huge role in architecture. To Christians, a
church is primarily a place of worship and assembly. Regular ceremonies, where members of
the church are expected to come regularly, are held inside the church. A huge, spacious church
therefore is necessitated by this social condition. Indeed, in whenever art serves a particular
function, the form has to be determined by the function.
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Does Art Always Have to Be Functional?
While it has been shown that most arts are functional, still there are some which are
not. The value of a work of art does not depend on function but on the work itself. The plays
of Aeschylus, the poetry of Robert Frost and Edgar Allan Poe are still counted as examples of
great works of art despite their not having a known function. In those whose functions are
ascertained however, it is different story. A functional object cannot be claimed to be beautiful
unless it can perform its function sufficiently. Consider a house that cannot even protect its
resident from the nasty weather outside or a spoon that spills the food on it. Adequate
performance of function partly determines the beauty of a design in these functional art forms.
Despite these however, efficiency cannot be mistaken as beauty. While it certainly
determines beauty in some works of art, an efficient functional object is not necessarily
beautiful. Art demands so much more than mere efficiency. What then really comprise beauty
and art? What makes something truly beautiful? What really makes a work of art? What really
is art? The next section attempts to provide different perspectives on the nature of art.
Philosophical Perspective on Art
Art as an Imitation
Plato (2000) in his masterpiece, The Republic, particularly paints a picture of artists as
imitators and art as mere imitation. In his description of the ideal republic, Plato advises against
the inclusion of art as a subject in the curriculum and the banning of artists in the Republic. In
Plato9s metaphysics, or view of reality, the things in this world are only copies of the original,
the eternal, and the true entities that can only be found in the World of Forms. Human beings
endeavor to reach the Forms all throughout this life, starting with formal education in school.
From looking at <shadows in the cave,= men slowly crawl outside to behold the real entities in
the world. For example, the chair that one sits on is not real chair. It is an imperfect copy of the
perfect <chair= in the World of Forms. Much is true for <beauty= in this world. When on
ascribes beauty to another person, he refers to an imperfect beauty that participates only in the
Form of Beauty in the World of Forms. Plato was convinced that artist merely reinforce the
belief in copies and discourage men to reach for the real entities in the World of Forms.
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Plato was deeply suspicious of arts
and artists for two reasons: they appeal to
the emotion rather than to the rational
faculty of men and they imitate rather than
lead one to reality. Poetry and painting, the
art forms that Plato was particularly
concerned with, do not have any place in
the ideal state that Socrates (as the
protagonist) in Plato9s dialogue envisions. First, Plato is
Figure 19. Plato
critical of the
effects of art, specifically, poetry to the people of the ideal state. Poetry rouses emotions and
feelings and thus, clouds the rationality of people. Poetry has a capacity to sway minds without
taking into consideration the use of proper reason. As such, it leads one further away from the
cultivation of the intellect which Plato campaigned for. Likewise, Socrates is worried that art
objects represent only the things in this world, copies themselves of reality. As such, in the
dialogue, Socrates claims that art is just an imitation of imitation. A painting is just an imitation
of nature, which is also just an imitation of reality in the World of Forms.
The arts then are to be banished, alongside the practitioners, so that the attitudes and
actions of the members of the Republic will not be corrupted by the influence of the arts. For
Plato, art is dangerous because it provides a petty replacement for the real entities that can only
be attained through reason.
Art as a Representation
Aristotle, Plato9s most important student in philosophy, agreed with his teacher that art
is a form of imitation. However, in contrast to the disgust that his master holds for art. Aristotle
considered art as an aid to philosophy in revealing truth. The kind of imitation that art does is
not antithetical to the reaching of fundamental truths in the world. Talking about tragedies for
example. Aristotle (2016) in the Politics claimed that poetry is a literary representation in
general. Akin to other art forms, poetry only admits of an attempt to represent what things
might be. For Aristotle, all kinds of art including poetry, music, dances, painting, and sculpture
do not aim to represent reality as it is. What art endeavors to do is to provide a vision of what
might be or the myriad possibilities in reality. Unlike, Plato who thinks that art is an imitation
of another imitation. Aristotle conceives art as representing possible versions of reality.
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In the Aristotelian worldview, art serves two particular purposes. First, art allows for
the experience of pleasure. Experiences that are otherwise repugnant can become entertaining
in art. For examples, a horrible experience can be made an object of humor in a comedy.
Second, art also has an ability to be instructive and teach its audience things about life, thus it
is cognitive as well. Greek plays are usually of this nature.
Art as Disinterested Judgment
In
<Critique
of
Judgment,=
Immanuel
Kant
considered the judgment of beauty, the cornerstone of art, as
something that can be universal despite its subjectivity. Kant
mentioned that judgment of beauty, and therefore, art, is
innately autonomous from specific interests. It is the form of
the art that is adjudged by one who perceives art to be
beautiful or more so, sublime. Therefore, even aesthetic
judgment for Kant is a cognitive activity.
Kant recognized that judgment of beauty is subjective.
However, Kant advanced the proposition that even subjective
the proposition that event subjective judgments are based on
Figure 20. Immanuel Kant
some criterion for the said judgment. In the process, Kant responds to the age-old question at
how and in what sense can a judgment of beauty which ordinarily is considered to be a
subjective feeling, be considered objective or universal. How is this so? For Kant, when one
judges a particular painting as beautiful, one in effect is saying that the said painting has
induced a particular feeling of satisfaction from him and that he expects the painting to rouse
the same feeling from any one. There is something in the work of art that makes it capable of
inciting the same feeling of pleasure and satisfaction from any perceiver, regardless of his
condition. For Kant, every human being after the perception of the free play of his faculties
should recognize the beauty that is inherent in a work of art. This is a kind of universality that
a judgment of beauty is assumed by Kant to have. And so, when the same person says that
something is beautiful, he does not just believe that the thing is beautiful for him, but in a sense,
expects that the same thing should put everyone in awe.
Art as a Communication of Emotion
The author of War and Peace and Anna Karenina, Leo Tolstoy, provided another
perspective on what art is. In his book, What is Art (2016). Tolstoy defended the production of
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the sometimes truly extravagant art like operas despite extreme poverty in the world. For him,
art plays a huge role in communication to its audience9s emotions that the artist previously
experienced. Art then serves as a language, a communication device that articulates feelings
and emotions that are otherwise unavailable to the audience. In the same way that languages
communicates information to the other people, art communicates emotions. In listening to
music, in watching an opera, in reading poems, the audience is at the receiving end of the artist
communicating his feelings and emotions.
Tolstoy is fighting for the social dimension of art. As a purveyor of man9s innermost
feelings and thoughts, art is given a unique opportunity to serve as a mechanism for social
unity. Art is central to man9s existence because it makes accessible feelings and emotions of
people from the past and present, from one continent to another. In making these possibly latent
feelings and emotions accessible to anyone in varied time and location, art serves as a
mechanism of cohesion for everyone. Thus, even at present, one can commune with early
Cambodians and their struggles by visiting the Angkor Wat or can definitely feel for the early
royalties of different Korean dynasties by watching Korean dramas. Art is what allows for these
possibilities.
Let’s Wrap It Up
Art has remained to be relevant in our daily lives because most of it has played some
form of function for man. Since the dawn of the civilization, art has been at the forefront of
giving color to man9s existence. The different functions of art may be classified as either
personal, social, or physical. An art9s function is personal if it depends on the artist herself or
sometimes still, the audience of the art. There is a social function in art if and when it has a
particular social function, when it addresses a collective need of a group of people. Physical
function, finally, has something to do with direct, tangible uses of art. Not all products of art
have function. This should not disqualify them as art though. As mentioned and elucidated by
some of the most important thinkers in history, art may serve either as imitation, representation,
a disinterested judgment, or simply a communication of emotion.
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Let’s Work On This
Answer the following questions as precisely yet as thoroughly as possible.
1. What art form/artwork has changed something in your life? Why? Account for the
experience.
2. Does art always have a function? Why? Support your response. Provide your own
example.
3. If an artwork ceased to have a function, will it remain an art? Why?
Let’s Make It Happen
Look around your house and identify a product of art. In the box below, paste a picture
of that product of art in your household. Trace the beginnings of this item and identify what
functions it has played in history (e.g., a painting of the Last Supper in your dining room or a
spoon).
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Sources and References:
Aristotle. 2016. Poetics. Aristotle.
Dudley, Louise, Austin Faricy, and McGraw-Hill Book Company. 1960. The Humanities.
McGraw-Hill.
Plato. 2000. Plato: <The Republic.= Cambridge University Press.
Tolstoy, Leo. 2016. What is Art? (English Version, Abridged). BIG BYTE BOOKS.
Figure 1: Creative Commons accessed: October25, 2017
http://www.google.com/search?site=imghp&tbm=isch&q=aristotle&tbs=sur:fmc#imgrc=M
WDcunWSVy-LOaM:
Figure 2: Creative Commons accessed: October 25, 2017
https://c1.staticflickr.com/6/5653/21263213375_bba1333dff_b.jpg
Figure 3: Creative Commons accessed: October 25, 2017
https://www.google.com/search?site=imghp&tbm=isch&q=japanese%20ruku%20bowl&tbs=
-sur:fmc#imgrc=9fluoOvcqXDY9M:
Figure 4: Creative Commons accessed: October 25, 2017
https://www.google.com/search?site=imghp&tbm=isch&q=adult%20coloring%20book&tbs=
-sur:fmc#imgrc=Od3xl47nX3EYaM
Figure 5: Creative Commons accessed: October 28, 2017
https://www.google.com/search?site=imghp&tbs=sur%3Afmc&tbm=isch&sa=1&ei=RxTOWY7gE4ie0gSS4L7gCw&q=pope+francis+coins+philippines&oq=pope
+francis+coins&gs_l=psy-ab.3.1.0l3j0i7i30k1j0i30k1j0i24k1.4823.7729.0.9233.15.14.1.0.0.0.116.1072.11j2.13.0....0...1.1.64.psyab..1.14.1076...0i8i7i30k1j0i13k1.0.5Mq0N7rcWuY#imgrc=j81lTMEEPkl-UxM:
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Figure 6; Creative Commons accessed: October 28, 2017
https://www.google.com/search?site=imghp&tbm=isch&q=philippine%20spanish%20house
&tbs=sur:fmc#imgrc=igL2Om8_iLUysM:
https://www.google.com/search?site=imghp&tbm=isch&q=philippine%20spanish%20house
&tbs=sur:fmc#imgrc=igL2Om8_iLUysM:
Figure 7: Creative Commons accessed: October 28, 2017
https://www.google.com/search?site=imghp&tbm=isch&q=plato&tbs=sur:fmc#imgrc=85s_sKVEJNhMtM:
Figure 8: Creative Commons accessed: October 28, 2017
https://www.google.com/search?site=imghp&tbm=isch&q=angkor%20wat7tbs=sur:fmc#imgrc=xbW3pdsmqg2kM:
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Lesson 4
Subject and Content
Learning Outcomes
By the end of the lesson, the students must be able to:
1. differentiate representational art and non-representation art;
2. discuss the difference of between an artwork9s subject from its content;
3. identify the subject matter and content of specific examples of art; and
4. enumerate the sources of the subjects of some of the most recognizable works of art in
Philippines art history.
In the Philippines, which is predominantly a non-museum-going public, looking at art
has always been a tricky business. This is true not just for novices, but at times, confronts even
the long-time art aficionados. One of the major hurdles that spoil an individual9s engagement
with artwork is the notion that in order to appreciate it, one must be able to extract a specific
image; isolate the artist or maker9s intention; and unearth a particular meaning. Failure to do
so automatically implies a failure of comprehension and therefore, failure of the experience.
This however relegates art engagement and therefore appreciation to the very few who had
training and instruction in producing and in reading art. This should not be the case.
In most cases, there are clues that mediate between the artwork and the viewer, allowing
the viewer to more easily comprehend what he is seeing. These clues are the three basic
components of a work of art: subject, form, and content. These components are largely
inseparable from each other, and usually related to each other.
In this chapter, subject and content will be discussed, while form will be better
examined in Chapter 6. To differentiate them briefly, subject refers to the visual focus or the
image that may be extracted from examining the artwork; while content is the meaning that is
communicated by the artist or the artwork. Finally, the development and configuration of the
artwork-how the elements and the medium or material are put together-is the form. In simpler
terms, the subject is seen as the <what=; the content is the <why= and the form is the <how.=
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Let’s Get Started
Think-Pair-Share:
1. Look at this painting by (I will specify an example). List down everything that you see
within the four corners of the work. List as many items as you can, in 3 minutes. Use
the space below.
2. With your seatmate, discuss and compare the items you listed
3. Based on what you wrote, make an assumption about what the painting means.
Let’s Get Down to Business
In the field of the sciences, experimentation is key to proving a hypothesis or a larger
theory. Often, an experiment is done multiple times to further prove the reliability of an
outcome. Therein, empirical or observable data in the form of visible or tactile qualities, events
or occurrence, and even yielding an output or by-product must follow after step or series of
processes are carried out. In the arts, there are also observable qualities that the artwork holds
that will point to its subject, and sometimes even to its content. In order to flesh out what the
subject of the artwork is, it is important to first look at the constituent figures that are
perceivable on the surface of the canvas or the sculpture, and the manner in which the artist
chose to depict those figures. From these, the type of subject can then be inferred.
Types of Subject
One of the most iconic and recognizable paintings all over the world is a work done by
Leonardo da Vinci. A question often raised asks who the Mona Lisa is and why was da Vinci
compelled to paint her? But as scholars attempt to solve the true identity of the sitter, it is
relevant to note that there is a consensus that the Mona Lisa whoever she is based on a real
person.
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Figure 21. Leonardo da Vinci9s Mona Lisa (1503). Musẻẻ du Louvre Collection. Photo courtesy of Josh Hallett.
Portraits such as the Mona Lisa are good examples of what is called representational
art. These types of art have subjects that refer to objects or events occurring in the real world.
Often it is also termed figurative art, because as its name suggests, the figures depicted are easy
to make out and decipher. Despite not knowing who Mona Lisa is, it is clear that the painting
is of a woman that is realistically-proportioned; only the upper torso is shown; a beguiling and
mysterious smile is flashed; and that the background is a landscape probably a view from a
window. Pushing it even further, one can even imagine a scene in which da Vinci alternates
between applying dabs of paint on the canvas and looking at the sitter in order to capture her
features for the portrait.
Figure 22. Jackson Pollock, detail of Number 1A (1948). Oil and enamel paint on canvas.
Museum of Modern Art (MOMA) Collection. Photo courtesy of Sharon Mollerus
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On the other hand, seeing a painting that has nothing in it but continuous drips of paint
or splotches of colors either confounds the viewer or is readily trivialized as something that
anyone with access to materials can easily make. The works of Jackson Pollock, who is known
for his <action paintings,= are often subjected to these remarks. Using large-scale canvasses
that were usually laid out on the floor or resting on a wall, Pollock tilted his paint can and
allowed paint to drip. Assisting it with movement, he used other implements such as hardened
brushes, knives, sticks, and trowels to add detail, texture, and dimension to his paintings. There
were no clear figures that jot out from the canvas; there were only drips and splashes. This kind
of work can be subsumed under the category of non-representation. As the opposite of the
previously discussed type of subject, non-representational art is also often termed nonfigurative art.
Non-representational art does not make a reference to the real world, whether it is a
person, place, thing, or even a particular event. It is stripped-down to visual elements such as
shapes, lines, and colors that are employed to translate a particular feeling, emotion, and even
concept.
It is in this light that representational works are often favored because they are easier to
recognize. Viewers find a greater degree of comfort when what they see registers as something
familiar. They then continue to process this understanding, sometimes even becoming
confident enough to share their insight to others. It can be argued then that an artist is faced
with a strong persuasion of creating works that veer toward representational art. However, it is
not simply an issue of assumed preference; rather, it cuts across matters relating to prevailing
themes, norms, and practices of specific historical moments.
Non-representational Art and Abstract Art
Figure 23. Pablo Picasso9s Head of a Woman (1962)
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One source of confusion is the notion that non-representational art is the same as
abstract art. This is essential to discuss because it introduces the fact that representational art
and non-representational art is not a clear-cut divide; rather, they exist in a spectrum. An
abstract work of Pablo Picasso is a great example to illustrate this. Although he is more known
for his paintings, he also dabbled into other works including sculptures. Cut metal that is hinged
on a metal based, there is a palpable distortion of the image-whatever it is-seems to be melting.
Even without reading the title from the caption, mere seconds of looking at the combination of
lines, shapes and colors of the sculpture will point to a head of a woman. Even with the
abstraction of the image, this work is arguably representational. As a guide, an artwork,
depending on the degree of distortion or abstraction, may be judged as leaning more toward
one over the other. Abstract art is in itself a departure from reality, but the extent of that
departure determines whether it has reached the end of the spectrum which is nonrepresentationality.
Sources and Kinds of Subject
When hit with a wall or a block, the writer is often advised to look back and take from
what he knows. From there, a well and wealth of material may be drawn. But for artists, where
do they source the subjects of their paintings? What do they paint?
For non-representational art, a higher level of perceptiveness and insight might be
required to fully grasp and feeling, emotion, or concept behind the work. It is perhaps easier to
infer where the subject matter comes from if the artwork is an example of representational art.
From the figure(s) depicted in the artwork, there is already a suggestion as to its aspiration.
However, in discussing the sources and kinds of subject in artworks. It is important to
note that these two are often inextricably related. Often, even a singular source of inspiration
can yield multiple translations. A good starting point is of course nature.
There is nothing more rudimentary than human interaction with the physical world
around the artist. Early childhood often revolves around getting to know not just the body and
what it can do, but also in getting accustomed to a multitude of sensory prompts around the
artist especially these situated in his environment.
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Figure 24. Vincent Van Gogh, Die Ebene von Auvers (Wheat Fields near Auvers) (1980) Oil on canvas.
Ồsterreichische Galerie Belvedere Collection.
Artist throughout history have explored diverse ways of representing nature: from
plants to animals, the qualities of bodies of water and the terrain of landmasses; and even the
perceivable cycles and changing of seasons. Often, these depictions are seen as expressions of
the scared or the profane, sired by reality or supplemented by the artist9s imagination. One
artist who was attuned with nature was Vincent Van Gogh. He saw art and nature as
inseparable, often finding solace and happiness in painting in it (working in the middle of
unspoiled fields) and painting from it (landscapes). In a letter to his brother Theo, he wrote
<…if I felt no love for nature and my work, then I would be unhappy.= (Hague, 26 July 1882)
Other artists with a considerable number of landscapes and seascapes are Claude
Monel, Camille Pissaro, Paul Cezanne, and JMW Turner. In the Philippines, National Artist
for Painting Fernando Amorsolo and Fabian de la Rosa gained prominence from their painted
rural scenes such as women in the fields gathered in harvest.
Breaking nature into smaller parts is Jan Van Kasser the Elder who did numerous still
lives and small-scale, highly detailed studies, and scientific illustrations of flowers, insects,
shells, fruits, garlands, and bouquets.
Figure 25. Jan Van Kassel, A Cockchafer, Beetle, Woodlice and other Insects, with a Sprig of Auricula
(early 1650s) Oil on copper. Museum of Art and Archeology, University of Oxford Collection
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Greek and Roman mythology were also ripe with references: from episodes that
transport the viewer to heroic encounters of Achilles and Aeneas; warnings about man9s folly
like the vanity of Icarus, the wit and cunning Odysseus; the beauty of Aphrodite and the
athleticism of Myron. From narrations in literature, artists on the other hand gave faces to Greek
and Roman deities or the gods and goddesses whose fates are seemingly as tragic as those of
men. Some of the art forms they look on were well paintings or frescos and sculptural works
such as busts, statuaries, and ceramics and pottery, among others.
Figure 26. Discobolus. (Roman, 2nd Century AD), after a Greek original by
The sculptor Myron of 450-440 BC.
British Museum Collection, London. Photo by Ricky Bennison
Another integral aspect of human life is the distinct relationship with a higher
controlling power. If the belief system of Greeks and Romans was polytheism with a multitude
of gods and goddesses, the Judeo-Christian tradition stems from a belief in a lone creator of
the universe or what is called monotheism. This tradition had an immense influence in Western
civilization especially in art. Guided by a host of styles and techniques, various media and art
forms were also experimented with: paintings, frescos, church architecture (over-all plan of the
space, stained glass windows, tabernacles, and altars), sarcophagus, icons and other carvings,
vestments, tapestry, illuminated manuscripts, and other sacred scriptures, among others.
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Commissioned by Pope Julius II, the intricate fresco that lines the Sistine Chapel was
created by Michelangelo. The immense detail and vast surface he had to cover had him working
on it from 1508 to 1512.
Figure 27. Michelangelo, Sistine Chapel (1508-1512).
Image source: The Vatican
Unlike in Islam for example, practicing Jews and Christians were allowed to depict
their God and other important biblical figures: laying visual foundations in inculcating the faith.
But perhaps the influence of this tradition is most intriguingly manifested in the architectural
marvels that are spread out all over the world.
The formative years of church architecture can be traced in the 4th and 5th century but
different styles and plans were developed since then. Prevailing ideas and philosophies became
resources that were used by architects to reimagine what the church should look like. For
instance, Gothic churches were characterized by three things: soaring heights (ceilings),
volume (flying buttresses and ribbed vaults), and light (bright stained glass windows, airy and
pleasant interiors). Gothic style architecture is often attributed as the brainchild of Abbot Suger.
There is a definitive sense that pointed to the feeling of awe on the part of the believer and the
perceived majesty and power of God, all of which happened during the time when religion was
at the heart of everyday life. This echoes her belief that <art was central to religious
experience.=
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Figure 28. Interior of Westminster. Photo courtesy of Harland
Quarrington.
Proceeding from a kind of a hybrid between literature and sacred text is India9s
miniature paintings. In Central India, the kind of art that were produced was deeply rooted in
Vedic texts such as Upanishads, Puranas, and other important texts such as the Sanskrit epics
Mahabharata and Ramayana. Indian artists had a wide array of material to work with in
showcasing not just their artistry and skill. The significance of these paintings rests on its ability
to foster devotion and the observance of a code of ethics through the visualizations of heroic
narratives. These paintings were small in size, but were highly pictorial, stylized, and employed
a good contrast of colors. Some artists also included verse from the epics as part of the
cartouche which added interest and meaning to the paintings.
Figure 29. Shah Jahan Receiving
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Historically significant events particularly in the affairs of humanity are abundant
references for art production. From early breakthroughs such as the discovery of fire and the
overthrow of geocentric theory in favor of a sun-centered universe, succeeding advancements
brought about by discovery, innovation and man9s incessant search for glory plotted a dynamic
course of history.
Figure 30. Francisco de Goya, El Tres de Mayo (1814) Oil
on canvas. Museo del Prado Collection.
An example is Goya9s El Tres de Mayo which captures the death of Madrilenes, the
local insurgents during the Peninsular War. Former allies in the overrun of Portugal, and France
turned against Spain. Napoleonic forces invaded Madrid without much difficulty and the
painting captures the dramatic demise of its people under a firing squad.
History as a resource for artists in search of subjects bring into consideration events that
are familiar and sometimes even common or shared in world context: the establishment of
nations and states (discovery, conquests, and colonization), and the resulting ideologies that
they breed (democracy, liberty, freedom, and rights). These works serve as documentary and
commemorative artworks that illustrate subjects such as important leaders and figures; events
as they were recorded to have happened; and representations of ideologies or values.
In the history of art, it is important to remember that the source and kind of subjects
were not merely a product of the artist9s inclination and choice. A closer examination of the
various art movements and artworks created within those movements will indicate that notions
of freedom and independence, which were presumed to be enjoyed by artists, were not without
limits or restrictions. For instance, a particular kind of subject and the way it is visually
translated may be traced in relation to the art patrons (those who commission the artworks), the
favored artistic style and canons, and more importantly the norms and trends prevailing in the
artist9s milieu.
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During the Spanish colonial period in the Philippines, art was predominantly
representational. During the first century of their dominance, art came as an aid for
communication-a means of propagating religion to locals who spoke a different language. The
visual arts, from paintings to early sculptures such as santos and other votive figures and icons,
were created to assist Catholic ministry. Existing art and craft traditions persisted, with some
augmented and infused with foreign influences that were not limited to the Spanish culture
through contact.
The momentum that secular (or non-religious) art later gained in the 19th century can
also be attributed this contact, what with the opening of the Suez canal and the growth of an
expert economy in agriculture. The consequences of these developments was the rise of the
middle class. With their new-found economic and social mobility, patrons of the art were no
longer limited to the clergy, but brought about a demand coming from these wealthy ilustrado
families. Of interest was the increase in demand for commissioned portraits (of an individual
or an entire family), finding it necessary to document themselves in light of their elevated
status. Wearing the most intricate and elaborate of garbs, significant adornments such as
jewelry and embroidered implements, among others, completed the intended narrative. This
artistic trend cemented the distinction of artists such as Simon Flores, Justiniano Ascuncion,
and Antonio Malantic who became the foremost portraitists of the time. Here, it is evident how
during the Spanish colonial period, the subjects of artworks, even the manner in which they are
translated, were mostly dictated by the patrons who commission them, both for religious art
and secular art.
Content in Art
As outlined in the beginning, in discussing works of art, the subject may simply be
referred to as the <what=-what is readily seen and relates to the artwork, its inspiration, and the
many kinds of translation. But apart from what is made explicit, to recognize and grasp the
message of the artwork, the viewer may sometimes need to go beyond what is visible. Why
was the artwork created in the first place? When this question is asked, we are after the meaning
or message that is expressed or communicated by the artwork. One of the foremost scholars
that expounded on content analysis or how meaning is arrived at is art historian Erwin Panofsky
in his seminal work <Meaning in the Visual Arts= (1955). His methodology will later identified
as iconology through the interpretation of iconography.
To take on the challenge of understanding the content of art, it must be reiterated that
there are various levels of meaning. Perhaps the most common is what we call factual meaning.
This pertains to the most rudimentary level of meaning for it may be extracted from the
identifiable or recognizable forms in the artwork and understanding how these elements relate
to one another. Conventional meaning, on the other hand, pertains to the acknowledged
interpretation of the artwork using motifs, signs, symbols and other cyphers as bases of its
meaning. These conventions are established through time, strengthened by recurrent use and
wide acceptance by its viewers or audience and scholars who study them. Finally, when
subjectivities are consulted, a variety of meaning may arise when a particular work of art is
read. These meanings stem from the viewer9s or audience9s circumstances that come into play
when engaging with art. When looking at a particular painting for example, perception and
therefore meaning is always informed (and even colored) by a manifold of contexts: what we
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know; what we learned; what we experienced; and the values we stand for. It is therefore
expected that meaning may not be singular; rather, a painting may communicate multiple
meanings to its many viewers. This is what we call subjective meaning of art.
Figure 31. Michelangelo. Creation of Adam from the ceiling of
the Sistine Chapel. Photo by Andrew Graham-Dixon (2009).
Michaelangelo9s Creation of Adam can be read using the various levels of meaning
discussed above. Here, Adam is figured with an aged God, both of them with an arm stretched
and their respective index fingers appearing to be fixed at an impending contact. Apart from
God is wearing a tunic, everyone else is nude. God is afloat, surrounded by drapery and figures
presumed to be angels and cherubs. Adam on the other hand is earth-bound, sitting and reclined,
positioned diagonally parallel to that of God. From a factual perspective, Michaelangelo
depicted a scene from the Creation Story, in particular, the creation of man. Apart from being
a key element of Michaelangelo9s fresco at the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, the subject matter
suggests that this is an example of biblical art.
This work is indeed iconic, and this is asserted by the conventional meaning attached
to it. Here, the specific poses of God and Adam (convex and concave postures, respectively)
allude to the correspondence of the body and the commonly held beliefs that man was created
in the image and likeness of God. During this time, the ideal of humanism were underscored
and the arts and sciences were furthered. It is therefore understandable that the classical canons
of the form of the body (ideally proportioned and muscular) are portrayed, especially by
Michaelangelo who was first and foremost of sculptor. There, the view is that the greatness of
old civilizations such as that of the Greeks and the Romans may not only replicated, but even
surpassed. Some art scholars noted how Michaelangelo exhibited just the-an elevated artistryin that the dynamism and energy of the figures in the frescoes in the Sistine chapel are unlike
the works of predecessors.
An interesting overlap between the conventional and subjective meanings is the
proposal from gynecologist Frank Lynn Meshberger, whose published essay appeared in the
October 1990 issue of the Journal of American Medical Association. His theory is that an image
and a message were hidden in plain sight: how the silhouette of God, the shroud and the drapery
that trail behind, all seemingly align with the shape of the human brain. According to
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Meshberger, the work can also be aptly called <The Endowment of Adam= for it brought to
light that as God9s creation, the most important qualities imparted to man was intellect. Like
most Renaissance artists, Michaelangelo unlocked the secrets and precision of human anatomy
assisting in dissections during his time. For Meshberger, it was with his medical background
and perhaps exposure to art and history that allow him to catch the symbol, hidden in
Michaelangelo9s work.
Let’s Wrap It Up
There is sense of panic when one is confounded with the question, <What am I seeing=?
or rather <What am I supposed to see?= Perhaps, addressing this stigma is the first step in
inviting more Filipinos to engage with art and have a more enduring appreciation for it.
In gaining the basics of deciphering the subject and content of art, it is hoped that an
individual9s sensitivity and perceptiveness to art will be developed. As discussed in the lesson,
one may begin by looking at perceivable features of the artwork. Taking note of what is
apparent will provide clues as to what the intended meaning of the artist might be. Knowing
more about the context of its creation, from the artist9s inspiration, reference, or source, will
prove useful in understanding the meaning of the artwork.
The majority of the public are consumers and not producers of art, and so ensuring the
readiness of the public to not only successfully engage with the art, but meaningfully do so, is
the primary function of art appreciation and education. Throughout this book, it is hoped that
the specialized language of art will unfold for the learning pleasure of the students, enabling
the ease and encouraging the predilection of engaging with art through its description, analysis,
interpretation, and even critique.
Let’s Work on This
1. What are the hurdles of accessing art in terms of its subject and content?
2. Where do artists source their subjects?
3. Name an example of an artwork and speculate on the content of the artwork based on
its factual, conventional, and subjective meanings?
Let’s Make it Happen
Watch the BBC documentary about Botticelli9s Venus: The Making of an Icon.
(https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b070sqb0)
Let’s Cite Our Sources and References
<Nature
and
the
Artist.=
Accessed
https://www.vangoghmuseum.nl/en/stories/nature-and-the-artist.
October
18,
2017.
Victoria and Albert Museum, Digital Media webmaster@vam ac uk. 2012. <Gothic Architecture.=
December 10, 2012. https://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/g/gothic-architecture/.
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<Indian Miniature Paintings: The Rajasthan School 3 Google Arts & Culture.= n.d. Google Cultural
Institute.
Accessed
October
18,
2017.
https://www.google.com/culturalinstitute/beta/exhibit/PgLSknKVv0F_JQ.
<The 3rd of May 1808 in Madridor9TheExecutions9-TheCollection.=n.d. MuseoNacional Del Prado.
Accessed October 19, 2017 https://www.museodelprado.es/en/the-collection/art-work/the-3rd-of-may1808-in-madrid-or-the-exucations/5e177409-2993-4240-97fb-847a02c6496c.
<The Spanish Colonial Tradition in Philippine Visual Arts.=n.d. National Commission for Culture and
the Arts (blog). Accessed October 26, 2017. https://ncca.gov.ph/subcommissions/subcommission-onthe-arts/the-spanish-colonial-tradition-in-philippine-visual-arts/.
Becker, Rachel. 2016. <Does the Michaelangelo Painting in the Westworld Finale Really Show a Brain
or
Is
It
a
Uterus?=
The
Verge.
December
6,
2016.
https://www.theverge.com/2016/12/6/13852240/westworld-finale-ford-dolores-michaelngelo-braincreation-of-adam.
Bambach, Author: Carmen. n.d. <Anatomy in the Renaissance  Essay  Heilbrunn Timeline of Art
History  The Metropolitan Museum of Art.= The Met9s Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. Accessed
October 27, 2017. https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/anat/hd_anat.htm.
Meshberger, Frank Lynn. <An Interpretation of Michaelangelo9s Creation of Adam Based on
Neuroanatomy.= Journal of American Medical Association 264, no. 14 (October 10, 1990): 1837 -41.
December 13, 2011. Accessed October 27, 2017.
https://www.nstc.wusti.edu/courses/bio3411/woolsey/2011/JAMA-1990-Meshberger-1837 41.pdf.
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Lesson 5
Artists and Artisans
Learning Outcomes
By the end of the lesson, the students must be able to:
1. outline the history of the emergence of artists and artisans;
2. recognize and critically discuss the function of state sponsorship in the field of arts and
culture through the National Artists Award and Gawad sa Manlilikha ng Bayan
(GAMABA) ;
3. identify and define the different individuals and groups who take on varied roles in the
world of art and culture; and
4. classify the practices of artists in terms of the form, medium and technique;
In the advent of technology, it is remarkable what has now been made possible. With a
click of a button, an array of overwhelming information is made available, informing every
aspect of human life. In the fast-paced and highly complex twenty-first century, there is a real
and nagging fear that soon, everything may be replaced by computers and robots that can
arguably do things with more precision, at a shorter amount of time and less capital in the long
term. This nihilist notion is contested by what are arguably the most resilient qualities of man,
which is his creativity and imagination. And as there is a cultivation of both of these qualities,
no robot or artificial intelligence can replace man just yet.
The arts are one of the most significant ways in which we try to grapple with how the
present unfolds. In Robert Henri9s The Art Spirit (1923), he says that <Art when really
understood is the province of every human being. It is simply a question of doing things,
anything, well. It is not an outside, extra thing. When the artist is alive in any person, whatever
his kind of work may be, he becomes an inventive, searching, daring, self-expressing creature.
He becomes interesting to other people. He disturbs, upsets, enlightens, and he opens ways for
a better understanding. Where those who are not artists are trying to close the book he opens
it, shows there are more pages possible.= There is a gap when one continues to persist with the
idea that art is something that is detached from the everyday. In what has been reduced to a
blur, it became more integral that man pursue a better understanding of the world in which he
lives in. one of the avenues that make this both possible and exciting is the engagement with
art and culture.
This lesson will introduce the artists who have dedicated their lives to the cultivation of
the arts through the works of great creativity, imagination, and daring throughout history. It
aims to expand this into the wider world of the arts and culture, wherein other key players and
movers are testament to how the production, consumption, and distribution of arts have
changed profoundly.
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Let’s Get Started
1. What is an art form that you can most relate to and appreciate? It may be architecture,
sculpture, painting, music, literature, film, dance, performance/theatre, and living
traditions.
2. Can you name an artist whose works you really like?
3. Is there a particular work of art created by him or her that you relate to and appreciate?
What is it and why?
Let’s Get Down to Business
In Peter Drucker9s seminal book Post Capitalist Society (1993), he says that <the real
controlling resource and the absolutely decisive factor of production is neither capital nor labor.
It is knowledge. Instead of capitalists and proletarians, the classes of a post capitalist society
are knowledge workers and service workers.= Arguably, one type of knowledge that fuels that
twenty-first century is creativity. This is evident in the recognition that workers in the creative
sector are integral drivers and movers in society and an integral segment of this sector are
artists. But who are they?
Artists have treaded a long history. Their roots can likewise be traced in one the major
milestones in human civilization. In the first episode of the video series <New Ways of Seeing,=
a project by The New York Times9 T Brand Studio and jewelry giant Tiffany & Co., art critic
Jerry Saltz underscored the significance of not only the discovery of the cave paintings, but the
paintings themselves. He asserts that <these first artists figured out a way to get the threedimensional world into two dimensions and attach values to their own ideas. And all of the
history of art flows forth from this invention.= He is of course is referring to the drawings and
painted images of animals, hunting scenes and a variety of symbolic figures created during the
Stone Age. Examples of these are scattered all around the world, from France, Spain, Namibia,
Australia, and Argentina to name a few. Of course, these works were not yet subsumed in the
highly systematized art world, let alone considered as <arts.=
Out of the shadows of these caves, astounding headway was seen moving down history
from Bronze Age down to the Medieval Ages in terms of how man continued to utilize his
environs to create varying expressions of his ideas and feelings. Through the exploration of his
immediate environs, trade, and other experimentations, new modes, media, and techniques
brought to light a wide array of artworks that instantiate the wealth that can be done when the
artist9s vision is tapped, harnessed, and realized. But the most integral development that
allowed this identity of an <artist= to fully emerge is the systematization and sophistication that
his world-the art world-has become.
Early on, artists were embedded in the development of culture. The works they
produced were prosaic. Seen every day, the interaction with these objects was intimate in the
sense that their presence was experienced in a multitude of ways in all of the affairs of man:
ornamentations in tools and other surfaces, weaving patterns in textiles, visual features and the
design/plan for architectural structures, and ritual and burial implements, among others. It was
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in this light that artists worked and most of the time, the products were considered not as
artworks at all but rather as craft. The use of the word <embedded= maybe taken to mean that
what was created automatically circulated in the operations of society and was not integral to
an art object that the identity of its maker be known. It did not take long before this changed.
The Artisan and the Guilds
Ever wondered why some modes of artistic and creative production have survived up
to this day? Perhaps there is difference in process and medium, especially now that technology
and emergence of new materials are readily available. However, when you look at these
objects, they seemingly retained the basic principles of aesthetic and design. Craftsmen may
be considered as engineers of the past. An example could be the Gothic cathedrals and other
mega structures that were built all over Europe. Craftsmen and builders of these cathedrals and
mega structures in the past did not have sophisticated terminologies and principles that
architects and engineers abide by today. However, what they had was a sense on materials
behaved, how the environment, light, and weather patterns affect structures and other more
intuitive principles in creating their products. Experimentation and luck must not also be
forgotten. These structures, along with later ones of its kind (or inspired by it) have survived
through time, not only by its sheer durability, but more so through the articulation of the
processes that they follow.
What is meant here is a kind of formalization of craft education in which regulation was
set in place. Here, skills qualification was needed for an apprentice to register under a particular
guild. These guilds were prevalent during the medieval period particularly during the thirteenth
to fifteenth century, where towns had formalized groups of artisans or craftsmen who took on
a particular specialization or trade: textiles and glass workers, carpenters, carvers, masons,
armorers, and weapon-makers, among others. Guilds were a type of social fellowship, an
association that was structured with rules, customs, rights, and responsibilities. With a lifetime
commitment to a particular trade, an artisan develops immense skill and expertise in his craft.
A master artisan or craftsman would then be open to hiring apprentices who will be under his
tutelage and instruction. In these guilds, artistry, and technology flourished under one roof.
Figure 32. Albrecht Dủrer, Self-Portrait (1500). Oil on lime
panel. Alte Pinakothek (Munich) Collection.
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This brought to light ways of thinking about transferring knowledge and skills by
visualizing and articulating the principles, processes, and tricks of the trade both in words and
in print through manuals and publications. Of course, these printed publications were done
cheaply and did not have the same thoroughness as with handbooks and manuals of biblical
proportions. Aside from funds, another hurdle was the fact that some of the knowledge that
went into production was difficult to put into words. This can be attested in a way that often,
we find ourselves at a loss when tasked with explaining a particular step or process in
something that we created. Consider this, in addition to the fact that receiving the explanation
of how something is made does not automatically make us impressions who can carry out the
task bump-free.
In the visual arts, an example of an artist strongly influenced by this was Albrecht
Durer. Born in 1471, his father was a goldsmith which is why he also apprenticed as such.
Later on, he shifted to the visual arts. A custom at that time was that after completing an
apprenticeship, one is expected to travel to gather more experience and knowledge elsewhere.
His life was ripe with travels, fame, and fortunate. However, one of the biggest credits to his
practice was his dedication and interest in scholarship with his attendance to a close friend9s
meetings of artists and scholars. He also published quite a number of books and treatises
including those that talked about practical skills as an artist that would be useful to other
artisans and craftsmen who dared to read it. Mostly on perspective and human proportion, his
works were written in the first-person singular format, practical in the way it was written and
was supported by illustrations. It also helped that his illustrations were laid out opposite the
text that explains it. Although he was caught between the time when canons were still being
followed, he suggested to his readers that his was merely recommendations, and that if they
found a better way to go about it, then one should depart from he learned.
Although the timeline is a bit skewed, the culture of artisans became prevalent in the
Philippines as well, particularly during the Spanish colonial period. Formerly done in the spirit
of the communal and the everyday, patronship changed the way art was perceived. This was
both the case for religious and secular art, wherein the existence of artisans proved to be of
immense use. It was through mimesis or copying that artisans first learned to depict religious
images and scenes. Friars, being non-artists themselves, provided the references that artists
used. During the propagation of the faith, Spanish friars commissioned a lot of artisans to carve,
paint, and engrave images for churches and public sites. Each locality had a characterizing style
or feature in the way that their depictions were made; the manner in which Boholano artists
would paint saints and scenes were different from how those from Laguna or Rizal would.
From the church, the next patrons of the arts were the then-new elite, the ilustrados or
the middle class, along with foreign guests who wanted souvenirs to take along with them. In
the previous chapter, it was mentioned that portrait paintings became a fad. But looking closer
at the paintings would reveal the specificity of the style in which they were painted. Two other
important genres for painting at that time were the tipos del pais and letras y figuras. The
former was about watercolour painting that showcased the different local inhabitants of the
country in different garbs and clues to their occupation and status; while the later combined the
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principle tipos del pais and incorporated it as a means to illustrate the letters of one9s name or
surname.
One key example that will illustrate the systematization of art instruction-a combination
of sorts of the guild and the art school-was the establishment Damian Domingo of the
Academia de Debujo. Known as the best tipos del pais painter, his school specialized in
teaching the miniaturismo style of painting along with the tenets of classical European painting.
Eventually, other schools emerged, teaching other genres such as bodegones (still life) and
paisajes (landscapes).
The Artist and His Studio
Moving back to Europe, the big shift that propelled the evolution of the pivotal role of
the artist started during the Medieval Age up to the Renaissance Period. The most pivotal
developments included the transformation of the craftsman to an independent artist; the
widespread patronization of secular art (alongside the continuous production of works with,
religious subject); and the assertion of cognition, the will, and individually. Before the
Renaissance Period, artworks were left unsigned. Artists claiming authorship for their works
by affixing their mark onto the surface of their paintings was a big milestone in the history of
the artist. Combined, these resulted to a wider variety of artworks, not just in form, but more
so in style and technique. A site that saw this shift was a very personal space for the artist
himself, which is the studio.
Today, artist studios have been a place of interest for the public. It is interesting to see
and learn where the creativity manifests itself, especially since an artist9s studio is an extension
of the artist himself. The studio model dates back from the Renaissance Period. Therein, artists
flexed their relationship with their patron as a site where negotiations and works are made.
There were those work stations were segmented into two, the studiolo and the bottega; the
latter is where the work usually happened. Apprentices studied under masters, assisting with
menial tasks or the preparation of the painting surfaces. In the seventeenth century, these
demarcations became lose, eventually merging together. This was especially true with artists
who explored oil-painting techniques whose long process can be described by cycles of mixing,
layering, and drying of paint. This format remained throughout the latter part of the 1800s.
In France, on the other hand, the academies and art salons became popular as it not only
supported the production of art, but also the discourse around it. Criticism and analysis were
highlighted as integral aspects of art engagement and therefore the display of the artworks
through official art salons as sought for. To be included in the exhibition was deemed an honor,
especially since it did not take a while before it was considered an arbiter of standards and
taste.
The beginnings of industrial revolution had an interesting ramification for artists. A
compendium of events released the artists from the limitations that affected the way in which
he produced his works. These included the availability and portability of materials (i.e.,
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foldable easels and pain in tubes), and the reliance on the wealthy patrons to place a
commission. More painters enjoyed painting on their own behalf, creating works they wanted
to create. It was during this time that a host of styles developed side-by-side, allowing artists
to fully grasp the potential of artistic license, with minimal (to no) consideration for the
prevailing tastes and stylistic preferences. During the latter part of the 1800s, artists began to
question the merits of stringent artistic training and education, but it was during the 1900s that
art was truly liberated from the traditions of the past. Perhaps, it was then the artists found
freedom to articulate their distinct aesthetic and way of creative production.
Other Players in the World of Art
Figure 33. Prominent roles in the art world with their mandatory
relationships
The terrain in which the artist traverses is becoming increasingly complex. In the last
century, some of the roles that have been existent since the beginning of art history have been
properly dealth with-ascribed with a name and legitimized into a sophisticated network of
relationships and exchanges. This network is what we call the art world.
In Howard S. Becker9s Art Worlds (1982), he asserted that 89all artistic work, like all
human activity, involves the joint activity of a number, often a large number, of people.
Through their cooperation, the artwork we eventually see or hear comes to be and continues to
be. The work always shows signs of that cooperation. The forms of cooperation may be
ephemeral, but often become more or less routine; producing patterns of collective activity we
can call an art world. The existence of art worlds, as well as the way their existence affects
both the production and consumption of artworks, suggests a sociological approach to the arts.
It is not an approach that produces aesthetic judgments; although that is a task many
sociologists of art have set for themselves.= There is an assumption that an artist works in
solitary; that the only time the external world is allowed in would be when the work is displayed
and in circulation. This would necessitate the seemingly central position that the artist enjoys
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in the grand scheme of art experience. Although a popular opinion still, it has considerably
waned, with the emergence of another art player as a super power-the curator.
But the task at hand is not to christen a specific group of people in the art world as its
foci. What must be recognized is that as what Becker contended, there are numerous people
that either work in consent or dissension, and in doing so, continuously re(define), (in)validate,
maintain (or abolish), reproduce and circulate the <cultural category of art, and to produce the
consent of the entire society in the legitimacy of the art world9s authority to do so= (Irvin,
2013.) The terrain where art is distributed is a global network comprised of individuals, groups
and institutions such as schools, museums, galleries, art spaces, auction houses, and other
commercial market platforms, and professions. The last aspect is very important because this
implies that the art world not only rely on ideas, sentiment, and aesthetic values, but also on
skills that are professionalized, stratified, and more importantly, monetized.
It is important to note that with the complexity of the art world, players are no longer
limited to those who undertook formal instruction in either (or both) production and/or study
of art. Take for instance administrative or managerial roles, both of which can exist in either
institutional or non-institutional scenarios. These roles maybe broken down to working boards
(board of trustees); directors and assistant directors; managing curators; and other posts whose
interest is the management and operations of museums, galleries and other art spaces. For
independent artists, or those outside the wing off a gallery as a <stable artist,= they sometimes
require the assistance of an artist manager in order to manage his career and sometimes to help
him in promoting himself to the art world as well.
A curator, on the other hand, is one of the most elusive of roles to pin down. Institutional
curator typically are affiliated with museums and galleries, while independent or freelance
curators have the leeway to move around various projects, platforms, and art spaces in a
multiplicity of terms. Generally, the role of the curator is more in the interpretation and
development of the artwork(s) or the collection(s) through establishing the significance,
relationship and relevance of these materials-in isolation and/or as part of a wider narrative.
Some of the roles expected of curators are the ability to research, write and as an arbiter of
design and layout decisions for the display and hang of materials for exhibition.
If curators are the hardest to define, it is buyers and collectors who are probably the
easiest to qualify. Often they are construed as one and the same, but separately taken, buyers
are those who initially assess and survey the artwork, on behalf of the collector who may either
be too busy or who would rather keep his identity hidden. Formerly ascribed with the term
<patron,= buyers and collectors are those who acquire and purchase artworks for a variety of
reasons: for the appreciation and enjoyment of art; for the scholarship and education
opportunity it may provide (donors of study collections); to safeguard and preserve them for
posterity; for investment; to communicate a way of life/lifestyle; among others. These days,
collectors are becoming more involved well beyond extending their wallets. They have found
another voice as an arbiter of taste. A collector who has established himself as a someone who
not only appreciates art but knows art, understands its behavior and patterns, become a key
player in making or breaking an artist9s career or shaping the course of a museum9s collection
(through pledges of support and donation).
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In addition, art dealers are those whose direct hand is in the distribution and circulation
of the artworks through a variety of means, such as direct sales, through galleries, and the more
recent player in the Philippines, auction houses. The knowledge and insight that art dealers are
expected to have include a specialization in art form, style, medium or period; market trends;
and even the interrelationships of other key players in the art world that will benefit the
circulation and distribution of the artwork (or artist) he promotes.
There are some overlaps in the way buyers, collectors, and dealers operate and behave. This is
perfectly understandable, perhaps especially in the Philippines where delineation of roles is a
bit more ambiguous. There are many other roles that are in existent in the art world today, and
there seems to be no stopping of the cropping up of new ones. Other roles and their
connectedness to others are roughly illustrated in Figure 2.
As the art world is seen as a socio-economic network, it is important to note the major
difference between museums and galleries. These are the main institutions that display,
distribute, and circulate different artworks; however, they behave in different ways. The most
substantial demarcation that separates one from the other is the ethics that admonishes
museums from entering into the more market aspect of the art world. What this means is that
museums should involve itself into the sale of artworks. The predominant role that museums
are mandated to fulfill is the display of artworks for the education and appreciation of these
objects only, both in isolation or as a part of a collection and a wider narrative rendered
possible by its inclusion in exhibitions or informed by museum programming (i.e., lectures,
workshops, screenings, etc.).
Production Process
The process of creating an artwork does not necessarily follow a linear progression.
One of the things that one must accept is the fact that the arts have and anarchic dimension to
it, allowing it to fully harness its creative potential. The very reason why different art styles,
periods, and movements were made possible, is because there was some form of flexibility
given to artists in terms of how the conceptualize and execute their ideas into reality. But this
does not mean there is no guiding principle that governs the general process of art production.
The process is essentially tripartite: (1) preproduction, (2) production, and (3)
postproduction. The artists always begins with an idea that he wants to express or communicate
with his audience. It may not necessarily be fully formulated, and so some form of exposure,
research, and other approaches maybe explored to get the idea long before actually making the
artwork. This process is not of course the preproduction stage. The idea may take a while to
form, or may come as swift as a bolt of lightning.
Some artists however birth their ideas when material manipulation is already underway.
This is when preproduction sometimes seep into the production stage. The execution of the art
may take a variety of forms such as painting, sculpture, tapestry, photograph, film, routine
(dance), or track or composition (music). Even tricky art forms such as conceptual art, which
purports to be solely concerned with the ideas, take a variety of formats. Some artworks rely
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on a precise and skilled execution, while others need only intuition and a kind of judiciousness
in the manipulation of material.
Gathering and sourcing the materials needed for the creation of the artwork is either
subsumed under preproduction or the production stage. Either way, materials form one of the
most crucial aspects that inform the direction, quality, and the final output itself.
The last stage is the most drawn-out the postproduction. Once an artwork is finished, it
will then be decided on how it will be circulated or distributed. If the artist decides that he alone
should see the work, then so be it. But most of the time, if not always, the creation of the object
requires that it be seen, heard, touched, and/or experienced in a variety of ways. Often, it enters
into a new sphere, inside the domain of museums, galleries, performance halls, theaters, and
other art spaces where interaction can take place. Take note however, that approval, enjoyment,
or pleasure are not sole reactions that an artist intends for his work. Sometimes, it is repulsion,
contempt, or even grief, which the artist hopes for. Either way, it is intellectual and emotional
reaction that is often the impetus for creating an artwork. A message is almost always
embedded in the artwork and it is the hope of the artist that his audience comes across it, or
takes from it something that is his and his alone.
There are many aspects that go into production. These may include allowing the
artwork to set, tweaking the artwork to set tweaking the artwork, preparing the artwork for
transport and display, and even the promotion and inclusion of the artwork in publications or
discussions.
Medium and Technique
Like what was previously mentioned, medium is one the aspects of art that directly
correlate with its composition and presumed finality of the artwork. Medium is the mode of
expression in which the concept, idea, or message is conveyed. It may be concrete or tangible,
such as paintings, sculptures, monuments, and structures; or it may be ephemeral or something
transient, such as a track (recording of sound), a film, or a performance. The appreciation or
engagement with the artwork is also affected by the medium spatiotemporally. For concrete
works, the objects physically manifest itself for a prolonged or lasting period. For ephemeral
works on the other hand, it is durational.
A chosen medium must not be expected to yield the same results. Giving two different
artists the same exact material and the general qualifier of <painting,= the end product will still
vary minimally or in an exponential scale. This is where technique comes in, as it is the reason
why art history is described by a seemingly limitless example of works of art. The technique
of the artwork shows the level of familiarity with the medium being manipulated. It alludes to
the necessity of additional tools or implements (i.e., for sculptors, hammer and chisel may come
in handy), or consideration of time (i.e., behavior of different kinds of paint especially in drying
time requirements), and the specificity of the site of creation (i.e., indoor or outdoor production
requirements).
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Engagement with Art
The defining roles and nature of exhibitions have had an interesting evolution, changing
alongside the demands of the society that purports to partake in its display. In Anna Cline9s
The Evolving and its Impact on Art and Culture (2012), she wrote that <exhibitions act as the
catalyst of art and ideas to the public; they represent a way of displaying and contextualizing
art that makes it relevant and accessible to contemporary audiences. The art exhibition, by its
nature, holds a mirror up to society, reflecting its interests and concerns while at the same time
challenging its ideologies and preconceptions. Keeping art relevant to society and to diverse
audience at any given point in history is one of the main goals of the art exhibition and one of
the reasons it is so important to the history of art.= Therefore, it is apparent that exhibitions are
not only of import to artists who rely on its being, but more so to the varied audiences who get
to see them.
In Paula Marincola9s What Makes a Great Exhibition? (2006) it reads that <exhibitions
are strategically located at the nexus where artists, their work, the arts institution, and many
different public interest.= This opportunity is singular, as most interactions in the art world are
limited to two players at a time. Exhibitions create an opportunity in which the different roles
in the art world get meet, interact and even enter into a discussion.
One of the most common platforms to engage with the art is through exhibitions either
of museums or galleries. Nowadays, there are other exhibition spaces that have opened up for
artists to showcase their works. Often, one goes to a museum or a gallery, the while cube often
renders everything peaceful and calm. However, the exhibition process is an intricate sequence
of events made possible of events made possible by multiple individuals and groups within and
outside the artist and staff.
Exhibitions may be long term or permanent hangs, or it may be temporary or
periodically changing. An artist may have a solo exhibition. There are some instances when an
artwork is a stand-alone or a site-specific work that renders its display under a slightly different
structure or format.
Aside from exhibitions, other opportunities for art engagement transpire in the
classroom (instruction); studio visits; lectures, workshops, and other events that augment the
exhibitions (programs); auction sales; art fairs, biennials and triennials; and other larger
showing of artworks where art personalities can also flex their influence and authority.
Publications are also a good way to introduce the artwork and open it up for appreciation,
critique, and analysis.
Awards and Citations
As with any organized endeavor, the arts and culture have entered into a phase in which
another aspect of its practice can be realized. After an artist has spent considerable time in
honing his skills, establishing the relevance of the body of his works, and even gaining respect
from his colleagues in the art world, he may be considered or nominated for awards and
citations.
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In history, support for the arts and culture is not limited to the allocation of funding or
patronship. One of the most common measures in which artists and other creative producers
are given incentives and honor for their work is through state-initiated and given awards and
citations. The two major awards given to artists in the Philippines are the Orden ng Pambansang
Alagad ng Sining (Order of National Artists) and Gawad sa Manlilikha ng Bayan (National
Living Treasures Award).
The conferment of the Order of National Artists is the <highest national recognition
given to Filipino individuals who have made significant contributions to the development of
Philippine arts, namely: music, dance, theater, visual arts, literature, film, broadcast arts, and
architecture and allied arts. The order is jointly administered by the National Commission for
Culture and the Arts (NCCA) and the Cultural Center of the Philippines (CCP) and conferred
by the President of the Philippines Art.= He was the sole awardee in the year 1972, a National
Artists for Visual Arts.
At present, there are 66 awardees of this prestigious honor across different art forms.
Some of them were given the award posthumously, while others were fortunate enough to
receive the award themselves. Some of the honors and privileges that a national artist awardee
receives are the following: (1) the rank of title, as proclaimed by the President of the
Philippines; (2) a medallion or insignia and a citation that will be read during the conferment:
(3) cash awards and a host of benefits (monthly life pension, medical, and hospitalization
benefits, life insurance coverage); (4) a state funeral and burial at the Libingan ng mga Bayani
(Heroes9 Cemetery); and (5) a place of honor or designated area during national state functions,
along with recognition or acknowledgement at cultural events.
The Gawad sa Manlilikha ng Bayan or the National Living Treasures Award was
created 1992 under the Republic Act No. 7355. Also under the jurisdiction of the National
Commission for Culture and the Arts (NCCA) (2015) <through the Gawad sa Manlilikha ng
Bayan Committee and an Ad Hoc Panel of Experts, conducts the search for the finest traditional
artists of the land, adopts the program that will ensure the transfer of their skills to others and
undertakes measures to promote a genuine appreciation of and instill pride among our people
about the genius of the Manlilikha ng Bayan.= It was first conferred to three outstanding artists
in music and poetry back in 1993. They are Ginaw Bilog, a master of the Ambahan poetry;
Masino Intaray, a master of various traditional instruments of the Palawan people, and Samaon
Sulaiman, a master of the kutyapi and other instruments.
The recipient of GAMABA are sought out under the qualifications of a <Manlilikha ng
Bayan= who is a <citizen engaged in any traditional art uniquely Filipino whose distinctive
skills have reached such a high level of technical and artistic excellence and have been passed
on to and widely practiced by the present generation in his/her community with the same degree
of technical and artistic competence= (NCCA, 2015). These artist9s practice may fall under the
following categories: folk, architecture, maritime transport, textile or fiber art, pottery and other
artistic expressions of traditional culture.
Some of the incentives accorded the awardee are the following: (1) a specially designed
gold medallion; (2) an initial grant of ₱100,000 and a ₱10,000 monthly stipend for life (this
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was later increased to ₱14,000); (3) benefits such as maximum cumulative amount or tribute
fit for a National Living Treasure.
Let’s Wrap It Up
The evolution of the artist throughout history is one of the most interesting progressions
in the affairs of man. From the banalities of the works he created to assist and inform the
everyday, he was caught in the midst of prevailing and shifting ideologist, and utilized the
power of the creativity and imagination in attempt to grapple with the world around him. There
is much responsibility and expectation ascribed to artists. As Woodrow Wilson (1913) relates,
<You are not here merely to make a living. You are here in order to enable the world to live
more amply, with greater vision, with a finer spirit of hope and achievement. You are here to
enrich the world, and you impoverish yourself if you forget that errand.=
Let’s Work on This
1. What do you think is the role of the artist in the twenty-first century society?
2. How relevant still are the awards National Artist and GAMABA, not just to the art
world, but to the Filipino society as a whole?
3. Analyze and critique state sponsored recognition for artists and cultural workers. What
do you think are some of the considerations that must be addressed with regards to
these?
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Let’s Make it Happen
1. Identify and select one artist. He or she may be Filipino or foreign; and may be
identified with any art form: architecture, sculpture, painting, music, literature, film,
dance, performance/theater, and living traditions, among others.
a. Research on him or her and select five aspects of his or her life (events, ideas,
works , awards/citations) that you think have a substantial contribution not just
to the local or foreign art scene, but also to human history.
b. Present this in class in using the Pecha Kucha format.
PECHA KUCHA
This presentation format was devised by Astrid Klein and Mark Dytham of
Klein Dytham architecture, where you show 20 images to make a presentation. The
images advance automatically (20 seconds are allotted for each image) and you talk
along the images. This ensures a brief presentation that packs a punch
2. As a possible artisan, make a creative interpretation of different musical genres that
you like (jazz, pop, etc). Can you perform <gangnam style= by fusing it with
classical music? (This has been done in Asia9s Got Talent.) Prepare for a possible
performance in class.
3. The class should collate all art output so far. Coordinate with a barangay and put up
a makeshift gallery. Display all works and engage children to talk about your work.
Sources and References:
<Truth, Perception, and the Role of the Artist.= n.d. Accessed November 1, 2017.
https://www.thoughtco.com/the-role-of-the-artist-4119979.
Prak, Maarten. An artisan 8revolution9 in late medieval and early modern Europe? Accessed
October 23, 2017. http://dutchworld.columbia.edu/files/2013/08/ArtisansRevolution_2013-11.pdf.
<The Spanish Colonial Tradition in Philippine Visual Arts.= n.d. National Commission for
Culture
and
the
Arts
(blog).
Accessed
October
26,
2017.
http://ncca.gov.ph/subcommissions/subcommission-on-the-arts-sca/visual-arts/the-spanishcolonial-tradition-in-philippine-visual-arts/.
<The Evolution of the Artist9s Studio, From Renaissance Bottega to Assembly Line | Art for
Sale
|
Artspace.=
Accessed
November
1,
2017.
http://www.artspace.com/magazine/art_101/art_market/the-evolution-of-the-artists-studio52374.
<The History of Drawing | Scholastic ART | Scholastic.Com.= n.d. Accessed November 1,
2017. http://www.scholastic.com/browse/article.jsp?id=3753864.
<Institutional Theory of Art and the Artworld.= n.d. Accessed November 1, 2017.
https://faculty.georgetown.edu/irvinem/visualarts/Institutional-theory-artworld.html.
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Becker, Howard S. Art Worlds. London, England: University of California Press, 1982.
Electronic. https://monoskop.org/images/1/17/Becker_Howard_S_Art_Worlds.pdf
Cline, Anna C., <The Evolving Role of the Exhibition and its Impact on Art and Culture.=
Senior Theses, Trinity College, Hartford, CT 2012. Trinity College Digital Repository,
http://digitalrepository.trincoll.edu/theses/267
<National Artists of the Philippines.= n.d. Accessed November 1, 2017.
http://ncca.gov.ph/about-culture-and-arts/culture-profile/national-artists-of-the-philippines/.
Inc, Primer Media, and Primer Media Inc. n.d <Who9s Who: National Artists of the
Philippines.= Tips & Guides, Accessed November 1, 2017. http://primer.com.ph/tipsguides/2016/07/27/whos-who-national-artists-of-the-philippines/.
<National Living Treasures Guidelines.= n.d. National Commission for Culture and the Arts
(blog). Accessed November 1, 2017. http://ncca.gov.ph/about-culture-and-arts/cultureprofile/gamaba/national-living-treasures-guidelines/.
Boddy-Evans, Marion. n.d. <23 Inspirational Quotes for Artsist.= ThoughtCo. Accessed
November 1, 2017. https://www.thoughtco.com/inspirational-quotes-for-artists-2577434.
Wilson, W. (1913). <Understanding America, <AnAddress at Congress Hall, Swarthmore
College,
Philadelphia.
Accessed
October
18,
2017.
http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=65372
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Lesson 6
Elements and Principles of Art
Learning Outcomes
By the end of the lesson, the students must be able to:
1. enumerate the different elements of visual and auditory art;
2. differentiate the principles of art;
3. provide examples of the interrelatedness of some of the elements of art, and the
principles of art;
4. explain the relevance of the elements and principles of art in the study of art and its
products (artworks); and
5. illustrate examples of hybrid art and dissect what art forms are combined therein.
In the chapter on Subject and Content, it was mentioned that arts have a specialized
language. And to be able to understand this language, familiarity with some of the elements
and principles that make it legible is required. Think of it as the letters-the stringing of letters
to formulate words, and perhaps even the different pronunciations and enunciations that assist
comprehension.
The next chapter endeavors to take art and break it into its smaller parts. Like a scientist
who takes a splice or a sample and places it under a microscope, the next lesson will allow for
a better view, not of the final picture; rather, the parts that complete it.
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Let’s Get Started
Art With Only Five Lines
This exercise will challenge your creativity under severe limitations. You will be given 5
minutes only for each exercise.
1. In a legal-sized paper, draw five equally sized squares.
A
B
C
D
E
2. For 1 minute, create an artwork within the bounds of first square (A). Do the same for
the next for squares, moving from B to E as timed by your instructor.
3. You will be given a time limit to work on each square. Be sure to not go over the given
time.
4. After the exercise, share your experience and show your work to your peers.
Let’s Get Down to Business
Elements of Art: Visual
Taking off from the scientific reference, elements of art are skin to the atoms that are
defined as the units or 8building blocks= of matter. Together, in a variety of combinations and
formations, they have the ability to create molecules such as water, or the more complex
sucrose. These formulations are something along the lines of what happens when elements of
art are joined together, in a variety of ways. In the same line of reasoning, the elements of art
are the aspects of an artwork that can be isolated from each other.
These elements of art generally produced when something is done to the medium after
the technique is carried out. It must be underscored however, that all works of art require all
elements to be present as they are inherent in the very nature of them. For example, sculptures
automatically have the following elements with or without the decision of the artist to include
them: shape, form, and space. Without these elements, there is no sculpture to begin with.
Elements are necessary preconditions for the creation of art.
To enumerate, the elements of art and design are following: line, shape, form, space,
color, and texture.
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1. Line
A line refers to a point moving at an identification path-it has length and
direction. It also has width. It is one-dimensional however, it has the capacity to either
define the parameters of the artwork (edges) and/or become a substantial component of
the composition. Although a line is <simple,= it has variations in view of its
orientation/direction, shape, and thickness. These variations import not only the visual
elements into the artwork, but bring in suggestions as to be meaning or message being
conveyed by the artist.
a. Horizontal and Vertical Lines
These refer to the orientation of the line. Horizontal lines are normally
association with rest or calm. Landscapes often contain these elements as works
like these often connote a visual sense of being parallel to the ground. It also alludes
to position of the reclined, body at rest. Vertical lines on the other hand connote
elevation or height usually taken to mean exaltation or aspiration for action.
Together, these lines communicate stability and firmness.
b. Diagonal and Crooked Lines
Although the progression is can be seen, diagonal lines convey movement and
instability. Crooked or jagged lines on the other hand are reminiscent of violence,
conflict, or struggle.
c. Curve lines
Lines that bend or coil allude to softness, grace, flexibility or even sensuality.
2-3. Shape and Form
These two are related to each other in that they define the space occupied by the
object of art. Shape refers to two dimension: height and width, while form refers to
three dimensions: height, width, and depth. Shape provides the contour of the artwork.
Shapes can either be:
a. Geometric
Geometric shapes find their origin in mathematical propositions. As such, its
translation and use are often man-made. These include shapes such as squares,
triangles, cubes, circles, spheres, and cones, among others.
b. Organic
Organic shapes are those readily occurring in nature, often irregular and
asymmetrical.
As for form, sculptures or ornate furniture for instance are good examples of art
objects with the element of form as their observable quality.
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4. Space
In relation to shape and form is space. It is usually inferred from a sense of
depth, whether it is real or simulated. Real space is three-dimensional. Like what has
been mentioned above, sculptures are a perfect example of artworks that bear this
element. However, this can only be manifested in two-dimensional artworks through
the use of different techniques, or the use (or non-use) of area around a drawing or
picture.
a. Positive and Negative Space
This is usually identified with the white space is the negative space. The positive
space on the other hand is the space where shadow is heavily used.
b. Three-dimensional Space
Like what is mentioned above, this can be simulated through a variety of
techniques such as shading. An illusion of three-dimensionality can be achieved in
a two-dimensional work.
5. Color
Color is perhaps one of the elements that best enhance the appeal of an artwork.
This element is a property of light, as it is reflected off the object. It is characterized
into three:
a. Hue
This dimension of color gives its name. It can be subdivided into:
• Primary colors: red, yellow, and blue
• Secondary colors: green, orange, and violet
• Tertiary colors: six in total, these hues are achieved when primary and
secondary colors are mixed
b. Value
The brightness or darkness of the color refers to the value. Often, this is used by
artists to create the illusion of depth and solidity, a particular mood, communicate
a feeling, or in establishing a scene (i.e.day and night).
• Light colors: taken as the source of light in the composition.
• Dark colors: the lack or even absence of light.
c. Intensity
The color9s brightness or dullness is the intensity. It is identified as the strength
of color, whether it is vivid or muted.
• Bright or warm colors: positive energy
• Dull or cool colors: sedate/soothing, seriousness or calm.
6. Texture
Like space, texture can be either real or implied. This element in an artwork allows
it to be experienced through the sense of touch (and sight.) this element renders the art
object tactile.
a. Textures In The Two-dimensional Plane
For two-dimensional works, texture can be implied through the use of technique
or of using one or a combination of other elements of art. By creating this visual
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quality in the artwork, one can imagine how it the surface will feel if it was to be
touched. Some of the words used to describe texture are the following: rough or
smooth, hard or soft, hairy, leathery, sharp or dull, etc. To be able to simulate the
texture of a surface in a flat, two-dimensional plan is one important skill that an
artist must be familiar with, especially if his idea or concept necessitates it.
b. Surface Texture
This refers to texture of the three-dimensional art object.
The elements of art make it possible to engage with the visual and tactile qualities of
the artwork through a <common language= that may be widely understood. Through these
elements, there is something from which the idea, concept, message, or intended mood of the
artist maybe inferred. It offers a starting point or a baseline from which analysis may take place.
This kind of analysis is called formal analysis of art.
Planes and Perspective
It was discussed how illusions can be made and implied through techniques in visual
art, specifically in paintings, drawings, and illustrations. In order to do so, an understanding of
the notion of planes is needed, and the technique is called perspective.
In tackling the first one, planes maybe taken as picture plane or ground plane. Picture
plane is actual surface of the painting or drawing, where no illusion of a third dimension exists.
Here the elements lay flat, as if you are looking through a window into what lies on the other
side of the glass.
Once notion of the third dimension is asserted, an integral idea is ground plane, which
pertains to the theoretical horizontal plane and makes the image or picture presented seem
<real=.
In Western art, one of the most important techniques developed is the ability to make a
flat surface appear three-dimensional, which has depth and space. This technique called
perspective is credited to Renaissance artists, the early proponents included Leon Battista
Alberti and Paolo Uccello architect Filippo Brunelleschi in the early fifteenth century and was
published in Alberti9s On Painting, in 1435. Often synonymous to linear perspective, it is an
illusion that uses converging lines and vanishing points that affect the size and distance of
objects relative to that of the viewer. A viewpoint may be construed as normal (view standing
up), low (view from a lower angle), of high (view looking down on a scene).
There are three types of perspective, grounded on the number of vanishing points used
by the artist:
1. One-point perspective 3 often used in depicting roads, tracks, hallways or rows of
trees, this type of perspective shows parallel lines that seem to converge at a specific
and lone vanishing point, along the horizon line.
2. Two-point perspective 3 pertains to a painting or drawing that makes use of two
vanishing points, which can be place anywhere along the horizon line. It is often used
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in depicting structures such houses of buildings in the landscape that are viewed from
a specific corner.
3. Three-point perspective 3 in this type of perspective, the viewer is looking at a scene
from above or below. As the name suggests, it makes use of the three-vanishing points,
each corresponding to each axes of the scene.
Elements of Art: Auditory
Together with literature, music as an art form is classified as auditory art. However,
some would argue that it is actually under the broad category of performance art. Either way,
music, much like the visual arts, has its own building blocks or elements.
Perhaps one of the most widespread forms of art, whose intersection in daily life is most
perceptible, is music. Music is sound organized in a specific time. It is considered n implement
to cultural activities, answering a specific role or function. During the when man had to hunt
for food, music was used a corral or herd animals, or as an element of specific rituals or rites.
Singing or dancing to music was also often included in opportunities for members of society
to gather and interact. Some are adept with the skill and sense to produce music, while others
consume it as listeners, audiences, and even performers.
If there is an important quality that music has, it is that it has the capacity to transcend
barriers, even that of differences in language or conventions in sound. Different demographics,
group and individuals may have specific preferences as to the genre of music. However, in
order to establish this preference, listeners often take to its elements for its evolution. Some of
the common elements of music are the following: rhythm, dynamics, melody, harmony, timbre,
texture, and form.
1. Rhythm
Often associated to the terms beat, meter, and tempo, rhythm is the element of
music that situates it in time. It is the pulse of the music. Beat is basic unit of music
while tempo refers to its speed (beats/second). Beats can be organized into a
recognizable recurrent pattern called the meter.
Classical terms are used to refer to the variations in tempo, some of which are
the following:
a. Largo 3 slowly and broadly
b. Andante 3 walking pace
c. Moderato 3 at moderate speed
d. Allegro 3 fast
e. Vivace 3 lively
f. Accelerando 3 gradually speeding up
g. Rallentado 3 gradually slowing down
h. Allargando 3 getting slower and broadening
i. Allargando 3 getting slower, broadening
j. Rubato 3 literally <robbed time,= rhythm is played freely for expressive effect
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2. Dynamics
The element of music that refers to the loudness or quietness of music is
dynamics. Classical terms are used to refer to the different levels pertaining to this:
a. pianissimo [pp] 3 very quiet
b. piano [p] 3 quiet
c. mezzo-piano [mp] 3 moderately quiet
d. mezzo-forte [mf] 3 moderately loud
e. forte [f] 3 loud
f. fortissimo [ff] 3 very loud
For composers to indicate an increase or decrease of loudness, they use the terms
crescendo for the former; and decrescendo or diminuendo for the latter.
3. Melody
Melody refers to the linear presentation (horizontal) of pitch. By horizontal, it
means that in musical notation, it is read in succession from left to right. Pitch is the
highness or lowness of musical sound.
4. Harmony
If melody is horizontal, harmony is vertical. It arises when pitches are combined
to form chords. When several noted are simultaneously played, this refers to a chord.
Harmony can be described in terms of its <harshness=: dissonance or a harshsounding combination; or consonance, the smooth-sounding combination.
5. Timbre
Timbre is often likened to the color of music. It is a quality that distinguishes a
voice or an instrument from another. Dependent on the technique, the timbre may give
a certain tone or characteristic to music, much like how a painter evokes different
effects or impressions onto the canvas.
6. Texture
The number of melodies, the type of layers, and their relatedness in a composition
is the texture of music. It may be:
a. Monophonic 3 single melodic line
b. Polyphonic 3 two or more melodic lines
c. Homophonic 3 main melody accompanied by chords
Akin to artworks whose style, medium, and technique emphasizes some of the elements
in visual arts, a particular composition and genre of music may emphasize the elements of
music outlined above. Some elements may even be de-emphasized or omitted altogether. Like
what was mentioned above, these elements maybe isolated from each other, however, as visual
or musical compositions, the combination of these elements in art is what we initially engage
with.
Most often, elements do not only coexist in the artwork, but are fused together or
overlap with each other. In visual arts, most artworks have overlapping elements.
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Principles of Art
To reiterate the appreciation and engagement of art relies substantially on being
equipped with the appropriate language that allows it to be more comprehensible. If the
elements of art were like the letters (and stringing of these letters into words, phrases, and
sentences), then principles of art would perhaps be closest to the rules of grammar and
composition. Learning these principles will lessen the intimidation and might even open up
vast possibilities for the novice looker to have a more pleasurable experience of art. These
principles will provide explicit ways in which these elements are used, how they are
manipulated, how they interact, and how they inform the overall composition of the artwork in
order to assist the artist in conveying his intention. It is the principles of art that influence the
effect achieved by the elements, and the linkages of other principles. These principles are:
balance, proportion, emphasis and contrast, unity/variety, harmony, movement, rhythm, scale,
unity, and repetition and pattern.
1. Balance
This principle refers to the distribution of the visual elements in view of their
placement in relation to each other. There are three forms of balance:
a. Symmetrical 3 the elements used on one side are reflected on the other.
This offers the most stable visual sense to any artwork.
b. Asymmetrical 3 the elements are not the same (or of the same weight) on
each side, putting the heaviness on one side.
c. Radial 3 there is a central point in the composition, around which elements
and objects are distributed.
2. Scale and Proportion
The size of an object in relation to another, or relative to a whole composition
describes proportion. This can also refer to values such as amounts or number of
elements or objects in the composition. It can be:
a. Natural 3 especially for figurative artworks, it relates to the realistic sizerelations of the visual elements in the artwork. When it is the accuracy in
relation to the real world that we are after, this is what is now referred to as
the principle of scale.
b. Exaggerated 3 these refer to unusual size-relations of visual elements,
deliberately exaggerating the immensity or minuteness of an object.
In relation to this, there are notions in scale that differentiates when an
element is considered to be smaller than expected (diminutive); and when
something appears to be larger than what is presumed (monumental).
c. Idealized 3 most common to those that follow canons of perfection, the sizerelations of elements or objects achieve the most ideal size-relations.
3-4. Emphasis and Contrast
Emphasis allows the attention of the viewer to a focal point(s), accentuating or drawing
attention to these elements or objects. This can be done through the manipulation of the
elements or through the assistance of other principles, especially that of contrast.
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Contrast is the disparity between the elements that figure into the composition. One
object may be made stronger as compared to other objects (hence emphasis). This can be done
in a number of ways using the elements of art. For instance, the use of negative and positive
space is an example of contrast. Another example is the use of complementary colors in a
particular work of art.
5-6. Unity and Variety
Unless intended to ne otherwise, compositions are intended to imbue a sense of accord
of completeness from the artwork. This is unity.
Variety on the other hand is the principles that aims to retain the interest by allowing
patches or areas that both excite and allow the eye to rest.
7. Harmony
Like what is hinted above, unity and variety is related to the principle of harmony, in
which the elements or objects achieve a sense of flow and interconnectedness.
8. Movement
This refers to the direction of the viewing eye as it goes through the artwork, often
guided by areas or elements that are emphasized. These focal points can be lines, edges,
shape, and color within the work of art, among others.
9. Rhythm
This is created by an element is repeated, creating implied movement. Variety of
repetition helps in invigorating the rhythm depicted in the artwork.
10-11. Repetition and Pattern
Lines, shapes, colors, and other elements may appear in the artwork in a recurring
manner. This is repetition. While the image created out of the repetition, is called pattern. With
repetition, there is a sense of predictable that is conveyed, which in turn imbue the feelings of
security and calm.
Combined or Hybrid Art
Looking at the elements and principles of art discussed above, it is apparent that art
maybe defined under strict lines that separate one art form of style from another. In a broad
sense, it is easy to depicter visual arts from auditory arts. In the same vein, when looking at
more specific art forms, there is a considerable ease when one is confronted with the challenge
of differentiating a painting from a sculpture, a print from drawing or a soundtrack from a
poem. However, with the complexity of contemporary times, in which experimentation and
innovation are encouraged, the arts are not production and their resultant consumption. One of
the buzzwords of the tail end of twentieth century is interdisciplinary. Rooted on the realization
that the problems of society are becoming more and more complex, it is necessary that solutions
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become just as innovative wherein alternative routes to what is familiar, common, and
customary is given premium. It was also a direct upshot of postmodernist ideas in which
barriers were more porous-strict delineation of art forms were overthrown to make way for
collaborations and partnerships between fields, professionals, and creative. The idea of a
single-medium-based art seems like a strange past that no longer holds in an interdisciplinary
reality we live in.
In contemporary art, these developments were mirrored in the multifaceted nature of
artworks that were created. It is not surprising that themes, subjects, and the problematic
addressed shaped and produced new kinds of articulation in which two or more art forms and
styles are combined. Some examples of combined arts include dance, theatre, installation art,
film, video art, documentary, photography, puppetry, design, and other forms of products and
productions.
These combined art forms are interesting that can be studied to understand what art
forms and styles have been combined, and furthermore, what skills, techniques, or creative
processes can be put together in order to produce interesting and innovative compositions. In
combined arts, improvisation is often tapped in addition to practical and logical considerations
of creating an artwork. From a specific vista of an art form, there is a seeming road map to
creation. However, in combined arts, the artist is challenged to deconstruct and idea or
stimulus, to which the content, narrative, technique, and art forms and styles will take from.
Often improvisation or inventiveness is necessary in order to create an artwork that is to some
extent unprecedented. As different art forms and styles are tapped, inspiration may come from
numerous sources, and documenting the process of fusing these influences may be part of the
production. A clear example of combine art is a theatrical performance that taps into a number
of art forms such as music, 2D and 3D art, literature, lighting and set design, among others.
Another movement that is reminiscent of the motivations of the Renaissance Period,
and whose emergence is hinged on the frontiers of science and technology, is called hybrid
arts. Referencing and tapping into the fields of robotics, artificial intelligence, biotechnology,
natural and computer sciences, telecommunication, information, digital and interface
technologies (software, programs, speech and face recognition, social media and online
platforms, among many other emergent developments), artists whose works tread under this
movement disrupts the norms in terms of what is considered as art, and even the way we
envisage artistic production. More than anything else, hybrid are driven the expansion of the
imagination and what is possible through the <blistering pace of scientific and technological
development= (Piirma, 2014). At its heart is an inquiry-and through information and data; the
capacity of the artist to move around platforms; and the implementation and manipulation of
newfound tools in production- the artist is able to address that inquiry.
Let’s Wrap It Up
In any art appreciation course, the module or lesson on the elements and principles of
art are considered one of the most rudimentary stages in easing the student into a meaningful
experience with art, regardless of its form. A familiarity with these building blocks of
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composition and formal analysis will aid the viewer in his or her attempt to come into terms
with the intention of the artist.
The elements and principles of art are essential to any artwork. Some of them will be
more obvious than others, becoming the anchors in which the viewer may latch on to engage
with the artwork. The focal point(s) that draw the attention of the viewer is also interesting to
note, as this provides insight as to the interests and values that are of most weight to him or
her. These perhaps will help create a bridge in which a person, who may not normally find
pleasure in looking at art, may consider future engagements with it. In short, familiarity of the
elements and principles has the potential to break the barriers in which art becomes ineffable.
Let’s Work on This
1. What are the elements of art?
2. In two-dimension artworks such as paintings, cite the elements and principles of art that
when utilized in the composition of the artwork, will help simulate or suggest the threedimensional space?
3. What is the relevance of combined arts and hybrid art in the twenty-first century?
Let’s Make It Happen
Create a poster for your favorite film.
1. Using the elements and principles of art as guide, redesign the poster of your
favorite film.
2. The poster must clearly reflect the use of the elements and principles of art. It is
not required that all elements and principles be represented in the poster.
3. Prepare to show the poster in class. Without revealing so much clues on the film,
allow your peers to guess what film is represented by your poster.
Sources and References:
<Understanding
Formal
Analysis.=
n.d.
Accessed
November
2,
http://www.getty.edu/education/teachers/building_lessons/formal_analysis.html.
2017.
Esaak, Shelley. n.d. <What Should You Know About the Elements of Art?= ThoughtCo.
Accessed November 2, 2017. https://www.thoughtco.com/what-are-the-elements-of-art182704.
Estrella, Espie. n.d. <The Basic Elements of Music Explained.= ThoughtCo. Accessed
November 2, 2017. https://www.thoughtco.com/the-elements-of-music-2455913.
<BBC 3 GCSE Bitesize: Speed or Tempo.= n.d. Accessed November 2, 2017.
http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/music/elements_of_music/rhythm_metre1.shtml.
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<The Principles of Art and Design.= n.d. Accessed
https://www.thoughtco.com/principles-of-art-and-design-2578740.
November
2,
2017.
Editorial, The Artist. 2016. <10 Principles of Art.= The Artist – Art and Culture Magazine(blog).
November22, 2016. https://theartist-me/infographics/10-principles-of-art/.
Proceedings of Rhizope; Art and Science (Hybrid Art and Interdisciplinary Research, Estonia
Academy of Arts, Tallinn, Estonia Academy of Arts, 2014. Accessed November 13, 2017.
http://www.kelomees.net/texts/RHIZOPE_catalogue.pdf.
Tate. n.d. <Perspective – Art Term.=
http://www.tate,org.uk/art-terms/perspective.
Tate.
Accessed
November
14,
2017.
Boddy-Evans, Marion. n.d. <Understanding Perspective in Art.= ThoughtCo. Accessed November
14, 2017. https://www.thoughtco.com/perspective-in-paintings-2578098.
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Unit II. Western Art History
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Lesson 7
Art in Early Civilizations
Learning Outcomes
By the end of the lessons, the students must be able to:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Discuss how art was used by pre-historic people to depict everyday life;
Identify the central themes of pre-historic art;
Differentiate the techniques used during the three kingdoms of early Egypt; and
Explain how art is linked with religion in early Egyptian civilization.
Introduction
Stone Age is a term used to describe a period of history when stones were used to make
tools for survival. The term <conjures an image of men and women dressed in skins, huddling
before a fire in a cave= (Fitcher Rathus, 2013). Though prehistoric humans would not
necessarily possess the complex rational capabilities to tell their story through written records
and accounts, some artifacts in the form of cave paintings and sculptures would serve as the
<storytellers.=
In order to talk about pre-historic art, there is a need to situate them within the context
of the three periods of the Stone Age culture (which roughly span the 14,000-2,000 BCE):
Paleolithic (the late years of the Stone Age), Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age) and the Neolithic
(New Stone Age).
The unearthing of archeological artifacts and remains provide modern society a glimpse
of the beliefs, practices and activities of early civilizations. The motives and reasons behind
the creation of ancient materials such as sculptures, paintings and architectural structures may
not be clearly defined. Nevertheless, the early people produced such materials that reflect their
attitudes and belief systems on spiritual, social, political, and economic matters. It can be noted
that works of art and architecture were created from a wide array of materials from limestone
to precious gems and metals to name few. As the early human started to transition from being
nomads to permanent settlers, their everyday activities also had changes, which is evident
through the materials and even the works of art they have created. Despite changes as a result
of adapting to their environment, there are central themes in their artworks. Most ancient
artworks depict religious symbols, a wide array of organisms from nature and activities of
everyday life.
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Let’s Get Started
Think-Pair-Share: Imagine yourself as an archaeologist in an excavation site in France or
Spain. You come across a hole and upon further examination, the hole leads to a cave that has
inscribed paintings on it. What images do you see?
1. Think about the scenario and write down or draw the images or figures that pop in your
head. You may use the space below.
2. Pair up with your seatmate and share your answers.
3. Be prepared to share with the class the discussion you had with your partner.
Let’s Get Down to Business
Prehistoric Art
Archeological explorations reveal that there has been a gradual shift from a nomadic
lifestyle of early humans to that of permanent settlements, paving the way for the rise of early
civilizations. The Stone Age has witnessed how humans were able to lead more stable lives
and eventually come up with permanent shelters and tools for survival. To complement this
stability and sense of permanence, early humans also turned to the creation of paintings and
sculptures that depict humans, animals, and their natural habitats. It would seem that there were
attempts to record the kind of lives they led within that period of time. Central to the
representation of early civilizations would be the establishing of possible linkages among art,
religion, and life.
Paleolithic Art is a product of climate change. As the climate got colder, part of the
early humans9 instinct is to look for shelters that would provide them with warmth. Caves
became protective havens for the early humans and these caves paved the way for the birth of
their first attempts to create art. One cave painting can be trace back to Lascaux, France and its
discovery came as surprise. Two boys chased after their dog into a hole where their ball got
stuck in. When they followed the dog, they were astonished to discover a cave with beautiful
paintings. The cave paintings would eventually be called the Hall of Bulls.
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Figure 1. Hall of Bulls found in cave in Lascaux, France
The figures depicted on the walls were done with a certain level of crispness and life
that there was initial hesitations of the work9s authentically. However, evidence would later on
point out that the cave paintings were created during the Paleolothic Period. It is also important
to take note that the paintings evoke naturalism, which is evidently seen through the contours
of the animals9 body and their dark colors. Although most people would think that early humans
were primitive, some of their art techniques were considered advanced for their time. Some of
the early humans already used their own version of spray-painting techniques by using ground
pigments blown through reeds or hollowed-out bones since these were the readily available
materials for them. Aside from this spray-painting technique, early humans also worked with
foreshortening and contrasting of lights and shadows. These techniques created the illusion of
three- dimensional forms and seemingly real representation of animals.
Artworks can be considered ornamental but
there is little evidence to fully back up this notion that
early humans created these cave paintings for that
very purpose. Most of these work were discovered
inside the deep, recesses of caves so they may not
necessarily be used as decorative items. Some would
say that these caves with paintings all over the walls
and ceilings served as a kind of sanctuary for the early
humans. As a safe haven, religious rituals could have
possibly transpired within the confines of the caves.
Some believed that there is a linkage between what
was drawn and what could happen in real life. For
Figure 2. Venus of Willendorf
example, drawing or painting the capture of a prey would
translate to an actual capturing of an animal in real life. In addition, some of the works found
reflected some of the early beliefs of humans especially with life and fertility. One of the works
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that reflected such beliefs would be a sculpture called the Venus of Willendorf. This figure is
a highly abstracted woman from highlighted body parts associated with fertility. The figure of
the sculpture bellows shows that the woman has oversized breasts, enlarged hips, and round
abdomen. The representation may show the importance of taking care of these body parts for
procreation and consequently the survival of species.
Neolithic art has developed especially when life for the early humans has become more
stable. They have learned to cultivate the land and domesticate animals. By 4000 BCE there
were several monumental and architectural structures erected. One of them is the Stonehenge
located in Southern England. The purpose of this fascinating edifice remains a mystery up to
this day and age. Some regard it as temple while others see it as complex calendar the tracked
the movements of both Sun and Moon. Others ascribe some magical element to it by associating
it with Merlin the magician from King Arthur9s story. Whatever purpose it was built on, it still
remains as one of the architectural wonders the world has ever seen.
Figure 3. Stonehenge
As the Neolithic Period drew to a close, it was evident that different elements of
civilization flourished in various parts of the world. It is also notable that most early
civilizations emerged and flourished in river valleys: the Nile in Egypt, Indus in India, Tigris
and Euphrates in Mesopotamia, and Yellow River in China.
Egyptian Art
The Fertile Ribbon starts from the banks of the Nile River, which flows north to Africa
and ventures into the Mediterranean. It is in this very ribbon where early Egyptians recognized
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the integral role of the Nile River to their daily lives. It is the indispensability and utility that
eventually led to the belief that the Nile is to be worshipped as a good. With his came the notion
that art was something that can be ascribed and associated with religion. The Egyptian
civilization can be divided into three periods. Old, Middle, and New Kingdom. Looking at the
three periods, it can be noticed that for the Egyptians, art should be something religious and
spiritual. There may have been differences in the techniques used and style emphasized, but
there are common denominators among the artworks created during their respective time
periods.
During the Old Kingdom, it was evident that religion was bound to the afterlife. A
concrete manifestation of this would have to be the erection of tombs. But the tombs were not
just for keeping the dead bodies of important people particularly the pharaohs; they served as
a shelter for the next journey, which is the afterlife. They decorated the tombs with everyday
objects that would reflect day-to-day activities as if the afterlife is a mere continuation of what
transpired on earth. The human figures seen in the tombs were represented in such a way that
the profile of the head was evident, while the pelvis, legs, and upper torso were prominent and
the eyes are in frontal view. Inside the tombs, the walls were also decorated and carved in very
low relief and incised detail. It can be noticed that the use of color was evident but may have
not been widely utilized because of its relative impermanence.
One of the cosmetic palate found in Egypt was called the Narmer Palette. It was a
palette that utilized and applied dark colors around King Narmer9s eyes. The palette was also
a symbol that commemorates the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt. The unification was
significant because it marked the beginning of their civilization.
Figure 4. Narmer Pallete
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At the back of the palette, King Narmer can be seen wearing the crown of Upper Egypt
looking victorious over a slain enemy. In addition, two more dead warriors can the seen beneath
him. To his right is a falcon, the god Horus perched on papyrus stalks, which is a symbol of
Lower Egypt. The top is sculpted with bull-shaped heads with human features that is a
representation of Hathor. This god symbolizes love and joy. What is very prominent is the
king9s size in comparison with the objects in the palette. Narmer, being the subject, is evidently
larger than the people around him. This is a clear indication and assertion of his royal status.
The front palette, on the other hand, shows lion-like figures with intertwined necks bound on
leashes and tamed by two men. King Narmer is still in present at the front side and he is shown
reviewing the captured enemies. In this portrait, he is seen wearing the crown of Lower Egypt
and holding some objects that denote power. The Narmer palette is one of the artifacts that
emphasize the king9s supreme and absolute authority. In the most cases, the king is not just an
authority figure but can be depicted and revered as a deity. This common notion among
Egyptians is seen in Egyptian tomb sculptures, which are basically large in dimensions and
proportions and made out of ahrd materials. The choice of materials is deliberated since they
want that sculptures to endure and withstand any condition. Permanence was important because
these sculptures would serve as the house of the ka or soul once the remains of the mummy
disintegrate. One striking feature of most sculptures is that regardless of the age of death, the
ka figures highlight the prime life of the deceased.
During the Old Kingdom, one of the architectural wonders was also constructed. The
pyramids in Giza served as tombs since their main purpose is to provide a resting place for the
pharaohs. These pyramids are massive in size and were constructed using roughly more than
two million limestone blocks. The stones used for the pyramids were quarried from a nearby
plateau. The construction of the pyramids highlighted the ingenuity and advancement of the
Egyptians for their time. Workers painstakingly moved the stones from the plateau going to
the construction site using wooden rollers. Stonecutters on the site carved the blocks in a fine
way before stacking them. The stacking process also shows the advancement of the Egyptians
since they already used a system of ropes and pulleys. They finished it off by applying the
surface with limestone for a more refined and flawless finish. The construction of the pyramids
did not only show the brilliance of the early Egyptians but it also highlights the reverence of
the people to their pharaoh at the expense of the citizens. A lot of the workers died or punished
for not reaching the quota in the process of constructing these massive architectural structures.
But they did not stop ensuring the excellent quality of the outsides. The Egyptians also ensured
that them of the pyramids would celebrate the life of their pharaoh by lavishly decorating them.
However, this would pose as a problem since thieves usually plundered the valuable objects
used to decorate the insides of the pyramids.
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Figure 5. The Great Pyramid of Giza
One of the key features of the Middle Kingdom is a shift in the political hierarchy.
There is an emergence of powerful groups of landlords that threatened the authority and rule
of the pharaoh. Because of the internal struggle between these two influential sides, art has
taken a back seat during the Middle Kingdom. In order for art to reemerge and flourish, Egypt
needed to have more stable situation. This happened during the rule of King Mentuhotep when
Egypt eventually got back on track. Art during the Middle Kingdom had some experimentation
in terms of style that transpired during this period. Portrait sculptures and fresco paintings that
were freely drawn are some of the styles that emerged during this period. To solve the problem
of thieves that plunder the tombs, the Egyptians made rock-cut tombs by carving out a living
rock. The insides of the tombs were still filled with chamber and the hallways were lavishly
decorated to celebrate the life of the deceased.
Egypt was not immune from foreign invaders and eventually fell into the hands of the
Hyksos. This Asiatic tribe introduced Bronze Age weapons and horses to the Egyptians. When
these foreign invaders were overthrown, the Egyptians formed the New Kingdom. It was a time
of expansionism through territorial acquisition. Consequently, with the expansion comes an
increase in wealth leading not only to economic but also political stability.
The art of the New Kingdom had references from both of the preceding kingdoms.
Monuments and sculptures were still linked with death and reverence for the decreased. During
the previous kingdoms, tombs were just used for worshipping the dead but with the New
Kingdom, they started having mortuary temples. These temples, which were carved out of
living rocks, served not only a sanctuary for the dead but also a place of worship for the living.
During this period, Egypt has established itself as a more advanced and powerful civilization.
With this newly found strength and power comes an inflated ego. Their high regard for their
people can be seen through their sculptures built on massive and monumental scales.
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After the New Kingdom, Egypt witnessed the Amana Revolution lead by King
Akhenaton and Queen Nefertiti. He moved the capital to Tel El-Amarna, thus the name
Amarna. During his reign, King Amenhotep wanted to revolutionize the arts and religion. He
later on changed his name to Akhenaton, which came from Aton who is the sun god. This
changing of names also signified the shift in religion. During this period the only god to be
revered was Aton. Egypt became monotheistic and Akhenaton ordered all to tear down all
monuments of other gods. He then fervently ordered the creation and erection of new
monuments in reverence to Aton. Most sculptures during this period had curving lines and fullbodied forms. There is emphasis to life-like features of the face like an elongate jaw and thicklidded eyes. Most artists created works that are natural and seemingly real highlighting the
features of their subjects. Naturalism was not only used to depict the pharaoh but also was used
for members of the royal family. The bust of Queen Nefertiti (Figure 6) has a long and sensuous
neck. This figure was enhanced by applying paint to the limestone.
Figure 6. Queen Nefertiti
The use of naturalism in artworks was rather short-lived. When King Akhenaton died,
his successors returned to the more rigid and conventional styles they employed during the
period of the kingdoms. They also destroyed images and figures of Aton and subscribed to
monotheism.
Probably one of the greatest discoveries from the Egyptians civilization was the tomb
of Tutankhamen. He became king at a very young age and died at the age of eighteen. Howard
Carter discovered his tomb in 1922. They were astonished to find old artworks and that the
coffin was made out of solid gold. The body of the young king was coverer in linen and a gold
mask covered his face.
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Figure 7. King Tutankhamen
Let9s Wrap It Up
During the prehistoric period, the early humans have transitioned from a nomadic
lifestyle to that of a more permanent one, which lead to early civilizations. Some of the works
discovered from this period would give modern society a glimpse of what was life like during
that period. One of the early civilizations where art flourished was the Egyptian civilization.
Throughout the three kingdoms all the way to the Amarna Revolution, art has been directly
used particularly in religious and spiritual activities. Through these unearthed and discovered
artworks, the modern world could have a better understanding of the past and how can it affect
the present.
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Let’s Work On This
To check your understanding, answer the following essay questions:
1. What was the importance and significance of art during the prehistoric period?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2. During the early Egyptian civilization, in what ways were art and religion
interconnected?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Let’s Make It Happen
Homework: Make a photo journal of three art pieces discovered during the Stone Age
or the Egyptian civilization that depict their beliefs and practices. For each artwork, identify
the key elements and features consistent with the ones discussed in class. Share your insights
as to how these pieces help people from the modern context understand the historical past.
Sources and References:
Images from Creative Commons
Brennan, Matthew. (Own work) Public Domain,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=3019459
Denisenkov,D. http://www.flickr.com/photos/ddenisen/7364440416/, CCBY-SA 2.0,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=25086034
Giovanni, CC BY 2.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=8667900
Hitchcock, Don. (Own work) [CC BY-SA 3.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/bysa/3.0)], via Wikimedia Commons
Jean88 (Own work). CC0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=12308772
Kailerna
(Own
work).
CC
BY-SA
3.0,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1216268
Parrot, A (Own work), CC0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=46239069
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Lesson 8
Art of Emerging Europe
Learning Outcomes
By the end of the lesson, the students must be able to:
1. identify the major periods in Western art history;
2. compare and contrast the artworks produced during the different time periods and
art movements; and
3. discuss the importance of art to the development of Western culture.
Introduction
Art has been an integral part in European history. From the time of the ancient
civilizations like the Greeks and the Romans all the way to the modern times have used art to
communicate ideologies and belief systems prevalent within their context. There are different
art movements that emerged within the different time periods in Europe. Each movement has
a distinctive characteristic to them highlighting the different trends and changes as they
transition from one period to the next.
Let’s Get Started
In the two boxes, draw two different images of something that you consider beautiful.
Let9s In
Get
Down
to are
Business
what
ways
your drawings similar? In what ways are they different?
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Ancient Greece
The Greeks were known to place prime importance in the use of reasons. For this
civilization, man is at the center of society and how they train their minds could be the very
foundation of how they live their lives. The humanist ideals of the Greeks were also reflected
in their democratic form of government. This certain level of freedom was also reflected in
their artworks, architecture, literature, and philosophy. The Greeks were also passionate about
natural phenomenon and belief that nature should be in perfect order. These principles, belief
systems, and ideologies are at the core of Greek art and architecture.
The development of Greek art can be divided into four (4) periods: Geometric, Archaic,
Classical, and Hellenistic. The Geometric Period was a time when Greece was starting to get
back from the onslaught of what seemed to be their Dark Ages. It was a period when geometric
shapes and patterns have taken the spotlight in most of the artworks. The Archaic Period, on
the other hand, placed importance on human figures. This was primarily a result of Greece9s
trading activities with other civilizations. The peak of Greek sculpture and architecture was
during the Classical Period. It was during this time when the Greeks found themselves
rebuilding their temples and focusing on creating artworks. The time of Alexander the Great
was called the Hellenistic Period. During this time, art was primarily focused on showcasing
emotions and depicting reality.
Figure 8. Lacoon and his sons. This is an example of work wherein the Greeks
emphasized the details of the body. Most subjects of their work included that of the gods
from Greek mythology.
Rome
The Roman Catholic was established around 500 BCE. This civilization would
eventually transform into one of Western Europe9s mightiest empires. Since they had expanded
and covered a lot of territories, they had interactions with neighboring civilizations, particularly
with the Greeks. The fusion of Greek and Roman cultures can be seen in most Roman artworks.
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Some would argue that the Romans merely copied Greek art. This eventually made the Romans
produce artworks that are often looking stern, harsh, and strong. They also invoked the
principles of realism in most of their works, highlighting the features of human beings. Aside
from this, the Romans were also known to be master builders, which earned their reputation
for grand monuments and architectural infrastructures.
Figure 9. Poseidon and Medusa. Just like the Greeks, the Romans valued their gods and this
was evident with their sculptures and artworks.
Renaissance Art
During the Renaissance Period, artists valued the <individual= as a subject of arts. The
influence of humanism shifted the focus of some artworks during the Renaissance Period to
empower the <individual.= Most artworks emphasized naturalism, which was also an influence
of humanism since there was a great emphasis on the proportionality of the human body. Most
artists also added perspective of depth wherein spaces were explored in different artworks. This
technique provided a three-dimensional perspective of most Renaissance paintings.
Renaissance artists also gave importance to non-religious themes or subjects. This was also
brought by the privatizations of the art during the Renaissance Period; however most artworks
remained religious in its focus and theme.
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Figure 10. Micahelangelo9s The Dvid. This scuplure is an example of how humanism was a dominant belief system
during the Renassaince. There is emphasis on the details of the body of the human being.
Mannerism
Mannerism was a period in art history, which was a product of the Renaissnce Period.
During the Renaissance, artists would observe nature and try their best to emulate it based from
their observations. As the Renaissance drew to a close, artists started directly copying the
subjects from existing works of art. Most artworks during this period showcased distorted
figures, two-dimensional spaces, discordant hues and colors, and lack of defined local point.
Baroque and the Rococo
Rome was the birthplace of the Baroque Period, which according to some historians
was a response to Protestantism. This was a time when Italy in particular strengthened not only
their religion but also other aspects like politics and art. Expansion was the central theme of
this period, which became very much evident in the artworks produced during this time.
Figure 11. The Assumption of Virgin. A painting by Titan located at Venice, Italy. The Biblical event in the said
painting shows how this period reverted back to having religious subjects in their works.
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Neoclassicism
Neoclassicism was a movement in Europe that transpired during the late 18th and early
19th centuries. It was the dominant art movement that time which basically aims to revive and
rekindle the influences of Greek and Roman into art and architecture. The ancient Greeks and
Europeans have placed emphasis on human reason and keeping society in order. These very
principles were also the dominant principles during the Enlightenment period. Some historians
would also say that this movement was a reaction to the artworks produced during the Baroque
period. There was a call to veer away from such extravagance in terms of style and form of the
Baroque period.
Romanticism
Romanticism, as an art movement, used the central themes of Neoclassicists have
highlighted heroic elements into their work. During the Age of Revolutions, there has been a
tremendous focus on patriotic and nationalistic movements. One of the major revolutions in
history would be the French Revolution. Such revolutionary movements became the focal point
of most Romantic works.
The major and central themes of this movement include the emphasis on the goodness
of mankind. Most works also promoted justice, equality, and social order. Artist also
emphasized emotions and feelings of man, which was a deviation from the humanist principles
of rationalism.
Realism
Realism as a style of work focuses on the accuracy of details that depict and somehow
mirror reality. There is little room for imagination in this movement since emphasis is placed
in observable traits that can concretize through artworks. Realism was heavily influenced by
Hellenistic Greek culture since most works during that period placed emphasis on the human
body.
Impressionism
Impressionism is a style of painting that emerged in the mid to late 1800s. The
distinctive characteristic of this style is that allows the artist to emphasize the immediate
impression he has of a particular event or scene. The said impression is communicated by the
artist through his work and can be seen through the brushstrokes, distinction of colors, and the
lights and shadows used by the artist.
Let’s Wrap It Up
Western Europe has seen tremendous changes in their political landscape and social
makeup. Throughout history, Europe has witnessed transitions of different art movements on
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different timeframes. The beginning of using art as a medium of communication of different
cultural elements originated with the Greek and Roman civilizations. These two civilizations
have greatly influenced the succeeding periods in art. There were movements like realism that
highlights the primacy of individuality. Man being the focal point of most work is not new
since the Greeks and even during the Renaissance highlighted the centrality of man in any
society. The evolution of art in Europe has shaped not only their culture but is also a reflection
of their socities.
Let’s Work On This
To check your understanding of the lesson, answer the following essay questions:
1. Compare and contrast Greek and Roman artworks.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2. Discuss how Mannerism art became an offshoot of works from the Renaissance.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
3. Explain why Neoclassicism served as a response or reaction to the Baroque period.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Let’s Make It Happen
Homework
Pretend that you are a commissioned artist and you are asked to create an artwork (any
form or medium) that depicts love. Using the different periods and art movements in Western
Europe, describe (or draw) how you will execute and create the artwork based on the period
you chose.
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Sources and References:
Fichner-Rathus. Understanding Art. Wadsworth CengageL Learning, 2015
Images from Creative Commons
Hagesandros, Athenedoros, and Polydoros 3 LivioAndronico (2014), CC BY-SA 4.0,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=36412978
Laocoon and his sons, also known as the Laocoon Group. Marble, copy after an Hellenistic
original from ca. 200 BC. Found in the Baths of Trajan, 1506
Poseidon
and
Medusa,
Public
Domain,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=431689
By
Jorg
Bittner
Unna
3
Own
work,
CC
BY
3.0,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=46495986
By Peter Paul Rubens 3 Web Gallery of Art: Image Info about artwork, Public Domain,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=5100387
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Lesson 9
Contemporary Art
Learning Outcomes
By the end of the lesson, the students must be able to:
1. differentiate modern and contemporary art;
2. show the interrelated of modern and contemporary art;
3. isolate and discuss significant historical events that informed and inspired the different
movements under movements under contemporary art; and
4. classify specific artworks into the different movements under contemporary art.
This history of art is one of the most difficult tasks to pin down. As what previous
chapters have shown, significant ideas, canons and tradition, preferences and dominance of
styles, media, and mode of production were the definitive characteristics that segment art
history into identifiable periods and movements; identifiable, but not necessarily precise. It is
important to note that the periods and movements of art are themselves testament to the
connection of art and culture in the everyday life. As it is examined and analysed in context, it
becomes increasingly apparent that art is not detached from the affairs of the society but rather
embedded in it, in which it exists. It offers a glimpse as to the beliefs of specific eras and how
these beliefs were translated into how people saw themselves and the world and how they chose
to come into terms with it-all in flux.
This lesson attempts to provide a glimpse of contemporary art and how it was
understood, defined, and represented, not only within the bounds of the art world, but also
beyond it.
Let’s Get Started
Pop Art
Pop art as a movement drew inspiration, sources, and even materials from commercial
culture, making it one of the most identifiable and relatable movements in art history.
Based on what you know about pop art, select one item from your bag that you think
will serve as an inspiration or your takeoff point for an artwork? Describe how you will make
Let9s Get Down to Business
use of this item and what your concept is behind the work. Explain the selection in class.
Defining the Contemporary
The term <contemporary= seems simple and straightforward enough to define. There is
this assumption that it need be asked, rather it must already be understood. But attempt to do
so and one finds it is a lot harder to grasp. The complexity of defining the term is attributed to
the fact that people have dissenting views on the interpretation of the <present,= or the <now=
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means-these are often ideas that follow the word contemporary. Even more so, is when it is
hinged on the word <art= and suddenly it becomes a bit fuzzy.
An interesting example is that even museums that claim its use in their institution9s
name seem to include artists, art forms and artworks that seem to champion those that arguably
fall under the earlier period. For example, the institute of Contemporary Art in London which
was founded in 1947 includes in its mandate 8the promotion of art that came to be form that
year onward.= Clearly the timeline is a bit skewed if the assumption is that contemporary art
started decades later. For the New Museum of Contemporary Art in New York, its starting
point is dated at 1977, while the TATE framed contemporaneity in a ten-year rolling basis and
was placed under the bounds of their Museum of Contemporary Art.
Another source of confusion is the fact that in the colloquial, <modern= and
<contemporary= are considered synonyms. This however is not the case when these terms are
used in the context of art. Therein, they refer to two different (but consecutive) periods qualified
by different approaches to artmaking and the functions that art served. To better make sense of
contemporary art, perhaps it is best to dial back to its predecessor, modern art.
Modern art saw the digression of artists away from past conventions and traditions and
toward freedom. Roughly between the 1860s to late 1970s, they celebrated the novel
opportunities in art, from the materials to its manipulation and ways of seeing and thinking
about art. The devotion of artists to a strict narrative was often illustrated in their figurative
works; however, these artists gave their nod to abstraction. The tenets of this period was not
only reflected in its art, but it was also evident in the way people live and conducted themselves,
the social issues that were relevant, fashion, music and the wide range of images and activities
they engaged in. This period saw the heavy mass production of goods, along with the
encouraging environment made possible by industrialization, new technology, urbanization,
and rise of commercially driven culture. There was also a palpable secularization of society,
interest in nature, and primacy of the self and individuality. Artists were committed to
developing a language their own-original but representative. What this means is that artists
drew the world but in his own terms. It was no wonder that within this period grew a vast
number of different movements.
This period that ensued was touted contemporary art. In order to move forward, it is
necessary to underscore that this can be better understood after a starting point has been
established. Compared to the dense taxonomy of modern art, contemporary art had fewer-isms
under its wing. Perhaps, this was also due to the fact that it is still unfolding.
Effectively, this period can be traced from the 1970s to the present. There is a reason
behind this cut off. The cut off from was hinged on two reasons.
1. 1970s saw the emergence of <postmodernism.= The affix was a clue that whatever
followed was segregated from it precursor.
2. 1970s saw the decline of the clearer identified artistic movements.
Social Context: In Between Modern and Contemporary Art
Reaping the benefits and drawbacks of the dramatic changes that occurred at the
beginning of the twentieth century, the social, political, and cultural context continued to
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provoke the artist to create. There is a potent source of reference for his works so that he may
continue to question the existing and emergent values of society. This multiplicity of
perspectives brought to light a more difficult terrain to map out in terms of clear and distinct
movements because what compelled artists9 works were not prevailing medium, technique, or
style: rather, it was the themes and concerns they addressed.
Contemporary art was also driven by ideas and theories, and the even the blurring of
notions of what is and can be considered as <art.= with the involvement of television,
photography, cinema, digital technology, performance, and even objects of the everyday.
Three art movements were caught in the midst of modern and contemporary art:
minimalism, pop art, and postmodernism. Minimalism cropped up in the early 1960s in New
York, where artists tested with the boundaries of various media. It was seen as an extreme type
of abstraction that favored geometric shapes, color fields, and the use of objects and materials
that had an <industrial= the sparse.
<The new art favored the cool ever the 8dramatic9 their sculptures were frequently
fabricated from industrial materials and emphasized anonymity over the expressive excess the
Abstract Expressionism. Painters and sculptors avoided overt symbolism and emotional
content, but instead called attention to the materiality of the works.=
Another assumption was that its subtext was deference the truth, as a thing was
presented at itself, without pretensions or embellishment. It also had a very utopic aura about
it. Some of the key figures in this movement were Agnes Martin, Robert Morris, Sol LeWitt,
Dan Flavin, Carl Andre and Donald Judd.
The other movement is pop art. It first emerged in the 1950s but found its footing in the
1960s. It drew inspiration, sources, and even materials from commercial culture, making it one
of the most identifiable and relatable movements in art history. Artists became increasingly
critical about how what was being exhibited in art spaces had no relationship with real life.
What could be more real than what you saw, used, ate, watched, heard, and read! Hence, they
turned to commodities designed and made for the masses, particularly drawing inspiration and
material from ads, packaging, comic books, movies, and movie posters, and pop music. The
aim was to also elevate popular culture as something at par with fine art. A defining picture
was the discussion on the hierarchy (and divide between) of <high culture=; <fine art= and <low
art.=
<Pop art is: popular (designed for a mass audience), transient (short-term solution),
expendable (easily forgotten), low cost, mass produced, young (aimed at youth), witty, sexy,
gimmicky, glamorous, big business= (Hamilton, 1957).
The above was an excerpt from a letter written by Richard Hamilton, a pop artist,
addressed to his friends Peter and Alison Smithson.
Perhaps, one of the most critical statements against pop art was its use of very banal
and <low= objects and subject matters, lacking the elevate aura that other believed art required.
It was also seen as an absence of critically in that objects appeared as it is, seemingly no
different from how they were used in the daily life. If at all, it ironically seemed too <cool= as
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well that it also became somewhat detached to the life it purportedly talked about. Some of the
artists that are most identified with pop art is Andy Warhol, James Rosenquist, Claes
Oldenburg, Richard Hamilton, Tom Wesselman, Ed Ruscha and Roy Lichtenstein, with a
number of them coming from careers in the commercial art as illustrators, graphic designers,
and even billboard painters. It is because of this that their works had the seamless quality about
it.
But perhaps the most pertinent movement that solidified the move to contemporary art
was postmodernism. It is considered as a socio-cultural and intellectual movement.
By the very name, it was a nudge to formalize the critique toward modernism and its
claim over art for the better of the twentieth century. More than anything, it was grounded on
the shifts in the belief systems that were in place in the 1960s. First used in 1970, the term was
difficult to affix to any style or theory and perhaps that was the point. Postmodernism
encroaches on other smaller movements that included conceptual art, neo-expressionism,
feminist art, and the Young British Artists the 1990s, among others.
Grounded on scepticism about ideals and grand narratives, it was rooted in analytic
philosophy during the mid to late twentieth century, which highlighted the importance of
individual experience and was often steeped in complexity and contradiction. As an upshot,
formerly established rules, barriers, and distinctions were abolished. In a sense, the artist9s
creativity was in its most free with an <anything goes= disposition, artworks fell within the
broad spectrum of the humorous to controversial works that challenged not only taste but also
former sensibilities and styles. Their awareness of styles was not for them to copy or be
governed by them, but to borrow, critique, and even to turn on their heads. During this time,
some of the guiding principles were the multiplicity of narratives, relativity, and even
interdisciplinary. It is important to note that there were attempts to overturn the notion that all
progress was positive, the hierarchy of races, and that art has definitive goal. In relation to the
last one, one emergent aspect was also underscored in the experience and engagement with art
and that was the importance of the viewer. Here, the idea of the sole authorship of the artist is
put to the test.
It is the intention of the artist during the time of creation that it becomes the end-all and
be-all of the appreciation of work because it is where the sole meaning lie, which is deputed.
Some of the sub-movements under this broad umbrella were minimalism, conceptual
art, video art, performance art, installation art, and even feminist art. Although they were
widely accepted and recognized to be formal movements during the 1970s, they were in fact
already in existence as early as the 1920s.
Contemporary Art
We can observe that there were overlaps with the acceptance and practice of these
movements. They were not only overlapping with each other, but they were embedded in a
social order that was in fact somewhat <disordered.=
One of the main developments during this time is the turn from the traditional notions
of what art is: from paintings and sculptures to the more experimental formats. These included
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film, photography, video, performance, installations and site-specific works, and earth works.
Even these formats tended to overlap, leading to interesting and dynamic, and otherwise
unheard of combinations of concepts, subjects, materials, techniques and methods of creation,
experience, and even analysis. Compared to other periods, it can be argued that contemporary
art is the most socially aware and involved form of art. The subject matter of its works were
some of the most pressing, heated, and even controversial issues of contemporary society.
Other Contemporary Art Movements
Neo-Pop Art
In the 1980s, there was a renewed interest in pop art specifically to Andy Warhol9s
works and his contemporaries. What made it different from pop art, was that it appropriated
some of the first ideas of Dada in which ready-made materials were used for the artwork. Aside
from this, it does not only referenced popular culture, but more importantly, criticized and
evaluated it, often using popular cultural icons such as Marilyn Monroe, Jackie O, Madonna,
and Michael Jackson, among many others. Some of the artists involved in the revival of pop
art was Katharina Fritsch, Daniel Edwards, Jeff Koon, Keith Haring, Mark Kostabi, and
Damien Hirst, to name a few. Compared to their predecessors, they were more affront about
their evaluations about the world through the works.
Photorealism
The resurgence of figurative art, where realistic depictions is a choice, is a proof of how
varied and fragmented postmodernism is. In photorealism, a painstaking attention detail is
aimed, without asserting an artist9s personal style. These drawings and paintings are so
immaculate in their precision that it starts to look like it is a photo without a direct reference to
the artist who created it. Two of the known photorealist artists are Chuck Close and Gerhard
Richter.
Conceptualism
Other movements were informed and shaped by pop art such as conceptualism. As
opposed to celebrating commodities as references to real life, conceptualism fought against the
idea that art is a commodity. This movement also brought to the fore issues brought about by
art institutions such as museums and galleries where works are peddled and circulated. Some
of the major conceptual artists are Jenny Holzer, Damien Hirst, and Ai Wei Wei.
<In conceptual art, the idea or concept is the most important aspect of the work. When
an artist uses a conceptual form of art, it means that all of the planning and decisions are, made
beforehand and the execution is a perfunctory affair= (LeWitt, 1967).
Performance Art
Performance art is related to conceptual art, whose roster of well-known artists include
the likes of Marina Abramovic, Yoko Ono, and Joseph Beuys. As a movement, it began in the
1960s and instead of being concerned with entertaining its audience, the heart of the artwork is
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the idea or message. Here, the audience may even be an accomplice to the realization of the
work. Performance art may be planned or spontaneous and done live or recorded. Since it is
also durational in nature, it is also is not about the medium or the format; rather , it is how a
specific context is made in which through engagement or interaction, questions, concerns, and
conditions will be fleshed out.
Compared to traditional art formats, installation arts is a kind of immersive work where
the environment or the space in which the viewer steps into or interacts with (going around the
installative art) is transformed or altered. Usually large-scale, installation art makes use of a
host of objects, materials, conditions, and even light and aural components. These works may
also be considered site-specific and may be temporary or ephemeral in nature. Well-known
installation artsist are Allan Kaprow, Yayoi Kusama, and Dale Chihuly.
Sometimes considered as a kind or a spin-off of installation art, earth art (or land art) is
when the natural environment or a specific site or space is transformed by artists. It is a kind
of human intervention into a specific landscape or terrain. Earth art is different from
environmental art in a sense that it does not focus on the subject (environmental issues or
concerns) but rather on landscape manipulation and the materials used, taken directly from the
ground or vegetation (rocks or twigs). Artists known for Earth Art are Robert Smithson,
Christo, Richard Long, Andy Goldsworthy and Jeanne-Claude.
Installation Art
Compared to traditional art formats, installation art is a kind of an immersive work
where the environment or the space in which the viewer steps into or interacts with (going
around the installative art), is transformed or altered. Usually large-scale, installation make use
of a host of objects, materials, conditions and even light and aural components. These works
may also be considered site-specific and may be temporary or ephemeral in nature. Wellknown installation artsist are Allan Kaprow, Yayoi Kusama, and Dale Chihuly.
Earth Art
Sometimes considered as a kind or a spin-off of installation art, Earth Art (or Land Art) is when
the natural environment − a specific site or space − is transformed by artists. It is a kind of
human intervention into a specific landscape or terrain. Earth Art is different from
Environmental in that it is not in the subject (environmental issues or concerns); rather it is the
landscape manipulation and the materials used, taken directly from the ground or vegetation
(rocks or twigs) that makes it such. Artists known for Earth Art are Robert Smithson, Christo,
Richard Long, Andy Goldsworthy and Jeanne-Claude.
Street Art
This art movements is related to graffiti art it is a by-product of the rise of graffiti in the
1980s. Artworks created are not traditional in format but are informed by the illustrative,
painterly and print techniques and even a variety of media (even video projections). Some of
the examples of this include murals, stencilled images, stickers, and installations or
installative/sculptural objects usually out of common objects and techniques. Since these works
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are most commonly found in the public sphere, various people who have access to them have
formed the impression and perception of the artworks themselves.
These works operate under interesting circumstances since they are unsanctioned and
do not enjoy the invigilated environments of museums and galleries. However, these works
also end up in them, as street artists also hold more traditional exhibitionary formats in the
while cube.
If it is in the open space, there are no governing rules in its production and sometimes,
in the interaction. Known street artists include Micahel Basquiat, Keith Haring, Shepard Fairey,
and Bankey9s popularity is evidenced by the creation of a film documentary that spoke about
film and his works. Gordon Matta-Clark, Jenny Holzer, and Barba Kruger are other street
artists.
Let’s Wrap It Up
Some of the artists and movements discussed are but examples of the rich array of
works produced and are still being produced today. The twenty-first century is stepped in
promise and excitement. Although some of the movements discussed may have waned or are
no longer being practiced, new artists with their own creative imagination and ways of
producing art are changing the landscape once again. It would not be surprising if in the future,
art students like you will be confronted with even more diverse movements that attempt to
come into terms with himself, society, and the world in which he lives.
Let’s Work on This
1. What do you think are the most important contributions of contemporary art as a period
and the numerous movements under it in the lives of men today?
2. Out of all the movements mentioned are discussed, what do you think are no longer
relevant to the times?
Let’s Make It Happen
With the different art movements across history, what do you think does the future hold
for art and art production? Looking into the next 20 years, what do you think are the new trends
that will emerge?
Create your own art movement and describe its main tenets. Give it a name.
What does this movement attempts to do? What are the concerns or questions will it
attempt to answer? Imagine what kind of materials/media and techniques will be used to create
and realize the concepts behind artists9 works.
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Sources and References:
<What is Contemporary Art and How Can We Define It Today?= n.d. Widewalls. Accessed
November 3, 2017. https://www.widewalls.ch//what-is-contemporary-art/.
<About Contemporary Art (Education at the Getty).= n.d. Accessed November 3, 2017.
https://www.getty.edu/education/teachers/classroom_resources/curricula/contemporary_art/b
ackground1.html.
Esaak, Shelley. n.d. <Learn the Definition of Contemporary Art, Works Created
Contemporarily.= ThoughtCo. Accessed November 3, 2017.
https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-contemporary-art-182971
<Art History: What is Contemporary Art?= 2017. My Modern Met (blog). May 11, 2017.
http://mymodernmet.com/what-is-contemporary-art-definition/.
Tate. n.d. <Pop Art 3 Art Term.= Tate.Accessed November 3, 2017. http://www.tate.org.uk/artterms/p/pop-art.
Tate. n.d. <Minimalism 3 Art Term.= Tate.
http://www.tate.org.uk/art/art-terms/m/minimalism
Accessed
November
3,
2017.
Tate. n.d. <Postmodernism 3 Art Term.= Tate. Accessed November 3, 2017.
http://www.tate.org.uk/art/art-terms/p/postmodernism.
<Postmodern Art 3 Modern Art Terms and Concepts.= n.d. The Art Story. Accessed November
3, 2017. http://www.theartstory.org/definition-postmodernism.htm.
<Khan Academy.= n.d. Khan
http://www.khanacademy.org.
Academy.
Accessed
November
3,
2017.
<Neo-Pop Art 3 The Art History Archive.= n.d. Accessed November 3, 2017.
http://www.arthistoryarchive.com/arthistory/popart/Neo-Pop-Art.html.
Tate. n.d. <Performance Art 3 Art Term.= Tate. Accessed November 3, 2017.
http://www.tate.org.uk/art/art-terms/p/performance-art.
Tate. n.d. <Street Art 3 Art Term.=
http://www.tate.org.uk/art/art-terms/s/street-art.
Tate.
Accessed
November
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2017.
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Unit III. Culture and the Arts
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Lesson 10
Soulmaking, Appropriation, and Improvisation
Learning Outcomes
By the end of the lesson, the students must be able to:
1. explain how meanings can be derived from art;
2. discuss how improvisation can make an artwork distinctive; and
3. identify the issues and problems that can arise because of appropriation of art.
Introduction
Throughout history, art has played an integral role to capture, record, and communicate
events, activities, traditions, and even belief systems of various groups of people. Even
Paleolithic societies have found ways to record events despite the unavailability or limited
access to various tools. In essence, art has been an instrument to reflect the things and events
that transpired in the past so that the future generations can have a glimpse of that past. With
the advent of technological advancements, societies have improved the ways and means
through which art can be a communicative tool. If an artwork is an avenue for an artist to
express narratives through symbols, then it follows that the artist is the author of the work. But
during the twentieth century, issues on ownership and authorship have emerged primarily
because of the value ascribed to the viewer of the work.
Let’s Get Started
4Pics1word: Look at the four pictures below and think of a word that you can associate
with them. Write three sentences explaining why you chose that word to describe them.
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Let’s Get Down to Business
Soul-Making: Making and Deriving Meaning From Art
In order for humans to make sense of language and derive meanings from words,
semantics and grammatical rules are important elements to be considered. Aside from this,
context and symbolisms are also considered to interpret and analyse either oral or written
works. When it comes to art, in order for people to make sense of the work, it would require
understanding the visual elements where art was grounded on, especially the principles of
design. It is important to note that the audience of the artwork must have a certain level of
awareness to the style, form, and content of the said work. Without such understanding, it
would be difficult to appreciate the visual arts in its fullness and entirety.
Style refers to the distinctive handling elements and media associated with the work of
an individual artist, a school, movement, or a specific culture or time period (Fichner-Rathus,
2013). Throughout history, there have been developments in art styles that depict different and
varied methods of expression. Artworks also have a certain form. This form is what the
audience sees4a finished product put harmoniously (or not) according to the different
principles of design. In essence, form is the totality of the artwork, which includes the textures,
colors, and shapes utilized by the artist. The content of an artwork includes not only form but
also its subject matter and its underlying meanings or themes (Fichner-Rathus, 2013). The
perceiver of the artwork must take into consideration the totality of elements, underlying
themes and motifs, and composition.
Improvisation
Improvisation can be defined as doing something without prior preparation. There is a
decision to act upon something that may not necessarily be planned. Within the present context,
improvisation has become an integral part of the arts. Some would say that it is a reaction
against the stiffness in the arts during the twentieth century. There is a call for liberation from
monotony that aims to rekindle the creative spirits of people in the arts.
For some artists, infusing spontaneity and improvisation adds up to the totality of the
work of art. The unexpectedness of the changes brought about by improvisation makes of the
artwork to have a distinctive quality of the crafts its individuality and identity. Some of the
artists subscribe to the idea of the allowing chances in the process of producing the work. For
example, artists would want to capture the gloom brought about by an approaching storm or
the beauty of meteor shower at night. Since they do not necessarily have absolute control over
natural phenomena, their reliance on chances may not necessarily produce their expected
outcome. Artists allowing their subjects do improvisation may have totally different results as
well.
When the artists makes his work, he has an idea of the elements that will be included
in his work. For example, a painter would know would be included in his painting. But as he
begins to craft his work, he may have deviated from his original plan. So in essence,
improvisation is evident in the process of making the painting. During the 1900s, art
improvisation has taken form in the galleries around New York City. Performance arts, dance,
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and visual arts were combined to create new forms of artworks using a new medium. These
performances were known as the <Happenings= which later on paved the way for modern body
art and performance art. One of central figures in the improvisation movement was Georges
Matthieu. He started the <action painting= wherein the process is seen real-time. In this
scenario, the process is more important that the finished product.
Figure 1. Maria Minunjin Performance Art
Figure 1 above shows how improvisation allows for a certain extent of freedom for the artist
to improves and allow the subject to perform and embody the artwork itself. To a certain extent,
it allows the artist to explore and think about how the audience can actually be a part of the
artwork in itself. Improvisation may have been a revolutionary concept when it comes to art
because it blurs the line of reality and that of imagination.
Figure 2. An example of an action painting
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Appropriation
For instance, if an artist created a painting and displayed it in a museum, who owns the
artwork: the artist or his intended audience? During the twentieth century, people started raising
the question whether or not the act of deriving meaning gives the ownership of the artwork to
the viewer rather than the artist himself. This notion paved the way for the emergence of
appreciation artists who seem to promote the idea that the authorship relies on the viewer. If
this is the case, then appropriation artists can take as much as he wants from an existing
artwork.
Appropriation of art has been a common practice throughout history. In the past, if an
apprentice painter needs to hone his skills in his craft, he would be allowed to use his master9s
work to copy. It is as if the apprentice is trying to explore his personal application of techniques
to something he is more familiar with. However, there are some people who go to the extreme
by believing that copying the exact artwork of an artist and attributing it to his own. This could
pose a problem especially with authorship. The problem especially arises when the
appropriation artist would get bits and pieces from other works and incorporate these elements
into his own work. In addition, when appropriation artists eschew the responsibility for putting
up the details of other works and integrating them into their own, their voices and perspectives
of the other artists get lost with that of the appropriation art and forgery. Traditionally, forgery
can be classified into two forms: outright copies of existing works and pastiches, which are
works that bring together elements from a work and infusing them to a new work. But in
contemporary times, forgery can be in the form of creating an approximate of what an artist
would do by prediction. This can be done by observing the techniques and style the artist
employed and even the focal points highlighted in his previous and existing works.
The intentions of the appropriation artists are often questioned since issues of
plagiarism or forgery sometimes arise. Some would argue that the reason behind the
appropriation is that they want the audience to recognize the images they copied. There is a
hope on the part of the artist for the viewers to see the original work in a new perspective. That
appropriation would bring about a new context to the original work. One of the most famous
works of appropriation would have to be Andy Warhol9s <Campbell Soup Can Series= (1961).
Warhol copied the original labels of the soup can but can but deliberately filled up the entire
picture plane. The idea of putting together of the soup cans is something new for the audience.
Just like any product, the brand is integral to Campbell9s identity. As an artist, Warhol decided
to isolate the image of the product. This attempt could in turn stimulate product recognition. A
common viewer would associate the Campbell soup with the portraits of the soup cans. This
association would bring about a certain kind of craving for the said product. In a way, it is a
subtle form of advertising that would entice the consumer to buy and patronize the product.
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Figure 3 Andy Warhol’s Campbell Soup Can
Figure 3. Andy Warhol9s Campbell Soup Can
Let’s Wrap It Up
When an artist creates something, there is a desire for him or her to elicit a certain kind
of response from his audience. To a certain extent, the artist is considered as the first and
primary audience of the work. There is this notion that art should be perceived as something
that would engage and enrich the experience of the audience as the artist tries to piece together
all the elements grounded on design rules. However, there have been art movements throughout
history that tried to break away from the norms of visual arts. Improvisations have led artists
to find other medium and avenues to showcase their creative expression. The certain level of
freedom and creativity experienced in art can also lead to appropriations. When it comes to art
appropriation, there seems to be a debate whether or not something is just an appropriation of
an existing work or just plain forgery.
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Let’s Work on This
To check your understanding of the lesson, answer the following questions:
1. What are the important things the viewer or audience must consider to derive meaning from
the artwork?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2.
How
can On
improvisation
contribute to the distinctive quality of the artwork?
Let’s
Work
This
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. What is the reason why artists appropriate art?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
4. What are the two forms of forgery? Explain each.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
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Let’s Make It Happen
Research on one (1) appropriation artist and highlight his or her artwork. Using that artwork,
answer this essay question: To what extent is art appropriation a form of forgery?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Sources and Reference:
Appropriation and Authorship in Contemporary Art, Sherri Irvin, 2005
https://www.academia.edu/3085695/Appropriation_and_Authorship_in_Contemporary_Art
Improvisation: The New Spirits in the Arts, William Harris
http://community.middleybury.edu/-harris/improvisation.html
Images from Creative Commons
Unknown
3
Arte
de
accion,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=27423208
By
Dr.
Avishal
Teicher
Pikiwiki
Israel,
hhtps://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=25930853
Public
CC
Domain,
BY
2.5,
By Klima Kilbane 3 Photographic reproduction of a work art, Public Domain,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=6199396
https://static.pexels.com/photos/6989/city-love-rainbow-nyc.jpg
By
bazaar
art
3
http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00routesdata/1600_1699/jahangir/anarkali/anar
kali.html, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=19174000
By Maurizio Pesce from Milan, Italia 3 Andy Warhol: Campbell9s Soup Cans (1962), CC BY
2.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=51058885
By
Gmhofmann
3
Own
work,
CC
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=29825698
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Lesson 11
Art in Asia
Learning Outcomes
By the end of the lesson, the students must be able to:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
identify key influences to Chinese art;
identify key characteristics of Japanese art;
compare and contrast Chinese and Japanese artworks;
trace the development of Philippine art;
discuss the concept of Okir; and
explain how art can be a key element in the formation of a society9s culture.
Introduction
When ancient civilizations in Asia flourished, trade became a very important activity.
In the process of establishing trading relationships among the Asian countries, they started
sharing their cultures and belief systems. China, being one of the oldest civilizations in Asia,
has a rich history when it comes to culture and the arts. Most of their cultural and even religious
beliefs and practices are represented through different artworks. Japan was initially influenced
by China in terms of the arts. Later on, they opened themselves to the Western world, allowing
for the fusion of East and West. Both Chinese and Japanese artworks are concrete
manifestations of their cultural identity as a people. Philippine art was a product of several
periods in history spanning from the pre-colonial period to the contemporary times. Depending
on a given context, art in the Philippines has served various uses from everyday living to
expression of belief systems and advocacies.
Let’s Get Started
Think of a belief that you hold strongly to. Then think of a way how you can represent
that particular belief system. You may write a paragraph or draw an illustration as a means of
representation of your answer.
Let’s Get Down to Business
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Chinese Art
In the present context, China is at the forefront of economic development. Its booming
economy has led to its modernization. In addition, history shows that China has been at the
leading edge of development especially in cultural development. Inhabitants of China in the
past were able to produce primitive artisan works. Excavated pieces show bronze vessels with
intricate designs depicting a lot of imagery dating from the second millennium BCE. The
Chinese during the Chou Dynasty was under a feudal kind of social system. It was a parallel
period with that of Greece9s Golden Age: a period when culture particularly art flourished.
During this period, metal works befitting the royal family were produced in abundance. Jade
was also a popular choice of material for artworks.
Confucianism was the dominant way of life subscribed to by the general public. Those
who subscribed to principles espoused by Confucius believed that in order for society to work,
one must learn how to sympathize to others. These principles became evident in most artworks
depicting everyday life and how these social interactions come to play.
The Chinese also had interactions with Western missionaries who came from India and
brought some of the Indian influences to China. Because of this, Indian models inspired a lot
of Chinese artists for a few centuries. By the start of the sixth century, Chinese artists started
making art that highlighted their very own culture. Paintings usually depicted magical places
and realms that were born out of sheer imagination while still infusing the Chinese characters
that define their culture. It was a dominant belief that a great power coming from a higher spirit
is the one moving the artist and his work together.
Most paintings were done in monumental styles wherein rocks and mountains served
as a barrier that made the viewer distracted initially from the main subject of the work. Rounded
forms rise in a way that it flows from the background into the foreground. Artists also used
sharp brushstrokes to provide detail in their works. Western landscapes would usually had a
single vanishing point while Chinese paintings had the opposite since most paintings aimed to
give the audience a multiple perspective on the subject.
Porcelain is one of the commonly used to make decorative ornaments such as vases and
jars. Some artifacts from excavation sites show the intricate work of the Chinese in these
porcelain vases. This can be attributed to the tradition of passing down the artistry from one
generation to the next. Just like most Chinese artworks, the focal point in these vases depicts a
central theme: nature. They believe that man is an integral part of nature ensuring that there is
a certain balance in it. But part of their culture is emphasizing a form of social life, giving
importance to communities and interactions among people. In addition, some of the common
overarching themes of Chinese artworks would include everyday activities, war and violence,
death and nature. It can be noted also that Chinese artworks are infused with a lot of
symbolisms. Art becomes an avenue for the artist to convey his reflection of the things he is
aware of.
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Figure 4. A porcelain vase from China
It is customary for the ancient Chinese people to show respect for their ancestors and
departed relatives. From a Western point of view, this reverence of the Chinese can be mistaken
for as that of worshipping gods. Most of the departed of the ancient Chinese were placed in
either gold or bronze vessels, depending on their social status.
Japanese Art
Art in Japan has undergone a series of transitions and periodization. From being an
isolated nation to that of embracing Western influences and modernization. Japan has
transitioned into a modern cultural mixing pot. It is evident how the Japanese were able to
infuse local and indigenous materials with modern Western subjects and focal points.
Based from artifacts such as ceramic figures and ornaments, it is important take note
that there are Korean and Chinese influences evident in Japanese artworks. One of the ceramic
products created by the Japanese is called Haniwa. These are ceramic figures that are made up
of clay. They are placed beside burial spots for reasons that are unknown.
Figure 5. Haniwa House
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The native religion of Japan is Shintoism. Although, this religion subscribes to beliefs
such as being one with nature and embracing the notion of the existence of many gods, it did
not use art to communicate its beliefs. When Japan established trading relations with China,
they did not only trade goods with them but they were also influenced with religious beliefs
and practice. Buddhism became an integral part of Japanese culture. Artworks such as images
and sculptures of Buddha were produced. Buddhist temples also became staples in key places.
Art in essence became an expression of worship for the Japanese.
As mentioned earlier, Japan and China had a long-standing relationship. In addition to
Buddhism, China also influenced Japan in terms of paintings. After the fourteenth century,
Japan would isolate itself from the rest of the world, which in effect gave them the avenue to
let their culture flourish. The Japanese style of painting leaned toward abstract and naturalistic
handling. In essence, the artist is given the free reign for his work, which had more room for
spontaneity and individuality. A lot of works focused on individual portraits, elements of
nature, and scenes from everyday life. Although the Chinese influenced them, the Japanese
adopted a more minimalist take on their paintings. This is stark contrast with the extravagant
and sometimes over the top designs of the Chinese. The Japanese also developed a kind of
painting called the Ukiyo-e, which was crafted through woodcut prints. The artists developed
a technique that used lines and colors in a very distinctive manner. Some Western artists were
intrigued and influenced by these Ukiyo-e paintings. An example would be like Vincent Van
Gogh and Edouard Manet.
Figure 6. An Ukiyo-e painting entitled Ase  fuku onna (Woman
Wiping Face) Print: Color and Woodcut
Philippine Art
Throughout Philippine history, spanning from the pre-colonial period to the
contemporary periods, different art forms have emerged in the Philippine art scene. Before the
colonizers came to the Philippines, ethnic minorities have used art not only for daily activities
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but also for religious rituals and practices. Most art forms used by ethnic communities would
include pottery, weaving, carving, and the use of metalwork and jewelry.
Pottery is said to be as one of the earliest art forms used by the early Filipino people.
One of the most prominent artifacts is the Manunggal Jar found in Palawan. This jar is a
representation of the early Filipinos9 religious beliefs and practices. It serves as a burial jar,
which depicts two men rowing a boat. This reflects their belief of an afterlife, that the crossing
of the body of water is transition from life here on earth unto the next. Eventually, pottery
produced items that are of practical value for the early Filipinos such as pots for cooking and
large vases for storing. Weaving was also one of the earliest forms of art expressions in the
Philippines. One of the most popular artisans of weaving is the people from the Cordilleras.
They are known for their colorful woven cloth, which also have both religious and practical
value. The T9boli from Mindanao are also known for their woven abaca cloth called t9nalak.
They use this particular cloth to make ornaments, which also represent their beliefs through
symbols. One example is the image of the frog, which is their representation for fertility.
Woodcarvings from Palawan also depict animals like birds, which are representations of their
religious beliefs. According to local stories, the birds serve as the messengers of the people to
the heavens and vice versa. In Mindanao, the Tausug and Maranao people are known for their
okir, which are designs applied to their woodcarvings. Their common subjects include the
sarimanok, naga, and the pako rabong. Each subject is a representation for a certain theme or
motif but generally these symbols depict their beliefs as a people. The sarimanok is a stylized
design of a mythical bird either standing on a fish or holding a piece of fish on its beak. The
story of the sarimanok was a central figure to a number of legends. One narrative tells the
origin of the word sarimanok. A sultan of Lanao once threw a party for his daughter named
Sari who was beautiful but seemed to be unhappy with her situation. On the day of her party,
a rooster crashed and the princess ran off with the rooster. She was never found. In memory of
Sari, the Sultan had carved a rooster. This would pave the way for the term sarimanok. Initially,
jewelry was used as amulets for protection to drive away evil spirits. Eventually some minority
groups from the Cordilleras and Cotabato utilized jewelry as ornaments integrated in their
clothing. The naga forms an S-shape depicting an elaborate figure of mythical dragon or
serpent. The numerous curved lines serving as detail for the figure depicts the scales. The pako
rabong, on the other hand, is like a growing fern with a broad base. The fern gracefully stems
and tapers upward. The sarimanok and naga are usually used as ornamental designs for the
houses of the sultans.
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Figure 7. Maranao Okir in 3D
When the Spaniards discovered the Philippines during the sixteenth century, they
introduced their religion to the local people. Aside from acquiring resources, they had a goal
to replace the existing indigenous cultural practices and beliefs of the early Filipinos. Art was
used by the Spaniards to propagate their Christian faith while at the same time subtly
establishing their foothold in the country. The Church, just like in Western Europe at one point,
became the sole patron of the arts. This can be evidently seen through the construction of
churches, which house various relics and paintings. There is an underlying move to integrate
Western culture and ideals in the Philippine setting. Being under colonial rule, it is not
surprising for Filipinos to express their indignation and desire for liberation. Art became one
of the avenues for Filipino patriots and nationalists. Probably the most famous work that
expressed Filipino nationalism and stand against the colonizers would be Juan Luna9s
<Spoliarium.= This large-scale academic painting garnered a gold medal and signified that the
reformists could come at par with their European counterparts. At the same time, Luna9s win
signalled the start of the Filipino9s call for equality.
Figure 8. Juan Luna9s Spolarium displayed at the National
Museum
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When the Philippines was liberated from the Spanish rule, the Americans took over to
establish a colonial government. They also propagated their culture and beliefs through the
implementation of public school systems. Art had a new role in advertising Americancontrolled markets. After World War II, the Philippines saw itself as an independent state
transitioning into the formation of its national identity. Artists focused on modern takes when
it comes to content, form, and subject matter. In addition, there emerged a debate on whether
art should be done as <proletarian art= or <art for art9s sake.= As modern paintings started to
emerge, a triumvirate of artists was formed-Carlos Francisco, Galo B. Ocampo, and Edades.
The 1960s proved to be a period of modernism and dynamism with a lot of styles,
techniques, and methods emerging. Most artworks were reflections of the political, social, and
economic situation of the Philippines during the Marcos administration. It was period wherein
people embodied and advocated for nationalist ideals. This is the reason why there was a
paradigm shifts of subjects in the artworks. Beautiful and idealistic imagery was replaced with
aggressive undertones. The works were reflections of the general feel of the people based on
the political situation during that time. When former President Ferdinand Marcos declared
Martial Law, social realism became the norm. Most artworks were forms of protest against the
government9s suppression of freedom of speech and expression. In addition, some of the works
reflected issues like economic problems, land reforms, gender rights, worker9s rights, and
cultural minorities plaguing the Filipino people brought about by the Martial Law. Eventually,
photography has evolved into an art form, which highlights various artistic expressions evident
in a variety of events, scenes, and activities.
Let’s Wrap It Up
Asian art, particularly Chinese and Japanese, have helped in the establishment of their
identities as a people. A common thread between the two cultures is the emphasis on religion
and how man is integral part of society. China may have influenced Japan during the early part
but later on, Japan would welcome Western ideas. There is a difference in terms of allowing
Western influences to be integrated in their works: China remained conventional whereas Japan
chose to let Western ideals be embodied to the art scene. From the time of the early Filipinos
to the contemporary times, art has been used in a myriad of ways.
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Let’s Work On This
Answer the following questions:
1. What are the central themes of Chinese artworks? Explain why did the Chinese focus
on these themes.
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2. In what ways are Chinese and Japanese art similar? In what ways are they different?
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3. What were some the uses or roles of art during the pre-colonial period?
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4. How did art become a reflection of Philippine society?
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Let’s Make It Happen
Write an essay answering this question: To what extent can art help in the formation
of a society9s culture?
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Sources and References:
Fichner-Rathus. Understanding Art. Wadsworth CengageL Learning, 2015.
CCP Encyclopedia of Philippines Visual Arts. Volume IV. Cultural Center of the Philippines,
1994.
http://opinion.inquirer.net/71820/tales-of-the-sarimanok (Retrieved 09 November 2017)
Images from Creative Commons
Anonymous (China) 3 Walters Art Museum: Home page info about artwork, Public Domain,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid-18843950
Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=102257
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Kitagawa Utamaro 3 Library of Congress[2], Public Domain,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=5794884
By Juan Luna 3 Own work, Public Domain,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=220131998By Ryan khadaffy 3 Own
work, CC BY-SA 3.0, httpd://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=17137932
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