Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 39 (2017) 154–163
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jretconser
Health and cosmetics: Investigating consumers’ values for buying organic
personal care products
Ezlika Ghazalia, Pat Chen Soonb, Dilip S. Mutumc, Bang Nguyend,
MARK
⁎
a
Department of Marketing, Faculty of Business and Accountancy, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
University Malaya Graduate Business School, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
c
Nottingham University Business School, The University of Nottingham Malaysia Campus, Jalan Broga, 43500 Semenyih, Selangor, Malaysia
d
Department of Marketing, East China University of Science and Technology, 200237 Shanghai, China
b
A R T I C L E I N F O
A B S T R A C T
Keywords:
Organic personal care products
Re-purchase intention
Perceived values
Partial least equares
Theory of planned behaviour
Importance-Performance Map Analysis (IPMA)
In investigating consumers’ intentions to re-purchase organic personal care products (PCP), this study extends
the theory of planned behaviour by including perceived value dimensions as the antecedents of attitude in the
model. The findings revealed that most of the hypothesised relationships linking the consumer perceived value
constructs (namely, health, safety, hedonic and environmental) with attitude towards the rebuying of organic
PCP, were supported. Also, better product knowledge about organic PCP would lead to more positive attitudes
towards re-purchasing the product. In contrast, social value was not important in predicting attitude. Similarly,
the influence of subjective norm on rebuying intention was not supported. In terms of ranking of importance
with regards to prediction of re-purchasing intention, attitude was the most important predictor followed by
perceived behavioural control, product knowledge, hedonic value, environmental value and safety value.
1. Introduction
The market for green and organic cosmetics is expanding globally
(Onel, 2016; Raska and Shaw, 2012). The rising health- and go-green
consciousness and the growing consumer awareness of the hazards of
synthetic chemicals have fuelled the demand for a healthier life style
and for organic personal care products (PCP). Organic PCP comprises of
skin care, hair care, oral care, colour cosmetics, deodorants, toiletries
and feminine hygiene products. They are formulated from agricultural
ingredients which are grown without the use of pesticides, synthetic
fertilizers, sewage sludge, genetically modified organisms or ionizing
radiation, making them more desirable among these green consumers
(Organic.org, 2016). In the global market, Ecocert, the USDA, the ICEA,
the Soil Association, the BDiH, CosmeBio, and the Control Union are the
leading organic certification bodies.
According to the Organic Monitor (2016), Asian consumers are now
also turning to natural and organic cosmetics. In Malaysia, PCP have
become part of the urban culture whereby urbanites consume at least
one type of item on a daily basis (Davis, 2010). Malaysia's organic
cosmetics market is anticipated to grow at a compound annual growth
rate (CAGR) of 9.7% during the forecast period 2014–2020, reaching a
value of US$ 533.3 million (FMI, 2015). Considering this sizeable
market volume and significant growth, the market for organic PCP
⁎
constitutes an important sector that requires an in-depth investigation.
In particular, understanding Malaysian consumers’ decisions behind
why they choose to purchase organic PCP has become worthwhile due
to the recent trends and transition into a more green cosmetics market
(Dutta and Youn, 1999; Nguyen and Rowley, 2015).
Previously, the literature on green products have focused mainly on
organic foods (e.g. Chen, 2007; Padel and Foster, 2005; Zanoli and
Naspetti, 2002; Yadav, 2016). There has been little research on the
understanding consumers’ purchasing behaviour with regards to organic personal care products (Cervellon and Carey, 2011; Kim and
Chung, 2011). In principle, many analogies exist between consumer
choices regarding organic foods and organic PCP (e.g., Lin et al., 2017).
Thus, some of the findings from previous studies related organic food
produced were utilised as the basis for this study.
This study examines Malaysian consumers’ perceptions toward repurchasing organic PCP and seeks to understand the relationship between values, attitudes and behavioural intentions. Based on an extensive review of the literature, the study focuses on the value aspects
of health, safety, environment, hedonic value and social value, as well
as product knowledge. Focusing on these issues and values relating to
organic PCP decision-making ensures a greater understanding of the
green consumers that will have both theoretical and practical significance for marketers. The study also expands on Ajzen and Fishbein
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: ezlika@um.edu.my (E. Ghazali), soonpc@siswa.um.edu.my (P.C. Soon), Dilip.Mutum@nottingham.edu.my (D.S. Mutum), bang.london@gmail.com (B. Nguyen).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2017.08.002
Received 28 March 2017; Received in revised form 24 June 2017; Accepted 2 August 2017
Available online 10 August 2017
0969-6989/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 39 (2017) 154–163
E. Ghazali et al.
health preservation and improvement of health are among the predominant motives driving organic consumption (Dardak et al., 2009;
Xie et al., 2015; Yin et al., 2010).
The health aspect of organic consumption is often associated with
the absence of chemicals, such as pesticides and chemical-based fertilizers, used in agriculture (Xie et al., 2015). Many consumers feel that
organic foods are healthier than conventional products because they are
free from pesticides and other chemical residues (Wier et al., 2008).
Smith-Spangler et al. (2012) suggested that the consumption of organic
products might reduce exposure to pesticide residues and antibioticresistant bacteria that can lead to health risks. Magnusson et al. (2003)
also showed that concerns about their own personal and their family
health, was the most important factor influencing consumers’ attitude
towards organic food. Han and Chung (2014) also found that the perceived health benefits have a significant influence on attitude toward
purchasing organic cotton apparels. Thus, it is highly likely that the
perceived health value will have similar relationship with repurchase of
organic PCP as well and we propose that:
(1980) Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) and develops a conceptual
model which links perceived values to green consumers’ attitudes,
which in turn influences their re-purchase intention. In particular, by
investigating the impact of attitude, subjective norms and perceived
behavioural control on re-purchase intention, the ‘attitude-intention’
framework is tested and validated in the context of organic PCP. In
doing so, several theoretical implications arise from the current study.
Another important contribution of this study is that it focuses on repurchase intentions as opposed to purchase intentions. In other words,
this study examines factors influencing repeat purchase intentions,
which may be different from purchasing for the first time. This study is
also the first to study the influence of the specific types of consumers’
perceived values, namely, hedonic value, health value, safety value and
environmental value, on re-purchase intentions of organic PCP. The
study thus extends previous research, for example on organic foods,
which showed that concerns regarding health, product safety and environment are key motivators for consumer organic choices.
2. Literature review
H1:. Consumer perception of the health value (HEV) of organic PCP will
have a significant positive effect on attitude toward re-purchasing
(ATT) the products.
2.1. Consumers’ perceived value
In the current dynamic marketplace, consumer value has become
one of the most vital drivers. According to Holbrook (1884, p.22), “…
customer value is the fundamental basis for all marketing activity.”
Zeithaml (1988) refers to perceived as a consumer's overall assessment
of a product/service based on perception of what is received (benefits)
and what is given (costs incurred). It is commonly termed as the ratio or
trade-off between quality and price (Liu et al., 2006; Sweeney and
Soutar, 2001). Customer consumption experiences often involve the
interplay of many dimensions of values simultaneously. In influencing
consumer choice for instance, Sheth et al. (1991) suggested five dimensions of values (social, emotional, functional, epistemic and conditional value) to adequately capture the cognitive and affective nature
of value.
Sweeney and Soutar (2001) suggested that consumer assessment of
products is not just based on quality and performance, but also takes
into account the enjoyment and pleasure derived from the product
(emotional value) and the social pressure regarding what the product
communicates to others (social value). These value dimensions are
often independent from each other as they relate additively and make
incremental contributions to consumer choice. They identified four
distinct consumer value dimensions (social, emotional, quality/performance and price/value for money) that significantly drive purchase
attitude and behaviour. Furthermore, they supported the expectation
that if a consumer perceives a product to be valuable, they would be
more willing to buy the product at a premium price (Sweeney and
Soutar, 2001). Chen (2007) claimed that the attitude toward the purchase of a product depends on the perceived consequences such as
expectations and personal beliefs of the purchase outcome.
Perceived values are important criteria that are employed by a
person in making preference judgement and guide the consumers’
choice (Butler et al., 2016; Sheth et al., 1991; Varshneya and Das,
2017). It was found that the interaction between customer and product,
and found to be significant in explaining attitudes in post purchase situations (Sweeney and Soutar, 2001). As such, this study proposes five
consumers’ perceived values with respect to health, safety, social value,
hedonism and environment that may influence attitude toward repurchasing organic PCP in which the products are generally viewed as
promoting healthy and sustainable lifestyle. These are explained next.
2.1.2. Safety value
Scandals regarding product safety have played an important role in
driving up the purchase of organic food products (Davis, 2010;
Fotopoulos and Krystallis, 2002). For example, in 2008 the incident of
melamine-tainted milk products in China caused death and illness in
thousands of children (Xie et al., 2015). Similarly, in the context of PCP,
the case of ovarian cancer being linked to the daily use of Johnson's
talcum-based baby powder and shower products (Bloomberg, 2016)
could alarm consumers into being more cautious of the products that
they use daily. Bauer et al. (2013) defined perceived safety value as the
degree to which customers feel that the consumption of products is
harmless as these are free from synthetic chemical residues. Most
consumers perceive organic products to be of superior quality due to
the use of natural ingredients without chemical inputs (Midmore et al.,
2005). Furthermore, Yin et al. (2010) revealed that 67.5% of respondents’ initial purchase reasons for organic foods were their perceived lack of chemical content.
Yeung and Morris (2001) conceptualised that there would be a
negative correlation between perception of food safety related risks and
purchase behaviour. They believed that consumers would modify their
"purchasing decisions in order to relieve perceived risk" (p. 182). Another study in South Korea also revealed a link between food safety and
purchase of environment friendly agricultural products (Kim, 2007). It
was found that consumers who assessed agricultural products safety
negatively were more likely to purchase these products. These perceptions of safety would most likely have an impact on re-purchase of
PCP as well. Hence, the following hypothesis is proposed:
H2:. Consumer perceptions of the safety value (SFV) of organic PCP will
have a significant positive effect on attitude toward re-purchasing
(ATT) of the products.
2.1.3. Social value
Sweeney and Soutar (2001) describe social value as the utility derived from the product's ability to enhance social self-concept. It is
measured on a profile of choice imagery (Sheth et al., 1991). According
to Grubb and Grathwohl (1967), consumers will engage in behaviour,
including making purchases, to obtain a positive reaction from their
social peers. A study by Kumar and Ghodeswar (2015) showed a significant relationship between social appeal and green product purchase
decisions. It suggested that others’ perceptions about one's behaviour
have a considerable influence on green purchasing behaviour. Social
appeal is influential in developing consumers’ product preference, as
2.1.1. Health value
A study of men's use of grooming products in France revealed that,
reducing the ageing process and the maintenance of health were among
the factors driving the consumption of these products (Sturrock and
Pioch, 1998). Past research has also shown that health benefits such as
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E. Ghazali et al.
knowledge. Subjective knowledge refers to a consumer's self-perception
of how much they know about a product or service; objective knowledge
relates to the product information that has been stored in consumers’
memories and experience-based knowledge refers to information
gained from previous product usage experiences. In the context of organic foods, many studies support the view that product knowledge has
a positive influence on consumer attitudes toward such foods and directly determine their decisions or intentions, thus enhancing organic
food consumption (Padel and Foster, 2005; Vermeir and Verbeke,
2008). Additionally, Gracia and de Magistris (2008) observed that organic knowledge which can influence attitude will not only increase the
likelihood of buying organic foods, but will also increase the level of
consumption among existing consumers.
Subjective knowledge was found to influence consumers’ choice, as
they are inspired to act according to the knowledge they hold
(Moorman et al., 2004). In this study, product knowledge refers to
consumers’ subjective knowledge of organic PCP and we expect that
better product knowledge would lead to more positive attitudes toward
the product. Hence, the next hypothesis is proposed as follows:
consumers tend to buy a product that follow society's perceptions.
Therefore, we propose the following hypothesis as follows:
H3:. Consumer perception of the social value (SV) of organic PCP will
have a significant positive effect on attitude toward re-purchasing
(ATT) of the products.
2.1.4. Hedonic value
Hirschman and Holbrook (1982) define hedonic consumption as
those facets of consumer behaviour, which relate to the multisensory,
fantastical and emotive aspects of product usage experience. In other
words, hedonic products are viewed not as objectives entities, but to
provide experiential consumption, enjoyment and pleasure. They are
categorised by sensory gratification and affective experience (Cervellon
and Carey, 2014). Chitturi et al. (2008) suggested that products generate positive affective responses when they exceed consumers’ expectation.
In the context of food, products provide hedonism if they have a
superior taste and offer a holistic enjoyment in terms of the purchase,
cooking and consumption experience (Bauer et al., 2013). Zanoli and
Naspetti (2002), in their qualitative study looking at Italian consumers’
perception of organic food, suggested that the consumption of organic
products is linked to health, which is coupled with implicit values such
as well being and hedonic emotions. Arvola et al. (2008) also found that
self-rewarding feelings of doing the right thing are significantly linked
to the attitude toward organic food purchases.
Hedonic properties are considered positive for organic cosmetics
(Cervellon and Carey, 2014; Kesari et al., 2016). As such, we expect
those consumers who develop a hedonic experience to an organic PCP
usage to be more likely to have a positive attitude toward the products.
Hence, following hypothesis is proposed:
H6:. Product knowledge (PKN) about organic PCP will have a
significant positive effect on attitude toward re-purchasing (ATT) of
the product.
2.3. Theory of planned behaviour
The TPB, developed from Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA), is a
prevailing theory that explains and reveals the motivational influences
on individual behaviour. It has been widely used to predict the behavioural intentions and actual behaviour of a person (Ajzen and
Fishbein, 1980; Madden et al., 1992). TPB further expands TRA by
considering the factor of PBC, in addition to individual attitude toward
performing a particular behaviour and the subjective norms of social
pressure with regard to that behaviour (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980). TPB
has been widely applied in the research field of consumer behaviour. In
the context of organic products, Arvola et al. (2008) applied TPB in
predicting intentions to purchase organic foods and their findings
showed that attitudes and subjective norms are able to explain variances in purchase intentions. A study by Vermeir and Verbeke (2008)
used TPB to investigate the determinants of sustainable food consumption intentions among young adults in Belgium. They found that
about 50% of the variance in consumers’ purchase intention was explained by TPB.
Since the current study intends to examine factors influencing the
intention to re-purchase organic PCP, TPB is adopted as the basis of the
study due to its robustness in predicting consumer behaviour in various
studies (Kalafatis et al., 1999). This study extends the model by examining the potential antecedents of attitude as discussed earlier. Next,
the three predictors of intention to re-purchase –subjective norms, PBC
and attitude, based on TPB are discussed.
H4:. Consumer perception of the hedonic value (HDV) of organic PCP
will have a significant positive effect on attitude toward re-purchasing
(ATT) of the products.
2.1.5. Environmental value
According to Boxall et al. (2012), concerns have been raised about
the potential negative impact of chemicals in PCP on environmental
health, either emitted into the sewerage system following use or released to the environment from manufacturing sites. Organic products
are perceived to be environmentally friendlier as compared to the
conventional products (Van Loo et al., 2013; Olsen et al., 2012). Past
studies have supported the concept that consumers consider environmental benefits when making purchase decisions for eco-friendly products (Bauer et al., 2013; Han and Chung, 2014; Kim and Chung, 2011;
Smith and Paladino, 2010).
For example, Smith and Paladino (2010) showed that there was a
positive relationship between environmental concern and organic attitudes. Thus, we propose the following hypothesis:
H5:. Consumer perception of the environmental value (EV) of organic
PCP will have a significant positive effect on attitude toward repurchasing (ATT) of the products.
2.3.1. Attitudes towards certain behaviour
According to Ajzen and Fishbein (1980), when a person's attitude
towards a particular behaviour is favourable, they are more likely to
engage in that behaviour. Few studies have supported the attitude-intention relationship in the context of green and organic consumption.
These studies showed that the more favourable the attitudes, the
greater the purchase intention (Van Loo et al., 2013; Kim and Chung,
2011; Tarkiainen and Sundqvist, 2005). For example, in their study of
Finish consumers using a modified TPB model, Tarkiainen and
Sundqvist (2005), showed that consumers' attitudes could predict intentions to buy organic food. Another study by Van Loo et al. (2013)
also showed a positive association between attitudes and the frequency
of purchasing and consuming organic yogurt. Therefore, we hypothesise the following relationship between attitude and intention to repurchase organic PCP as follows:
2.2. Product knowledge
Product knowledge is a key influencer in the consumer decision
making process and purchase of organic products (Hill and
Lynchehaun, 2002). Consumers who have high product knowledge rely
on intrinsic product characteristics to judge product quality and function. In contrast, consumers with low product knowledge tend to
evaluate the product based on its extrinsic cues such as price and brand
(Wang and Hwang, 2001).
Park et al. (1992) categorises consumers’ product knowledge into
subjective knowledge, objective knowledge and experience-based
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E. Ghazali et al.
H7:. The attitude toward re-purchasing (ATT) organic PCP will have a
significant positive effect on intention to re-purchase (INT) of such
product.
Females (82.3%) formed the majority of the respondents, compared
to males (17.7%). This concurs with Yiridoe et al. (2005) where women
were found to be more health conscious about the implications of
chemical residues and preservatives in products. As such, women were
likely to consume more organic products. The majority of the respondents were Chinese (62.8%), followed by Malay (28.1%), Indian
(5.7%) and others (3.5%). This coincides with the study by Dardak et al.
(2009), which revealed that the Chinese purchased and consumed more
organic food than other races in Malaysia. The respondents were mostly
within the age ranges of 25–34 (36.6%) and 35–40 (33.3%). 57.4% of
the respondents were married and 47.3% were single. The majority
(50.2%) has a bachelor's degree. In terms of purchase frequency, 32.8%
of respondents purchased organic PCP more than four times a year and
32.2% about 1–3 times per year. In addition, 64.7% of purchases were
focused on skin care, followed by 43.2% on hair care and 32.8% on
body shower gel. In addition to organic PCP, 80.4% of the respondents
also purchased organic agricultural products such as fresh produce.
2.3.2. Subjective norms (SN)
SN relate to one's perceived social pressure to engage in certain
behaviour (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980). When individuals are within
groups, there are rules or norms, or certain beliefs regarding proper
consumption behaviour. According to Teng and Wang (2015), consumers tend to have positive purchase intention of a product if they
perceive that those important to them have positive attitudes and opinions on such product. Tarkiainen and Sundqvist (2005) also highlighted the importance of subjective norms in predicting re-purchase
intentions. In addition, Griskeicius et al. (2010) highlight that social
status was found to be the most important factor influencing environmentally friendly purchases as compared to environmental and
financial considerations. Past studies have also identified that SN has a
significant positive relationship with organic food purchase intention
(Al-Swidi et al., 2014; Chen, 2007; Smith and Paladino, 2010), organic
cotton apparel (Han and Chung, 2014) and organic body lotion/
shampoo (Kim and Chung, 2011).
Hence, we propose the following hypothesis:
3.2. Measures
The items or measures for all the constructs were adapted from
previous research (see Table 1). Seven-point Likert scales (1=strongly
disagree to 7=strongly agree) were used to measure each item, except
for the attitude (ATT) scale, which was measured via a semantic differential scale.
Health value and safety value were measured with 10 items adopted
from Bauer et al. (2013). Social value measurement items were derived
from Sweeney and Soutar (2001), consisting of five items. Hedonic value
was operationalised with eight items from Arvola et al. (2008), while
environmental value was measured using five items from Bauer et al.
(2013) and Lea and Worsley (2005). Product knowledge was operationalised with five items from Park et al. (1992).
Subjective norms were measured via five items from Chen (2007) and
Teng and Wang (2015). Perceived behavioural control had five measurement items, which were derived from Chen (2007). Attitude towards
re-purchasing organic PCP was measured with five items from Bansal
and Taylor (2002). Finally, intention to repurchase organic PCP was
measured with eight items, which were derived from Bredahl (2001)
and Davidow (2003).
H8:. Subjective norms (SN) will have a significant positive effect on
intention to re-purchase (INT) organic PCP.
2.3.3. Perceived behavioural control (PBC)
PBC refers to the possession of resources, abilities and opportunities
that a person believes je or she has in order to perform a particular
behaviour. This factor, compared to a person's attitude toward performing a specific behaviour and SN, not only affects the behavioural
intentions but also the actual behaviour (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980).
Madden et al. (1992) affirmed that PBC motivates an individual's behavioural intentions, as well as actual behaviour. Prior research has
found that PBC significantly influences the purchase intention of organic products (Chen, 2007; Gracia and de Magistris, 2008; Kim and
Chung, 2011). Thus, this study assumes that an individual who perceives a higher degree of control will also tend to have stronger intention to re-purchase as well:
H9:. Perceived behavioural control will have a significant positive effect
on intention to re-purchase organic PCP.
4. Results
4.1. Research model analysis
3. Method
In this study, the measurement of the research constructs, both
predictors and criteria, relies solely on the perceptual judgment of the
same respondent, thus a concern over same-source bias or general
method variance may arise. As such, Harman's single-factor test was
used to assess Common Method Variance (CMV). CMV occurs if all
variables load on one factor or a single factor explaining the majority of
the variance (Podsakoff et al., 2003). An un-rotated factor analysis of all
items showed that the first factor only explained 33% out of the 74% of
the variance that was explained by eleven factors (see Appendix A).
This was less than 50%, indicating that method variance was not an
issue in this study (Podsakoff et al., 2003).
The variance-based method Partial Least Square using SmartPLS 3.0
software was employed to analyse the data, following the two-stage
analytical procedures recommended by Anderson and Gerbing (1988).
In the first stage, the measurement model was evaluated to assess the
convergent validity and discriminant validity. Next, the structural
model was evaluated to test the hypotheses. A bootstrapping method
(5000 resamples) was used to test the significance of outer loadings and
3.1. Sample and data collection
As this study focuses on factors influencing consumer attitude and
intention to re-purchase organic PCP, participants who had purchased
organic PCP within the last 12 months were recruited to complete a
questionnaire. A non-probability purposive sampling technique was
adopted in this study. Using a self-administered questionnaire, 343
responses were collected from patrons of organic shops and organic
events, as well as from members of Malaysian organisations related to
green or organic products and sustainable development such as the
Centre for Environment, Technology and Development (CETDEM),
Organic Alliance Malaysia (OAM) and Green Purchase Network
Malaysia (GPNM). Following the process of data preparation, including
data entry and data screening for missing values, incomplete observations and outliers, 317 valid responses, which is more than the required
sample size of 146,1 were used for the analysis.
1
Gpower software was used to calculate the required sample size. The model had a
maximum of 6 predictors (for attitude towards re-purchasing organic PCP). The effect size
was set as medium 0.15 and power needed as 0.95, thus the total sample size required
(footnote continued)
was 146.
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Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 39 (2017) 154–163
E. Ghazali et al.
Table 1
Measurement items and outer loadings.
Constructs and (Sources)
Items
Details
Outer Loadings
Health Value
(Bauer et al., 2013)
HEV2
HEV3
HEV4
HEV5
SFV1
SFV2
SFV3
SFV5
SV1
SV2
SV3
SV4
SV5
HDV3
HDV4
HDV5
HDV6
HDV7
HDV8
EV2
EV3
EV4
EV5
PKN1
PKN2
PKN3
PKN4
PKN5
SN1
SN2
SN3
SN5
PBC1
PBC2
PBC3
PBC4
PBC5
I believe that organic PCP enable me to live healthily.
I am of the view that the use of organic PCP has a health-promoting effect.
Organic PCP and a health-conscious lifestyle match well.
The use of organic PCP enhances my health.
I believe that organic PCP are free of harmful chemical residues.
I believe that organic PCP feature high product safety.
I believe that organic PCP are safer than conventional PCP.
I am of the opinion that organic PCP are not contaminated.
Buying organic PCP would help me feel acceptable.
Buying organic PCP would improve the way that I am perceived.
Buying organic PCP would make a good impression on other people.
Buying organic PCP would give the buyer social approval.
Buying organic PCP would make people appreciate me more.
Buying organic PCP would give me pleasure.
Buying organic PCP would feel like doing the morally right thing.
Buying organic PCP would make me feel like a better person.
The use of organic PCP can affect my well-being positively.
I would enjoy using organic PCP.
I would feel relaxed using organic PCP.
Organic PCP are environmentally friendly products.
Organic PCP and environmentalism match well.
Organic PCP are better for the environment than conventional PCP.
Organic PCP are manufactured in an environmentally responsible way.
I know a lot about organic PCP.
I have great purchasing experience with organic PCP.
I am familiar with organic PCP.
I understand the features and benefits of organic PCP.
My knowledge about organic PCP is better relative to the people that I know.
My family members think it is a good idea for me to buy organic PCP.
My friends think I should buy organic PCP.
Most people who are important to me think that I should buy organic PCP.
People whom I listen to could influence me to buy organic PCP.
Whether or not I buy organic PCP is entirely up to me.
If organic PCP were available, nothing would prevent me from buying them.
I completely have control over the purchase of organic PCP.
I have the resources and ability to buy organic PCP.
I am confident that if I want organic PCP, I can buy them.
For me, buying organic PCP would be ______________.
Bad …Good
Unbeneficial … Beneficial
Undesirable…. Desirable
Foolish…Wise
Unpleasant…Pleasant
I intend to buy organic PCP in the future.
I predict that I will buy organic PCP in the future.
I hope to buy organic PCP soon.
I will probably not purchase organic PCP again.a
I will use organic PCP much less in the future.a
I will probably switch to non-organic PCP in the future.a
Next time I shall need a PCP, I will buy an organic one.
If organic PCP are available, I will buy them.
0.750
0.928
0.926
0.920
0.866
0.913
0.738
0.899
0.851
0.723
0.925
0.739
0.930
0.914
0.776
0.937
0.781
0.940
0.914
0.785
0.910
0.915
0.925
0.738
0.875
0.903
0.860
0.829
0.773
0.935
0.935
0.903
0.848
0.780
0.896
0.790
0.830
Safety Value
(Bauer et al., 2013)
Social Value
(Sweeney and Soutar, 2001)
Hedonic Value
(Arvola et al., 2008)
Environmental Value
(Bauer et al., 2013; Lea and Worsley, 2005)
Product Knowledge
(Park et al., 1992)
Subjective Norms
(Chen, 2007; Teng and Wang, 2015)
Perceived Behavioural Control
(Chen, 2007)
Attitude Towards Re-Purchasing Organic PCP (Bansal and Taylor,
2002)
Intention to Re-Purchase Organic PCP
(Bredahl, 2001; Davidow, 2003)
ATT1
ATT2
ATT3
ATT4
ATT5
INT1
INT2
INT3
INT4
INT5
INT6
INT7
INT8
0.806
0.731
0.882
0.865
0.837
0.806
0.735
0.887
0.822
0.735
0.788
0.815
0.806
Note: PCP = Personal Care Products; HEV1, SFV4, HDV1, HDV2, EV1, SN4 were deleted due to outer loading of lower than 0.708 (Hair et al., 2016).
a
Denotes reversed score item.
satisfactory convergent validity.
Discriminant validity was assessed following Fornell and Larcker
(1981). Table 2 shows that all square roots of the AVE (on the diagonals
in bold) were greater than correlations between constructs (on the
corresponding row and column), suggesting that discriminant validity
was achieved since each reflective construct related more strongly to its
own indicators than to others. As such, the discriminant validity of the
construct measures was well established. The mean and standard deviation of all constructs are also presented in Table 2.
Next, the structural model assessment will be discussed.
path coefficients (Hair et al., 2016).
4.2. Measurement model assessment
Convergent validity was assessed via Outer Loadings, Composite
Reliability (CR) and Average Variance Extracted (AVE). According to
Hair et al. (2016), outer loading reflecting indicator reliability should
be higher than 0.708. Table 1 presents all the outer loadings, ranging
from 0.723 to 0.940, confirming the reliability of all measurement indicators. All the values of CR were also above the threshold of 0.70
(Chin, 1998). They were in the range of 0.915 and 0.941, demonstrating a high level of internal consistency of items. See Table 2.
In addition, all the AVE values exceeded 0.50 (see 2). An AVE value
of at least 0.50 indicates that a latent variable is on average able to
explain more than half of the variance of its indicators (Hair et al.,
2016). Thus, the measurement model achieved an adequate and
4.3. Structural model assessment
Hair et al. (2016) suggested an evaluation of the Coefficient of
Determination (R2) Beta and corresponding t-values to assess the
structural model. Predictive relevance (Q2) and effect size (f2) were also
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Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 39 (2017) 154–163
E. Ghazali et al.
Table 2
Discriminant validity (Intercorrelations) of constructs.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
ATT
EV
HDV
HEV
INT
PBC
PKN
SFV
SN
SV
Mean
Std. Dev.
CR
AVE
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
4.07
4.62
5.00
5.06
4.65
5.25
4.22
4.26
4.20
5.45
1.33
1.27
1.23
1.15
1.25
1.20
1.31
1.34
1.32
1.17
0.915
0.936
0.941
0.934
0.925
0.917
0.924
0.916
0.938
0.921
0.682
0.785
0.762
0.782
0.640
0.689
0.711
0.734
0.791
0.703
0.826
0.505
0.535
0.512
0.639
0.429
0.503
0.444
0.313
0.439
0.255
0.886
0.563
0.616
0.409
0.479
0.408
0.404
0.291
0.411
0.286
0.317
0.873
0.513
0.350
0.571
0.455
0.422
0.373
0.730
0.262
0.379
0.263
0.884
0.352
0.499
0.421
0.400
0.339
0.440
0.408
0.166
0.123
0.124
0.800
0.376
0.061
0.242
0.172
0.181
0.184
0.229
0.326
0.249
0.141
0.830
0.370
0.344
0.294
0.391
0.253
0.166
0.207
0.177
0.004
0.137
0.843
0.461
0.337
0.429
0.197
0.163
0.178
0.16
0.058
0.118
0.213
0.857
0.615
0.404
0.098
0.085
0.139
0.115
0.03
0.086
0.114
0.378
0.889
0.274
0.193
0.169
0.533
0.194
0.033
0.153
0.184
0.163
0.075
0.839
Note: The diagonals (in bold) represent the square root of AVE.
Correlations of the latent constructs are shown in the lower half of the matrix.
Shared variances are reported in the upper half of the matrix.
therefore H3 is not supported.
Regarding the predictors of intention to re-purchase organic PCP,
attitude (ATT) (ß = 0.598, p < 0.05) and perceived behaviour control
(PBC) (ß = 0.135, p < 0.05) were all positively related to intention,
explaining 42.3% of the variance in intention to re-purchase. Therefore,
H7 and H9 are supported. Surprisingly, subjective norms (SN) (ß =
−0.055, p > 0.05) showed an insignificant relationship toward intention, thus H8 is not supported. The PLS SEM analysis results are also
summarised in the research model in Fig. 1.
Effect size (ƒ2) is another important criterion that indicates the impact of a specific independent latent variable (IV) on whether a dependent latent variable (DV) is high, moderate or low, due to the
contribution of this specific IV on the R2 of DV. It is calculated as the
increase in the R2 value of the latent variable to which the path is
connected, relative the latent variable's proportion of unexplained
variance (Chin, 1998). A guideline for assessing the values of ƒ2 suggested by Cohen (1988) is that values of 0.02, 0.15, and 0.35 represent
small, medium, and large effects, respectively, of the exogenous latent
variables. Table 4 depicts the values of ƒ2 and its interpretation. It can
be observed that all the relationships except for SV→ATT and SN→INT
showed a substantive impact with six relationships of small effect sizes
and one relationship of large effect size.
suggested to be added to the basic assessment.
Hair et al. (2016) discussed that it is difficult to set a rule of thumb
for an acceptable level of R2 value as it depends on the model complexity and the research discipline. The R2 value ranges from 0 to 1 with
higher levels indicating higher levels of predictive accuracy. Cohen
(1988) suggested that R2 values of 0.26, 0.13, or 0.02 for endogenous
latent variables could be respectively described as substantial, moderate, or weak. The R2 values for the endogenous construct as illustrated in Table 3 are 0.439 and 0.423 for attitude (ATT) and intention
to re-purchase (INT), respectively. The results show that the overall
condition of the endogenous variables in the model is satisfied with the
overall model explaining about 42.3% of the variance in INT. The R2
values of ATT and INT were well above 0.26, as suggested by Cohen
(1988), indicating a substantial model.
In addition to evaluating the magnitude of the R2 values as a criterion for predictive accuracy, Stone-Geisser's Q2 value also needed to
be examined via Blindfolding. A value higher than 0 indicates that the
exogenous constructs possess predictive relevance for the endogenous
construct under consideration Hair et al. (2016). Table 3 illustrates the
Q2 value (along with the R2 value) of endogenous constructs, i.e. ATT
and INT. The Q2 value was considerably above zero, with 0.294 and
0.264 for ATT and INT, respectively, thus supporting the model's predictive relevance of ATT and INT.
Table 4 presents the results of the hypothesis test of this study based
on the path coefficient and T statistics. The path coefficients have
standardised values between −1 and +1. Estimated path coefficients
close to +1 represent strong positive relationships, and vice versa for
negative values. The estimated coefficient values close to zero are
usually non-significant (Hair et al., 2016). In this step, we considered
the significance and relevance of the structural model relationships.
Nine hypotheses were tested based on the TPB, i.e. PBC, SN, ATT and
INT integrated with other variables such as HEV, SFV, SV, HDV, EV and
PKN.
In the case of antecedents to attitude, consumers’ health value
(HEV) (ß = 0.175, p < 0.05), safety value (SFV) (ß = 0.128,
p < 0.05), hedonic value (HDV) (ß = 0.210, p < 0.05), environmental
value (EV) (ß = 0.135, p < 0.05) and product knowledge (PKN) (ß =
0.216, p < 0.05) were positively related to attitude, explaining 43.9%
of the variance in attitude. Thus, H1, H2, H4, H5 and H6 are supported.
However, the result shows that there is no significant relationship between social value (SV) (ß = 0.009, p > 0.05) and attitude (ATT)
4.4. Importance-Performance Map Analysis (IPMA)
As an extension of the findings, we also assessed the IPMA using
intention to re-purchase organic PCP as the target construct. This
analysis contrasts the total effects (importance) and the average values
of the latent variable scores (performance) in the structural model. To
improve the target construct's outcome, priority should be given to the
driver constructs with relatively greater importance and relatively
lower performance (Hair et al., 2016).
Based on the results (see Fig. 2), attitude is observed to be the most
critical factor in determining consumer re-purchase intention of organic
PCP. An increase of one point in the performance of attitude leads to an
increase in the performance of intention to re-purchase by a total effect
of 0.604 (ceteris paribus). Perceived behaviour control also has a considerably higher performance but lower importance than attitude.
Subjective norms, on the other hand, have little relevance due to its low
importance and low performance.
As such, managerial activities to increase intention to re-purchase
organic PCP should focus on increasing consumers’ positive attitude
towards organic PCP. Attention must be given to enhance consumers’
organic PCP product knowledge, perceived hedonic and health benefits
as they function as the main precursors to attitude.
Table 3
Results of R2 and Q2 values.
Endogenous latent variable
R2
Q2
Interpretation
Attitude toward Re-purchasing (ATT)
Intention to Re-purchase (INT)
0.439
0.423
0.294
0.264
substantial
substantial
5. Discussion
The findings of this study make a theoretical contribution by
159
Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 39 (2017) 154–163
E. Ghazali et al.
Table 4
Hypotheses testing and effect size.
Hyp.
Path
Beta
SE
t-value
p-value
Supported
f2
Interpretation
H1
H2
H3
H4
H5
H6
H7
H8
H9
HEV → ATT
SFV → ATT
SV → ATT
HDV → ATT
EV → ATT
PKN → ATT
ATT → INT
SN → INT
PBC → INT
0.175***
0.128**
0.009
0.210***
0.135**
0.216***
0.598***
−0.055
0.135**
0.066
0.060
0.063
0.073
0.064
0.062
0.054
0.050
0.069
2.639
2.127
0.147
2.882
2.104
3.477
11.164
1.101
1.958
0.004
0.017
0.442
0.002
0.018
0.000
0.000
0.135
0.025
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
0.030
0.020
0.000
0.029
0.017
0.056
0.482
0.005
0.024
Small
Small
–
Small
Small
Small
Large
–
Small
Note: Beta is path coefficient; SE is standard error; f2 is effect size; Path coefficient is significant if t-value greater than 1.645, p < 0.05 one-tailed test.
** P < 0.05.
*** P < 0.01.
identifying the types of consumers’ perceived value on organic PCP
based on past experience, such as hedonic value, health value, safety
value and environmental value have a significant positive effect on
consumer attitude toward re-purchasing organic PCP. The findings extend previous research on organic foods that showed the concerns regarding health, product safety and environment are key motivators for
consumer organic choices (Bauer et al., 2013; Dardak et al., 2009; Van
Loo et al., 2013).
Surprisingly, hedonic value was found to have the strongest influence on attitude compared to health, safety and environmental values.
This could be due to the intriguing characteristics of organic PCP,
which offer aesthetic and other hedonic qualities. The hedonic responses are based primarily on the symbolic elements of the products
rather than on their tangible features, and this is viewed as the essence
of the usage experience (Hirschman and Holbrook, 1982). The natural
Fig. 2. Importance-Performance Map Analysis (IPMA) for Intention to Re-purchase
Organic PCP.
Fig. 1. Research Framework and Summary of Result. Note: Path coefficient is significant if t-value greater than 1.645, p < 0.05 one-tailed test. **P < 0.05; ***P < 0.01.
160
Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 39 (2017) 154–163
E. Ghazali et al.
packaging labels and collateral marketing materials to disseminate
product information. Knowledge of a product's benefits and features is
important to influence consumer attitude and intention to re-purchase
organic PCP. This approach could also entice potential consumers into
buying organic PCP.
Hedonic value is found to have the strongest influence on attitude
compared to other perceived values. As such, marketers could leverage
the hedonic benefits of product usage by engaging in emotional appeal
advertising to link the products with indulgence to stimulate pleasure
and enjoyment. In addition, the consumer desire for pleasure and enjoyment can be met through multi-sensory marketing with the highlight
of hedonic properties (smell, texture and visual aspect). For example,
the signature scent of a perfume is powerful in shaping perceptions and
forging an emotional connection with consumers.
On the other hand, consumer perception on the health value and
safety value of products can be enhanced if the products are tested and
meet toxicity, hypoallergenic and dermatological tests conducted by an
accredited laboratory. In terms of environmental value, an increase in
the perceived environmental value of a product among consumers can
be achieved by participating in corporate social responsibility campaigns or adopting an eco-friendly supply chain process of the product,
e.g. reducing its carbon footprint. Biodegradable packaging materials
can be used in the product line to minimise the negative impact on the
environment.
ingredients used in organic products to signify safety have given consumers a complete peace of mind to enjoy the use of these organic
products. When consumers enjoy and are happy using organic PCP,
their attitudes toward the products becomes more positive.
According to Chitturi et al. (2008) when a product meets or exceeds
hedonic criteria, consumers experience excitement and delight and
become more loyal. Therefore, it is important to increase the products’
hedonic value, driving positive attitudes, leading to the intention to repurchase. Interestingly, in this collectivistic society, perceived social
value did not show any significant effect in predicting attitude in this
study. Furthermore, the results also show that subjective norms failed
to influence intention to re-purchase organic products, compared to
attitude and perceived behavioural, based on the TPB model. This is not
consistent with the findings that subjective norms are positively related
to purchase intention of organic cotton apparel (Han and Chung, 2014)
and organic foods (Chen, 2007; Smith and Paladino, 2010; Teng and
Wang, 2015). This could be due to the fact that PCP consumption has a
low degree of visibility as compared to clothing and/or foods, thus
subjective norms may play a lesser role in purchase behaviour of organic PCP. Generally, the choice of PCP is driven by personal factors
and interests rather than those of peers, family members and reference
groups. For instance, individuals have different skin types, allergic reactions to certain ingredients and preferences for various product
functions such as hydrating, whitening and soothing. In addition, this
study is related to re-purchase motivations. In another word, all of the
respondents have already used organic PCP and are familiar with the
product. As such, the level of influence imposed by reference group
such as family, friends and colleague for instance; that usually occurs
during the initial purchase choice and decision-making stages would be
minimal. As a result, construct related to social pressure in the research
model has little or no impact on the re-purchase intention of organic
PCP.
In addition to the five types of perceived values, this study also
integrates product knowledge into the model, which proved to positively influence attitude toward re-purchasing organic PCP. This result
is consistent with research finding that knowledge to be the key influencer in consumer buying behaviour (Hill and Lynchehaun, 2002).
The present study confirms that attitude is a strong predictor for repurchase intention of organic PCP. This result is in line with classical
attitude-behaviour theory (Azjen, 1991) and previous studies, such as
Van Loo et al. (2013), who stated that the attitude toward organic
products had a direct, positive and relatively strong relationship with
organic consumption.
5.2. Limitations and recommendations
This study has some limitations. This study looked at responses
collected from two major cities in Malaysia as most consumers of organic products reside mainly in the urban areas. However, it is recommend that future research should collect responses from a wider
area of the country.
Furthermore, this study focuses on self-rated product knowledge
(subjective knowledge). Future studies could incorporate objective
knowledge to compare its influence with that of subjective knowledge
on the attitude and consumption of organic PCP.
Other variables could be integrated into the TPB model to examine
the predictive power of consumer organic re-purchase behaviour such
as customers’ satisfaction and loyalty. Inhibiting factors such as availability and price (Davies et al., 1995) and the scepticism associated
with claims regarding organic products (level of trust) (Teng and Wang,
2015) could also be incorporated into future research.
6. Conclusion
5.1. Managerial implications for social marketers
Today's consumers engage in healthier and more sustainable lifestyles. They make greener choices in their purchases. This study provides an integration of the research findings and suggestions for future
study on consumer purchase behaviour of organic PCP.
It provides valuable insights by confirming that attitude is the most
important factor in predicting intention to re-purchase organic PCP
compared with PBC and subjective norms based on the TPB.
Furthermore, it suggests that product knowledge is a priority, followed
by hedonic value, health value, safety value and environmental value,
in influencing the attitude toward re-purchasing organic PCP.
This study enables industry practitioners to have a better understanding of consumer purchase behaviour in order to capitalise on the
growing interest in organic consumerism. Based on the findings, firms
can develop more effective marketing activities focusing on the key
influences. It is important for the industry to provide clear and genuine
information about the benefits of their organic products and to assure
the authenticity of their organic product claims regarding health and
safety while satisfying consumer demands and needs. In order to enhance the competence and credibility of the organic PCP sector, it is
essential for the National Pharmaceutical Control Bureau to collaborate
with organic certification bodies in Malaysia to establish and define
The results of this study have interesting implications for social
marketing and the marketing of organic PCP. They can help a firm
establish a strong product positioning involving an in-depth understanding of how consumers perceive organic PCP according to four key
criteria, which are related to health, safety, hedonism and the environment. To generate interest and a positive attitude toward the organic PCP, marketing efforts should emphasise those activities that can
boost consumer perceived value and product knowledge. These have
been proven to influence attitude toward re-purchasing organic PCP,
which in turn influenced intention to re-purchase organic PCP.
However, perceived product value should be examined now and then in
building customer loyalty and acquiring new health conscious customers.
The study also revealed that product knowledge is the main driver
for the attitude toward re-purchasing organic PCP. Marketers should
utilise miniature samples as a marketing tool to induce trials. This can
be applied when introducing new products or targeting potential consumers. In addition, the goodness and benefits of the products, particularly regarding the aspects of promoting well-being, enjoyment,
health and safety, should be emphasised and reinforced on the
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Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 39 (2017) 154–163
E. Ghazali et al.
criteria for terms regarding organic products, particularly in the aspects
of health claims, product safety and environmental-friendliness for the
industry to comply.
Appendix A. Common method variance (CMV)
Total Variance Explained
N
Total
% of Variance
Cumulative %
Total
% of Variance
Cumulative %
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
18.294
5.183
3.608
2.991
2.6
1.981
1.588
1.473
1.36
1.237
1.041
0.96
0.878
0.765
0.739
0.687
0.675
0.602
0.578
0.54
0.514
0.488
0.478
32.667
9.256
6.442
5.341
4.644
3.537
2.835
2.631
2.428
2.208
1.86
1.715
1.568
1.367
1.32
1.226
1.206
1.076
1.033
0.965
0.917
0.871
0.853
32.667
41.923
48.365
53.706
58.35
61.887
64.722
67.353
69.781
71.989
73.849
75.564
77.132
78.499
79.819
81.045
82.251
83.326
84.359
85.324
86.241
87.112
87.965
18.294
5.183
3.608
2.991
2.6
1.981
1.588
1.473
1.36
1.237
1.041
32.667
9.256
6.442
5.341
4.644
3.537
2.835
2.631
2.428
2.208
1.86
32.667
41.923
48.365
53.706
58.35
61.887
64.722
67.353
69.781
71.989
73.849
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