Research Methods
Second Semester, 2019-2020
AJTPlete
• From the French word “recherche", which
means "to go about seeking”.
What is
Research?
• A creative and systematic work
undertaken to increase the stock of
knowledge, including knowledge of
humans, culture and society, and the use
of this stock of knowledge to devise new
applications. – OECD, 2015
• A process of steps used to collect and
analyze information to increase our
understanding of a topic or issue. –
Creswell, 2012
• Contributes to a body of science, and
follows the scientific method. –
Bhattacherjee, 2012
What is
Research?
• Studious inquiry or examination;
especially : investigation or
experimentation aimed at the discovery
and interpretation of facts, revision of
accepted theories or laws in the light of
new facts, or practical application of such
new or revised theories or laws. – Merriam
Webster Online Dictionary
At a general level, research consists of
three steps:
1. Pose a question.
What is
Research?
2. Collect data to answer the question.
3. Present an answer to the question.
Why Research is Important?
(Creswell, 2012)
1. Research adds to our knowledge:
Adding to knowledge means that researchers undertake
research to contribute to existing information about
issues
2. Research improves practice:
Research suggests improvements for practice.
3. Research informs policy debates:
Research provides information to policy makers
What is
Science?
• derived from the Latin word “Scientia”
meaning knowledge.
• Refers to a systematic and organized body
of knowledge in any area of inquiry that is
acquired using “the scientific method.
Two Broad Categories of Science:
Natural Science and Social Science
• Natural science is the science of naturally occurring objects or phenomena,
such as light, objects, matter, earth, celestial bodies, or the human body.
Natural sciences can be further classified into physical sciences, earth sciences,
life sciences, and others.
Physical sciences
Physics (the science of physical
objects)
Chemistry (the science of matter)
Astronomy (the science of celestial
objects).
Earth science
Geology (the science of the earth).
Life sciences
Biology (the science of human bodies)
Botany (the science of plants)
Two Broad Categories of Science:
Natural Science and Social Science
• Social science is the science of people or collections of people,
such as groups, firms, societies, or economies, and their individual
or collective behaviors.
• Social sciences can be classified into disciplines such as:
• psychology (the science of human behaviors)
• sociology (the science of social groups)
• economics (the science of firms, markets, and economies).
Difference of Natural Science and
Social Science
Natural sciences are very
precise, accurate,
deterministic, and
independent of the person
making the scientific
observations.
There is a high degree of
measurement error in the
social sciences and there is
considerable uncertainty
Classification of Science Based on Purpose
Basic sciences
(pure sciences) are those that
explain the most basic objects
and forces, relationships between
them, and laws governing them.
Examples include physics,
mathematics, and biology.
Applied sciences
(practical sciences) are sciences
that apply scientific knowledge
from basic sciences in a physical
environment.
Classification of Science Based on Purpose
• Both basic and applied sciences are required for human
development.
• However, applied sciences cannot stand on their own right, but
instead relies on basic sciences for its progress.
• The industry and private enterprises tend to focus more on
applied sciences given their practical value, while universities
study both basic and applied sciences.
• The purpose of science is to create
scientific knowledge.
Scientific
Knowledge
• Scientific knowledge refers to a
generalized body of laws and theories to
explain a phenomenon or behavior of
interest that are acquired using the
scientific method.
Laws are observed patterns
of phenomena or behaviors
Scientific
Knowledge
Theories are systematic
explanations of the
underlying phenomenon or
behavior.
Scientific
Knowledge
• The goal of scientific research is to
discover laws and propose theories that
can explain natural or social phenomena,
or in other words, build scientific
knowledge.
• We arrive at scientific laws or theories through a process of logic and
evidence.
• Logic (theory) and evidence (observations) are the two, and only two,
pillars upon which scientific knowledge is based.
• In science, theories and observations are interrelated and cannot exist
without each other.
• Theories provide meaning and significance to what we observe, and
observations help validate or refine existing theory or construct new
theory.
• Any other means of knowledge acquisition, such as faith or authority
cannot be considered science.
Scientific Research Operates at Two Levels:
The theoretical level is
concerned with developing
abstract concepts about a
natural or social phenomenon
and relationships between
those concepts (i.e., build
“theories”)
The empirical level is
concerned with testing the
theoretical concepts and
relationships to see how well
they reflect our observations
of reality, with the goal of
ultimately building better
theories.
Forms of Scientific Inquiry
Inductive research
the goal of a researcher
is to infer theoretical
concepts and patterns
from observed data.
Deductive research
the goal of the researcher
is to test concepts and
patterns known from
theory using new
empirical data.
Theory-building
Theory-testing
The Scientific
Method
• Refers to a standardized set of techniques
for building scientific knowledge, such as
how to make valid observations, how to
interpret results, and how to generalize
those results.
• Allows researchers to independently and
impartially test preexisting theories and
prior findings, and subject them to open
debate, modifications, or enhancements.
Characteristics of the Scientific Method
• Logical: Scientific inferences must be based on logical principles
of reasoning.
• Confirmable: Inferences derived must match with observed
evidence.
• Repeatable: Other researchers should be able to independently
replicate or repeat a scientific study and obtain similar, if not
identical, results.
• Scrutinizable: The procedures used and the inferences derived
must withstand critical scrutiny (peer review) by other
researchers.
Types of Scientific Research
EXPLORATORY
DESCRIPTIVE
EXPLANATORY
Exploratory Research
• Often conducted in new areas of inquiry, where the goals of the
research are:
(1) to scope out the magnitude or extent of a particular
phenomenon, problem, or behavior,
(2) to generate some initial ideas (or “hunches”) about that
phenomenon, or
(3) to test the feasibility of undertaking a more extensive
study regarding that phenomenon.
Exploratory Research
Examples
• Awareness and knowledge of barangay officials in Cavite on what
to do during volcano eruption.
• A study on the role of social networking sites as an effective
extension communication channel
• A study on the BSDM graduates performance in the workplace
Descriptive Research
• Directed at making careful observations and detailed
documentation of a phenomenon of interest.
• Examines the what, where, and when of a phenomenon but not
why
• An appropriate choice when the research aim is to identify
characteristics, frequencies, trends, correlations, and categories.
Descriptive Research
Examples
• The evolution of the BS Development Management program over
the past 20 years
• Factors that Influence the Choice of Undergraduate Courses among
International and Local Students in Selected Universities in Cavite
• Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation Practices of Selected
Rice Farmers in Cavite
Explanatory Research
• seeks explanations of observed phenomena, problems, or
behaviors.
• seeks answers to why and how types of questions.
• attempts to “connect the dots” in research, by identifying causal
factors and outcomes of the target phenomenon.
Explanatory Research
Examples
• A study on the causes of dropout rates in Cavite State University
• A study on the impact of the Responsible Parenthood and
Reproductive Health Laws on maternal health and infant mortality
in rural areas.
• Socio-economic characteristics and the adoption of organic
farming practices
The Research Problem
Problem
• Any significant, perplexing, and challenging situation, real or
artificial, the solution of which requires reflective thinking.
• A perplexing situation after it has been translated into a question
or series of questions that help determine the direction of
subsequent inquiry.
Elements of a Research Problem
1. Aim or purpose of the problem for investigation. This answers
the question “Why?”. Why is there an investigation, inquiry, or
study?
2. The subject matter or topic to be investigated. This answers the
question “What?” what is to be investigated or studied?
3. The place or locale where the research is to be conducted. This
answers the question “Where?” Where is the study to be
conducted?
Elements of a Research Problem
4. The period or time of the study during which the data are to be
gathered. This answers the question “When?”. When is the study
to be carried out?
5. Population or universe from whom the data are to be collected.
This answers the question “Who?” or “From whom?” Who are the
respondents/participants?
Guidelines in the Selection of a Research
Problem or Topic
1. The research problem or topic must be chosen by the researcher
himself.
2. It must be within the interest of the researcher.
3. It must be within the specialization of the researcher.
4. It must be within the competence of the researcher to tackle.
Guidelines in the Selection of a Research
Problem or Topic
5. It must be within the ability of the researcher to finance,
otherwise he must be able to find funding for his research.
6. It is researchable and manageable. Meaning…
• Data are available and accessible
• Data must meet the standards of accuracy, objectivity, and
verifiability.
• Answers to the specific questions can be found. (How qualified
are the volunteers in handling traumatic experiences?)
Guidelines in the Selection of a Research
Problem or Topic
7. It can be completed within a reasonable period of time unless it
is a longitudinal research which takes a long time for its
completion.
8. It is significant, important, and relevant to the present time and
situation, timely, and of current interest.
• Substantial impact upon situations and people it is intended
for or addressed to.
• Must arouse interest of the people concerned.
Guidelines in the Selection of a Research
Problem or Topic
9. The results are practical and implementable.
10. It requires original, critical, and reflective thinking to solve it.
• Novel, new or original
• Replication
11. It can be delimited to suit the resources of the researcher but
big or large enough to be able to give significant, valid, and
reliable results and generalizations.
Guidelines in the Selection of a Research
Problem or Topic
12. It must contribute to the national development goals for the
improvement of the quality of human life.
13. It must contribute to the fund of human knowledge.
14. It must show or pave the way for the solution of the problem or
problems intended to be solved.
15. It must not undermine the moral and spiritual values of the
people.
Guidelines in the Selection of a Research
Problem or Topic
16. It must not advocate any change in the present order of things
by means of violence but by peaceful means.
17. There must be a return of some kind to the researcher.
•
•
•
•
•
Monetary
Advancement of position or promotion
Improved specialization, competence, and skill
Enhanced prestige and reputation
Satisfaction of intellectual curiosity and interest, and being able
to discover truth.
Guidelines in the Selection of a Research
Problem or Topic
18. There must be a consideration of the hazards involved, either
physical, social or legal.
Physical – researcher will not be exposed to physical dangers
Social – research should not encroach upon socially approved and
established social values, norms of conduct, or ethical
standards
Legal – research will not adversely affect the honor and integrity of
people
References
Bhattacherjee, A. (2012). Social science research: Principles,
methods, and practices. Textbooks Collection.
http://scholarcommons.usf.edu/oa_textbooks/3
Calderon, J. F. and E.C. Gonzales. (1993). Methods of research and
thesis writing. National Bookstore, Mandaluyong City.
Calmorin, L. P. and M. A. Calmorin. (2008). Research methods and
thesis writing. Rex Bookstore, Inc., Manila
Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative
and mixed methods approaches (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage