Ubaid Shaikh: 021-32220405 / 0321-2463199 LOCATION OF PAKISTAN LONGITUDINAL & LATITUDINAL POSITION, ITS NEIGHBORS AND STRATEGIC IMPORTANCE 1 Ubaid Shaikh: 021-32220405 / 0321-2463199 Latitudes: 24° 35’ north and 37° 05’ / Longitudes: 61° east to 78° east Area in square km: 881,913 stretching over 1600 km from north to south and about 885 km from east to west (96.9% of land & 3.1% of water) Coastline: 1050 km or 650 miles (250 kms in Sindh and 800 kms in Baluchistan) Population: 212,742,631 (twenty one crores, twenty seven lac, forty two thousand six hundred and thirty one) Shared borders: India (east), China (north-east), Afghanistan (north-west) & Iran (west) Tajikistan (separated by a thin Wakhan corridor) Highest point: K2 (8611m / 28,251f) Lowest point: Arabian Sea (0m / 0.0 f) Longest river: Indus River Largest lake: Manchar Lake 2 Ubaid Shaikh: 021-32220405 / 0321-2463199 Strategic importance of Pakistan: Pakistan has a great potential to trade with China through the Karakoram border via the Khunjerab Pass. Over the years both the countries have been involved in trade of different commodities that include household items, food stuff including rice, industrial products and also weapons and artillery. CPEC (China-Pakistan Economic Corridor) is a landmark project to further enhance the trade. Central Asian Republics provide a great opportunity to get access to the valuable minerals like natural gas and petrol. There is a natural feasibility of the Natural Gas Pipeline Project from the CAS countries and Iran to India and South-East Asian countries after passing through Pakistan. The Durand Line provides opportunity to trade with Afghanistan. Both the countries share historic traditional relations. Pakistan was a frontline state during the Afghan War of 1979 and also the post 9/11 attacks on Afghanistan. Pakistan and Iran have shared strategic importance ever since Iran became the first country to recognize Pakistan as an independent state. The border begins at the tripoint with Afghanistan at the Kuh-i-Malik Salih Mountain. Pakistan has been a prominent recipient of Iranian oil and the construction of RCD highway has made the access to Turkey easier. Both the countries share a border via the Sistan province in Iran that connects with Baluchistan. Arabian Sea provides a natural harbor and an important warm water port that also serves as a refueling stop for ships. Jinnah terminal connects the West with Asia by air. Border links with India via Wagah-Attari in Punjab and KhokhraparMunabao border crossing in Rajasthan for commutation and trade. 3 Ubaid Shaikh: 021-32220405 / 0321-2463199 A. Construction of the Pakistan-Iran pipeline will solve our energy crisis as more gas-fired thermal power plants could be set up that will lead to industrialization and economic prosperity. B. We should not depend on natural resources of other countries to solve our energy crisis. We can generate power from renewable resources (wind, sunlight, water, waves etc.) to boost up our economy. Which view do you agree with more? Give reasons to support your answer and refer to examples you have studied. You should consider both View A and B in your answer. [6] …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 4 Ubaid Shaikh: 021-32220405 / 0321-2463199 PAKISTAN: THE NATURAL TOPOGRAPHY INCLUDING DRAINAGE 5 Ubaid Shaikh: 021-32220405 / 0321-2463199 Topography: is the study and description of the surface features of land which includes both natural and artificial features. Pakistan is divided into SIX main topographical features: The Northern Mountains & The North- Western Mountains The Western Mountains The Baluchistan Plateau The Potwar Plateau The Indus Plains (Upper & Lower Indus Plains) The Desert Areas (The South-Eastern & South Western Deserts) 6 Ubaid Shaikh: 021-32220405 / 0321-2463199 https://youtu.be/elB6YPIX0GE Climatic Influence: The Himalayas play a very significant role in influencing the climate of India. By virtue of their high altitude, length and direction, they effectively intercept the summer monsoons coming from the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea and cause precipitation in the form of rain or snow. They are also believed to play an important part in the formation of Central Asian deserts such as the Taklamakan and Gobi deserts. The mountain ranges also prevent western winter disturbances from Iran from traveling further, resulting in snow in Kashmir and rainfall for parts of Punjab and northern India. 7 Ubaid Shaikh: 021-32220405 / 0321-2463199 The Northern & North-Western Mountains 8 9 Ubaid Shaikh: 021-32220405 / 0321-2463199 Tirich Mir (7708M) Nanga Parbat (8126M) K2 (8611M) Relief features of the Northern Mountains: The Northern Mountain comprises several parallel ranges. Karakoram Mountains (both over 6000m high) are in the extreme North. In the north-west, lies the Hind Kush Mountains (over 5000 meters high). There are four main ranges on the north-east side. These are Siwalik Hills (600-1200 meters high), also called the subHimalayas. The Pir Panjal Mountains (1800-4600 meters high) or the lesser Himalayas. The Great Himalayas with a height of 4500 m. These ranges run in a northwest to south-east direction. The main features are highly sharp-edged ridges, steep slopes, pyramidal peaks, snow covered slopes and narrow deep valleys. 10 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 There are large glaciers in the Great Himalayas and the Karakoram Mountains because of their height. River Indus flows between the Great Himalayas and Karakoram and is joined by River Shyok and River Gilgit. Characteristics of the winter climate of the Northern Mountains: The Northern Mountains experience low temperatures. Due to the height, the altitude varies. Winters are long and cold, with temperatures below 5⁰C depending upon the altitude. Valley bottoms which are located at about 2000 meters (6000 ft.) height, have very cool winters. The mountain ranges at an altitude of 5000m are covered with permanent snow. There is rainfall and snowfall in the winter season from the Western Depressions. How is altitude connected to the temperature & climate? Winter climate of the Northern Mountains & difficulties associated with it: The winter season is not a period of activity for the people of the Northern Mountains. Due to snowfall and low temperatures, people are forced to stay indoors for long periods. Stockpiling for winter becomes necessary. Water supply also becomes limited due to freezing. Agricultural activity is suspended during winter because of low temperature, which may often be close to freezing. Due to snowfall, roads may be closed for traffic, which hinders communications. Air flights are delayed due to fog and mist. Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 11 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 The Western Mountains 12 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 13 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Relief & Drainage of Western Mountains: Waziristan Hills: Waziristan Hills 3513 m, located between the Kurram and the Gomal Rivers. Rampart between Afghanistan and Pakistan. Bannu and Dera Ismail Khan are main valleys and towns. Main drainage: Kurram and Gomal Rivers. Small channels and streams. Suleiman Range: West of River Indus. Suleman Range separates Punjab from Baluchistan. Takht-e-Suleman is the highest range. Gomal River at the West. Kirthar Range: Separates Sindh from Baluchistan. Main drainage: Hub and Liyari rivers. Rugged landscape, mountainous region. Rich in minerals. Economy: Economy not developed. Bare of vegetation. Canal irrigation not possible. Infrastructure is not developed. People deprived of basic necessities of life. Nomadism is common, sheep and goat rearing is common. Population density less than 100 people per sq. km. 14 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 15 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Q-Q: In what ways are the Northern Mountains different from the Western ones? …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......... ............................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................... 16 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 17 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 The Baluchistan Plateau 18 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Relief of the Mountains and Hills of Baluchistan: Average height 1000 m above sea level. Important ranges from South are Makran Coast Range, Central Makran Range. From South West Chaghai, Raskoh and Siahan are parallel ranges. In Centre, lies the Central Brahvi Range. Near Quetta, peaks of Muslim Bagh and Ziarat are located. To the East of Quetta is Toba Kakar Range. These mountains are bare of vegetation, present a rugged landscape, there are steep sided slopes and gorges between these mountains. Piedmont Plains are at the foot of the mountains. Drainage of the Basins of Baluchistan: In Northern Baluchistan, Zhob and Loralai Basins are present. Rivers in Baluchistan are mostly dry channels, they contain water during the rain. They do not have any outlet to the sea. (Inland Drainage Basins) Temporary lakes are formed during rain called “Hamuns”- the largest of these lakes is called “Hamun-e-Mushkel”. Near Makran Coast, there are Basins of River Dasht, Hab and Hingol. 19 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 A. In order to develop Baluchistan’s economy we should promote farming here by providing irrigation facilities through installation of tube wells and using surface water. B. Baluchistan requires infrastructure facilities, exploitation of minerals and the setting up of small-scale industries for economic development. Which view do you agree with more? Give reasons to support your answer and refer to examples you have studied. You should consider both View A and B in your answer. [6] …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 20 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 The Potwar Plateau Potwar Plateau: The average height of Potwar Plateau is 300-600 m. It lies between River Indus and River Jhelum in northern Punjab. Small hills and barren rocks. Due to the action of running water (many small streams), the land is dissected and eroded badly. That is termed as ‘Bad-land Topography’. River Soan is the only drainage which joins the River Indus. Ravines, gorges and gullies are common in the area. Salt Range: Average height is 600-1000 m above sea level. It stretches in an East West direction, south of the Potwar Plateau. The Salt Range is the collection of several parallel ranges which are folded and faulted. Kallar Kahar and Khabeki Lakes are the only drainage. Limestone, sandstone, shale rocks are commonly found in the area. 21 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Economy: Oil reserves, limestone, salt, coal, sandstone, clay and shale facilitate the cement industry, oil refineries, chemical industry, and ceramics industry. Important cities are Rawalpindi, Jhelum, Chakwal and Mianwali. Q-Q Compare the topography & drainage of Baluchistan Plateau with Potwar. …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 22 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 The Indus Plains 23 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Active flood plain: Active flood plain; a narrow strip of land along both sides of rivers. It is flat & rich in alluvium. Meanders, oxbow lakes, levees are found. Flooded every year. Its width is 3 to 5 km. In case of River Indus 25-40 km. Old flood plain: It is next to the active flood plain, flat & flooded after every 6 to 7 years. It’s covered with old alluvium. Remains of meanders & oxbows are found. Bluff or Scarp: It is 5-15 m high. It marks the limit of the old flood plain, also called alluvial slope. Bar up-land area: It is located in the middle of a doab. Old flood plains on both sides. It is also called alluvial terrace. It saves from floods. It is covered with old alluvium. 24 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Upper Indus Plains 25 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 The Upper Indus Plain covers most of Punjab, with a slope of 30m to 75m above sea level. River Indus and its four tributaries flow here. Active and old flood plain, bar up-land area present. 26 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Lower Indus Plains Q-Q Elaborate the difference between the Upper & Lower Indus Plains. …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 27 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 The Desert Areas Characteristics & Economic activities of the summer climate in Thar In the Thar Desert, the summer season is very hot and long. June is the hottest month, when the average temperature rises well over 35*C. Day temperature may rise to 50*C in the summer months. Nights are not so hot and diurnal range of temperature is high. Rainfall is very low i.e. below 125mm annually and mostly comes during the summer. Monsoon months are July, August and September. In the Southern most area, the rainfall rises slightly to 250mm because of proximity to the sea. In the desert, dust storms are a common feature during the summer months. Because of high temperatures and very low rainfall, growing crops becomes impossible. 28 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 The main activity of people is sheep, goat and cattle rearing. Camels are also kept. People lead a nomadic life. Shortage of water is a big problem. Extensive heat causes high evaporation. It also make working outdoors difficult. In the extreme southern part, the meager summer rainfall of about 250mm may support a poor crop of millet and pulses, but not on a regular basis. Economic activity is only possible in better rainfall years. Relief features of the South Eastern Deserts of Pakistan: The South Eastern deserts comprise of Cholistan, Nara and Thar. The Tharparkar Desert lies in the eastern part of the Sindh province. The region is covered with rolling sand plains and sand dunes which shift their positions on account of strong winds. The sand dunes rise to a height of 20-26 meters and may be latitudinal or longitudinal depending on the direction of winds. Wind is the most important agent that also causes weathering of rocks. Q-Q Explain how the desert topographical features influence the lifestyle of the people. …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 29 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 A. The Northern Mountains should be developed for tourism by providing infrastructure facilities. This will generate employment for the local population. Increase in GDP will promote economic growth of the country B. The Northern Mountains are difficult to develop because of topographical constraints and environmental damage. It is more economical to develop the Indus Plain than the Northern Mountains Which view do you agree with more? Give reasons to support your answer and refer to examples you have studied. You should consider both View A and B in your answer. [6] …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 30 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 CLIMATE OF PAKISTAN TEMPERATURE, RAINFALL, PRESSURE & WINDS 31 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Climatic Zones in Pakistan 32 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Factors Affecting Climate of Pakistan Distance from the Sea: The Sea affects the climate of a place. Coastal areas are cooler and wetter than inland areas. Clouds form when warm air from inland areas meets cool air from the sea. The weather of Karachi is different from that of Lahore and Peshawar as it is located near the sea. This is also known as the Continental Effect. Direction of the winds: Winds that blow from the sea often bring rain to the coast and dry weather to inland areas. That is one of the reasons why Karachi enjoys Monsoon season, as the winds from the Arabian Sea bring rain during the months of June and July. Relief: Climate can be affected by mountains. Mountains receive more rainfall than low lying areas because the temperature on top of mountains is lower than the temperature at sea level. That is why you often see snow on the top of mountains all year round. The higher the place is above sea level the colder it will be. This happens because as altitude increases, air becomes thinner and is less able to absorb and retain heat. This is the reason why the northern areas of Pakistan have snow fall and difference in climate as compared to Baluchistan and Sind. Proximity to the Equator: The proximity to the equator affects the climate of a place. The equator receives the more sunlight than anywhere else on earth. This is due to its position in relation to the sun. The equator is hotter because the sun has less area to heat. It is cooler at the north and south poles as the sun has more area to heat up. It is cooler as the heat is spread over a wider area. 33 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Cloud Cover: It is an important aspect too as it reduces the amount of incoming solar radiations in the daytime by reflecting it back to outer space, resulting in a drop in day temperatures. At night it traps the outgoing heat. As a result, temperature on a cloudy night does not drop as low as temperature on a clear night. Altitude: There is a relationship between altitude, air density and temperature. The air is densest at the sea level because that is where it absorbs most water vapor, dust particles and solar radiation. Air is least dense at high altitude because less solar radiation is absorbed at that level. With less air to absorb heat at higher altitude, there is an average drop of 6.5 ° C in temperature for each 1000 meter increase in altitude. Human Influence: The factors above affect the climate naturally. However, we cannot forget the influence of humans on our climate. Trees are cut down to provide wood for fires. Trees take in carbon dioxide and produce oxygen. A reduction in trees will therefore have increased the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere. 34 35 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Types of Rainfall in Pakistan Relief Rainfall: is also known as orographic rainfall. It occurs in the Northern areas of Pakistan mainly Chitral, Gilgit etc. it rains on the Windward side while the Leeward receives no rainfall and is also called Dry Rain-shadow area Relief rainfall Stage 1. Warm wet air is forced to rise over high land. Stage 2. As the air rises it cools and condenses. Clouds form and precipitation occurs. Stage 3. The drier air descends. Stage 4. As the air descends it warms meaning it can carry water moisture, so there is little rain on this side of the mountain. This area is known as a rain shadow. Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Convectional Currents: When the land warms up, it heats the air above it. This causes the air to expand and rise. As the air rises it cools and condenses. If this process continues then rain will fall. Only the northern & north-western areas like Peshawar & Rawalpindi receive it. Convectional rainfall happens when convection of warm moist air happens. When a surface of earth gets heated up makes evaporation more and the warm moist air raises. As the air ascends it gets cooled and form convective clouds. Once the clouds reaches its saturation, it precipitates rain. Convective rainfall is common in tropics. It is characterized by rapidly changing intensity and over a smaller area as the convective clouds are more vertical than horizontal. In tropics, convective rainfall results in hail storm whereas in mid-latitudes it results in cold fronts, squall and warm fronts. 36 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Tropical Cyclones: They generally occur near the coasts and areas adjoining that. Karachi, Thatta, Makran coast, Gwadar are examples of that. Anatomy of a Cyclone Tropical cyclones are compact, circular storms, generally some 320 km (200 miles) in diameter, whose winds swirl around a central region of low atmospheric pressure. The winds are driven by this low-pressure core and by the rotation of Earth, which deflects the path of the wind through a phenomenon known as the Carioles force. As a result, tropical cyclones rotate in a counterclockwise (or cyclonic) direction in the Northern Hemisphere and in a clockwise (or anticyclonic) direction in the Southern Hemisphere. Tropical cyclones are known by various names in different parts of the world. In the North Atlantic Ocean and the eastern North Pacific they are called hurricanes, and in the western North Pacific around the Philippines, Japan, and China the storms are referred to as typhoons. In the western South Pacific and Indian Ocean they are variously referred to as severe tropical cyclones, tropical cyclones, or simply cyclones. All these different names refer to the same type of storm. 37 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 The Western Depressions: They are the cyclones which originate in the Mediterranean Sea, travel across Afghanistan and Iran and reach the western areas of Pakistan. After striking the north-western areas such as Peshawar and northern Pakistan, the winds move towards western and southwestern parts. By the time they reach south-western Baluchistan they are robbed of their moisture. These winds cause the rainfall in these areas from December to March. Quetta, Chitral receive rain due to Western Depressions. Why does Pakistan receive very less amount of western depression? Pakistan receives a very less amount of rainfall from western depression because the western depression are cyclones which originate in the Mediterranean sea which is very far away from Pakistan as a matter of fact the western depression's intensity is decreased as it passes through many countries before reaching Pakistan. Due to this Pakistan receives a very little rainfall from winter depressions 38 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 The Monsoon Rainfall: Summer monsoon winds are rain-bearing: During the summer months, sunlight heats the surfaces of both lands and oceans, but land temperatures rise more quickly due to a lower heat capacity. As the land's surface becomes warmer, the air above it expands and an area of low pressure develops. Meanwhile, the ocean remains at a lower temperature than the land and so the air above it retains a higher pressure. Since winds flow from areas of low to high pressure (due to the pressure gradient force), this deficit in pressure over the continent causes winds to blow in an ocean-to-land circulation (a sea breeze). As winds blow from the ocean to the land, moist air is brought inland. This is why summer monsoons cause so much rain. Monsoon season does not end as abruptly as it begins. While it takes time for the land to heat up, it also takes time for that land to cool in the fall. This makes monsoon season a time of rainfall that diminishes rather than stops. A Monsoon's "Dry" phase occurs in winter: In the colder months, winds reverse and blow in a land-to-ocean circulation. As the land masses cool faster than the oceans, an excess in pressure builds over the continents causing the air over land to have higher pressure than that over the ocean. As a result, air over the land flows to the ocean. Beneficial, but potentially deadly: Billions of people around the globe depend on monsoon rains for their yearly rainfall. In dry climates, monsoons are an important replenishment for life as water is brought back into drought-stricken zones of the world. But the monsoon cycle is a delicate balance. If rains start late, are too heavy, or not heavy enough, they can spell disaster for people's livestock, crops, and lives. If rains don't start when they're supposed to, it can lead to growing rainfall deficits, poor ground, and an increased risk of drought which reduces crop yields and produces famine. On the other hand, intense rainfall in these regions can cause massive flooding and mudslides, destruction of crops, and kill hundreds of people in floods. 39 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Monsoon is of TWO types: Pakistan relies a lot on the South-West Monsoon rain as it helps in growing crops and recharges the rivers. 40 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Monsoon rainfall distribution in Pakistan: July to September is the summer monsoon rains period over Pakistan. The north-eastern part of Punjab extending into NWFP i.e. MurreeAbbottabad and Sialkot region receive heaviest rainfall of over 500mm. Rain bearing winds rising over the hills cause good rainfall. The rainfall decreases towards the south-west from the northern hilly region. The northern half of Punjab gets 250mm of rain, whereas the southern half of Punjab, Upper Sindh and Southern Baluchistan get 125mm of rain, because there are no hills to make the monsoon winds rise. Baluchistan is largely out of the track of the summer monsoon winds. The north-western part of Baluchistan is the driest region with only 25mm of rainfall. The southern half of Sindh gets 125-250mm of rainfall because of its proximity to the sea. Another dry region is the extreme northern part of the country (Chitral and Gilgit), having 125mm of rainfall because this region lies in the rain shadow of the Himalayas. How does the monsoon wind develop? During the summer season, a low pressure area develops over Northern India and Pakistan, while a high pressure area prevails over the Indian Ocean. South-West monsoon winds blow from the Indian Ocean towards Pakistan. The Bay of Bengal branch of the monsoon winds enter Bangladesh and are deflected westwards by the Himalayas and are also attracted by the low pressure over Pakistan, giving heavy rainfall over Bangladesh and Gangetic Plain in India. These monsoon winds enter Pakistan on the south-eastern side. These winds cause rainfall in the Northern hilly region of Pakistan. 41 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Monsoon rainfall distribution in Pakistan: July to September is the summer monsoon rains period over Pakistan. The north-eastern part of Punjab extending into NWFP i.e. MurreeAbbottabad and Sialkot region receive heaviest rainfall of over 500mm. Rain bearing winds rising over the hills cause good rainfall. The rainfall decreases towards the south-west from the northern hilly region. The northern half of Punjab gets 250mm of rain, whereas the southern half of Punjab, Upper Sindh and Southern Baluchistan get 125mm of rain, because there are no hills to make the monsoon winds rise. Baluchistan is largely out of the track of the summer monsoon winds. The north-western part of Baluchistan is the driest region with only 25mm of rainfall. The southern half of Sindh gets 125-250mm of rainfall because of its proximity to the sea. Another dry region is the extreme northern part of the country (Chitral and Gilgit), having 125mm of rainfall because this region lies in the rain shadow of the Himalayas. Winter rainfall and wheat cultivation: Potwar Plateau is a region where barani wheat farming is practiced. Wheat is a winter crop sown in December and harvested in April. Potwar Plateau gets a light rainfall during December to March from the western depression, which suits the wheat crop. The yield is rather low as compared with wheat growing in canal-irrigated areas. The rainfall in March and April helps to swell the grain. 42 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Natural Calamities Floods A flood occurs when water inundates land that's normally dry, which can happen in a multitude of water. Excessive rain, a ruptured dam or levee, rapid melting of snow or ice, or even an unfortunately placed beaver dam can overwhelm a river, spreading over the adjacent land, called a floodplain. Coastal flooding occurs when a large storm or tsunami causes the sea to surge inland. Most floods take hours or even days to develop, giving residents time to prepare or evacuate. Others generate quickly and with little warning. Socalled flash floods can be extremely dangerous, instantly turning a babbling brook or even a dry wash into rushing rapids that sweep everything in their path downstream. What causes floods? Global Warming causing the glaciers to melt at a rapid pace Heavy monsoon rainfall Deforestation Broken Dams Channels with steep slides Storms These are common in the northern and north-western areas of Pakistan. In the summer (April to June) and the post-monsoon season (Sept-Oct), the atmospheric pressure falls and convectional currents cause sporadic and localized rainfall in the extreme north and the Safed Koh Mountains. In the summer season, in southern plains and north-western parts of Baluchistan, due to low pressure, dust storms and strong winds also hit the Upper Indus Plain. Moreover, tropical cyclones from the Arabian Sea can also affect the coastal areas of Sindh and Baluchistan. 43 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Causes of Thunderstorms: Moisture: Moisture required to form clouds and eventually rain. Front: Front like sea breeze or mountains that help in lifting the warm air upwards. Rapidly rising warm air: Due to Sun’s heat, the temperature of place rises. The rise in temperature warms the air and create strong winds which arise in the upward direction. Droughts A drought or is a natural disaster of below-average precipitation in a given region, resulting in prolonged shortages in the water supply, whether atmospheric, surface water or ground water. A drought can last for months or years, or may be declared after as few as 15 days. It can have a substantial impact on the ecosystem and agriculture of the affected region and harm to the local economy. Causes of Drought: Long dry spells Deforestation Wastage of water 44 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 A. The Thar Desert is a water deficient area and it can be reclaimed by constructing seasonal/flood canals from the Sukkur Barrage to increase the production of food. B. The Thar Desert is rich in mineral resources such as coal and oil. It is more feasible to invest in the setting up of coal-fired thermal power plants than to use the land for farming. Which view do you agree with more? Give reasons to support your answer and refer to examples you have studied. You should consider both View A and B in your answer. [6] …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 45 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 THE DEVELOPMENT OF WATER RESOURCES 46 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Water is a renewable source that is one of the most important source for the survival of mankind and also other creatures. The Hydrological Cycle The hydrologic cycle begins with the evaporation of water from the surface of the ocean. As moist air is lifted, it cools and water vapor condenses to form clouds. Moisture is transported around the globe until it returns to the surface as precipitation. Once the water reaches the ground, one of two processes may occur: 1) Some of the water may evaporate back into the atmosphere 2) The water may penetrate the surface and become groundwater. Groundwater either seeps its way to into the oceans, rivers, and streams, or is released back into the atmosphere through transpiration. The balance of water that remains on the earth's surface is runoff, which empties into lakes, rivers and streams and is carried back to the oceans, where the cycle begins again. 47 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Why do we need water resources? As a growing population we need ample amount of fresh water to counter the needs. It is also very important for our agriculture. Irrigation Systems There are different types of irrigation systems that exist in the category of conventional and modern systems. Conventional Systems: They had been in use for centuries but have become obsolete with the passage of time. Shaduf: it is a device consisting of a long suspended pole weighted at one end and having a bucket at the other end, used in the Near East and especially Egypt for raising water, as for the irrigation of land. This type of system is now obsolete in Pakistan as it cannot provide ample amount of water for agriculture. Charsa: In Charsa animal power is used to pull water from the well. The Charsa system is not used by many farmers now. 48 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Persian Wheel: The Persian wheel is a mechanical water lifting device operated usually by draught animals like bullocks, buffaloes or camels. It is used to lift water from water sources typically open wells Q-Q What are the advantages & disadvantages of the Persian Wheel? ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 49 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 The Karez System or Qanat: A qanat or karez is a gently sloping underground channel to transport water from an aquifer or water well to surface for irrigation and drinking, acting as an underground aqueduct. This is an old system of water supply from a deep well with a series of vertical access shafts. It is practiced in Baluchistan only. Methods of practice of Karez On the foothills of the hills, snow-water is reserved in small aquifers. A horizontal underground tunnel is dug from the foothill aquifer to the village areas. Its length is sometimes 20km long. For regular maintenance purpose, vertical holes are dug every 15m or so that connects underground tunnel with the field surface. Karez is a system of this underground tunnel and these vertical holes. The regular maintenance of Karez is difficult. The tunnels need cleaning every year or else sand from deserts will completely fill up the tunnel. Date palm trees are grown purposefully around the Karez that acts as an umbrella minimizing the water loss through evapotranspiration. 50 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Tank irrigation: Tank irrigation is practiced by constructing mud banks across streams to make a small reservoir which collect excess water during the rainy season. Inundation Canals: Inundation canals are more or less similar to the permanent canals. The major difference is that, in the case of permanent canals, permanent masonry or concrete works like weirs, barrage, head regulator, fall, cross regulator, are constructed to regulate the supplies, but in case of inundation canals all these works are not there. Inundation canals are mostly used in deltaic and alluvial regions of the river, as river course here is generally at a higher level and course is maintained between dykes or embankments. 51 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Modern Systems: They are more common these days and are used regularly by farmers these days for the agriculture and other use. Perennial Canals: They are the canals that have water taken from dams or barrages. They have water almost throughout the year. Perennial canals are a great source of water for the farmers. The flow of water can be controlled and it is independent of rainfall too. They also have lined and unlined canals – lined canals can sustain more pressure from water as they are built with cement while unlined are naturally built levees with loose embankments. Punjab has many of these canals. These include Upper and Lower Bari Doab, Lower and Upper Chenab Canal and Sidhnai. 52 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Tube wells: A tube well is a type of water well in which a long, 100–200 millimeters-wide, stainless steel tube or pipe is bored into an underground aquifer. The lower end is fitted with a strainer, and a pump lifts water for irrigation. The required depth of the well depends on the depth of the water table. Q-Q Why is tube well being used on a large scale by the farmers these days? ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 53 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Sprinkler or Spray Irrigation: Spray irrigation is a form of irrigation in which pressurized water is sprayed over plants to provide them with water. This type of irrigation is also sometimes called sprinkler irrigation, and it is very widely used all over the world. Advantages and disadvantages of Spray irrigation Advantages: Water is sprayed according to needs and thus controlled. This leads to lower wastage of water and hence the danger of waterlogging and salinity is lesser. Disadvantages: It has a high cost of machinery and requires electricity or fuel to operate. This is the reason that subsistence farmers cannot afford it. At times, water gets evaporated before it reaches the fields due to high temperature. 54 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Dams & Barrages in Pakistan A barrage is considered as a type of dam consisting of a series of large gates that can be closed or opened to have a control on the amount of water passing through it. These gates are primarily meant for controlling the flow of water and to stabilize the flow of water for irrigation purposes. One key difference between a dam and a barrage according to World Commission on Dams is that while a barrage is built for diverting water, a dam is built for storing water in a reservoir to raise the level of water considerably. A barrage is usually built where the surface is flat across meandering rivers. It raises the water level only by a few feet. Barrages in Pakistan 55 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Major Dams in Pakistan Siltation and its hazards: When the rivers leave the foothills of the Himalayas, they carry a large quantity of silt, as a result of deep erosion in the mountain areas. This is deposited in the plains of Punjab and Sindh. Siltation is a menace that can destroy the purpose of dams and barrages, i.e. irrigation and generation of hydro-electric power, by filling the reservoir with silt. This results in flooding in the areas that can cause destruction of infrastructure, loss of lives, animals and crops. The government has started SCARP (Salinity Control and Reclamation Project) to overcome this problem. Management of Water Resources: Pakistan needs a fair and just distribution of water amongst its provinces. To overcome the issue a Water Accord was signed in 1991 to be carried out by IRSA (Indus River System Authority) 56 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 A. Small dams are more suitable for Pakistan’s economy than large ones because they require low initial investment and the silting problem is easier to solve B. Pakistan needs large dams such as the Kalabagh for projects including the generation of electricity ad for flood control Which view do you agree with more? Give reasons to support your answer and refer to examples you have studied. You should consider both View A and B in your answer. [6] …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 57 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 FORESTS 58 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 What are Forests? Forests are extensive, continuous areas of land dominated by trees. The desired level of forests is 20-30% of the total area of a country. There are two types of forests in Pakistan. Productive Forests: These are mainly natural forests. In these forests the tree density is high and the forest canopy is closed. Such forests have great commercial value and they are mainly used for extraction of timber and other products. Protection Forests: These forests are mainly planted by people and are usually linear. They include amenity planting along roads, parks and along railway lines. They have little commercial value as they don’t supply valuable species of food. What factors determine the change in nature of forests? Altitude or height: the nature of forests keep changing with altitude. Aridity or dryness: the dryness in the area results in the change of the type of forests. For e.g., the prevailing aridity over the Baluchistan Plateau and the southern part of the Indus Plain is not favorable to support plant growth and results in thorny bushes and scrub. Precipitation: the amount of moisture results in the change in forests. Northern Mountains encourages the growth of coniferous (evergreen) forests. Nutrients: in the Indus and Hub deltas the deposition of alluvium in the salt water has encouraged the growth of mangrove vegetation. Edaphic factors: soil type also determines the type and density of forests in different areas of Pakistan. 59 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Forests in Pakistan 60 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Alpine Forests: They have stunted growth due to low temperature and less sunlight Roots grow sideways on thin soil to absorb more nutrition and to have better grip on the ground Normally upward branches to attain more sunlight It is used as fuel wood only It is found in Northern areas (Chitral, Dir, Kohistan) It is found at an altitude of 4000 meters or above just below the snowline 61 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Coniferous Forests: Evergreen forests survive in low temperature Sloping branches prevent snow accumulation Small, thick, leathery and needle-shaped leaves check excessive transpiration They are found in Chitral, Swat, Upper Dir, Lower Dir, Malakand and other areas in Baluchistan like Quetta & Kalat divisions It is an important source of timber for making furniture. It is also used for environmental protection and also add to the scenic beauty of the area It is found at an altitude between 1000-4000 meters 62 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Subtropical Forests: Sub-tropical broad-leafed and tropical thorny species They are found on the hills and foothills of the Lower Himalayas, Suleiman and Kirthar Ranges, Western Mountain (Peshawar, Waziristan, Kohat, Mardan and above the Makran Coast Range They are used for watershed protection, supplying firewood and grazing purposes It is found at an altitude of below 1000 meters 63 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Tropical Forests: They are of low height (6-10 meters) and used as firewood They have deep roots in search of water They are dominated by thorny hardwood and scanty vegetation due to water shortage They are found in Punjab Plains, Southern & Western Baluchistan and Sindh Plains It is found at an altitude of below 1000 meters 64 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Riverain or Bella Forests: Linear plantation along the banks of rivers Normally high-yielding commercial hardwood species They are found alongside River Indus and its tributaries They provide Shisham and Babul that are used in making of furniture and agricultural implements It is found at an altitude of below 1000 meters 65 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Mangrove Forests: They have broad leaves with a leathery texture to minimize transpiration The roots are spread into sea-water and survive in salty water. The trees grow around 6-8 meters at max but generally their height is 3 meters They are found in the coastal areas of Sindh & Baluchistan (Deltaic regions) They supply fuel for firewood and for timber in some cases. They are also a breeding ground for fish and shrimps. They also act as a barrier against cyclones, tsunamis & earthquakes The fallen leaves provide nutrition for marine life 66 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Irrigated Forests: Economically important species are planted in large blocks of the same species. Shisham, Babul and Eucalyptus are normally preferred An example is Changa Manga near Lahore, Wan Bachran in Thal area and Chichawatni in Sahiwal district It is an important source of timber, firewood. When planted in linear form they provide shade 67 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Farming Techniques Terracing: It helps us to make farming on the sloppy hills or Mountains where it is not too easy to farm with the help of graduated terrace constructed on the slopes. So, it is an important agricultural method which helps us to cultivate on those sloppy region parts of the world as possible. Mostly, in this technique of farming on the terrace, terraces are low, a smooth ridge of earth built across the slope with a channel for runoff water just above the ridge. Usually, terraces are created on a slight slope so that the water grabbed in the canal or channel moves slowly approaching the terrace outlet. 68 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Contour Ploughing: Contour farming is farming with row patterns that run nearly level around the hill -- not up and down the hill. Contour strip-cropping is crop rotation and contouring combined in equal-width strips of different crops. The crops are planted parallel to the contours on the side of the hill. 69 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Deforestation – causes, effects & prevention Deforestation is the permanent destruction of forests in order to make the land available for other uses. There are many factors that lead to deforestation in an area: Fuel wood To make more land available for housing and urbanization To harvest timber to create commercial items such as paper, furniture and homes To create ingredients that are highly prized consumer items, such as the oil from palm trees To create room for cattle ranching How to prevent deforestation? Concrete efforts are needed to prevent the hazards of deforestation. They could be as follows: Supply of irrigation: this will help the faster growth of trees in the affected areas. Reserving the land for fuel wood: this could lead to the preservation of valuable species. In Pakistan, precious forest resources have been cut down just to supply fuel wood for domestic use. Creating awareness: Masses should be made aware of the hazards of deforestation. Supply of natural gas: this could lead to less cutting of trees as people won’t cut tress to fight the harsh cold weather. Selective cutting methods: restricting the logging companies of cutting down the trees in selective areas only. 70 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 A. There should be more irrigated plantations in the Indus Plain to provide environmental protection and to generate employment B. The limited land of the Indus Plain should be used for agriculture, settlements, industries and commercial activities Which view do you agree with more? Give reasons to support your answer and refer to examples you have studied. You should consider both View A and B in your answer. [6] …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 71 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 FISHING INDUSTRY 72 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Fishing Areas and Methods Marine Fishing: It is the fishing done in the sea. Pakistan’s coastal line is 30% of Sindh and 70% Baluchistan. It is of two types: Subsistence Fishing: is when the fishing is done for self-use by the fishermen. It requires small boats and conventional style of fishing. Commercial Fishing: is for the purpose of sale and trade. Large boats embedded with modern technology (refrigeration, nets) are present. Karachi and Gwadar are major centers of commercial fishing. Sindh coast accounts for 68% of total marine catch. Inland Fishing: is the fishing practiced in almost all the rivers and lakes while fish farming is also practiced widely across the country. 73 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Problems of the Fishing Industry The main problems the fishing industry is facing in Pakistan are: Water Pollution: Pollution on the Coast of Pakistan is mostly limited to the Karachi area. The Karachi fish harbor is severely affected by a variety of pollutants. Spillage of the oils from ships, domestic and industrial waste is causing great harm to our fishing industry. Studies have shown that many chemicals - some of these having carcinogenic qualities -, toxic materials and heavy metals have been found in the marine life. These dangerous substances are also entering the food chain of the people whose diet comprises seafood. Over-Fishing: Another problem associated with the fishing industry is that of over-fishing of shrimps throughout the year, even in the breeding season. Threat of Mangroves: Mangroves act as a barrier and protect the coastlines from high and low tides. The mangroves that are a breeding ground for fish and shrimps cannot thrive well in polluted sea water. 74 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 How has the Government tried to improve fishing industry? The introduction of new fishing methods. The development of value-added products like canned or frozen fish to keep them usable. An improved surveillance and weather information. The execution of Marine Fisheries Department that carries out projects like “Monitoring of Deep sea Fishing Vessels’ and others to improve fishing as an industry. Q-Q: How can the making of fishery at Gwadar serve Pakistan? ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 75 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 A. If we develop more fish farms in the Indus Plain by using canal water, it can generate much more profit than growing crops. It will reduce the burden on crops and livestock and will provide employment to the people. B. The Indus Plain has been historically developed for crop cultivation due to alluvial soils and other factors. Food crops meet the domestic food requirements while raw cotton and cotton products are the major exports of Pakistan. It is essential to use the Indus Plain for the crop cultivation. Which view do you agree with more? Give reasons to support your answer and refer to examples you have studied. You should consider both View A and B in your answer. [6] …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 76 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 MINERAL & POWER RESOURCES 77 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Mining Processes Mining is a process of digging rocks and minerals from the earth. Minerals are found at different depths. There are three methods of mining. Open-cast Mining: Open cast or open pit mining is a type of surface mining in which mineral resources are removed from the earth through large holes or pits dug into the surface. The mineral bearing rocks are stripped off by giant excavators and power shovels, which then load the material into lorries and railway wagons to be carried away. Open-cast Mining Underground Mining: is done through two methods: Adit Mining: it is a horizontal or near-horizontal passage driven from the earth’s surface into the side of a ridge or mountain for the purpose of working, ventilating, or removing water from a mine. It is done in hilly districts where a mineral seam is exposed on a hillside. Shaft Mining: is a form of underground mining where shafts are pushed vertically from top to bottom to excavate the ores and minerals. It is also called shaft sinking. It is best suited for concentrated minerals such as iron, coal, etc. which can be found at the depth of the earth's surface. It is found mostly all over the world. 78 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Adit Mining Shaft Mining 79 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Minerals in Pakistan: Pakistan is blessed with both metallic & nonmetallic minerals. 80 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Non-metallic minerals Rock Salt: Pakistan has the world’s largest reservoir of rock salt found in Khewra. The rocks are white or pink in color. The salt is overlain by gypsum and clay. Uses: it is used for cooking, preservation of food and fish, manufacture of soda ash, bicarbonate of soda, caustic soda, tanning and chemical industries. Limestone: is a major sedimentary deposit and is the main raw material for cement. Uses: it is used in the manufacture of bleaching powder, glass, soap, paper, paints and lime. Gypsum: is found in grey, white and pink color. It is used in the making of cement when the clinkers are made to give it hardness. Uses: it is used in the manufacture of paints, fertilizers and pre-fabricated construction boards. White gypsum is used for making of Plaster of Paris. Clay: it is fine-grained mineral. In Pakistan the most important clays are China Clay, Fire Clay and Fuller’s Earth. China Clay is mainly used in ceramic industry Fire Clay is used to make fire bricks, insulating bricks and pottery Fuller’s Earth is used to manufacture steel, oil drilling machine and oil refining Limestone Quarrying: it is a non-metallic mineral. When it outcrops on the surface it is extracted by quarrying. It is an open excavation from which any useful stone is extracted for building and engineering purposes. It is carried out by different methods and equipment such as hand tools, explosives, power saws, etc. according to the purpose for which the stone is extracted. 81 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 The manufacture process of cement How is cement used in different capacities? It is used in the construction industry, making of new houses, offices, shops It is an important component to make roads, highways, motorways etc. It is used in the construction of canals, lined canals to prevent seepage Metallic minerals Pakistan has vast deposits of gold, copper, tin and manganese. Baluchistan is rich in the deposits of these minerals. A start has been made by the Resources Development Corporation. In addition to the Saindak Copper-Gold project, the Pakistan Mineral Development Corporation is also operating three coal mines. Moreover, there are deposits of antimony and gold in Punjgore and Kharan district. 82 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 A. The import metallic minerals is causing a heavy burden on Pakistan’s limited foreign exchange resources. We need to set up only those industries which make use of locally available minerals. B. The import of metallic minerals is essential as they are used in those industries which manufacture value-added products and generate more income for the country if exported or used locally Which view do you agree with more? Give reasons to support your answer and refer to examples you have studied. You should consider both View A and B in your answer. [6] …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 83 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Effects of mining on the environment Mining, though an important industry, has led to some adverse effects due to the negligence shown by the concerned authorities. Some of them are: It leads to the emission of dust, suspended particle and gases which cause air pollution. Release of harmful trace element e.g., CO, Pb, Cd etc. leads to the contamination of surface water. Underground water is also contaminated due to seepage and infiltration of leached drainage. Mining leads to the degradation of soil quality, fertility and makes it toxic. Natural vegetation get adversely effected due to leached trace element. The major consequences of mining is the deforestation which results in loss of flora and fauna. It directly affect the ecosystem and its stability as many species are killed due to toxicity of water and soil and loss of habitat. Mining results in wastage of land as it neither remain suitable for industrial use nor for agricultural purposes. Mining directly results in the loss of landscape and beauty of surrounding. 84 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Non-renewable Energy Resources – Fossils Coal: is the most widely used mineral around the world due to its vast reservoirs and lesser in expenses. It is widely used in the cement, thermal power plants and other industries. Thar (Sindh), Soar Range (Baluchistan), Makarwal (KPK) are the areas laden with coal reserves in Pakistan. Coal is found in layers and needs deep underground mining to be extracted. Gasification of Coal: it is when the coal is heated in the presence of steam and oxygen to produce coal gas which is a mixture of carbon monoxide, hydrogen and methane and is now turned into easily transportable coal gas or liquid fuels. It is used directly as fuel or refined into cleaner-burning gas to make it environment friendly. Coal-based vapor fuels are produced through this process. 85 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Oil: is the most important fossil fuel today. It occurs in porous spaces of sedimentary rocks and is derived mainly from the decomposition of marine animal and vegetative matter over several million years. It is found in domeshaped anticlines under the seabed. The oil is trapped in the anticline with gas above and water below. Hence the name oil trap. How is oil drilled? Modern oil prospecting is a technical job that requires modern scientific equipment. Once the drilling site has been selected, a derrick or drilling rig is set up. The derrick is a large steel structure that holds the drilling pipes and other equipment. Oil Refining: Crude oil cannot be used in its raw state. It has to be processed and refined into useful products such as petrol for cars, aeroplanes, heating oil, kerosene, diesel oil for trucks and buses. Oil refineries are either located: In or near the oil fields such as Attock Oil Refinery on the Potwar Plateau at Morga. At the port of import such as Pakistan Refinery and National Refinery. 86 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Major Oil refineries in Pakistan: Pakistan Refinery Limited Pak-Arab Refinery National Refinery Attock Refinery Byco Oil Pakistan Indus Oil Refinery Ltd (not yet operational) Khalifa Coastal Refinery (not yet operational) Trans Asia Refinery (not yet operational) How is oil transported? Transport at Sea: it is transported in special ships called ‘oil tankers’. It is transported at Keamari and Korangi and sent up country by road tankers Transport on Land: it is transported by pipeline, road tanker and rail tankers. 87 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Natural Gas: it is found in oil-bearing rocks above the oil. These rocks have millions of tiny holes. They act like a tiny sponge and soak up the gas as is it formed. Above the rock there is a layer of non-porous rocks that trap the gas underground and stop it from leaking out to the surface. Natural gas is made up of many gases especially methane, ethane, propane and butanes. Main Gas fields in Pakistan: Sui Pirkoh Mari Meyal Dhurnal LPG & CNG: When natural gas is cooled to a very low temperature it turns into liquid which is called Liquefied Petroleum Gas. It can be moved easily in cylinders to remote places and mountainous areas like Murree, Gilgit etc. When methane is compressed and stored at high pressure it produces Compressed Natural Gas. It is widely used in running vehicles these days. 88 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Nuclear Energy Nuclear power, electricity generated by power plants that derive their heat from fission in a nuclear reactor. Except for the reactor, which plays the role of a boiler in a fossil-fuel power plant, a nuclear power plant is similar to a large coal-fired power plant, with pumps, valves, steam generators, turbines, electric generators, condensers, and associated equipment. During fission, a neutron bombards a uranium atom, releasing more neutrons and triggering a chain reaction. In nuclear power plants, neutrons collide with uranium atoms, splitting them. This split releases neutrons from the uranium that in turn collide with other atoms, causing a chain reaction. This chain reaction is controlled with "control rods" that absorb neutrons. Nuclear Power Plants in Pakistan: Karachi Nuclear Power Plant KANUPP commissioned in 1971 Chashma Nuclear Power Plant commissioned in 1999 The Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC) is working alongside the China National Nuclear Corporation for further development. 89 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Hazards of Nuclear Energy: Nuclear Power and generation of electricity Nuclear power plants heat water to produce steam. The steam is used to spin large turbines that generate electricity. Nuclear power plants use heat produced during nuclear fission to heat water. 90 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Thermal Electricity A thermal power station is a power station in which heat energy is converted to electric power. In most of the places in the world the turbine is steam-driven. Water is heated, turns into steam and spins a steam turbine which drives an electrical generator. Advantages: 1. Economical for low initial cost other than any generating plant. 2. Land required less than hydro power plant. 3. Since coal is main fuel and its cost is quite cheap than petrol/diesel so generation cost is economical. 4. Maintenance is easier. 5. Thermal power plant can be installed in any location where transportation and bulk of water are available. Disadvantages: 1. The running cost for a thermal power station is comparatively high due to fuel, maintenance etc. 2. Large amount of smoke causes air pollution. The thermal power station is responsible for Global warming. 3. The heated water that comes from thermal power plant has an adverse effect on the aquatic lives in the water and disturbs the ecology. 4. Overall efficiency of thermal power plant is low like less 30%. 91 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Renewable Energy Resources With the ever-growing population and the dearth of fossils, there is a need to rely on renewable sources of energy. Renewable energy resources offer cleaner alternatives to fossil fuels. They are not completely problem-free, but they produce much less pollution and fewer greenhouse gases, and by definition, will not run out. Here are our main sources of renewable energy: Solar Energy The sun is our most powerful source of energy. Sunlight, or solar energy, can be used for heating, lighting and cooling homes and other buildings, generating electricity, water heating, and a variety of industrial processes. The technology used to harvest the sun's energy is constantly evolving, including water-heating rooftop pipes, photo-voltaic cells, and mirror arrays. Rooftop panels are not intrusive, but large arrays on the ground can compete with wildlife habitat. 92 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Wind Power Wind is the movement of air that occurs when warm air rises and cooler air rushes in to replace it. The energy of the wind has been used for centuries to sail ships and drive windmills that grind grain. Today, wind energy is captured by wind turbines and used to generate electricity. Issues periodically arise about where turbines are installed, as they can be problematic for migrating birds and bats. 93 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Hydro-electric Power Water flowing downstream is a powerful force. Water is a renewable resource, constantly recharged by the global cycle of evaporation and precipitation. The heat of the sun causes water in lakes and oceans to evaporate and form clouds. The water then falls back to Earth as rain or snow and drains into rivers and streams that flow back to the ocean. Flowing water can be used to power water wheels that drive mechanical processes. And captured by turbines and generators, like those housed at many dams around the world, the energy of flowing water can be used to generate electricity. Tiny turbines can even be used to power single homes. 94 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Biomass Biomass has been an important source of energy ever since people first began burning wood to cook food and warm themselves against the winter chill. Wood is still the most common source of biomass energy, but other sources of biomass energy include food crops, grasses and other plants, agricultural and forestry waste and residue, organic components from municipal and industrial wastes, even methane gas harvested from community landfills. Biomass can be used to produce electricity and as fuel for transportation, or to manufacture products that would otherwise require the use of non-renewable fossil fuels. 95 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Geo-thermal Power The heat inside the Earth produces steam and hot water that can be used to power generators and produce electricity, or for other applications such as home heating and power generation for industry. Geothermal energy can be drawn from deep underground reservoirs by drilling, or from other geothermal reservoirs closer to the surface. This application is increasingly used to offset heating and cooling costs in residential and commercial buildings. 96 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Tidal Power The ocean provides several forms of renewable energy, and each one is driven by different forces. Energy from ocean waves and tides can be harnessed to generate electricity, and ocean thermal energy—from the heat stored in seawater—can also be converted to electricity. Using current technologies, most ocean energy is not cost-effective compared to other renewable energy sources, but the ocean remains an important potential energy source for the future. 97 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 A. In order to solve our energy crisis, we should set up more thermal power stations that make use of locally available fossil fuels (coal, gas, oil) and biomass sources. B. The energy crisis can only be solved on sustainable grounds, if we develop alternative sources of energy Which view do you agree with more? Give reasons to support your answer and refer to examples you have studied. You should consider both View A and B in your answer. [6] ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 98 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT 99 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Agriculture as an Industry Agriculture is a primary industry concerned with obtaining raw material from the ground for immediate consumption or for further processing. It is a systematic process that contains inputs, processes and outputs NATURAL INPUTS Land Soil Climate Water HUMAN INPUTS Capital Machines Fertilizers Labor Knowledge Land Ownership Traditions Irrigation Pesticides PROCESS ON FARMS Ploughing Sowing Irrigation Fertilizing Weeding Harvesting Threshing Milking Breeding 100 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Difference between Subsistence Farming, Cash Crop & Livestock Farming SUBSISTENCE FARMING Farmers and family work (inherited knowledge) Production is used for their own consumption Old and traditional methods Small farms Draft power is used Seeds are not of good quality (desi varieties) Natural manure/ wooden plough Manual labor/ some unskilled labor Usually ground water is used CASH CROP FARMING Modern methods of farming Chemical fertilizer Machinery is used for ploughing, seeding, harvesting and threshing High yield variety of seeds Skilled labor Chemical fertilizers Insecticides and pesticides are used. Cropping Seasons in Pakistan RABI CROP – (WINTER CROPS) Sown in water between Oct-Nov. Harvesting in early summer April-May Wheat, barley, grams, oil seeds, pulses KHARIF CROP: (SUMMER CROPS) Sown in summer (April-June) Harvested in winter (Oct-Nov) Rice, sugar cane, mullets, maize, cotton 101 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 PAKISTAN – The Major Crops Wheat: Wheat is a grass widely cultivated for its seed, a cereal grain which is a worldwide staple food. It is a Rabi crop that is mainly grown in the canal irrigated areas of Sindh and Punjab. Nawabshah in Sindh, Bahawalpur, Bahawalnagar, Multan and Rahim Yar Khan in Punjab are major wheat growing regions. Low grades of wheat and by-products of the flour-milling are used as feed for the livestock. Maxi Pak is the most widely used variety in Pakistan. Others are Lasani - 08, AARI - 11& Faisalabad – 08. It requires: Mild temperature 10 C – 20 C at time of growing 25 C – 30 C for ripening (90 days to prepare) Moderate rainfall Flat and undulating land Well drained area Moderately stiff loamy or clayey soil Cultivation of Wheat in Barani Lands: Barani areas are dependent upon rain for agriculture as irrigation is not possible due to rugged landscape. The cultivation depends upon the rainfall months (Dec-Mar). Potwar Plateau and some areas of KPK are the barani lands in Pakistan. 102 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Rice: Rice is an important grain crop that is grown as a Kharif Crop. Larkana in Sindh and Gujranwala and Sialkot in Punjab are major rice growing regions. Moreover, it can be grown in the northern hilly regions on the terraced fields. Basmati, Kernel, IRRI and Super Rice are the varieties grown in Pakistan. The process of cultivation: ample amount of water is needed to grow rice. Seeds are initially sown into beds or nurseries. When the plant is about 9 inches high, it is transplanted into the prepared (ploughed, weeded) fields already flooded to a depth of 30-37 cm. the fields are kept inundated until the rice is ripe. The water is then drained off and threshing starts. The rice is then taken to rice mills for polishing & packing. The main by-products of rice are rice straw, rice husk or hull, and rice bran. Rice straw is produced when harvesting paddy. Straw comes from what is left on the plant after it is harvested and the grains are threshed. Rice husks or hulls are generated during the first stage of rice milling, when rough rice or paddy rice is husked. They are used for making cardboard or covering roofs of houses after mixing it with mud and water. Conditions required for growing rice: Sowing temperature 20 c – 30 c, harvesting 25 c – 30 c Heavy rainfall 1270mm – 2000mm. Also, Irrigation is used Level ground/ Loamy and clayey soil/intensive labor and machinery 103 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Cotton: Cotton, “the king of fiber”, is the most widely used textile fiber in Pakistan. It is a Kharif crop and is used for making clothes, furnishing fabrics, bed linen and industrial fabrics. Southern Punjab areas like Bahawalpur, Multan and Khanewal are famous for its production. Nawabshah, Sanghar and Naushehro Feroz are major cotton-producing regions in Sindh. Pak upland (Desi) & Nayab 78, B-557 are varieties that are in demand in Pakistan. Conditions required for growing Cotton: Ideal temperature 25 c – 30 c. (harvesting 25 c – 30 c) Rainfall about 1000 mm/Medium loamy soil/level land Transportation: After picking cotton balls are loaded on to trucks and transported to the ginning mill Seeds are separated from the lint which is tied up in to bales and transported to spinning mills. Seeds of cotton are sent to mills to extract oil / animal feed. Hazards: Locusts & leaf curl virus attack Changes in temperature/ unexpected rainfall. Unskilled farmers not using treated seeds, insecticides and pesticides, fertilizers. By-products: Cotton seeds are valuable by-products. The seeds are delinted by a similar process to ginning. Some linter is used to make candle wicks, string, cotton balls, cotton batting, paper, and cellulose products such as rayon, plastics, photographic film, and cellophane. 104 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Sugar-cane: Sugar-cane is an important Kharif crop from which sugar, brown sugar and Gur are made. Badin, Naushehro Feroz in Sindh, Faisalabad in Punjab and Peshawar in KPK are the major growing regions of sugar-cane. The stalks that are 30 cm high are planted in April-May with a distance of 30 cm. It needs regular irrigation and reaches a height of 6-7 feet. After the crop is harvested it sends up new shoots called ratoons that are left to grow. Bagasse and molasses are two major by-products left over during the processing of sugar-cane. Bagasse is a fiber left over after the sugar-cane is crushed. It is used to make paper, chipboard and animal feed. Molasses is the liquid left over after the crystallization of sugar. It is a valuable raw material for the production of citric acid, cattle feed, bakers’ yeast, synthetic rubber etc. It is also used as a fuel in sugar factories. Boilers are used to produce steam for the generation of power to run machinery in sugar mills. SPSG26, SPF338 & SPF234 are some major sugar-cane varieties produced in Pakistan. Conditions required for growing Sugar-cane: Required temperature 25c – 30c. Require plenty of rainfall. Can be grown in variety of soil- loamy and clayey with silt. Fertilizers containing nitrogen, phosphorus and potash. Process After the harvest it’s transported to sugar mills as any delay may result in loss of juice. In sugar mills sugar cane is scrubbed with chalk, to remove the smell and dirt. Then it is rolled in machines to extract the juice. https://www.wikihow.com/Plant-Sugar-Cane 105 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 PAKISTAN – The Minor Crops In addition to these crops, there are many other crops that are produced in Pakistan. They are: Maize: it is a Kharif crop. It is a food grain as well as a raw material for edible oil production. It is used in the manufacture of corn flour, custard powder and other processed foods. It is also used as fodder for animals and poultry. Mansehra, Mardan and Charsadda are the major growing regions. It requires high temperature (up to 35°C), moderate rainfall (between 50-500 mm) and porous soil. Pulses: they are rich in proteins and they are popular in the local diet. Pulses fix nitrogen in the soil, thereby helping to fertilize the crop that follows. Sukkur, Leiyah, Bannu, Khushab and Sialkot are the major regions. Millets: Jowar and Bajra are two millets produced. They are fodder for animals, poultry and are also used as a food crop. They are coarser cereals when ground into flour. Tharparkar, Kohat, Attock, Jhelum, Sargodha & Bahawalpur are some major regions where they are grown. It is drought resistant that requires moderate to high temperature of 30-35° C and can be grown on poor sandy soils. Oilseeds: oilseeds like sunflower, soya bean, rape seed, mustard, sesame produce edible oil. Bahawalpur, Sanghar, Attock and Sialkot are some regions that produce oilseeds. Tobacco: it is grown mainly in KPK in Mardan and Peshawar. It can be grown in a variety of climatic conditions but its export varieties are grown on fertile soil with irrigation. Fruit farming: fruits act as a subsistence food along with the major crops. They are mainly dependent upon the climatic conditions. Dates are grown in the Karez fields of Turbat, Makran and also in Khairpur. Bananas are widely grown in Hyderabad and nearby areas and also south-east of Punjab. Oranges & mangoes are grown in upper Sindh and south Punjab, mainly Multan. Almonds, apples, apricots and grapes are grown in highland areas like Swat, Hunza and Gilgit. 106 107 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 LIVESTOCK FARMING It is the rearing of animals (cattle/buffaloes/sheep/goats/chicken) for the purpose of draught power as well as using milk, meat and hides. It can be subsistence as well as commercial and is of three types: Settled Nomadic Transhumance Nomadic Farming: it is mainly practiced in the desert areas of Sindh, Punjab and Baluchistan. The nomads move from place to place along with their animals in search of water and pasture. These nomads rear sheep, goats and camels for the provision of food (milk, meat) and carry their loads for long distances. If they find grazing ground or water source, they settle down for weeks to allow their animals to get fodder and water. Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Transhumance: it is the system of livestock farming in which the animals are kept on pastures high up in the mountains in summer and brought down to lower pastures in winter. In areas with severe winters at lower levels, the animals are often kept in sheds. Settled Farming: Subsistence livestock farming is also practiced in the villages of Punjab and Sindh. Cows and hens are kept for milk and eggs to be consumed by the family. Excess milk is processed to make butter or ghee, which are important components of their diet. 108 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Soil – Types & Importance Sandy Soil The first type of soil is sand. It consists of small particles of weathered rock. Sandy soils are one of the poorest types of soil for growing plants because it has very low nutrients and poor in holding water, which makes it hard for the plant’s roots to absorb water. This type of soil is very good for the drainage system. Sandy soil is usually formed by the breakdown or fragmentation of rocks like granite, limestone, and quartz. Silt Soil Silt, which is known to have much smaller particles compared to the sandy soil and is made up of rock and other mineral particles which are smaller than sand and larger than clay. It is the smooth and quite fine quality of the soil that holds water better than sand. Silt is easily transported by moving currents and it is mainly found near the river, lake, and other water bodies. The slit soil is more fertile compared to the other three types of soil. Therefore it is also used in agricultural practices to improve soil fertility. 109 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Clay Soil Clay is the smallest particles amongst the other two types of soil. The particles in this soil are tightly packed together with each other with very little or no airspace. This soil has very good water storage qualities and making hard for moisture and air to penetrate into it. It is very sticky to the touch when wet, but smooth when dried. Clay is the densest and heaviest type of soil which do not drain well or provide space for plant roots to flourish. Loamy Soil Loam is the fourth type of soil. It is a combination of sand, silt, and clay such that the beneficial properties from each is included. For instance, it has the ability to retain moisture and nutrients, hence, it is more suitable for farming. This soil is also referred to as an agricultural soil as it includes an equilibrium of all three types of soil materials being sandy, clay, and silt and it also happens to have hummus. Apart from these, it also has higher calcium and pH levels because of its inorganic origins. Characteristics of sandy soil: Sandy soil essentially consists of small particles formed by weathering rocks. It is also very low nutrients and poor in holding water, which makes it one of the poorest types of soil for agriculture. Significant features of a silty soil: Silt has much smaller particles compared to sand. It is also made up of rock and other mineral particles. Furthermore, its fine quality holds water better than sand. Due to the above-mentioned features, it is also beneficial for agriculture. Characteristic of Clayey soil: Clay contains the smallest particles amongst the other two types of soil. Particles are so densely packed that there is very little or no airspace. Consequently, this property effectively retains water. However, it also becomes hard for moisture and air to penetrate into it, thereby impeding the growth of plants. 110 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Pesticides A pesticide is any chemical which is used by man to control pests. The pests may be insects, plant diseases, fungi, weeds, nematodes, snails, slugs, etc. Therefore, insecticides, fungicides, herbicides, etc., are all types of pesticides. Fungicides are used to control fungal problems like molds, mildew, and rust. Herbicides kill or inhibit the growth of unwanted plants, aka weeds. Insecticides are used to control insects. Fertilizers The application of fertilizers (traditional or chemical) has increased the output. Nitrogenous fertilizers are used extensively, about 75% of the total fertilizers used as the soils are deficient in organic matters. Phosphate and Potash based fertilizers constitute the remaining 25%. High-yielding Varieties of Seeds (HYV’s) The use of high-yielding varieties also increases output by 10-20% if fertilizer is applied and sufficient water is supplied. They are extensively used on commercial farms. Land Reforms It is the statutory division of agricultural land and its reallocation to landless people. Its basic purpose was to break the hold of a few landowners, feudal landlords to overcome their monopoly. They were introduced in 1959, 1972 & 1977. 111 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 A. In order to have sustainable agriculture, organic farming techniques should be used rather than using chemical fertilizers. B. Pakistan should set up more fertilizer factories to increase agricultural production to meet the needs of its growing population Which view do you agree with more? Give reasons to support your answer and refer to examples you have studied. You should consider both View A and B in your answer. [6] ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 112 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT SECONDARY & TERTIARY INDUSTRIES 113 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 SECONDARY INDUSTRIES Secondary industry is concerned with changing raw material from the primary sector or secondary products, to form a semi-finished or finished product. It is regarded as a system with inputs, processes and outputs. They could deal with the light or heavy manufactured items. Examples of light industries of the secondary sector Food manufacturing such as dog and cat food manufacturing, flour and rice milling, and malt, breakfast cereal, chocolate and confectionery, frozen food, dried and dehydrated food, ice cream and frozen dessert manufacturing, etc. Beverage and tobacco product manufacturing such as soft drink and ice, bottled water manufacturing, wineries, breweries, and distilleries. Textiles mils, textile product mills, apparel manufacturing, leather, and allied product manufacturing. 114 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Heavy Industry refers to the production of large-scale goods with a large-scale manufacturing process. In this type of industry, the use of capital is intensive. It employs a lot of raw materials, facilities, and areas for production. Examples of heavy industries of the secondary sector Heavy industry is a term usually used to denominate the manufacture of large projects such as ships, aircraft or heavy machinery. Some activities are: Petroleum and Coal Products Manufacturing such as petroleum refineries, asphalt paving mixture, asphalt shingle, and coating materials manufacturing. Chemical manufacturing such as petrochemical, industrial gas, synthetic dye and pigment, and ethyl alcohol manufacturing. Also pesticide, fertilizer, and other agricultural chemical manufacturing. Glass and glass products. Cement and concrete production. Iron and steel mills and ferroalloy manufacturing, steel product manufacturing, alumina, and aluminum production and processing. Agriculture, construction, mining, and industrial machinery manufacturing. Transportation Equipment Manufacturing such as motor vehicle body and trailer manufacturing, aerospace product and parts manufacturing, and ship and boat Building. 115 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Where can the industries be located? The 7 Location Factors Raw Materials Materials that are important to the business must be located near the source. For e.g. wherever the ore is, the copper mining plant must be nearby. Markets A company that is close to the consumer population reduces costs as well as ensures rapid delivery Availability of Fresh Water and Power Large factories need a good source of water for the manufacturing process. For e.g. Steel factories need large amounts of water for the cooling process. Also, Aluminum needs large amounts of electricity to be fabricated, and therefore must be near a good source Labor Supply Highly skilled workers are important (near universities and colleges) Availability and cost are important Low cost labor Transportation An efficient transportation service is vital to get the product to the consumer (e.g. Rail, Water, and Road). Also, ships are cheaper and more efficient for bulk industries. Government 1) Direct - Government encourages investment by offering advantages -Low taxes, cheap land 2) Indirect - improving infrastructure that will attract businesses - e.g. a new fast highway for a business to be located Circumstances 1) Less easy to measure than the other factors. 2) Depends on the entrepreneur or whoever puts the idea into practice 116 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Major Industries in Pakistan Cotton Textile Industry It is considered to be the largest industry in Pakistan due to the ample growth of the raw cotton here. Karachi, Hyderabad and Faisalabad are the main centers of the cotton textile industry. 117 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Factors affecting the location of textile industries Karachi: Port city, sufficient labor, no extra transportation cost, humid weather attracts cotton clothes, availability of power supply from Korangi Thermal Power Station, Bin Qasim Thermal Power Station & KANUPP, efficient transport system, entrepreneurs ready to invest. Faisalabad: close to the cotton belt of Punjab, no shortage of labor, large local market, favorable govt. policies & infrastructure Hyderabad: located in the cotton producing areas of lower Sindh, large local market in Sindh, machinery can be arranged by importing it to Karachi port. Others: domestic market, favorable govt. policies 118 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Sugar Industry It is one of the major industries in Pakistan due to the excessive consumption of sugar in Pakistan. The increase in the growth of sugar-cane has also played an important role in that. Sugar mills are located in Punjab, Sindh and KPK. The dry and rugged terrain of Baluchistan doesn’t allow any mill to be built there. 119 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 How is sugar made from sugar-cane? Distribution of sugar mills in Pakistan Sugar mills are widely distributed and located in the sugarcane growing areas. In Pakistan there are three main sugarcane growing areas i.e. In KPK Peshawar – Mardan region Canal irrigated areas of Punjab. Faisalabad, Sheikhupura, Gujranwala, Bahawalpur and Rahim Yar Khan In canal irrigated areas of Sindh near river Indus sugar mills are located in the districts of Larkana, Nawabshah, Hyderabad, Thatta and Badin. 120 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 At sugar mills, the milling season lasts only 160 days. What problems does this cause and how might they be overcome? Problems: Sugar mills run from November to March. These mills provide seasonal employment. The problem is that the labor is unemployed for the rest of the year. Thus skilled workers may be lost to other countries. It also means that machinery is not used to its full capacity. The machinery also deteriorates through lack of use. Solutions: Industries may be developed using the by-products and labor may be employed there. Labor can work in the bagasse processing industry for making chip boards, particle boards, paper etc. Labor can work in molasses processing chemical industries. Workers may be encouraged to work in cotton industries. Many workers are poor farmers who may return to their farms with an extra income earned. 121 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Fertilizer Industry Chemical fertilizers have considerably increased since the Green Revolution in 1960’s. Fertilizers have since been the backbone of Pakistan’s agricultural growth. Reasons of the fertilizer factories being situated in the area All the fertilizer factories lie very close to the main natural gas pipeline. This is because natural gas is a raw material for the manufacture of chemical fertilizers. Other raw material such as coal and gypsum, Nitrate, Potassium, Phosphate are also available. Punjab is mainly an agricultural region. It has a greater demand for fertilizers, therefore Punjab has many fertilizer factories. Land in Pakistan also lacks in organic matters and nutrients so chemical fertilizers are needed. 122 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Raw materials used in Fertilizers Sulphur Phosphate Gypsum Natural gas since 1952 Issuance of LNG (Liquefied Natural Gas) regasification licenses and the establishment of new fertilizer plants by prominent organizations within the country. Types of Fertilizers in Pakistan Nitrogenous (the most commonly used) Phosphate Potassium 123 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Why has the fertilizer industry grown in recent years? Pakistan needs to grow more food on account of fast growth of population. Wheat is the staple diet of the people of the country / increasing population more demand. High yield varieties (HYVs) of seeds are being used in order to increase the yield. These seeds require large doses of fertilizers. Natural fertilizers (cow-dung and compost) do not meet the demand. Due to successive years of farming continuous cropping soil loses its fertility hence the need for chemical fertilizers. Raw material like Gypsum, potassium phosphate, nitrate is easily available. Labor is easily available / Govt. support and encouragement. 124 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Cement Industry They are located in Sindh, Punjab and KPK and is one of the up-and-coming industries in Pakistan due to various reasons: Ever-growing population and the demand of housing schemes Availability of raw material (limestone and gypsum industry) Good domestic market with high demand from the construction industry Natural gas is used as a cheap fuel 125 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Steel Industry It is a landmark industry that is the cornerstone towards the road to industrialization. Initially it was considered to be useful in producing consumer goods but with passage of time it has emphasized more towards industrial development. Currently, steel is produced at: Pakistan Steel Mills located about 40 km east of Karachi on Gharo Creek near Port Qasim (built with the assistance from USSR in 1973) The Heavy Mechanical Complex at Taxilla, built in 1979 Extracting iron from iron ore and steel production 126 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 USES OF STEEL PRODUCTS: PSM products are used as process materials by the engineering industry in producing a variety of finished steel products. The following are some of these uses: COKE: Melting iron scrap Carbonization in sugar mills Producing calcium carbide and other chemicals PIG IRON: Iron and steel castings Equipment components Ductile iron pipes and pipe fittings BILLETS: Steel rails and reinforcement bars Twisted and ribbed bars Rods and wire rods Seamless pipes and gas cylinders HOT ROLLED COILS/SHEETS: Storage tanks Seam welded pipes for gas, water and oil Ships and launches Fabricated structures and welded beams Wheel rims COLD ROLLED COILS/SHEETS: Steel pipes Tin plates Steel furniture Oil and gas appliances GALVANIZED COILS/SHEETS: Roofing, shuttering, paneling Buckets and tubs Air conditioners and water heaters Fresh water tanks, ducting and home appliances 127 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Q-Q Explain the factors that contributed to the making of Steel Mills in Karachi. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 128 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Development of small scale industries The government has taken the following steps to help the development of small scale industries. Small scale Industries Development Corporation was established in 1965. In recent years SMEDA (Small and Medium Enterprise Development Authority) has been set up. Industry Development Bank of Pakistan was opened to provide financial assistance. Technical assistance is provided through establishment training centers and polytechnic institutes for both males and females. Small industrial estates have been created in many large cities of Pakistan where infrastructure is provided by the government. Handicrafts show rooms and display centers have been opened in large cities and exhibitions are arranged. Carpets, surgical instruments, hosiery, garments, leather goods are examples. Types of Goods Capital goods: Manufactured goods which are used to get further production such as industrial machinery are called capital goods. Sugar mill machinery and cotton mill machinery are capital goods. Consumer goods: Manufactured goods, which fulfill daily needs of life or articles of daily use are called Consumer goods. Cloth, small machinery, cosmetics, electrical goods and appliances are examples of consumer goods. 129 130 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 BASIS FOR COMPARISON CONSUMER GOODS CAPITAL GOODS Meaning Goods that are used by the end user for consumption is called consumer goods. Goods that are deployed to produce consumer goods is called capital goods. Marketing Business to Consumer Business to Business Purpose Bought for personal consumption. Bought for making other products. Buyer Consumer Manufacturers Demand High Comparatively less Price determination By suppliers By companies Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 A. We need to set up more large-scale industries such as the Pakistan Steel Mills in Karachi to provide raw material for engineering and construction industries. B. We have limited economic resources to develop large-scale industries. However, setting up more small-scale industries in rural and urban areas is more feasible. Which view do you agree with more? Give reasons to support your answer and refer to examples you have studied. You should consider both View A and B in your answer. [6] ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………... 131 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Industrial Estates An industrial estate is a place where necessary infrastructural facilities are made available to entrepreneurs. Industrial parks, industrial zone, industrial area, industrial townships are some of the other terms used to denote industrial estates. Sindh Industrial Trading Estate (SITE) and Korangi Industrial Area are major Industrial Estates in Karachi. Special Industrial Zones (EPZA) These are specially confined areas planned to support the manufacture and trade of various export products. It can be developed even in those areas where infrastructure facilities like water supply, electricity, telephone and metaled roads are not available. The interested companies, entrepreneurs are encouraged to develop such remote areas along with the government agencies to provide public facilities. The investors are also allowed to develop their residential, commercial and social facilities in the vicinity of the industrial zone. The govt. in response offers incentives like tax exemptions, relaxation in import of machinery and security. The Export Processing Zone is located in the Landhi area of Karachi. Karachi being a port, the main advantage is the ease in the import of industrial raw material and export of finished goods. Every kind of infrastructure is available. Electric power, water supply and natural gas is available. Proximity to Port Qasim is a big advantage. Labor of every kind is available in Karachi. It has road and railway connections. Access to airport. 132 133 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 What are Formal & Informal Organizations? BASIS FOR COMPARISON FORMAL ORGANIZATION INFORMAL ORGANIZATION Meaning An organization type in which the job of each member is clearly defined, whose authority, responsibility and accountability are fixed is formal organization. An organization formed within the formal organization as a network of interpersonal relationship, when people interact with each other, is known as informal communication. Creation Deliberately by top management. Spontaneously by members. Purpose To fulfill, the ultimate objective of the organization. To satisfy their social and psychological needs. Nature Stable, it continues for a long time. Not stable Control mechanism Rules and Regulations Norms, values and beliefs Focus on Work performance Interpersonal relationship Authority Members are bound by hierarchical structure. All members are equal. Size Large Small Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Cottage Industries & Types A cottage industry is a small-scale, decentralized manufacturing business often operated out of a home rather than a purpose-built facility. Cottage industries are defined by the amount of investment required to start, as well as the number of people employed. They often focus on the production of labor-intensive goods but face a significant disadvantage when competing with factory-based manufacturers that mass-produce goods. 134 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Problems of the Small-scale and Cottage Industries Limited profits don’t allow extra capital for the expansion of industrial units Economies of scale are not available so production cost is higher Lack of standardization to meet quality of foreign markets Outdated machinery and poor production methods Lack of electricity in rural areas and frequent power break-downs The craftsmen learn the skills from their ancestors and lack technical advice Ways of controlling Industrial Pollution Source control is by careful selection of raw material, proper maintenance of machinery, adoption of newer technologies and know- how, setting up efficiently functioning waste treatment facilities etc. This is a very important factor considering the environment around the factory Wastes must be treated before disposal. Need to plant and grow more trees as these act as buffers and natural purifiers for the environment Government agencies such as the Environmental Protection Agency must be allowed to take stringent action against defaulters and corporations that flout the rules laid down by such agencies. Environmental impact assessment should be carried out regularly which intends to identify and evaluate the potential and harmful impacts of the industries on natural ecosystem. 135 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Tertiary Industry It is an industry which does not produce raw materials or manufacture products but offers a service such as banking, retailing, accountancy, sports, showbiz, call centers and tourism. In some cases it is dependent upon the primary and secondary industry; extraction of oil - oil refinery - petrol pumps. The main aim is to provide services to the end users. Tourism It is one of the most fruitful of industries in the tertiary sector. Pakistan is blessed to have some beautiful places that are a source of attraction for the tourists from all over the world. Tourism is of different types like recreational, environmental, religious, historical, cultural, adventure & religious. 136 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Why is tourism an important industry? Tourism is considered an asset for any country in terms of economic growth. Tourism can stimulate GDP growth of the country. Travel and tourism currently contribute 7.4 % to the GDP of Pakistan. Tourism increases international trade and commerce. Infrastructure development like roads, railways, airports, water & energy supply and medical services takes place to encourage tourism. Low income economies are largely supported with the arrival of international tourists. Tourism is one of the largest sources to generate employment opportunities. Due to its wider supply chain, tourism promotes inclusive growth as it has the potential to reach and benefit a larger proportion of the population. Rural communities are strengthened by the tourism that alleviates poverty. Handicrafts of artisans have opened up to global market with tourism. Problems faced by Tourist Industry Lack of transportation and communication Lack of trained tourism manpower Lack of good quality hotels Ineffective security measures Not much importance given by the government as an industry Lack of funds to improve the infrastructure 137 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 A. Pakistan should spend more on building roads in remote, sparsely populated, but tourist relevant areas in order to attract visitors to them. B. To reduce expenditure on developing facilities for tourists elsewhere in Pakistan, they should be encouraged to stay in the cities where there are historical and cultural attractions. Which view do you agree with more? Give reasons to support your answer and refer to examples you have studied. You should consider both View A and B in your answer. [6] ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………... 138 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 TRADE 139 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 What is trade? It is the exchange of goods from the producer to consumer. It is the basis of any country’s economic growth. Benefits of trade: Greater Variety of Goods Available for Consumption Efficient Allocation and Better Utilization of Resources Promotes Efficiency in Production & Employment Consumption at Cheaper Cost Reduces Trade Fluctuations Utilization of Surplus Produce Fosters Peace and Goodwill Exports and Imports Exports are the goods and services produced in one country and purchased by residents of another country. It doesn't matter what the good or service is or how it is sent. If it is produced domestically and sold to someone in a foreign country, it is an export. The other component is imports. They are the goods and services bought by a country's residents that are produced in a foreign country. Combined, they make up a country's trade balance. When the country exports more than it imports, it has a trade surplus. When it imports more than it exports, it has a trade deficit. 140 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 What is Balance of Payments (BOP)? It is the difference in the amount earned through exports and imports. Reasons of Negative Balance of Payments & ways of correction Import of capital goods (machinery) & consumer goods (food items) Import of luxury items (cars, mobiles, computers) Export of small variety & lack of quality control Rise in oil price International restrictions It can however be corrected by: Increasing exports and restricting imports Curtailing imports related to the tertiary sector 141 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Balance of Trade vs Balance of Payments Balance of Trade is the difference between the value of exports & imports of goods only during a given period of time, but Balance of Payments also includes the service sector (tertiary industries) in the above definition. Pakistan – Exports & Imports 142 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Gross Domestic Product & Gross National Product GDP or Gross Domestic Product: is calculated either by measuring all income earned within a country, or by measuring all expenditures within the country, which should approximately be the same. GNP or Gross National Product: uses GDP, but adds income from foreign sources, less income paid to foreign citizens and entities. Pakistan’s trading routes & its strategic importance Pakistan is located at a prime location in South East Asia that makes it a viable option for other countries for trade. 143 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 144 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Dry Ports Some inland cities, which are far from the seaports, have established dry ports I order to promote foreign trade. The cities which act as dry ports help to speed up export and import procedures e.g. by giving clearance by the custom authorities, by checking processes etc. How does a Dry Port work? Export material Checking Clearance from custom authorities Storage Transportation Seaport Export destination Distribution of Dry Ports In Sindh they are located in Hyderabad and Larkana. In Punjab they are located in Lahore, Multan, Faisalabad, Sialkot and Rawalpindi. In KPK, it is located in Peshawar. In Baluchistan, it is located in Quetta. Requirements of Dry Ports: Highly efficient rail transport with a container service to carry bulk cargo Efficient managerial staff Huge storage sheds and open areas Refrigeration facilities for perishable goods (fruits & vegetables) 145 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Trade Barriers Trade barriers are government policies which place restrictions on international trade. Trade barriers can either make trade more difficult and expensive (tariff barriers) or prevent trade completely (e.g. trade embargo) Examples of Trade Barriers: Tariff Barriers: These are taxes on certain imports. They raise the price of goods making imports less competitive Non-Tariff Barriers: These involve rules and regulations which make trade more difficult. For example, if foreign companies have to adhere to complex manufacturing laws it can be difficult to trade Quotas: A limit placed on the number of imports Voluntary Export Restraint (VER): Similar to quotas, this is where countries agree to limit the number of imports. This was used by US for imports of Japanese cars Subsidies: A domestic subsidy from government can give the local firm a competitive advantage Embargo: A complete ban on imports from a certain country. E.g. US embargo with Cuba Advantages: It gives rise to greater self-sufficiency and reduces foreign dependency. It also protects the local industries and create employment. There is a greater exploitation of local resources that increases the domestic demand. Also, the Balance of Payments is improved. Disadvantages: By limiting the imports there is a limited range of goods to choose from. This may lead to complacency as the local industries would know there is hardly any competition. Moreover, even those goods which the country produces inefficiently and at high cost would need to be produced. 146 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Trading Blocs A regional trading bloc is a group of countries within a geographical region that protect themselves from imports from non-members. Trading blocs are a form of economic integration, and increasingly shape the pattern of world trade. Pakistan is a member of the following trading blocs: South Asian Association of Regional Cooperation (SAARC) Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO), formerly called RCD Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) These organizations have not been very effective due to political disputes between the member countries. Some other major trading blocs are: European Union (EU) Trans-Pacific Trading Partnership (TPP) Trans-Atlantic Trading and Investment Partnership (TTIP) Pakistan can benefit a lot if she trades with the EU. It will give her access to an expanded market of 28 countries It will pave the way to export-oriented industries More investment by local and foreign investors, more employment EU countries have few trade barriers EU countries are politically and economically stable In recent times, trade between Pakistan & EU has been disrupted due to: Terrorism and declining law and order situation Environmental concerns and child labor issues The produce of Pakistan lacks standardization due to lack of quality control Failure to adopt a continuous policy due to frequent change in the govt. 147 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 A. Pakistan should focus on expanding trade with China than EU countries B. Pakistan has had stable relations with some countries in Europe since 1947 and should continue to do so now that these countries are in the European Union. Which view do you agree with more? Give reasons to support your answer and refer to examples you have studied. You should consider both View A and B in your answer. [6] ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………... 148 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 TRANSPORT AND TELECOMMUNICATIONS 149 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Importance of an efficient transport system The development of a transport system provides a sound base for the socioeconomic growth of a country. With a growing population and expansion in agriculture and industry, the demand for efficient transport has increased over the years. Pakistan Railways It extends to 11,899 kms stretching from Karachi to Peshawar. In the highland areas in the north, railway tracks are non-existent. 150 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Types of Railway Tracks Advantages of Railway Transport They are dependable and better organized with cheaper rates They are suitable for bulky goods and can travel faster on long distances The capacity is sufficient to mobilize the goods It is safer than other modes of transport and is least affected by turbulent weather Disadvantages of Railway transport It requires a huge investment for the tracks to be built and maintain Lack of flexibility as the routes and timings can’t be changed Lack of door-to-door service It is unsuitable and uneconomical for short distance and small traffic of goods 151 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Road Network It is the most popular means of transport. Pakistan has developed a dense network of Highways and Motorways to cater the need of its growing population. 152 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Principal Roads of Pakistan Highways & Roads The N5 – The National Highway – Grand Trunk Road: it stretches for 1260 kms from Karachi, through Lahore and Peshawar to Turkham which is the town on the Pak-Afghan border. It changes its name at Lahore. The National Highway: it is the name of N5 from Karachi to Lahore. The Grand Trunk Road: the N5 from Lahore to Peshawar is G.T. Road. The Indus Highway: from Karachi to Hyderabad it is called the Super Highway. From here on, it leads to Dadu, Larkana, Shikarpur, and DG. Khan. The RCD Highway: it connects Karachi with Quetta on its way to Iran & Turkey. Route 50: connects Lahore with Quetta via the Derajats & Suleiman Range. Route 65: connects Sukkur with Quetta via Shikarpur, Sibi & Bolan Pass. Karakoram Highway: connects Pakistan and China. 153 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 The Pakistan Motorway 154 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 The Motorway is divided under the following major sections: M1: connects Islamabad with Peshawar (155 kms long). M2: connects Islamabad with Lahore (339 kms long). M3: connects Rawalpindi with Faisalabad, also called Pindi Bhattian. (78 kms long). M4: it will connect Faisalabad with Multan. Once completed, it will connect M2 with M5. M5: under construction, it will connect Multan with Sukkur. M6: a proposed motorway, it will connect Sukkur with Hyderabad. M7: a proposed motorway, it will connect Dadu with Hub M8: connects Sukkur with Larkana and ends at Gwadar. 155 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Air Transport Air transport is most effective for low volume and high value goods (mostly perishable) that need to be moved quickly. The major airports in Pakistan are as follows: Karachi Lahore Islamabad Peshawar Quetta Gwadar Faisalabad Multan Sialkot 156 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Water Transport Waterways are important for handling high bulk goods which do not need quick movement. The inland waterways along rivers are not developed but seaports handle most of the international trade. At present, the country has three major seaports; Keamari, Port Qasim and Gwadar. Importance of Pakistan’s seaports All of the seaports mentioned above are deep-water ports that can manage a large workload and receive tankers, containers, bulk and general cargo ships. They are warm water ports and are operational in all seasons which provides great opportunities for trade. The construction of Gwadar Seaport has allowed Pakistan to trade with Middle East and distant countries in Africa. 157 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Telecommunications Telecommunication devices include radios, televisions, telephones, facsimile (fax) machines and computers. These devices provide rapid, long distance communication, convert sound and images into signals which are then transmitted along wires or radio waves in worldwide systems. The internet has taken world by storm and has led to the world being a global village. The major institutions responsible for telecommunication in Pakistan: Pakistan Telecommunication Limited (PTCL) Pakistan Telecommunication Authority (PTA) National Telecommunication Corporation (NTC) Pakistan Broadcasting Corporation (PBC) Pakistan Television Corporation (PTV) Pakistan Post Office (PPO) Problems/disadvantages of developing telecommunications in Pakistan Faults/breakdowns, load shedding & loss of power supplies. Loss of employment as computer technology is more efficient. Easy access to some websites may harm local culture and values. Cyber-attacks can retrieve country’s sensitive data. Computers are capital intensive that aren’t affordable for all. 158 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 A. If Pakistan is to develop economically, it is essential to have a network of Motorways in all agricultural and industrial regions. B. Compared to Punjab and Sindh, KPK and Baluchistan have a far less dense road network, which is creating problem in the development of these areas. Which view do you agree with more? Give reasons to support your answer and refer to examples you have studied. You should consider both View A and B in your answer. [6] ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………... 159 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 POPULATION & EMPLOYMENT 160 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Population Growth It is directly related to birth rates, death rates and migration. Birth and death rates are measured by the average number of births and deaths per thousand people. The rate of natural increase is the difference between the birth and death rates. What is Natural Increase? It is the increase in population of an area due to the difference between the birth and death rate. Birth Rate – Death Rate = Rate of Natural Increase Reasons for High Population Growth Lack of women empowerment Illiteracy among the masses in Pakistan Imbalance between birth and death rates Lack of family planning Strong religious beliefs that focus on expanding the family Technological advancement in fertility training Increase of immigration and Afghan refugees Population Distribution and Density The distribution of population refers to the spread of people in an area. It generally changes as time passes. The density of population is the number of people per unit area. The density is obtained by dividing the total population of an area. The pattern of distribution and density are mainly affected by physical factors such as relief, climate, soil, water supply, natural vegetation, existence of natural routes and mineral resources. 161 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 The Demographic Transition Model Demographic transition is characterized by the decline in mortality followed by the decline in fertility, and it is the difference between the two that defines the natural increase in a population. 162 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 A. The overpopulation problem in Pakistan should be solved by strict implementation of family planning programmes. B. We need to develop human resources rather than controlling population growth. Which view do you agree with more? Give reasons to support your answer and refer to examples you have studied. You should consider both View A and B in your answer. [6] ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………... 163 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Population Structures - Pyramids There are generally three types of population pyramids created from age-sex distributions--expansive, constrictive and stationary. EXPANSIVE population pyramids show larger numbers or percentages of the population in the younger age groups. These types of pyramids are usually found in populations with very large fertility rates and lower than average life expectancies. The age-sex distributions of many Third World countries would probably display expansive population pyramids. CONSTRICTIVE population pyramids display lower numbers or percentages of younger people. The age-sex distributions of the United States fall into this type of pyramid. STATIONARY or near-stationary population pyramids display somewhat equal numbers or percentages for almost all age groups. Of course, smaller figures are still to be expected at the oldest age groups. The age-sex distributions of some European countries, especially Scandinavian ones, will tend to fall into this category. 164 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 165 166 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 (i) What information is displayed in the population pyramid in 1990? [2] The above pyramid shows an expansive type. It shows the percentage in certain age groups with both genders’ distribution in different age groups. It has a wider base that shows the percentage of males more than females (10.3 to 9.6) (ii) Identify TWO ways in which Pakistan’s population structure has changed from 1990-2016? [2] The base is getting narrower that shows the pyramid is moving from expansive to a constrictive one. Also, the percentage of independent population is getting more. There are more elderly aged people (iii) Give one possible reason for each change identified in (ii) [2] It is due to decrease in birth rate having small sized families. Women marry late. Also literacy rate has increased. Longer life expectancy is due to better medical facilities which lowers the death rate, it is because of improved living standards and nutritious diet. (iv) What do you mean by ‘dependent & independent population’? [2] The age groups between 0-14 & 60+ that don’t earn for themselves are known as dependent population. They need to be supported by the age group ranging from 19 to 59 who earns and make them live. (v) How does the growth in the percentage of independent population in pyramid of 2016 affect Pakistan? Discuss one positive and negative aspect each. [2] It allows Pakistan to have more earning population which means more revenue is generated in terms of taxes. It also shows that there is an aspect of teenage workers that may lead to the breach of child labor laws. This may hinder Pakistan’s relations with EU and other trade organizations. (vi) Discuss the pattern of both the pyramids mentioned above. [3+3] (1990) – the pyramid is an expansive or normal one that shows high percentage of population at the base (10.3 and 9.6 for males & females respectively). There is a relatively lesser percentage of independent population that creates an economic burden on them and results in a difference between the population/resources distribution. Overall the number of males are more than females. It ends at 0.7% for males and 0.4% for females. (2016) – it’s a constrictive pyramid that shows lesser percentage of young population in both males and females till the age group 20-24 (11.5% males & 10.7% females). The base too shows more males 10.8% males than 10.4% females. There is a gradual increase in female population by the age group 60-64 and ends that way with 0.8% of males and 1% females. Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 What makes people move towards urban areas? Main push ‘factors’ which have led to rural to urban migration are as follows: 1. Unemployment: in rural areas job opportunities are absent. There are no chances of earning a good income in rural areas. The educated people move to town and find work in government or private organizations where they can use their knowledge and skills. 2. Mechanization of farming: with the increasing use of machinery, a good number of farm workers are laid off and are no longer needed on the farm. They are forced to move to towns. 3. Lack of social welfare facilities: education and medical facilities are lacking in rural areas and many people are compiled to move to towns. 4. Not sufficient farmland for increasing population: land goes out of cultivation on account of water logging and salinity. On account of laws of inheritance there is subdivision of farm lands and many farms are so small that they cannot support a family. People are compelled to move to towns. 5. Lack of utilities: rural areas lack amenities of life such as electricity, gas, running water and telephone. 6. Lack of political freedom and security of life: it is another important push factor. The big land lords dominate the political scene and no one can dares to oppose them. In villages there are frequent family and tribal feuds and quarrels. Many people leave the villages for security of life. 7. Cultural restraints: There is lack of cultural freedom and very limited shopping and entertainment facilities in rural areas. 167 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 Migration: It is the movement of people from one area to another. It can be of different types depending on the cause, duration, distance, origin and destination. Population of an area will grow if inmigration is greater than out-migration. Immigrants are the people who arrive in the country e.g. Afghan refugees in Pakistan, and emigrants are those who leave a country, e.g. many Pakistanis leaving for Canada or the Middle East. Self-Help Schemes Usually a government sponsored scheme under which members of a community are encouraged to better themselves through means such as creating self-employment, growing own food, or making own shelter. The members contribute their labor and/or materials while the government (or some agency) provides equipment, infrastructure, land, etc. KARACHI Frustrated with Karachi Water and Sewerage Board's (KWSB) attitude towards Mohammadi Colony, popularly known as 'Machhar Colony', residents have designed a water scheme on self-help basis to supply drinking water to around 2,500 households in the neighborhood. Q-Q Explain how such schemes could be beneficial for the poor and down-trodden? ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 168 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 A. Emigration by Pakistanis to Europe or the US is good because the emigrants’ remittances help their families in Pakistan and it also helps to reduce the size of the population. B. Pakistanis should be discouraged from emigrating so that they can work to develop Pakistan’s economy. Which view do you agree with more? Give reasons to support your answer and refer to examples you have studied. You should consider both View A and B in your answer. [6] ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………... 169 Ubaid Shaikh # 021-35846963 / 0345-2168487 What causes Unemployment? The pie charts above show that whilst the percentage of labor force is lesser in Industries and Services, the contribution towards our GDP is much more. On the other hand almost half the labor force (45.1%) is involved in Agricultural sector but the output is much lesser. This shows the decline in agricultural system in recent times. Some of the reasons of unemployment are: High rate of population growth Use of mechanization in agriculture Revolution in Information Technology Cultural restraints Mismatch in demand & supply of labor force Rural-urban migration Political instability 170
