General Chemistry Molecular Geometry Linear - A linear arrangement of atoms occurs when they are all in a straight line. The angle formed between two bonds that go to the same central atom, which we call the bond angle, is 180°. An example of this is Carbon dioxide(CO₂) Planar Triangular - A planar triangular arrangement of the four atoms has them all in the same plane. The central atom is surrounded by three others located at the corners of a triangle. The bond angles are all 210°. An example of a planar triangular is sulfur trioxide Tetrahedral - A tetrahedron is a four-sided pyramid having equilateral triangles as faces. In a tetrahedral molecule, the central atom is located in the centre of this tetrahedron and four other atoms are located at the corners. The bond angles are all equal and have values of 109.5°. An example of a tetrahedral is methane. Trigonal bipyramidal - A trigonal bipyramid consists of two trigonal pyramids (pyramids with triangular bases similar to tetrahedrons) that share a common face. The five atoms attached to the central atom are located at the five corners. In this kind of molecule, the bond angles are not all the same. Between any two bonds that lie in the central triangular plane, the bond angle is 120°. The angle is only 90° between a bond in the central triangular plane and a bond that points to the top or bottom of the trigonal bipyramid. An example of this is Phosphorus pentachloride Octahedral - An octahedral is a geometrical figure that has eight faces. We can think of it as two square pyramids sharing a common square base. In an octahedral molecule, the central atom is surrounded by six others. The central atom is located in the centre of the square plane that passes through the middle of the octahedron. The six atoms bonded to it are at the six corners of the octahedron. The angle between any pair of adjacent bonds is the same and has a value of 90°. An example of this is Sulfur hexafluoride. WHAT IS A CATALYST? In chemistry, a catalyst is a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction by providing an alternative pathway with a lower activation energy. Catalysts themselves are not consumed in the reaction and can be used repeatedly. •Laundry detergents: Many laundry detergents contain enzymes as catalysts to enhance the cleaning process. These enzymes help break down stains and dirt, making it easier for the detergent to remove them during washing. Baking Soda (Sodium Bicarbonate): Baking soda is a versatile household item used in cooking and cleaning. In baking, it acts as a catalyst by releasing carbon dioxide gas when combined with an acid, such as vinegar or lemon juice. This gas production causes dough or batter to rise, resulting in fluffy baked goods. Catalysts in dishwasher detergents: Dishwasher detergents often contain enzymes and other catalysts to enhance the cleaning process. These catalysts help break down food residues and stains on dishes, making them easier to clean during the washing cycle. EFFECT OF CATALYST 1. Increased reaction rate: The primary effect of a catalyst is to increase the rate of a chemical reaction. Catalysts provide an alternative reaction pathway with lower activation energy, which allows more reactant molecules to overcome the energy barrier and convert into products. By lowering the activation energy, a catalyst enables the reaction to occur at a faster rate, without itself being consumed or permanently changed in the process. 2. Improved efficiency: Catalysts allow reactions to proceed under milder conditions, such as lower temperatures or pressures, than would be required without their presence. This improved efficiency reduces the energy requirements and costs associated with the reaction, making it more economically viable and environmentally friendly. 3. Selectivity and specificity: Catalysts can influence the selectivity and specificity of a reaction, guiding it towards the formation of specific products or inhibiting the formation of unwanted byproducts. Catalysts can promote specific reaction pathways or stabilize intermediate species, leading to desired products while suppressing side reactions. 4. Reusability: Catalysts are not consumed during the reaction; they remain unchanged and can be used repeatedly. This reusability makes catalysts economically advantageous since a small amount of catalyst can facilitate multiple reaction cycles, reducing the need for continuous replacement or replenishment. 5. Lower operating costs: As catalysts enhance reaction rates and efficiency, they can lead to lower operating costs for industrial processes. Reduced energy consumption, milder reaction conditions, and improved product selectivity contribute to cost savings and process optimization. Enzymes are commonly used in detergent soaps to enhance their cleaning performance. These enzymes help break down various types of stains and dirt, making it easier for the detergent to remove them. Some of the enzymes commonly found in detergent soaps include: 1. Proteases: These enzymes break down protein-based stains such as blood, grass, sweat, and food stains. 2. Amylases: Amylases are effective at breaking down starchbased stains, such as those caused by pasta, rice, sauces, or baby food. 3. Lipases: Lipases target and break down greasy or oily stains, such as those caused by butter, oil, or salad dressing. 4. Cellulases: Cellulases are used to remove stains and grime from fabrics caused by plant-based materials, such as grass or mud. 5. Mannanases: Mannanases are useful in breaking down stains caused by thickening agents and stabilizers commonly found in food products. 6. Pectinases: Pectinases are effective in removing stains caused by fruits and vegetables, as they break down the pectin that holds the stain together. These enzymes work by accelerating chemical reactions, specifically targeting and breaking down different types of stains. By incorporating enzymes into detergent soaps, manufacturers can provide more effective stain removal across a wide range of materials and soil types. Types of Enzymes And It's Functions What is an Enzyme? An enzyme is a biological catalyst and is almost always a protein. It speeds up the rate of a specific chemical reaction in the cell. The enzyme is not destroyed during the reaction and is used over and over. A cell contains thousands of different types of enzyme molecules, each specific to a particular chemical reaction.(www.genome.gov Types of Enzymes Oxidoreductases The enzyme Oxidoreductase catalyzes the oxidation reaction where the electrons tend to travel from one form of a molecule to the other. Transferases The Transferases enzymes help in the transportation of the functional group among acceptors and donor molecules. Hydrolases are hydrolytic enzymes, which catalyze the hydrolysis reaction by adding water to cleave the bond and hydrolyze it. Lyases Add water, carbon dioxide or ammonia across double bonds or eliminate these to create double bonds. Ligases The Ligases enzymes are known to charge the catalysis of a ligation process.
