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Labor and Delivery
▶Birth Process
Lactating
▶Breastfeeding
Ladd-Franklin, Christine
KELLI VAUGHN-BLOUNT
York University, Toronto, Canada
Life Dates
(1847–1930)
Introduction
Christine Ladd-Franklin, American psychologist and logician, was best known in psychology for her theory of color
vision and as a strong proponent for women’s equality
within psychological science and academia.
Educational Information
Christine Ladd-Franklin, like many of her psychological
female cohort, found the road to higher education to be
a rocky one. Ladd-Franklin began her collegiate career at
Vassar College. However, unlike many at the time, she did
not come with extensive financial resources. She entered
Vassar in the fall of 1866 but was only able to complete one
year before financial problems forced her to withdraw.
After a year of teaching, and with some assistance from
an aunt, Ladd-Franklin returned to Vassar in 1868 and
completed her A.B. in 1869. It would be some years,
though not unproductive ones, before Christine LaddFranklin would continue her formal education. Between
1869 and 1876 she unofficially continued her education
by attending courses as a non-admitted student at
Washington College, Jefferson College, and Harvard [10].
Her studies at Washington and Jefferson focused primarily
on mathematics. Her Harvard studies are still controversial; although, it is agreed that she spent at least one
summer there pursuing botany studies. It was also during
this period that she was teaching science and mathematics
in girls’ high schools [8, 9].
In 1876, aware of the potential detriment of her sex,
Ladd-Franklin wrote to the world-renowned mathematician James J. Sylvester at the newly formed Johns Hopkins
University to inquire if her sex might in fact be a detriment
to her admission [7]. Receiving Sylvester’s support, and
that of the newly developed fellowship program, she submitted her application for graduate studies to the university. The application was submitted under the name
C. Ladd (her maiden name) with impeccable credentials.
She was officially accepted. That was until the trustees’ of
the university discovered that C stood for Christine at
which point Sylvester had to intervene on her behalf.
Ladd-Franklin was finally admitted as a full time student,
with special provisions, and three years of support from
the fellowship but would not be formally recognized as
equal to her peers for many years. While attending Hopkins, Christine Ladd-Franklin studied mathematics under
Sylvester and symbolic logic under physicist Charles S.
Pierce. She was the first American woman to formally
receive graduate instruction in both [4, 8]. Like Mary
Whiton Calkins at Harvard and Lillien Jane Martin, fellow
Vassar alum, at Göttingen, Christine Ladd-Franklin completed all of the requirements for the Ph.D. at Johns
Hopkins in 1882. She was however denied the degree,
based solely on her sex, until 1926. Ladd-Franklin was
seventy eight years old when she finally received her doctorate but she was still the one of the three pioneers
mentioned above to do so. To date neither Harvard nor
Göttingen has officially recognized Calkins or Martins
degrees. Lillien Martin was awarded an honorary doctorate from the University of Bonn in 1910 allowing her to be
officially referred to as doctor in her life-time. Mary
Whiton Calkins, however, was offered only an alternative
degree from Radcliffe in 1903 (Harvard’s women’s college
during that period), which she refused on the grounds that
she had attended Harvard and not Radcliffe.
Sam Goldstein & Jack A. Naglieri (eds.), Encyclopedia of Child Behavior and Development, DOI 10.1007/978-0-387-79061-9,
# Springer Science+Business Media LLC 2011
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Ladd-Franklin, Christine
Christine Ladd-Franklin and Lillien Martin also
shared one other similarity in their pursuit of higher
education, G. E. Müller. Ladd-Franklin was the first female
student and first American student of Georg Elias Müller
at Göttingen in 1891 [3]. However, she spent only one year
at the university. Lillien Martin followed in 1894 and
would become the first woman and only American student to pursue a full five years of study under Müller at
Göttingen. In later years, Ladd-Franklin would further her
studies in color vision at the University of Berlin under
Herman Von Helmholtz while Martin would go on to
study mental imagery under Oswald Külpe at the University of Bonn.
Accomplishments
Christine Ladd to her detriment married fellow student
and mathematician Fabian Franklin upon completion of
her studies. Her marriage is important in that it not only
exemplifies her feminist leanings, with the use of
a hyphenated name, but also because the choice to marry
would forever hinder her career. Christine Ladd-Franklin
taught logic, mathematics, and psychological science
throughout her career. In the early 1900s she primarily
taught courses in logic and mathematics at Johns Hopkins. The bulk of her career, from 1915 until her death,
would however be focused on psychology and philosophy
at Columbia University. Due to her marital status, Columbia never provided her with a full professorship contract.
A professional slight that was common to married women
of the early twentieth century [7–10].
Christine Ladd-Franklin began publishing early. Her
first recorded works on mathematics were published during her undergraduate years at Vassar. Between 1873 and
1871 she published mathematical formulas in the London
Educational Times, The Analyst: A journal of Pure and
Applied Mathematics, and the American Journal of
Mathematics. It has been noted by historians that
Ladd-Franklin’s 1877 publication in The Analyst is the
first by a woman to appear in a mathematics journal [4, 8].
She is also considered a pioneer in the study of symbolic logic with her dissertation, The Algebra of Logic,
appearing in the now seminal 1883 work edited by Pierce
titled Studies in Logic by Members of the Johns Hopkins
University. Philosophy historians have noted that
Christine Ladd-Franklin reduced syllogism to a single formula and developed the primary principle for
a recognized validation of forms of syllogisms [7]. LaddFranklins earliest foray into psychology through symbolic
logic be seen in the 1889 edition of the American Journal of
Psychology. Her influence on study of logic continues and
has been widely recorded (See [12]).
Contributions to Psychology
It was in Germany that Ladd-Franklins earlier studies in
botany, biology, and logic began to come together under
a psychological umbrella of color vision. Her exposure to
the two prominent color theories of the time: Helmholtz
(later Young-Helmholtz) and Ewald Hering would alter
the course of her already promising career. Christine
Ladd-Franklin developed her own cumulative theory of
color vision proposing that rather than the now classic,
three or four, static color perception framework (e.g.,
Helmholtz or Hering) that a process existed whereby the
ability to perceive color combinations evolved over time.
The earliest version of her theory on color sensation was
presented at the Second International Congress of Psychology in 1892 and published in the German Journal
Zeitschrift fur Psychologie that same year. The American
introduction to Ladd-Franklin’s theory, in a formal publication, appeared in Science in 1893.
The bulk of the theory can be reviewed in Christine
Ladd-Franklin’s book Colour and Colour Theories, which
included many of her publishing’s on the topics [6]. This
original text offers several colored images providing accessible visual summations of the theory. Ladd-Franklin’s
theory included the only evolutionary postulate for the
recognition of color sense perception with increased differentiation of photochemical receptors during that time
[13]. Many considered her theory to be superior to both
Helmholtz and Hering (See [2, 11]). Yet, the former continue to be cited in psychologies introductory texts while
Ladd-Franklins is omitted.
Ladd-Franklin published approximately 400 articles
and books in mathematics, logic, and psychology in
her life-time but is often remembered for the strength
of her feminist ideologies rather than the insightfulness
of her research. She was not known to let a sexist slight
pass her by. She was one of the first two women, the other
being Calkins, to be elected to the American Psychological
Association, in 1893, but her tendency to buck the patriarchy within the discipline omitted her inclusion on
prominent committees. She also often published on issues
of equality for women within the academy. In 1903,
Christine Ladd-Franklin had been listed in Catell’s Men
of Science volume and was one of only three women
psychologists starred that year, indicating eminence in
the field. The most prominent of her publishing’s on
women appeared the following year with her 1904 paper
on Endowed Professorships for Women [5].
Ladd-Franklin’s battle of wills with Edward Titchner
regarding the Society of Experimentalists is an often-cited
example of her refusal to recognize female psychological
scientists as anything other than equals. Titchner’s refusal
Language Acquisition
to admit women to the Experimentalists meeting is well
recorded – as is Ladd-Franklin’s constant letters to him
debating the decision. Margaret Floy Washburn and June
Etta Downey were the first women officially admitted to
the society, after Titchners death, but Christine LaddFranklin was the first to attend the meetings. Ludy
Benjamin [1] has noted that at the 1914 meeting in
New York, where Ladd-Franklin resided, she attended
one session of the meeting. Titchner noted in a letter to
Robert Yerkes that Ladd-Franklin had threatened some
manner of a scene at the event and possible public protests
in print. She had warned Titchner prior to the meeting
that action was forthcoming and kept her word.
Christine Ladd-Franklin’s contributions to the history
of women in psychology finally began to be recognized in
the 1980s. The height of which culminated in the Association of Women in Psychology’s (AWP) Christine Ladd
Franklin Award in 1992. The award is given to the member
with the most significant contribution to the AWP. The
organization provides this description for the award “in
honor of Christine Ladd-Franklin. . . an early scientist
whose career provided a painful example of the way institutional sexism operated to exclude women from careers
in psychology and the sciences.” It could also be added that
she also showed what the women in nineteenth and early
twentieth century managed to accomplish in spite of it.
References
1. Benjamin, L. T. (2006). A history of psychology in letters (2nd ed.).
Malden, MA: Blackwell.
2. Cadwallader, T. C., & Cadwallader, J. V. (1990). Christine Ladd-Franklin.
In A. O’Connell & N. Felipe Russo (Eds.), Women in psychology: A biobibliographic sourcebook. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
3. Haupt, E. J. (1995). G. E. Müller: The Shaper of experimental psychology. Paper presented at the 1995 meeting of the American Psychological Association. http://www.chss.montclair.edu/psychology/
haupt/shaper2a.html. Retrieved 20 October 2005.
4. Jacob, K. (1976). How Johns Hopkins protected women from the
rougher influences. Newsletter of the Association for Women in Mathematics, 7(4), 2–4.
5. Ladd-Franklin, C. (1904). Endowed professorships for women. Publications of the Association of Collegiate Alumnae, 3(9), 53–61. http://
psychclassics.yorku.ca/Ladd-Franklin/professorships.htm. Retrieved
November 15 2008.
6. Ladd-Franklin, C. (1929). Colour and colour theories. New York, NY:
Harcourt, Brace & Co.
7. Parshall, K. H., & Rowe, D. E. (1997). The emergence of the American
mathematical research community, 1876–1900: J. J. Sylvester, Felix
Klein, and E. H. Moore. Providence, RI: American Mathematical
Society.
8. Rossiter, M. W. (1982). Women scientists in America: Struggles and
strategies to 1940. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
9. Scarborough, E., & Furumoto, L. (1987). Untold lives: The first
generation of American women psychologists. New York: Columbia
University Press.
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10. Stevens, G., & Gardner, S. (1982). The women of psychology (Vol. 1):
Pioneers and innovators. Cambridge, MA: Schenkman.
11. Stevens, G., & Gardner, S. (1982). The women of psychology.
Cambridge, MA: Schenkman.
12. Waithe, M. E. (Ed.). (1987). A history of women philosophers (Vol. 3):
Modern women philosophers 1600–1900. Boston, MA: Springer.
13. Woodworth, R. S. (1930). Review of colour and colour theories.
Psychological Bulletin, 27(2), 130–132.
Language
▶Verbal Skills
Language Acquisition
AMY BURGER, IVY CHONG
Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, FL, USA
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Synonyms
First language acquisition; Language learning; Native
language acquisition
Definition
Language acquisition refers to the processes by which
humans learn their native language(s) as children.
Description
For typical children, the foundations for language acquisition are laid before birth when the developing fetus is
exposed to adult speech sounds. After birth, infants show
signs of attending to speech and show a preference for
their caretakers’ speech sounds [1]. As an infant matures,
he or she will begin experimenting with vocalizations and
various forms of babbling (Babbling consists of strings of
random sounds composed of vowel-consonant or consonant-vowel combinations. Babbling is likely essential for
speech development [1].) will begin around the age of
4 months. Between 7 and 12 months, an infant will begin
to look at an object when its name is spoken and show
other signs of word recognition [1]. Between the ages of
8 and 12 months, the infant begins to imitate the speech
and communicative gestures of adults and older children:
the emergence of echolalia (Echolalia is defined as the
immediate imitation of another speaker’s speech [1].) is
considered an important part of speech development. The
child’s use of his or her first adult word will begin around
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Language Acquisition
12 months of age. The use of two-word sentences will
begin around 18 months, and by the age of 24 months,
a typical child will have a vocabulary of 200–300 words
and will be able to form short sentences. Parents and
caretakers often respond to their child’s developing language with a speech style known as motherese or parentese
(Motherese, also known as parentese or baby-talk, is the
style of speaking to young children and infants which
typically involves slower speech, sentences that are shorter
and simplified, and exaggerated pitch changes and stress
patterns [1].). The shorter length of utterances typical of
motherese may help to improve some types of language
skills in young children [1].
After age 2, the child’s language acquisition increases
rapidly. The vast majority of children will achieve basic
competency in their language by age 5 [2]. Around age 6,
typical children will begin to use all parts of speech, and
sentences will become more complex. Between the ages of
8 and 12, children gain the ability to verbalize problems
and ideas, including abstract concepts. The breadth of
vocabulary and use of subtle, complex, and creative language will increase during adolescence and continue to
develop throughout the lifespan [1].
Theories of Language Acquisition
There are numerous theories of language acquisition.
Three major theories of language acquisition are the
behavioral theory, sociolinguistic theory, and the psycholinguistic or nativist model.
The behavioral theory of language acquisition, developed by the behavioral psychologist B. F. Skinner, proposes that language is learned when other persons in the
child’s environment respond to the child’s use of language
[1]. According to Skinner, reinforcement is defined as an
event that follows a behavior and increases the future
probability of that behavior. When children make speech
sounds, others respond in a positive way to these sounds,
which reinforces these behaviors and causes the child to
engage in them more often [1]. According to this theory,
adults gradually shape (Shaping refers to the training of
a behavior through the reinforcement of behaviors that are
increasingly close approximations of the desired behavior.
After a closer approximation is acquired, the other
approximations are no longer reinforced. This process
continues until the organism acquires the desired behavior
[1].) children’s language use by initially reinforcing the
production of any sounds, then reinforcing only specific
sounds that can be used to form words in the child’s native
language, and later only reinforcing adult words used
correctly. As the child matures, other people gradually
stop reinforcing language use acceptable in young children
and begin to reinforce only the acceptable adult uses of
language. This process continues until the person has
achieved the language competency accepted in his or her
environment. This theory has been criticized because studies of parent–child interaction have not found evidence that
this type of reinforcement of language use actually occurs
consistently [2]. However, most scientists recognize that
environmental input is essential for language acquisition
and can influence and improve language use [1].
The psycholinguistic or nativist model, first developed
by Noam Chomsky, proposes that all human beings have
an innate ability to learn language. Chomksy referred to
the mechanism that facilitates language acquisition as the
language acquisition device (LAD). According to this theory, all typical humans are hard-wired to use basic, universal rules of language which exist in all languages [1].
However, transformational rules, which govern grammar,
word order, and other differences that are specific to each
language, must be learned by the child as he or she
matures. According to this theory, children gradually
learn the transformational rules of their own language by
hearing the speech of other adults and testing out the
patterns of speech when they create their own utterances.
This explains why children make mistakes by overusing
common rules of their language: for example, children
may say “mans” instead of the correct term “men” because
they have learned to add a final “s” to pluralize a word.
However, this theory has been criticized because it fails to
recognize the effects that social interactions and the environment can have on language acquisition and use [1].
The sociolinguistic theory proposes that language is
learned through social interactions which cause the child
to associate meanings with words used in social contexts.
According to this theory, language acquisition begins
when a child begins to learn language as caregivers
imbue a child’s actions with meaning when they respond
to early communication attempts [1]. After social communication is established, caregivers model speech and,
when the child imitates their speech, provide feedback that
confirms, corrects, or expands the meaning and function
that various utterances have when used in a social context.
Thus, the communication of intentions and desires first
begins in nonverbal forms; after this is established, the
child learns to use verbal language to communicate. This
theory accepts the view that an innate LAD may exist, but
proposes that a social support system is necessary for
language acquisition to occur successfully [1].
Relevance to Childhood Development
Clearly, language use is one of the most important skills
learned in childhood. Knowledge of theories and
Language Development
developmental milestones related to language acquisition
can be helpful to parents, caretakers, and educators who
wish to design educational and play activities that are
suited to specific age groups. Appropriate use of milestone
information also can be helpful for identifying problems
with speech, language, or hearing. However, parents
should also consider the fact that developmental milestone charts provide only approximate information and
that individual variation is expected [1]. Understanding
the different theories of language acquisition also can aid
parents and guardians in selecting interventions for
children with language delays or disorders and evaluating
the different interventions offered by professionals.
References
1.
2.
Owens, R. E. (2001). Language development: An introduction
(5th ed.). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Reisberg, D. (2006). Cognition (3rd ed.). New York: W. W. Norton
and Company.
Language Development
LORETTA C. RUDD, HEATHER M. KELLEY
Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX, USA
Definition
Language development is a higher level cognitive skill
involving audition and oral abilities in humans to communicate verbally individuals’ wants and needs.
Description
Language is a complex system involving several components. The components of language include phonology,
semantics, syntax, and pragmatics. Language development occurs in a fairly predictable fashion. Most typically developing children acquire the skills in each of
the four areas by the end of their ninth year of life. While
some children may develop more quickly than this,
others may develop a bit slower. The important issue is
that language develops in a typical sequence across all
four areas.
The area of phonology includes the sounds of speech.
Most typically developing children have acquired all
speech sounds of their first language by the end of their
ninth year. The typical order of phonological development
begins with the sounds produced at the front of the month
and progresses to complex blends of sounds.
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The second component of language development is
semantics, or the meaning of words. It is remarkable that
infants begin with no words at birth and typically produce
upwards of 250 words by the end of the second year of life.
By the time children are 6 years old, they typically have
a working vocabulary of 10,000 words! Children who are
growing in language-rich environments may have even
larger vocabularies.
Syntax, or sentence structure, is the third component
of language development. As children develop language
they begin to use more complex sentence structures. They
progress from using one-word utterances (12–18
months), to two-word utterances (18–24 months), to
three-word utterances (24–30 months), and finally they
are capable of using complex sentences that join more
than one thought or event. Most typically developing
children have mastered the rules of adult syntax by age 5.
The final component of language development is pragmatics. Pragmatics is an understanding of how we use
language to communicate with others. Pragmatics
includes the social conventions of a culture, such as,
politeness, turn-taking routines, non-verbal cues that
indicate the listener understands, and cultural variations
of these.
Relevance to Childhood Development
Language development does not begin when children
utter their first words around the end of the first year of
life. Indeed, language development begins even before
birth! There is evidence to indicate that newborns prefer
human voice to other sounds and can even recognize their
own mother’s voice over voices of other humans. The
amount of talk directed at the young child is strongly
linked with children’s vocabulary growth and in turn
their future reading and writing skills. Children who are
reared in language-rich environments do significantly better in reading and writing than children reared in
impoverished environments. The critical element of
language development to child development is that
language development is at the root of most cognitive,
social and emotional tasks associated with later success
in school.
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
Berk, L. E. (2006). Development through the lifespan (4th ed.). Boston,
MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Essa, E. L. (2003). Introduction to early childhood education (4th ed.).
Clifton Park, NY: Delmar Learning.
Gleason, J. B. (Ed.). (2001). The development of language. Boston,
MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Trawick-Smith, J. (2006). Early child development: Multicultural
perspective (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
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Language Disorders
Language Disorders
▶Central Auditory Processing Disorder
▶Communication Disorders
Latent Variables
▶Variables, in Experimental Developmental Research
Laterality
Language Impairments in
Children
▶Central Auditory Processing Disorder
ANNA MAZUR-MOSIEWICZ, RAYMOND S. DEAN
Ball State University, Muncie, IN, USA
Synonyms
Cerebral lateralization; Handedness; Lateral dominance;
Split brain; Unilateral hand preference
Definition
Language Learning
▶Language Acquisition
Language Variety
▶Dialect
Laterality, which is often referred to as unilateral hand
preference or handedness, is the preference for one side
of the body over the other. Examples include righthandedness and left-footedness. Laterality is related to
cerebral lateralization. Laterality is crucial to understanding language functions because of their association with
the dominant hemisphere of the brain.
In most cases, handedness is genetically determined;
however, early trauma or prenatal events are known to
affect the adult and preference. Left hand preference that is
due to an early hemisphere lesion is referred to as pathological left-handedness [1].
Description
Language-Based Reasoning
▶Verbal Intelligence
Laplace-Gaussian Curve
▶Normal Curve
Latent Learning
▶Learning
The reason for hand preference is not completely understood; however, there are small but significant anatomic
differences between the dominant and non-dominant
hemispheres. For example, the planum temporale tends
to be larger in the dominant hemisphere. Also the sylvian
fissure and occipital horn tends to be longer in the dominant cerebral hemisphere. Even though there is no clear
explanation as to why left-handedness occurs, traditional
hypothesis suggest that the left-hand preference is a result
of the left-hemispheric disease in early life, which also
explains why there is more left-handed individuals
among the learning-disabled or cognitively impaired
populations than among right-handed individuals [1, 3].
Laterality reflects the functional supremacy of one of
the cerebral hemispheres. The majority of humans displays the left cerebellar dominance. Generally, each cerebral hemisphere controls the contralateral side of the body
(i.e., left cerebral hemisphere is controls the right side of
the body) including muscular control, sensory input, and
Laterality
other lateralized functions that are associated with a particular hemisphere. This pattern is not clearly established in all
individuals. In fact, many individuals are mixed-dominant
and not completely right-handed or left-handed, but they
tend to favor one hand for complex tasks [1].
Studies estimate that about 90–95% of all adults display general right-handed preference. In early childhood,
only 70% of children present right-handedness; yet, in
middle and late adulthood, the percentage of righthanded individuals increases to 99%. This change is
explained partially by the practice of forcible repression
of left-handedness and the accommodation of lefthanders to tools and norms of the right-handed
environment. About 95–99% of right-handers have lefthemispheric language representation.
The majority of non-right-handed (nondexteral) individuals present left cerebral language dominance; however, they are more likely to have atypical language
representation (right or bilateral) with the familial history
of left-handedness. The incidence of the right cerebral
dominance is harder to estimate due to bilateral hemispheric distribution in these individuals. Yet, the incidence
of right-hemispheric language dominance in lefthandedness increases linearly with the degree of left-handedness, form 4% in strong right-handers to 15% in
ambidextrous individuals and 27% in strong left-handers.
General estimations indicate that in nondexterals, 78% is
left-hemispheric dominant, 15% have bilateral language
distribution, and about 8% present right-hemispheric
dominance [1].
In right-handed individuals, aphasia is usually related
to left-cerebral lesion. In these individuals, aphasia due to
pure right-hemispheric lesion happens only in 1% of
cases. Cerebral dominance in ambidextrous and lefthanded individuals is rarely so uniform. In fact, in 60%
of left-handed individuals, aphasia is due to lesions in the
left hemisphere, and a majority of right-hemispheric
aphasias is reported in left-handers. Moreover, language
disorders in left-handed patients with right hemispheric
lesions are usually less severe and enduring than in righthanded individuals. Thus, it is often proposed that nonright-handed individuals have bilateral representation of
language functions [4].
There are several ways that help to determine which
hemisphere of the brain is the dominant one: (1) behavioral outcomes of the brain lesion (the loss or impairment
of language functions is usually associated with lesions in
the dominant hemisphere); (2) the preference for greater
facility in the use of the right or left hand; (3) the preference for greater facility in the use of the right or left foot;
(4) the arrest of speech in association with a focal seizure
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or after electrical stimulation of the anterior language area
during a surgical procedure; (5) injection of sodium amytal into the left internal carotid artery, which produces
a one or 2-min-long period of mutism that is followed by
misnaming, and paraphasic speech if the left hemisphere is
the dominant one; (5) dichotic listening test in which
different words are presented simultaneously to two ears,
yields ear-hemisphere advantage for the dominant cerebral hemisphere; (6) observing the increase in cerebral
blood flow during language processing tasks; (7) and lateralization of speech and language functions following the
commissurotomic procedure [1].
Laterality and Cognitive Development
Left-handers tend to perform better than right-handers on
visuo-spatial tasks. These group differences are likely
related to the fact that left-handers have visuospatial functions mediated in a more diffuse manner by both hemispheres and not localized in the right hemisphere, while
right-handers have the visuospatial functions more localized in the right hemisphere. Laterality also is related to
cognitive abilities and gender. Left-handed males tend to
perform similarly to right-handed females in their superiority on tests of verbal skills and sequential processing,
and left-handed females and right-handed males appear to
have advantageous visuo-spatial skills and nonverbal
auditory processing abilities [4].
Higher proportion of nondexterals than right-handers
present extreme cognitive functions. At the lower end of
the distribution are individuals whose left-handedness
was caused to early brain injury. At the other end are
individuals with superior intellectual abilities. These individuals tend to become skilled mathematicians, professional athletes, architects, lawyers, and chess players.
Additionally, more left-handers enjoy artistic (manual
and graphic) and musical talents [1, 4].
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Adams, R. D., & Victor, M. (1993). Principles of neurology. New York:
McGraw-Hill.
Fasmer, O. B., Akiskal, H. S., & Hugdahl, K. (2008). Non-righthandedness is associated with migraine and soft bipolarity in patients
with mood disorders. Journal of Affective Disorders, 108(3), 217–224.
Geschwind, N., & Behan, P. O. (1982). Left-handedness: Association
with immune disease, migraine, and developmental learning disorder. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, 79, 5097–5100.
Howieson, D. B., Loring, D. W., & Hannay, H. J. (2004). In M. D.
Lezak, D. B. Howieson, & D. W. Loring (Eds.), Neuropsychological
assessment. New York: Oxford University Press.
Marian, A. (2002). Handedness and brain asymmetry: The right shift
theory. New York: Taylor & Francis.
McKeever, W. R., & Rich, D. A. (1990). Left handedness and immune
disorders. Cortex, 26, 33–40.
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Laughter
Laughter
TAWNIE CABALLERO, BRETT R. NELSON, LAURA PARRES
California State University, San Bernardino, CA, USA
Synonyms
Cackle; Chuckle; Chortle; Giggle; Guffaw; Snicker
Definition
An explosive sound that is the sign of amusement. Origin:
From the Old English hliehhan, is of onomatopoeic
(sound-imitating) origin.
Description
Laughter is the communication of emotion in a social
situation and part of the universal human vocabulary.
Laughter may express various emotions such as joy,
amusement, nervousness, fear, shame, and even aggression. Laughter is one of the few vocalizations that is shared
by humans and non-human primates. Tickling is one of
the most common and reliable triggers to human and
primate laughter. Researchers have found that laughter is
not consciously controlled. It is defined by a specific
repeated vowel sound such as “ha ha ha” or “he he he.”
Different laugh types differ with respect to emotional
dimensions. An associated term “schadenfreude” is
defined as laughing at another’s misfortune.
Relevance to Childhood Development
As early as the first few weeks of life, infants begin
experiencing the world through auditory and visual channels. During the first months of development, babies may
smile and produce “laughter-like” vocalizations at the
sight of a familiar face. The close interaction between
mother or caregiver and child fosters healthy attachment.
Laughter vocalizations are a naturally occurring part of
child development. “Cooing,” cuddling, and tickling will
elicit the laughter response in very young infants.
As children reach toddler age, they continue to develop socialization by using laughter in communication.
Children will often play and laugh to express amusement
and silliness with family members and friends. Children
usually find humor in silly sounds of cartoons and physical
humor. During the schooling years, children may quickly
learn the social “norms” among their peers in regards to
laughter. Laughter can be used either to include or exclude
children from a social group.
Humor is often used in a therapeutic way to elicit
laughter. Laughter is associated with the reduction of
stress and provides a brief escape from stressful events.
The phrase “Laughter is the best medicine” is based on
current research of the many health benefits. Laughing can
reduce vasoconstriction (the narrowing of blood vessels)
and may decrease levels of the “stress” chemicals Cortisol
and epinephrine. Doctors, such as Patch Adams, M.D.,
have used humor therapy and clowning in their medical
practice for treatment of terminally ill patients to provide
coping techniques.
In regard to parenting, functions of laughter can vary
according to an individual’s perception of their child
(ren) and specific kinds of interaction. Skilled therapists
can observe interactions between parent and child to
identify how laughter is used in relationships. Laughter
may be used as a means to negotiate tensions or while
discussing delicate issues (nervous laughter). A parent
may also use laughter to calm concerns they have about
his/her child(ren).
Conclusion
Laughter is a commonly overlooked, yet universal function of human social communication. The meanings of
different types of laughter are relative to human development. In humans as young as toddlers, laughter can be
used to include or exclude peers from a specific social
group. Health benefits of laughter include stress reduction
and the reduction of vasoconstriction and stress
chemicals.
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
Alasuutari, M. (2009). What is so funny about children? Laughter
in parent-practitioner interaction. International Journal of Early Years
Education, 17(2), 105–118.
Klein, A. (1998). The courage to laugh: Humor, hope and healing in the
face of death and dying. NY: Penguin Putman.
Provine, R. P. (2000). Laughter: A scientific investigation. NY: Penguin
Books.
Szameitat, D. P., Szameitat, A. J., Wildgruber, D., Dietrich, S., Alter,
K., Darwin, C. J., et al. (2009). Differentiation of emotions in laughter at the behavioral level. Emotion, 9(3), 397–405.
Law of Effect
ELIZABETH G. E. KYONKA
West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, USA
Synonyms
Principle of reinforcement
Law of Effect
Definition
The Law of Effect is E. L. Thorndike’s description of the
principle of connectionism: an individual is more likely to
repeat behaviors that are accompanied or closely followed
by satisfaction and less likely to repeat behaviors that are
accompanied or closely followed by discomfort in
a particular situation, when that situation recurs.
Description
Thorndike’s Law of Effect
At the end of the nineteenth century, Edward L. Thorndike
pioneered a means of measuring learning. He constructed
several chambers, each equipped with an escape hatch that
could be opened by a particular mechanism such as
depressing a lever or pulling a string. He would place
a cat (dog, or chick) in the same “puzzle box” several
times and recorded escape latency – the amount of time
it took the cat to execute the required mechanism and exit
the chamber. Upon succeeding, cats were rewarded with
access to food for a brief period. Thorndike deemed
a decrease in escape latency over successive trials evidence
of “animal intelligence,” or learning.
The first time a cat experienced a puzzle box it would
explore the box, guided by impulse or instinct, and usually
took a long time to escape. Once they had escaped successfully from a puzzle box several times, most cats executed the required escape response quickly. Thorndike [5]
attributed the decrease in escape latency to a strengthening
of the association between stimulus (puzzle box) and
response (whatever action was required to escape). Thorndike [6] described the improvement of performance upon
repeated trials as the Law of Effect:
"
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place. As such, the law of effect can be considered
a definition of positive reinforcement (and positive punishment), a key concept for theories of learning in respondent and operant behavior: a reinforcer is anything that
strengthens a preceding behavior.
Theories of Matching: The Quantitative Law
of Effect
Herrnstein [4] conducted an ▶operant conditioning
experiment in which pigeons pecked at two concurrently-presented options that were reinforced at different
rates. For several different reinforcement ratios, the percent of pecks to a particular alternative equaled the percent of reinforcers obtained on that alternative: the
relationship between rates of responding and rates of
reinforcement was proportional. This observation is
a restatement of the law of effect as a description of choice
between different alternatives that made it possible for
Herrnstein to express the relationship as a mathematical
equation:
B1
kR1
¼
B1 þ B2 kðR1 þ R2 Þ
ð1Þ
In Eq. 1, Bs denote rates of responses, Rs denote rates of
reinforcement, k is a constant multiplier that drops out
and subscripts 1 and 2 refer to different types of responses
(alternatively, a target behavior and all other possible
behaviors).
The relationship between rates of responses and reinforcement is known as the “matching law” and often
appears in its most general form [2]:
B1
R1
¼ s log
þ log b
ð2Þ
log
B2
R2
Of several responses made to the same situation, those
which are accompanied or closely followed by satisfaction
to the animal will, other things being equal, be more firmly
connected with the situation, so that, when it recurs, they
will be more likely to recur; those which are accompanied
or closely followed by discomfort to the animal will, other
things being equal, have their connections with that situation weakened, so that, when it recurs, they will be less
likely to occur. The greater the satisfaction or discomfort,
the greater the strengthening or weakening of the bond
(p. 244)
In Eq. 2, Variables B, R and their subscripts are as in Eq. 1.
The parameter s refers to the sensitivity of responding to
reinforcer ratio, and the parameter log b to bias, a constant
preference for one alternative that is independent of reinforcer ratio. The original matching law described by
Herrnstein is a special case of the generalized matching
law. The generalized matching law provides a good
description of behavior in a variety of experimental choice
procedures [3].
According to Thorndike, the effect of reinforcement is
a strengthening of the association between stimulus and
response. The corollary effect of punishment is
a weakening of the association between stimulus and
response. Thorndike’s Law of Effect does not provide any
insight into how the association comes about in the first
The law of effect and the generalized matching law are best
understood in experimental conditions where both
response and reinforcer are concrete, discrete and easily
measurable. However, the principle applies to all circumstances in which learning occurs, in humans of all ages as
well as in cats and pigeons.
Relevance to Childhood Development
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Law of Independent Assortment
The matching law has been used as a means of describing behavior in applied settings notably including classroom environments. It enables psychologists and
educators to quantify and assess on-task or appropriate
behavior relative to off-task or inappropriate classroom
behavior. Results of empirical studies [1] have produced
strategies for reinforcing, both individually and classroom-wide, appropriate behaviors such as homework
completion that “may allow educators to increase the
probability of students choosing to engage in assigned
tasks.”
A practiced understanding of the law of effect can be
particularly useful when teaching preverbal or nonverbal
children. Consistent positive reinforcement of a behavior
encourages that behavior, whether it is desirable or no.
Many parents will identify with those in this case study of
a toddler [7]: While the toddler had been sick for an
extended period as an infant, one of his parents or
a caregiver would monitor him at bedtime until he fell
asleep. If the toddler cried or fussed after he was left alone
in his bedroom, an adult would return to tend to him. At
bedtime, the toddler’s crying response was strengthened
by the satisfaction he received from his parents’ attention.
It is no wonder his crying continued after his health
returned! When his parents stopped reinforcing the toddler’s unnecessary crying, his tantrums ceased with no
apparent ill effects.
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Billington, E., & DiTommaso, N. M. (2003). Demonstrations and
applications of the matching law in education. Journal of Behavioral
Education, 12, 91–104.
Davison, M., & McCarthy, D. (1988). The matching law: A research
review. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Grace, R. C. (1995). A contextual model of concurrent-chains choice.
Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 61, 113–129.
Herrnstein, R. J. (1961). Relative and absolute strength of response as
a function of frequency of reinforcement. Journal of the Experimental
Analysis of Behavior, 4, 267–272.
Thorndike, E. L. (1898). Animal intelligence: An experimental study
of the associative processes of animals. Psychological Review Monograph Supplement, 2, 1–107.
Thorndike, E. L. (1911). Animal intelligence. New York: Macmillan.
Williams, C. D. (1959). The elimination of tantrum behavior by
extinction procedures. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology,
59, 269.
Law of Independent Assortment
▶Mendelian Genetics
Law of Segregation
▶Mendelian Genetics
LBW
▶Low Birth Weight
Lead Poisoning
AMBER R. WHITED, ANDREW S. DAVIS
Ball State University, Muncie, IN, USA
Synonyms
Plumbism; Saturnism
Definition
Lead poisoning is a medical condition in which the body
contains toxic levels of lead.
Description
Lead has been put to many uses throughout history. It was
mixed into cosmetics and medicines, as well as added to
pottery enamel and glass used to make food containers. In
more recent times, lead was used for soldering the edges of
tin sheets together in order to make cans for preserving
food. Lead has been used in pipes for household plumbing, as well as in household paints. It was also added to
gasoline. As a result, children and adults were often
exposed to toxic levels of lead. In modern times, the
primary source of exposure for children is lead in paint.
Contaminated dust and soil is the second most common
source. Young children are at higher risk of exposure, as
they engage in hand-to-mouth activities more frequently
than older children and adults [3, 8].
Lead levels are typically measured in micrograms per
deciliter (mg/dL) in the blood. The Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention [6] recommends individual
intervention for children with a blood level of 15 mg/dL
or higher and community interventions in areas where
many children have blood levels of 10 mg/dL or higher. The
average blood lead level in the United States is 2 mg/dL.
Symptoms of early or mild lead poisoning (about
25–60 mg/dL) often include digestive problems, such as
nausea, loss of appetite, or constipation. Fatigue and difficulty sleeping may be noted. Individuals may develop
Learned Helplessness
anemia. More severe levels of lead poisoning (above 80 mg/
dL) can include kidney disease, encephalopathy, paralysis
(lead palsy), or partial or total blindness. Some individuals
may have a blue line along the gum line, faintly at mild levels
and more pronounced with severe exposure, which is
unique to lead poisoning; however, many individuals
do not develop this symptom. If left untreated, severe
lead poisoning may result in convulsions, coma, or death
[1–3, 5, 7, 8].
The primary method of treating lead poisoning is
chelation therapy. The most common chelating agents
used are penicillamine, mese-2,3-dimercaptosuccinicacid
(DMSA), ethylenediaminetriacetate (EDTA), and 2,3dimercaptopropanol (BAL). Penicillamine and DMSA
are taken orally and are more commonly prescribed for
mild or chronic cases and when treating children. EDTA
and BAL are administered by injection and are used for
acute lead poisoning. When used with children, injections
are typically intramuscular. Proper nutrition is very
important during chelation therapy, as the agents used
can bind to essential minerals, such as zinc and iron [2, 9].
Relevance for Childhood Development
Prenatal exposure to lead has been associated with spontaneous abortions and premature births [10]. Although
80 mg/dL is typically identified as severe exposure, encephalopathy has been found as low as 65 mg/dL. Signs of
encephalopathy in children may include restlessness,
drowsiness, difficulty concentrating, headache, and
vomiting. Seizures may also be noted [4].
Lead poisoning has been found to have a negative
impact on the performance on intelligence tests, even at
mild levels. Deficits in visual-motor coordination are
common. Behavior disorders may develop, with signs of
aggressiveness or destructiveness. Children with lead poisoning have been found to be absent from school more
frequently, as well as to have higher rates of school failure.
Academically, children often perform more poorly on
school work, especially verbal activities, such as reading
and vocabulary. Auditory processing skills may be weakened. Reaction times tend to be slower for children with
lead poisoning [4, 8].
Research has been inconsistent in determining the
permanence of deficits for children following treatment
for lead poisoning. Some studies have found children can
improve with reduction of lead levels, while other studies
have found continued deficits. Reduction of environmental exposure is critical to treatment of lead exposure, as
reexposure is more likely to cause permanent damage to
the central nervous system, even when the second exposure is at a low level [4, 9].
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References
1. Anzelmo, V., & Bianco, P. (1995). Gastrointestinal and hepatic effects
of lead exposure. In N. Castellino, P. Castellino, & N. Sannolo (Eds.),
Inorganic lead exposure: Metabolism and intoxication (pp. 419–422).
Boca Raton, FL: Lewis Publishers.
2. Castellino, N. (1995a). Clinical presentation of human lead poisoning. In N. Castellino, P. Castellino, & N. Sannolo (Eds.), Inorganic
lead exposure: Metabolism and intoxication (pp. 287–296). Boca
Raton, FL: Lewis Publishers.
3. Castellino, N. (1995b). The history of lead poisoning and uses of lead
over the centuries. In N. Castellino, P. Castellino, & N. Sannolo
(Eds.), Inorganic lead exposure: Metabolism and intoxication
(pp. 3–11). Boca Raton, FL: Lewis Publishers.
4. Castellino, P., Anzelmo, V., Bianco, P., Mattei, O., & Castellino, N.
(1995). The neurological toxicity of lead. In N. Castellino,
P. Castellino, & N. Sannolo (Eds.), Inorganic lead exposure: Metabolism
and intoxication (pp. 297–337). Boca Raton, FL: Lewis Publishers.
5. Castellino, P., Bologna, L., & Castellino, N. (1995). Lead and the
kidney. In N. Castellino, P. Castellino, & N. Sannolo (Eds.), Inorganic
lead exposure: Metabolism and intoxication (pp. 339–367). Boca
Raton, FL: Lewis Publishers.
6. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2005). Preventing lead
poisoning in young children. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention.
7. Fabri, G., & Castellino, N. (1995). Lead and the erythropoietic
system. In N. Castellino, P. Castellino, & N. Sannolo (Eds.), Inorganic
lead exposure: Metabolism and intoxication (pp. 369–401). Boca
Raton, FL: Lewis Publishers.
8. Farquhar, D. (1994). Lead poisoning prevention: A guide for legislators.
Denver, CO: National Conference of State Legislatures.
9. Millstone, E. (1997). Lead and public health. Washington, DC: Taylor
and Francis.
10. Sabatelli, G., Sacco, A., & Castellino, P. (1995). Lead and the reproductive system. In N. Castellino, P. Castellino, & N. Sannolo (Eds.),
Inorganic lead exposure: Metabolism and intoxication (pp. 423–436).
Boca Raton, FL: Lewis Publishers.
Learned Helplessness
LEAH E. JOHNSON, MATTHEW C. LAMBERT
Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX, USA
Definition
The pattern of attributions and behaviors that leads an
individual to see no connection between the behavior and
the outcomes resulting in feelings of hopelessness, depression, and passivity [5].
Description
Learned helplessness is the perception of little or no relation between one’s behaviors and outcomes. Learned helplessness theory assumes individuals seek explanations for
events, particularly negative events such as school failure,
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Learning
interpersonal problems, poor health, or loss in sports.
These explanations and the attributions that underlie
them affect expectations for future events. These future
expectations then determine behavioral responses, including passivity, anxiety, and depression. Children who
develop learned helplessness tend to attribute their failures
to a lack of ability. However, when these children succeed
they attribute it to external factors, such as luck, rather
than ability [5].
The theory of learned helplessness was first proposed
in 1967 by Steven Maier and Martin Seligman when they
were graduate students at the University of Pennsylvania.
The students were involved in a series of experiments
concerning negative reinforcement using dogs. In these
experiments, a group of dogs received uncontrollable
shocks. These dogs were then placed in a situation when
they could control the shocks received. The dogs did not
display any learning in the new situation- lying passively
in the box while receiving shocks that could be controlled,
unlike the control group and the dogs that received controllable shocks through the duration of the experiment.
Similar results were found in later experiments with rats,
monkeys, cats, and humans. From these first experiments,
Seligman and others developed their theory of learned
helplessness.
Seligman’s theory of learned helplessness is composed
of three components: contingency, cognition, and behavior.
Contingency is the outcome of a person’s actions; that is the
result experienced due to a person’s behavior. Cognition is
the person’s perception and explanation of the outcome or
contingency. Thirdly, behavior is the action a person takes
in response the contingency and cognition. Learned helplessness is similar to Weiner’s attributional model, particularly the cognition piece of the theory. Under the theory of
learned helplessness, Seligman proposed that people differ
in their explanatory, or attributional, style. Research shows
that there are consistent individual differences in explanatory style. Some people tend to attribute events to internal,
stable, and global causes. Such a student may explain
a failure on an exam by saying that he or she is stupid and
just cannot learn that subject. Explanatory style appears to
generalize to new situations.
The generalizability of explanatory style or cognition is
more like a trait. The generalizability of learned helplessness along with uncontrollability of events can help
explain depression in some people. Seligman proposed
that the uncontrollability of an aversive event enhances
the fear-arousing characteristics of the event and leads to
depression if the experience is prolonged, intense, or
becomes frequent. Seligman also contended that the helplessness he observed in his experiments with the dogs was
parallel with severe depression in humans. Some similarities include the failure to solve problems that are solvable
and a lack of initiation of action. He also noted that like
chronic depression, helplessness can be difficult to break
up once it established. Learned helplessness cannot
explain all facets of every case of depression, but it may
identify a set of cognitions that are involved in at least
some cases.
Relevance to Childhood Development
When children with learned helplessness encounter
a difficult task, they experience an anxious loss of control
and do not persist. Over time, the ability of children
with learned helplessness does not predict their performance [1]. These children do not develop the
metacognitive and self-regulatory skills necessary for
high achievement because they do not recognize the relationship between behaviors and outcomes. Children who
have developed learned helplessness become involved in
an ongoing cycle of a lack of effective learning strategies,
reduced persistence, and a sense of loss of control [1].
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Berk, L. E. (2007). Development through the Lifespan (4th ed.).
Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Mook, D. (2004). Classic experiments in psychology. Westport, CT:
Greenwood Press.
Overmier, J. B. (2002). On learned helplessness. Integrative Physiological & Behavioral Science, 37(1), 4–8.
Peterson, C., Maier, S. F., & Seligman, M. (1993). Learned helplessness: A theory for the age of personal control. New York: Oxford Press.
Schunk, D. H., Pintrich, P. R., & Meece, J. L. (2008). Motivation in
education: Theory, research, and applications (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Pearson Education.
Learning
DANIEL PATANELLA
New York City Department of Education, New York,
NY, USA
Synonyms
Behaviorism; Cognitive-behaviorism; Conditioning; Latent
learning; Literacy; Neo-behaviorism; Social learning
Definition
Learning refers to changes in behavior and cognition as
the result of experience. Traditional learning theory is
Learning
closely associated with behaviorism, cognitive-behavioral
research, and an empiricist-associationist philosophy.
Description
As a psychological discipline, learning refers to changes in
behavior and changes in cognition as the result of experience. Traditional learning theory is closely associated with
behaviorism, cognitive-behavioral research, and an empiricist-associationist philosophy. A broad distinction may be
drawn between conditioning, as represented by Watson
[10] and Skinner [7] and the eclectic cognitive-behavioral
learning perspectives of such psychologists as Tolman [9]
and Bandura [1]. Regardless of their theoretical diversity,
all learning theorists subscribe to the behaviorist maxim
that the proper dependent variables in psychological
research should be observable, verifiable behaviors.
Conditioning
Conditioning refers to any process by which an organism
acquires new behaviors through repeated experience.
There are two main types of conditioning. The first is
known as classical conditioning, represented by such
researchers as Pavlov [5] and the Watson [10], who popularized the term “behaviorism.” The second, known as
operant or instrumental conditioning, derives from the
works of Skinner [7] and his followers. Classical conditioning is a form of learning in which an organism comes
to associate one stimulus with another, usually prompting
a behavior previously associated only with the first stimulus. It is concerned with the re-association of a reflexive
behavior to a formerly neutral stimulus. Operant conditioning is a form of learning primarily concerned with the
effects of reinforcement and punishment upon behaviors.
The behaviors addressed by operant conditioning are
much broader in scope than the reflexes of classical
conditioning.
Within classical conditioning, several components of
the conditioned response may be measured and serve as
the dependent variable of interest. The amount of time it
takes for an organism to respond to a conditioned stimulus is referred to as “latency,” the strength of the response is
referred to as “magnitude,” and the likelihood that the
conditioned response will occur at all is called “probability.” Examination of these three aspects of learned behaviors has partially led to two important and influential
elaborations of our understanding of classical conditioning, namely opponent-process theory, and the RescorlaWagner theory. The opponent-process theory, largely
developed by Solomon [8], provides an associationist
context for explaining certain instances (such as habituation to drugs) in which the conditioned response becomes
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the opposite of the unconditioned response. The RescorlaWagner theory, created by Rescorla and Wagner [6] allows
for mathematical prediction of responses based upon the
given trajectory of a learning curve, offers a possible learning-based explanation on habituation to repetitive stimuli
and also helps explain how organisms distinguish among
multiple conditioned stimuli at any given time.
Operant conditioning, in contrast, is not as dependent
upon reflexive behavior and is primarily concerned with
the effects of reinforcement and punishment upon behaviors. Operant conditioning focuses on the consequences of
behaviors, and what makes learned behaviors stronger or
weaker. Behaviors that are reinforced are likely to persist
whereas lack of reinforcement will likely result in
a decrease in the behavior. Ferster and Skinner [2] distinguished among four different schedules of reinforcement
in Schedules of Reinforcement (1957), and their definitions
have become part of standard operant conditioning lexicon. These schedules of reinforcement have been observed
in both the laboratory and the real world, and behaviors
reinforced using unpredictable schedules are not only
highly resistant to extinction but will also continue long
after reinforcement has ceased. Series of discrete behaviors
can be combined in lengthy chains, resulting in very complex learning and the actual reinforcements used can be far
removed from the typical biologically-based primary reinforcements that one normally associates with laboratory
research. The Skinnerian concept of “radical behaviorism”
conceptualizes even thought processes as subject to the
rules and laws of conditioning.
Neo-Behaviorism and Social Learning
In contrast to the orthodoxy of classical and operant
conditioning, neo-behaviorism is a set of diverse theories
that allows for the inference of nonobservable constructs
such as motivation and internal states. (As is evident from
both the Rescorla-Wagner and opponent-process theories,
however, classical and operant conditioning do include
complex and abstract theorizing.) Social learning bridges
the gap between behaviorism and social psychology.
The work of both Guthrie [3] and Hull [4] is primarily
of historical interest, yet both neobehaviorists introduced
important concepts to learning theory. Guthrie stressed
the role of contiguity in learning, elaborating upon the
necessity of properly linking the unconditioned and conditioned stimuli during classical conditioning and reconceptualizing forgetting as the establishment of new contiguities
that successfully competed against the old ones. Hull
attempted not only to incorporate the mathematical rigor
of proofs and postulates into learning, but also stressed the
importance of intervening variables, such as drive, habit
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Learning Difficulty
strength, and incentive value of the reinforcement. The
work of both researchers helps point the way toward
contemporary neural network cognitive psychology.
Tolman [9] is considered the father of cognitive behaviorism. Set apart from both classical and operant conditioning, Tolman’s system examined learning aside from
the confines of strict minimalist environments, preferring
to use mazes rather than puzzles or Skinner boxes in the
laboratory. Tolman reported that his lab rats were able to
learn the routes of their mazes even prior to reinforcement, as evidenced by their shorter than expected latencies
when reinforcement was finally introduced; he referred to
this non-reinforced learning as “latent learning,” a concept
that is still current. Tolman also introduced the study of
insight into behavioral learning. While insight had been
a topic explored by Gestalt psychologists, Tolman studied
insight learning within the context of rats in a maze. Both
latent learning and insight learning are similar in that
neither seems to be strict stimulus-response learning,
and both make use of what Tolman called a “cognitive
map,” a broad purely mental schematic of the immediate
environment to be utilized in order to behave efficiently
and solve problems.
Social learning theory, as introduced by Bandura and
elaborated upon by subsequent researchers, is even more
removed from traditional behaviorist tradition. According
to social learning theory, it is not necessary to be
a participant in an activity in order to learn. Rather, by
observing the actions of others, one can learn vicariously
through modeling. This is largely learning through imitation, an aspect of learning previously overlooked by other
theorists. Initially, the theory focused on the acquisition of
antisocial behavior in children but the utility of social
learning theory has broadened considerably, and social
learning theory is not only an integral part of contemporary learning theory but also an essential component of
many behavior modification programs.
Acknowledgement
This work represents the scholarship of the author and
does not imply any official position of the New York City
Department of Education.
References
1. Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. New York: General Learning Press.
2. Ferster, C. B., & Skinner, B. F. (1957). Schedules of reinforcement.
New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
3. Guthrie, E. R. (1935). The psychology of learning. New York: Harper
and Brothers.
4. Hull, C. (1943). Principles of behavior. New York: Appleton-CenturyCrofts.
5. Pavlov, I. P. (1902). Lectures on the work of the digestive glands (W. H.
Thompson, Trans.). London: Charles Griffin.
6. Rescorla, R. A., & Wagner, A. R. (1972). A theory of Pavlovian
conditioning: Variations in the effectiveness of reinforcement and
non-reinforcement. In A. H. Black & W. F. Prokasy (Eds.), The
psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. 4). New York: Academic
Press.
7. Skinner, B. F. (1938). The behavior of organisms. New York: AppletonCentury-Crofts.
8. Solomon, R. L. (1980). The opponent process theory of acquired
motivation. American Psychologist, 35, 691–712.
9. Tolman, E. C. (1932). Purposive behavior in animals and men.
New York: Century.
10. Watson, J. B. (1924). Behaviorism. New York: Norton.
Learning Difficulty
▶Learning Disabilities
Learning Disabilities
TAMARA BOWLIN, SHERRY MEE BELL
University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, USA
Synonyms
Developmental dyslexia; Learning difficulty; Learning disorder; Spelling disabilities
Definition
The most influential definition of learning disabilities is
found in the United States federal law Individuals with
Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEA) 2004:
The term “specific learning disability” means
a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological
processes involved in understanding or in using language,
spoken or written, which disorder may manifest itself in
imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell,
or to do mathematical calculations. Such term includes
such conditions as perceptual disabilities, brain injury,
minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental
aphasia. Such term does not include a learning problem
that is primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor
disabilities; of mental retardation; of emotional disturbance; or of environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage [5].
Learning Disabilities
Description
Samuel Kirk first proposed the term “learning disabilities”
in 1963. When the initial United States federal special
education law was passed in 1975, learning disabilities
were included as one of the disability categories [3]. The
definition remains the same today. The percentage of
students identified with learning disabilities rose markedly
in the early years following implementation of the federal
law, leveling off in the late 1980s. Data from the U.S.
Department of Education indicate that students with
learning disabilities represent approximately one half of
all students receiving special education services and about
5% of the overall school population [17].
There are several potential causes for learning disabilities. Traditionally, learning disabilities have been viewed
as resulting from underlying neurological causes [8]. In
fact, the term minimal brain dysfunction was used in the
1960s and 1970s as a synonym for learning disabilities [7].
Recent neuroimaging technologies (functional magnetic
resonance imaging or fmri) have enabled scientists to pinpoint brain activity associated with academic tasks such as
reading. There are documented differences in the brain
functioning of individuals with learning disabilities, specifically dyslexia while reading [15]. These findings provide evidence that brain functioning differences are
associated with learning disabilities. In addition, there is
growing evidence linking learning disabilities to genetics.
For example, learning disabilities has a recurrence rate of
approximately 35–45% in susceptible families. This finding indicates that a single gene may be a contributing
factor [10]. For some individuals, there appears to be
a connection between genetic and environmental factors.
Specifically, parents who have experienced reading difficulties may be likely to read less to their children [8].
Other environmental factors (e.g., children ingesting lead
paint and alcohol and/or drug abuse by an expectant
mother) can also lead to a child being at-risk for learning
problems.
The federal law recognizes eight specific academic
areas in which a student can exhibit a learning disability:
(1) listening comprehension (receptive language), (2) oral
expression, (3) basic reading skills (i.e., decoding and
word recognition), (4) reading comprehension, (5) reading fluency, (6) written expression, (7) mathematics calculation, and (8) mathematics reasoning [5]. Dyslexia,
a reading disorder characterized by poor decoding, poor
spelling, and slow and dysfluent reading, is the most
common type of learning disability [15]. However, many
state departments of education do not use the term dyslexia in favor of the more general term, learning disability.
Learning disabilities may co-occur with each other along
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with deficits in social and emotional disorders, and disorders in attention [4].
In addition, researchers have documented a nonverbal
learning disability (NVLD), characterized by difficulties
with fluid reasoning, spatial difficulties, organizational
difficulties, poor problem solving skills, related mathematical weaknesses, and the lack of social ability to comprehend nonverbal communication cues [12]. Nonverbal
learning disabilities are not specifically included in the
federal definition.
Characteristics
Individuals with learning disabilities may encounter
a range of problems in learning. However, no single individual likely displays all of the following characteristics.
Individuals with learning disabilities may exhibit difficulty
with language, memory, processing speed, and/or motor
skills. These difficulties may result in poor cognitive strategies for learning, oral language difficulties, reading difficulties, writing difficulties, mathematical difficulties and/
or poor social skills [7]. Attention problems are symptomatic for many students. Some characteristics are more
likely to be exhibited at certain ages (e.g., children are
more likely to be hyperactive than adolescents). Boys are
four times more likely to be identified with a learning
disability than girls, although there may be an equal number of girls with learning disabilities who go unidentified
due to biological causes, cultural factors, or expectation
pressures [7]. Learning disabilities become evident at different stages of life with the greatest impact occurring
between the ages of 9 and 14 [7].
Assessment and Eligibility for Special
Education Services
According to the guidelines of IDEA 2004, states may
choose from a select number of assessment methods,
including the IQ-achievement discrepancy method and
the response to intervention method, to determine if a
student is eligible for special education services under
the learning disability category [5]. Prior to 2004, the
IQ-achievement discrepancy model was used to identify
a “gap” between a student’s achievement and intellectual
ability. Using this method, a child may be identified with a
learning disability if he/she exhibits a severe discrepancy
between achievement and intellectual ability in one
or more of several academic areas under the learning
disability category. However due to criticism that the
IQ-achievement discrepancy model is a “wait to fail”
method that does not yield information useful for
academic interventions, beginning in 2004, states are no
longer required to employ the IQ-achievement
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discrepancy model. Instead, states “must permit the use of
a process based on the child’s response to scientific,
research-based intervention”; and “may permit the use of
other alternative research-based procedures for determining whether a child has a specific learning disability” [11].
The percentage of students identified as having
a learning disability varies depending on the criteria used
to determine eligibility. With increased pressure to implement response to intervention (RTI) strategies prior to
referral for special education, it is hoped that the percentage of students in need of special education services will
decrease. Ideally, insuring that all students receive appropriate instruction, beginning in kindergarten, and monitoring progress routinely will result in more effective
instruction.
Despite controversy over the best way to assess learning
disabilities, the construct of learning disabilities as characterized by intraindividual cognitive and academic
strengths and weaknesses is valid [6]. “Fundamental to
the concept of [learning disability] is the idea of ‘unexpected’ underachievement [13]. That is, individuals who
are generally capable experience unexpected difficulty,
based on specific cognitive processing weaknesses, in mastering certain academic tasks. For example, dyslexia has
been characterized as a weakness “in a sea of strengths”
[15, p. 58]. According to Wolf, individuals with learning
disabilities can often also be highly creative thinkers or
artists [18].
The National Organization on Disability provides
information on transition to adulthood for individuals
with learning disabilities, including post secondary education and employment [9]. Although individuals with
disabilities are twice as likely not to complete college as
peers without disabilities, there are special services provided for individuals with disabilities at the post secondary level. The employment rate (full or part time) for
individuals with disabilities is only 35% as compared to
the employment rate of individuals without disabilities at
78%. By promoting self-advocacy skills, educators can
help students make successful transitions from high
school to adulthood. IDEA, Section 504, and the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) provide overlapping protections to help ensure individuals have equal
opportunities, are able to fully participate in their community, live independently and become economically selfsufficient [1, 14].
Learning disabilities are not isolated to the United
States, but have been observed across cultures and languages. For example, there is documented evidence that
individuals may experience difficulty learning both alphabet-based languages (such as English) and logographic or
pictorial systems (such as Chinese) of written language
[7]. Many famous, talented individuals are reported to
have learning disabilities, including: Alexander Graham
Bell, Winston Churchill, Cher, Tom Cruise, Walt Disney,
and Magic Johnson.
Effective Education of Students with
Learning Disabilities
References
Early, effective instruction is important for minimizing
the impact of learning disabilities. For early childhood
students, researchers recommend embedding learning
opportunities by incorporating practice into daily activities, and capitalizing on student’s interests and motivation
[2]. To successfully meet the needs of students with learning disabilities across all grades, teachers can differentiate
instruction by using more than one instructional methodology. In order to meet the various academic needs of
individuals, intervention strategies may include: increasing a student’s access to instructional materials in a variety
of formats, expanding test-taking options, extended time
on tests, adjusting the complexity and nature of content
material, providing accommodations, peer tutoring,
direct instruction, explicit teaching, active and authentic
learning opportunities, scaffolded instruction, reciprocal
teaching and learning strategy instruction [7, 16]. Increasingly, technology (such as text-to-speech software and
word processing programs) are useful for students with
learning disabilities.
1. Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA). (1990). (PL 101–336).
2. Bricker, D., Pretti-Frontczak, K., & McComas, N. (1998). An activity
based approach to early intervention (2nd ed.). Baltimore: Brookes.
3. Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975 (1975). 20
U. S. C. } 1401 et seq., Pub. L. No. 94–142 , 94th Congress, First
Session.
4. Fletcher, J. M., Lyon, G. R., Fuchs, L. S., & Barnes, M. A. (2007).
Learning disabilities: From identification to intervention. New York:
The Gilford Press.
5. Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004.
Public Law 108th Cong., 2nd session. (December 3, 2004).
6. Learning Disabilities Roundtable. (2005). 2004 Learning disabilities
roundtable: Comments and recommendations on regulatory issues
under the individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of
2004 Public Law 108–466. Retrieved December 18, 2006, from http://
www.ncld.org/index.php?option=content&task=view&id=278
7. Lerner, J., & Johns, B. (2009). Learning disabilities and related mild
disabilities: Characteristics, teaching strategies, and new directions
(11th ed.). New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
8. Lyon, G. R., Fletcher, J. M., Shaywitz, S. E., Shaywitz, B. A., Toregesen,
J. K., Wood, F. B., et al. (2001). Rethinking learning disabilities. In
C. E. Finn, A. J. Rotherham, & C. R. Hokanson (Eds.), Rethinking
special education for a new century. Washington, DC: Fordham
Foundation.
Learning Readiness
9. National Organization on Disability. (2004). N.O.D./Harris survey of
Americans with disabilities. (Study No. 20839). New York: Harris
Interactive.
10. Pennington, B. (1995). Genetics of learning disabilities. Journal of
Child Neurology, 10(1), S69–S77.
11. Regulations for the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (2006). U.S. Office of Education. Federal register, August
14, 2006.
12. Rourke, B. P. (1995). Syndrome of nonverbal learning disabilities:
Neurodevelopmental manifestations. New York: Guilford Press.
13. Scruggs, T. E., & Mastropieri, M. A. (2006). Response to “Competing
views: A dialogue on response to intervention”. Assessment for Effective Intervention, 32(1), 62–64.
14. Section 504 of Rehabilitation Act of 1973. (PL 93–112).
15. Shaywitz, S. (2003). Overcoming dyslexia. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
16. Turnbull, A., Turnbull, R., & Wehmeyer, M. L. (2007). Exceptional
lives: Special education in today’s schools (Vol. 5). New Jersey: Pearson
Prentice Hall.
17. U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education and
Rehabilitative Services, Office of Special Education Programs.
(2007). 27th Annual (2005) Report to Congress on the Implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act.
Washington DC.
18. Wolf, M. (2007). Proust and the squid: The story and science of the
reading brain. New York: Harper Collins.
Suggested Resources
Council for Exceptional Children http://www.cec.sped.org//AM/
Template.cfm?Section=Home
Learning Disabilities Association http://www.ldanatl.org/
Journal of Learning Disabilities http://ldx.sagepub.com/
Learning Disabilities Quarterly http://www.cldinternational.org/
Publications/LDQ.asp
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Learning Goals
▶Mastery Orientation
Learning Potential Assessment
▶Dynamic Assessment
Learning Readiness
MOLLY MILLIANS
Marcus Autism Center, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
Synonyms
Academic readiness; Early academic skills; Pre-academic
skills; School-entry skills
Definition
Learning readiness is the physical, motor, socioemotional, behavioral, linguistic, and cognitive skills indicating preparedness to receive formal educational
instruction.
Description
Learning Disabilities (as Chiefly
Used in the United Kingdom)
▶Developmental Disabilities
Learning Disability in Math
▶Dyscalculia
Learning Disorder
▶Developmental Dyslexia
▶Learning Disabilities
877
The terms learning readiness and school readiness were
derived from educational reforms and the outcomes from
model early childhood programs. Learning readiness is the
observable traits that indicate young children are ready to
receive early academic instruction. The term learning
readiness is associated with school readiness. However,
learning readiness and school readiness refer to different
aspects of early learning and education. School readiness
refers to the wide range of the skills children need to
acquire to enter and to be successful in a school setting.
Learning readiness indicates young children’s ability to
receive purposeful instruction.
In 1989, the National Education Summit was convened to discuss ways to improve education in the United
States. The outcome from the National Education Summit
was the formation of the National Education Goals Panel
and the proposal of the National Education Goals. The
National Education Goals are comprised of six objectives
to improve education from preschool through twelfth
grade in the United States. Learning readiness was
included into Goal 1 that stated “by the year 2000, all
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children in America will start school ready to learn”
[5, p. 3]. The National Education Goals were incorporated
into the Educate America Act of 1994.
In 1992, the National Education Goals Panel
attempted to define learning readiness. The National Education Goals Panel identified five dimensions that indicate
children are ready to learn and to enter school [10]. The
five dimensions were physical well being and motor development, social and emotional development, approaches
to learning, language development, and cognition and
general knowledge [10, p. 23]. The premise was that adequate development in each of these domains would indicate that children would be ready to learn in school. The
National Education Goals Panel dimensions of learning
provided a broad description of learning readiness embedded within the term school readiness.
Model programs for early child education have
attempted to define the skills children need to learn.
Many of these programs were designed to prepare economically disadvantaged children for school. The Abecedarian Project in Chapel Hill, North Carolina, has been
active since the 1970s. The purpose of the Abecedarian
program is to provide quality services in an attempt to
prevent developmental delays and low cognitive skills as
a result of early deprivation. The program addresses the
needs of children 3–6 months of age through early elementary school. Parent involvement and parent education
are primary components of the program. Curriculum is
geared to address children’s linguistic and communication
skills, as well as their cognitive, early academic, social,
emotional, and motor skills. The program has been successful in preventing academic failure [9].
Since its inception in 1965, the Head Start Program
has provided a comprehensive program to children of low
income and at-risk families. This includes children of
migrant, homeless, and refugee families. The early goals
of the Head Start Program were to encourage ties to the
communities, strengthen family interactions, and to
ensure the overall well-being of children. This included
early educational instruction to prepare children to enter
school [10].
More recently, goals for Head Start have shifted to
focus on developing children’s cognitive and pre-academic
skills. This includes providing language instruction for
children who do not speak English as their primary language. In 2007, the Improving Head Start for School
Readiness Act (P.L. 110–234) was signed into law. The
Improving Head Start for School Readiness Act of 2007
required Head Start Programs to adjust their programs to
align with the educational standards established by the No
Child Left Behind Act of 2003. The adjustments to the
Head Start programs called for systematic monitoring of
children’s progress and program accountability through
the use of standardized measures, similar to the requirements for public schools outlined in the No Child Left
Behind Act of 2003.
The Improving Head Start for School Readiness Act of
2007 indicated that children need to have acquired adequate language, listening comprehension, pre-literacy, and
early mathematic skills before entering kindergarten. The
Improving Head Start for School Readiness Act of 2007
stated that children need to demonstrate the use of critical
thinking and problem solving skills, such as categorization.
In addition, the law indicated that children need to be able
to interact appropriately with peers and adults in order to
function in a school environment. The focus of Head Start
and other programs for economically disadvantage children
has shifted from developing strong community ties to
attempting to close the achievement gaps that emerge
later in school [8].
As indicated through educational reforms and early
childhood educational programs, children require adequate physical, motor, linguistic, behavioral, social and
cognitive skills to be prepared to receive formal instruction. Specifically, children need to have developed the
abilities to self-regulate, to pay attention, and to interact
appropriately with peers and adults. Children need to
exhibit the abilities to use language to express ideas,
to think through problems systematically, and to begin
to acquire early literacy and mathematic concepts [11, 12].
Self-regulation is a foundation for early learning and
influences the other components of learning readiness.
Self-regulation is the modulation of behavior, emotions,
and responses according to the surroundings. Children
who are ready to learn are able use self-control and organize their behavior in a structured setting. Self-regulated
children are able to comply with rules and follow the
expectations of a classroom. Children who are ready to
receive formal instruction are motivated to learn more
about topics and their surroundings. They demonstrate
a lessening of exploratory behavior and begin to move
through their environment in an organized manner [4].
Internal motivation includes taking the initiative, setting and reaching a goal, and evaluating performance.
Children who are ready to learn exhibit the ability to pay
attention. Children, who are able to sustain attention,
exhibit an increase in persistence to complete a task or
activity. They begin to filter out distractions and inhibit
impulsive responses [4].
Interpersonal skills affect learning readiness. Children
need to be able to work and play cooperatively with peers.
Necessary interpersonal skills include sharing, waiting,
Learning Styles
and taking turns. Interpersonal skills include listening to
the teacher and peers to learn from their ideas [1, 2].
Language, cognitive functioning, and pre-academic
skills are primary components for learning readiness. Children need to be able to express their ideas, needs, and wants
in order to maneuver a learning environment. Language is
also used to mediate children’s responses to their environment. Cognitive skills include the ability to apply and to
adjust problem-solving techniques, to make inferences and
predictions through thoughtful observations, and to
develop an understanding of symbolic relationships [7].
Experience with early literacy and mathematics prepares children for classroom instruction. The acquisition
of early literacy and mathematics are predictive of later
academic achievement. Pre-reading skills that prepare
young children for formal literacy instruction include
exposure and use of a rich vocabulary, exposure to the
different uses of language, and experiences with the uses of
print [3, 8].
Early mathematic knowledge incorporates number
skills such as counting using one-to-one correspondence,
cardinality, and identifying amounts as more, less, or the
same. Through play and interactions children learn to alter
values by combining and taking away amounts. Also, preacademic skills need to support formal mathematic
instruction that include the ability to distinguishing shapes,
patterns, and to recognize spatial relationships [6, 12].
In addition to cognitive and pre-academic factors, the
readiness to learn is affected by children’s physical and
emotional well being. Children’s readiness to learn is
shaped by interactions with caregivers, their environment,
and individual predispositions [13, 14].
Research, educational reform movements, such as the
call for universal preschool, and comprehensive early
childhood programs indicate the need for children and
families to have access to quality interventions and programs to assist in preparing children to be ready to learn.
5. Copple, C., Deich, S., Brush, L., Hofferth, S., Anderson, S.,
Schiffman, J., et al. (1993). Learning readiness: Promising strategies.
Washington, DC: US Department of Health and Human Services.
6. Duncan, G., Dowsett, C., Claessebs, A., Magnuson, K., Huston, A.,
Klebanov, P., et al. (2007). School readiness and later achievement.
Developmental Psychology, 46(6), 1428–1446.
7. Howes, C., Burchinal, M., Pianta, R., Bryant, D., Early, D.,
Clifford, R., et al. (2008). Ready to learn? Children’s pre-academic
achievement in pre-kindergarten programs. Early Childhood
Research Quarterly, 23, 27–50.
8. Pianta, R. (2007). Early education in transition. In R. Pianta, M. Cox,
& K. Snow (Eds.), School readiness and the transition to kindergarten
in the era of accountability (pp. 3–10). Baltimore: Brookes.
9. Ramey, G., & Ramey, S. (2004). Early educational interventions and
intelligence: Implications for head start. In E. Ziegler & S. Styfco
(Eds.), The head start debates (pp. 3–17). Baltimore: Brookes.
10. Schrag, R., Styfco, S., & Ziegler, E. (2004). Familiar concept, new
name: Social competence/school readiness as the goal of head start.
In E. Ziegler & S. Styfco (Eds.), The head start debates (pp. 19–25).
Baltimore: Brookes.
11. Snow, K. (2007). Integrative views of the domains of child function:
Unifying school readiness. In R. Pianta, M. Cox, & K. Snow (Eds.),
School readiness and the transition to kindergarten in the era of
accountability (pp. 197–216). Baltimore: Brookes.
12. Snow, K. (2006). Measuring school readiness: Conceptual and
practical considerations. Early Education and Development, 17(1),
7–41.
13. Zigler, E., Gilliam, W., & Jones, S. (2006a). School readiness. In
E. Ziegler, W. Gilliam, & S. Jones (Eds.), A vision for universal
preschool education (pp. 19–36). New York: Cambridge.
14. Zigler, E., Gilliam, W., Jones, S., & Malakoff, M. (2006b). The need
for universal preschool for children in poverty. In E. Ziegler,
W. Gilliam, & S. Jones (Eds.), A vision for universal preschool education (pp. 69–88). New York: Cambridge.
Learning Skills
▶Cognitive Skills
References
1. Bagdi, A., & Vacca, J. (2005). Supporting early childhood socialemotional well being: The building blocks for early learning
and school success. Early Childhood Education Journal, 33(3),
145–150.
2. Bierman, K., Torres, M., Domitrovich, C., Welsh, J., & Gest, S. (2008).
Behavioral and cognitive readiness for school: Cross-domain associations for children attending head start. Social Development, 18(2),
305–323.
3. Bowman, B., Donovan, M. S., & Burns, M. S. (Eds.). (2001). Eager to
learn: Educating our preschoolers. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
4. Bronson, M. (2000). Self-regulation in early childhood: Nature and
nurture. New York: Guildford.
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Learning Strategies
▶Memory Strategies
Learning Styles
▶Cognitive Styles
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Left Dominant
Left Dominant
▶Left Handedness
Left Handedness
RAYMOND S. DEAN, MATTHEW J. HOLCOMB
Ball State University, Muncie, IN, USA
Synonyms
Left dominant; Sinistral
Definition
Left-handedness is the expressed consistent preference for
the use of the left hand over the right for germane activities
in daily life.
Description
Handedness is defined and categorized in different ways.
Most people define handedness as the hand that is preferred for the task of writing. Some researchers define
handedness as the hand that is faster for manual tasks.
Others define it as the preferred hand, regardless of its
abilities. Whereas some people always use their right hand
or their left hand for most activities, others use one hand
or the other depending on the activity. Still other
people have mixed hand usage for most functions. At
one time it was thought that left-handedness was
a behavioral sign of right cerebral hemispheric dominance
for language.
Lefthanders usually prefer using their left hand for
tasks; however, there is sound method for predicting
which hand a lefthander will choose for a given task.
Rarely, if ever, is a left handed individual entirely dependent upon using their left hand to accomplish all tasks.
Typically, left-handed children usually are more flexible in
their hand usage than right-handers; this may be because
they are forced to function in a world designed for righthanders. Left-handed children can be placed at
a disadvantage due to the prevalence of right-handed
tools typical in society. For example, scissors, a very common tool in many children’s lives are often molded in
a way that makes them difficult to use for a left-handed
child. Additionally, items such as school desks and
computer mouse have been traditionally made with right
handed individuals in mind.
Demographics
It has been estimated that 90–95% of the general population is right-handed, making left-handedness relatively
uncommon. Overall, left-handedness appears to occur
more frequently in men than in women, as well as occurring more frequently in both mono and dizygotic twins.
Additionally, research has shown a higher than normal
percentage of left-handedness in a number of childhood
disorders including autism, mental retardation, and dyslexia. Researchers generally agree that the causes of lefthandedness are commonly considered to be part genetic
and part environmental. However, Dean and Rattan [2]
and others showed the existence of genetic and pathologic
left-handedness. With congenital problems being more
likely with pathologic lefthanders over right.
There is no standard measure for determining degrees
of handedness. Some scientists believe that there are only
two types of handedness: right and non-right. These
researchers believe that true left-handedness is rare and
that most lefthanders are really mixed-handed. Others
believe that ambidexterity – the equal use of both hands
– is a third type of handedness, and some think that there
are two types of ambidexterity. Other scientists believe
that handedness should be measured on a continuum
from completely right-handed to completely left-handed.
Traditionally, this has been measured on a lateral preference scales with very few people exhibiting a pure preference for either left or right handedness.
Much of the debate centering on research findings
having to do with handedness comes back to the issue of
how handedness was determined. With the variety of
methods that are available to researchers in defining handedness there has been little consistence in the research.
Basis of Handedness
The physical evidence for a basis in handedness is not wellunderstood by researchers. Over the years left-handedness
has been associated with physical and psychological
causes. Additionally, in many cultures left-handedness is
regarded with superstitious beliefs and considered due to
supernatural occurrences.
Until the 1960s, the general theoretical consensus of
handedness was that it predicted brain lateralization. Each
hemisphere of the brain has some specific functioning that
is lateralized to that hemisphere. For example, in the
nineteenth century Paul Broca identified the left hemisphere as the major area of speech production in the brain.
Left Inferior Frontal Lobe (Anatomically Different Areas, But Regarded as Broca’s Area by Different Sources)
Carl Wernicke later identified another region in the left
hemisphere that was responsible for language comprehension. These findings help perpetuate the idea that handedness was indicative of brain lateralization.
In 1987, Geschwind, Behan, and Galaburda (GBG)
published the Theory of Left-Handedness that attributed
left-handedness to brain injury or trauma suffered
inutero. GBG also suggested that chemical variations in
the womb such as higher levels of testosterone could
influence handedness.
Lifespan Development
It is commonly believed amongst researchers that handedness is not a clearly established trait in infants. In fact,
many believe that babies are born as ambidextrous, and
that changes in handedness can occur several times over
the first few years of life. Toddlers usually go through
a phase in which the use of one hand is preferred for
some activities and not for others. Typically, handedness
is decided by the time a child reaches 3 years of age;
although it is not uncommon for a child to continue to
switch handedness preferences through preschool.
Problems Associated with LeftHandedness
There are a number of difficulties associated with being
left handed and interacting with a predominately right
handed environment. Many of these problems are simply
annoying, but a few can cause physical injury or serious
problems. Due to the overwhelming percentage of people
who are right handed, most systems and tools are
designed with right-handed individual in mind. For
example, most screws are designed for left-to-right turning, which is easier for right handed individuals to accomplish. Some other items that are designed specifically for
right-handed individuals are: scissors, calculators, sports
equipment, musical instruments, computers, desks, and
telephones.
Writing is another area that is generally a problem for
children with left-handedness. In many cultures, the
avoidance of left-handedness has led to pressure for
children who are left handed to learn to write right
handed. In the U.S. this was a problem, but seems to be
dwindling at least on the part of parents and teachers.
Children may still feel pressure to perform tasks such as
writing right handed because of peer pressure. Teachers
may still label a left-handed child’s writing as sloppy or
illegible due to an unconscious reaction to writing that
looks different from other children’s. Additionally, children who are left-handed may be more prone to
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difficulties with writing as they may hook their wrist to
be able to see what they are writing; which can produce
sloppy handwriting.
There is a general trend over the course of history to
attribute a number of bad things to left-handed individuals. For example, in history there are numerous instances
where left-handed individuals were association with physical, emotional, and behavioral disorders. While not seen
in the same extent today, left-handedness has been shown
by researchers to put people more at risk for schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder,
migraine headaches, and language processing disorders
such as dyslexia and stuttering.
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Clementz, B. A., Iacono, W. G., & Beiser, M. (1994). Handedness in
first-episode psychotic patients and their first-degree biological relatives. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 103(2), 400–403.
Dean, R. S., & Rattan, G. (1986). Cerebral laterality and paired
associate learning in young children: A dual processing model. International Journal of Clinical Neuropsychology, 8(4), 145–148.
Fasmer, O. B., Akiskal, H. S., & Hugdahl, K. (2008). Non-righthandedness is associated with migraine and soft bipolarity in patients
with mood disorders. Journal of Affective Disorders, 108(3), 217–224.
Geschwind, N., & Behan, P. O. (1982). Left-handedness: Association
with immune disease, migraine, and developmental learning disorder. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 79, 5097–5100.
Marian, A. (2002). Handedness and brain asymmetry: The right shift
theory. New York: Taylor and Francis.
McKeever, W. R., & Rich, D. A. (1990). Left handedness and immune
disorders. Cortex, 26, 33–40.
Schachter, S. C., & Devinsky, O. (1997). Behavioral neurology and the
legacy of Norman Geschwind. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams
and Wilkins.
Left Inferior (Third) Frontal
Convolution (Gyrus)
▶Broca’s Area
Left Inferior Frontal Lobe
(Anatomically Different Areas, But
Regarded as Broca’s Area by
Different Sources)
▶Broca’s Area
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Leiter International Performance Scale: Revised
Leiter International Performance
Scale: Revised
DAVID MICHALEC
Nationwide Children’s Hospital/The Ohio State
University, Westerville, OH, USA
Definition
The Leiter International Performance Scale – Revised
(Leiter-R) is an individually administered instrument
designed to assess the cognitive functioning of children
and adolescents ages 2 years, 0 months to 20 years,
11 months of age. The Leiter was revised in 1997. The
Leiter-R was specifically developed for children and adolescents with communications disorders, cognitive delays,
English as a second language, hearing impairments, motor
impairments, traumatic brain injury, attention-deficit disorder and certain types of learning disabilities as well as
other populations (e.g., autism spectrum disorders) for
which traditional intelligence tests may not be appropriate
or valid.
Description
The Leiter-R includes two groupings of subtests. The
Visualization and Reasoning Battery contains ten subtests
and generates Brief IQ (ages 2–20), Full Scale IQ (ages
2–20), Fluid Reasoning Index (ages 2–20), Fundamental
Visualization Index (ages 2–4) and Spatial Visualization
(ages 11–20) scores. The Attention and Memory Battery
also contains ten subtests and generates Memory Screener
(ages 2–20), Associative Memory (ages 6–20), Memory
Span (ages 6–20), Attention (ages 6–20), Memory Process
(ages 6–20) and Recognition Memory (ages 6–20) scores.
Additionally, the Leiter-R includes four rating scales,
which can be completed the by the examiner, parent, the
child or adolescent being tested (Self) and teacher, which
provide multidimensional behavioral observations.
The current revision of the Leiter-R was organized
around four primary issues: the need for early identification of cognitive delays, the need for measurement of
small increments of improvement in cognitive ability, the
need for a reliable and valid scale of intelligence regardless
of language or motor ability and the need for transition
planning for entering the world of work.
In fitting with the primary focus of the most recent
revision, The Leiter-R is particularly useful in the assessment of younger children with little or no language skills
including those with expressive and receptive language
deficits and those with Autism Spectrum Disorders. This
measure allows the evaluator to obtain an estimate of
intellectual functioning without being overly concerned
that the oral language or verbal mediation required of
a verbally administered measure (e.g., traditional measures of intellectual functioning) is negatively impacting
the child’s performance. Although many of the tasks from
the Visualization and Reasoning Battery are based on
a matching paradigm and therefore may not generalize
broadly to other cognitive skills, the ability to demonstrate
clear cognitive strengths and weaknesses outside of the
influence of language functioning is a huge asset for treatment planning.
The Leiter-R offers several updates from the earlier
version including new normative data (based on 1993
census data), light weight, laminated picture cards and
foam shapes that are brightly colored and child friendly
and an easel format for administration. The total normative sample matches the US population well on
important stratifying variables. Internal consistency reliabilities are adequate although test – retest changes for
the composite scores have been found to be somewhat
large. Factor analytic studies have supported the theoretical underpinnings of the test. The Leiter-R correlates
well with other accepted measures of intellectual functioning including the WISC-III. The Leiter-R is also felt
to be largely culturally free and studies have found the
measure to be valid across a number of cultural and
ethnic groups.
References
1.
2.
Roid, G. H., & Miller, L. J. (1997). Leiter international performance
scale – revised: Examiner’s manual. In G. H. Roid & L. J. Miller
(Eds.), Leiter international performance scale – revised. Wood Dale,
IL: Stoelting, Co.
Sattler, J. M. (2001). Assessment of children: Cognitive applications
(4th ed.). San Diego, CA: Jerome M. Sattler, Publisher, Inc.
Lesbian
▶Homosexuality
Lethargic
▶Hypoactivity
Leukemia
Leukemia
MARGAUX BARNES, AVI MADAN-SWAIN
University of Alabama Birmingham, Birmingham,
AL, USA
Synonyms
Acute leukemia
Definition
Leukemia is a cancer of the blood and blood forming
organs, including the bone marrow, lymph nodes, and
spleen.
Description
Leukemia is the most common pediatric cancer diagnosis,
comprising approximately 30% of all childhood cancers.
Acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) accounts for about
80% and acute myelogenous leukemia (AML) about 15%
of pediatric leukemias; while chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML) and juvenile myelomonocytic leukemia
(JMML) are infrequent. Annually approximately 3,000
new cases of ALL and 500 of AML are diagnosed in the
United States [3].
The hallmark of leukemia is bone marrow
dysregulation. The bone marrow makes red blood cells
which carry oxygen, white cells, which fight infections,
and platelets, which help clot blood. Leukemia is
a cancer of the early blood forming cells and most commonly affects the white blood cells, also known as leukocytes. Sometimes certain types of immature white blood
cells, often known as blasts, undergo a random mutation
that can cause the cells to grow and multiply unchecked.
The blasts suppress normal bone marrow function, which
results in decreased red blood cells, decreased platelets,
and decreased functional white blood cells.
Leukemia is diagnosed in all age groups with peak
incidence between ages 2 and 5 years of age. Leukemia
rates vary by age, gender and race. For example, males are
more likely to be diagnosed with ALL as compared to
females in children under the age of 15. Similarly, ALL
rates are significantly lower in African American children
than Caucasian children; but no ethnic differences are
noted among children diagnosed with AML [3].
There are no known causes for ALL. However,
increased risk for ALL is associated with genetic conditions such as Down syndrome, neurofibromatosis,
Schwachman syndrome, Bloom syndrome, Li-Fraumeni
syndrome, Klinefelter syndrome, or if a child has received
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medications to suppress the immune system such as after
organ transplantation. There also is a 2–4 times higher
incidence of ALL in siblings than in children in the general
population. Finally, children who have received prior chemotherapy or radiation treatment for other types of cancer are also at risk for developing leukemia.
Clinically, children may present with low-grade fever,
signs of infection, fatigue, increased bruising or bleeding,
and facial pallor. When the diagnosis of leukemia is
suspected the child is referred to a Pediatric Hematologist/Oncologist for a full evaluation, which includes
a thorough physical examination, blood tests, and
a needle aspirate of the bone marrow. Based on this
work-up, the specific leukemia type is confirmed, and
chemotherapy is begun to treat the condition.
At diagnosis children are categorized as having low,
intermediate, or high risk based on both the child’s clinical
features, chromosomal abnormalities noted in the leukemia cells, and response to chemotherapy. Higher risk
factors include low or high age (i.e., children under the
age of 1 year or older than 10 years of age), a white blood
cell count greater than 50,000, leukemia subtype, central
nervous system disease (i.e., blasts in the spinal fluid),
certain chromosomal alterations in the leukemia cell,
and slow response to initial treatment. These factors
would require more aggressive treatment.
Medical treatment protocols for ALL typically include
the following stages: Induction, Consolidation, Delayed
Intensification, and Maintenance. The Children’s Oncology Group (COG) conducts randomized clinical trials to
determine the best therapy for each treatment phase. The
goal of clinical trials is to increase cure rate for leukemia
and reduce the toxicity of the therapy. Current ALL standard risk treatment protocols are 2 to 2-and-a-half years
for girls and 2-and-a-half to 3 years for boys. After the first
6 months most of the chemotherapy is generally administered on an outpatient basis. High risk ALL protocols
may require more frequent inpatient chemotherapy
admissions. Treatment for AML usually requires 4–5
months of intensive chemotherapy administered as an
inpatient. Some AML patients may receive a bone marrow
transplant.
Induction is the initial treatment phase for ALL and
usually lasts 4 weeks. Children receive chemotherapy
orally, intravenously, as well as intrathecally (i.e., injected
into the fluid surrounding the brain and spinal cord). The
goal of this phase is to induce remission. Remission is
defined as an absence of signs and symptoms of leukemia,
a return to normal of blood and bone marrow values, and
less than 5% leukemia cells in the bone marrow. Approximately 95% of children with ALL achieve remission
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Lexapro®
within 4 weeks of beginning therapy. Once in remission
the consolidation phase of therapy is initiated and lasts
from 4- to -6 months. During this period the child receives
repeated cycles of systemic chemotherapy agents as well as
continued intrathecal chemotherapy to eliminate any
remaining leukemia cells. For certain types of leukemia,
or if leukemia cells were present in the spinal fluid at
the time of diagnosis, radiation therapy may be given
to the brain and the spinal column. During delayed intensification the child receives chemotherapy agents similar to those received in the first 6 months of treatment
(i.e., during induction and consolidation). Research
shows that both low and high-risk ALL patients benefit
from Delayed Intensification. Maintenance therapy is the
final phase of treatment and generally lasts 2–3 years.
Maintenance is much less intensive than the previous
treatment and consists mostly of oral medications administered at home, as well as intermittent intravenous and
intrathecal medications given in the outpatient clinic.
Bone marrow transplant may be necessary for children
with high-risk features including relapse, and treatmentresistant diseases, or other disease subtype factors that
increase the likelihood that standard treatment will be
unsuccessful.
Currently, approximately 75% of children are cured
(i.e., they remain disease free 2 years after completion of
treatment). More relapses or recurrences occur either on
therapy or within 2 years after completion of therapy. Late
relapses (beyond 5 years) are rare. If the leukemia returns,
another remission will often be achieved with more
aggressive medical therapy. Many children will stay in
remission with additional chemotherapy, but a bone marrow transplant may be recommended for some children.
Approximately 50% of children will be cured from AML
with chemotherapy and, if available, a bone marrow transplant using a matched related donor.
Relevance to Childhood Development
Children vary in the way they cope with the news of their
cancer diagnosis and treatment [3, 4]. Coping responses
may include withdrawal, becoming very scared or worried,
and/or lashing out in anger. During induction the child
learns to deal with painful procedures, cope with
the physical symptoms and side effects (e.g., nausea,
vomiting, fatigue), adjust to interruptions in school and
social activities, adjust to the hospital environment, and
manage emotional reactions and responses. During the
middle to later phase of treatment the child learns to deal
with physical side effects (e.g., weight gain on steroids,
hair loss), adhere to treatment regimen, and try to maintain academics, social activities, and communication with
close friends. After completion of treatment the child
learns to acknowledge concerns over relapse or recurrence,
make meaning of their cancer experience and shift roles
from being a “cancer patient” to being a survivor [1].
Due to improved medical treatment more children are
surviving and consequently increased emphasis is being
placed on medical, psychological, and learning late effects.
Potential medical late effects include short stature, delayed
pubertal development, infertility problems, and
neurocognitive deficits. Neurocognitive late effects secondary to intrathecal chemotherapy and radiation therapy
include problems with executive function including short
attention span, problems with organization, decreased
processing speed, difficulties with visual-spatial and
visual-motor tasks, problems with visual memory,
and academic difficulties with reading comprehension and
math calculation [2]. Some ALL survivors also are at risk
for development of anxiety, symptoms of posttraumatic
stress, problems with identity, and decreased self-esteem
[4]. However, there also is some evidence of positive
growth from going through the cancer experience.
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
Marsland, A. L., Ewing, L. J., & Thompson, A. (2006). Psychological and social effects of surviving childhood cancer. In R. T. Brown
(Ed.), Comprehensive handbook of childhood cancer and sickle cell
disease: A biopsychosocial approach (pp. 237–261). New York: Plenum
Press.
Mulhern, R. K., & Butler, R. W. (2006). Neuropsychological
late effects. In R. T. Brown (Ed.), Comprehensive handbook of
childhood cancer and sickle cell disease: A biopsychosocial approach
(pp. 262–278). New York: Plenum Press.
Smith, M. A., Gloeckler-Ries, L. A., Gurney, J. C., & Ross, J. A. (1999).
Leukemia. In L. A. Gloeckler-Ries, M. A. Smith, J. G. Gurney, M.
Linet, T. Tamra, J. L. Young, & G. R. Bunin (Eds.), Cancer incidence
and survival among children and adolescents: united states SEER
program, 1975–1995. Bethesda, MD: SEER.
Weiner, L. S., Pao, M., Kazak, A. E., Kupst, M. J., & Patenaude, A. F.
(Eds.). (2009). Quick reference for pediatric oncology clinicians: The
psychiatric and psychological dimensions of pediatric cancer symptom
management. Charlottesville, VA: IPOS Press.
Lexapro®
ANISA FORNOFF
Drake University, Ankeny, IA, USA
Synonyms
Escitalopram
Life Events
Definition
References
A prescription medication FDA approved for the treatment of major depressive disorder and generalized anxiety
disorders.
1.
Description
This medication is a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor
available in a tablet or as an oral solution.
The recommended starting dose for this medication is
10 mg taken once a day. Maximum suggested dose is
20 mg a day. This medication should only be taken as
directed by a doctor. This medication may need to be
taken for four weeks before improvement in symptoms
is seen.
This medication should be taken with or without food.
Avoid drinking alcohol. Tell your doctor if you have
a history of a seizure disorder or liver disease.
Concomitant use in patients taking monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors is not advised. Serotonin syndrome may occur with the use of certain other
serotonergic drugs.
Some side effects are listed here: headache, drowsiness,
constipation, difficulty sleeping, decreased sexual desire,
decreased appetite and weight loss, diarrhea, and dizziness. Certain side effects may go away during treatment.
Tell your doctor immediately if you notice the following:
confusion, irregular heartbeat, muscle pain, shortness of
breath, or swelling.
If you choose to stop taking Lexapro®, you are encouraged to tell your doctor and slowly taper this medication
to prevent withdrawal symptoms.
This medication should be stored out of reach of
children and pets and away from light, heat, and
moisture.
2.
3.
885
Advice for the patient: Drug information in lay language (USP DI,
Vol. II, 27th ed., pp. 675–677). Kentucky: Thompson Micromedex,
2007.
AHFS drug information (24th ed., pp. 2344–2346). Maryland: American Society of Health-System Pharmacists, Inc., 2008.
Lexi-drugs online [database online]. Hudson, OH: Lexi-Comp Inc.
Accessed August 5, 2008.
Lexical Configuration
▶Syntax
Library Therapeutics
▶Bibliotherapy
Librelease
▶Chlordiazepoxide
Libritabs
▶Chlordiazepoxide
Librium
Relevance to Childhood Development
Lexapro® is not FDA approved for use in children.
A medication guide must accompany this medication containing information related to the increased
risk of suicidal thinking and behavior in children,
adolescents, and young adults compared to those not
taking the medication. Doctors will monitor patients
closely for worsening of symptoms, change in behavior,
and thoughts of suicide. Patients are strongly encouraged to notify their health care provider to report
sudden changes in mood, behavior, thoughts, or
feelings.
Women should let their doctor know if they are pregnant or planning to become pregnant. Talk with your
doctor if you plan to breastfeed, as this medication enters
the breast milk.
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▶Chlordiazepoxide
Life Events
BEATRIZ OLAYA GUZMÁN1, CECILIA A. ESSAU2
Edifici B. Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain
2
Roehampton University, London, UK
1
Synonyms
Negative life events; Stressful life events; Undesirable life
events
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Life Events
Definition
Life events have been defined as a social experience
or change with a specific onset and course that has
a psychological impact on the individual [7]. This definition makes no assumption about the type, duration and
effects of the events. Some common examples of life events
include parental divorce or separation, school change,
house relocations, and bereavement.
Description
All individuals experience hundreds of life events
throughout their life time that differ in magnitude, duration and meaning. Some of these events are major and
involve high level of change (e.g., death of a love one), and
some events are minor and have little impact on their own
(e.g., minor accident). Life events are important as they
could facilitate positive growth and adaptation, or they
could contribute to illness and disturbances. Studies on
life events have focused on two major areas:
(1) Description of events throughout the life span: This
line of research has focused on the developmental
nature of life events and has identified several characteristics of life events. First, some biological (e.g.,
physical growth) and social events (e.g., school transitions) are age-related in that they occur frequently
during childhood and adolescence. Although such
life events are part of development, they may be
problematic if they occur at different (than expected)
point in the life span. Second, although some events
are unique of particular individuals, some (e.g., war)
may affect on the entire culture. Finally, developmental approach also stresses the importance of historical
or cohort effects of events. For example, those who
experienced adolescence during the 1930s economic
depression have a different event history than those
who experienced adolescence during the 1960s
economic affluence.
(2) Impact of life events during childhood and adolescence: This line of research is concerned with the
relationship between life events and psychological/
physical disorders. Some studies investigated the
mechanisms through which exert their effects on
individuals, and some examined factors that
predicted the outcomes of life events on the individual’s development.
Assessment of Life Events
Impact of life events have traditionally been examined
using self-report questionnaires or life events checklists.
In such studies, the number of events experienced over
a given period of time can be counted. The problem of this
method is an assumption that all events have the same
effect. Although this problem could be reduced by giving
a stress score which lead to change in the child’s life such
life change units have been reported to be insensitive to
individual differences that surround life events. Another
important issue is to determine whether the events are the
cause, consequences of psychological disorders, or of it is
an illness-related behaviour [15].
A major advantage of using checklists is that they
are easy to administer without much training requirement. As such they are economical. Some examples of
life events checklists are: Life Events Checklist (LEC;
[11]); Life Event Record (LER; [3]), Brief Adolescent Life
Event Scale (BALE; [17]), Adolescent Perceived Events
Scale (APES; [4]).
Another approach to measure life event is through
interviews. The use of interview is time consuming, however, this factor is outweighted by the quality of information collected [9]. The ability to collect information
surrounding a life event enables the evaluation of the
personal meaning that a life event contains [2]. When
studying children, it is unclear from whom the information about life event should be collected. For the under
8-year olds, parent’s report is regarded as the most reliable
informant because of children’s lack of cognitive skills to
recall information in an accurate way, and children’s
awareness of important sources of life events. When studying adolescents, adolescents themselves have been considered as the best source of information [13].
Some examples of commonly used interviews for the
assessment of life events are:
Life Events and Difficulties Schedule (LEDS; [2]), and
Stressful Life Events Schedule (SLES; [18]).
Relevance to Childhood Development
Research conducted during the past few decades have
shown life events to be related to the onset of a wide
range of psychiatric disorders, such as depressive, anxiety,
substance use, and conduct disorders. For example, since
the 1970’s, studies have noted the influence of negative/
stressful life events on the onset of depression, and
research has shown that stress is specifically predictive of
depressive symptoms in children and adolescents [9, 14].
Life events predict subsequent depressive disorder, and
those which are chronic in nature (e.g., chronic family
turmoil) also influence the persistence of depressive symptoms [6]. The types of life events which act as risk factors
for major depressive disorder seem to differ in boys and
girls. In Reinherz et al.’s study [16], for example, the death
of a parent before age 15, pregnancy, and an early onset of
Life Satisfaction
health problems (e.g., respiratory disorders, mononucleosis,
arthritis and headaches) which interfered with daily functioning were antecedent risks for major depressive disorder
in females; in males it was the remarriage of a parent [16].
In a study by [1], depressed adolescents tended to use
more negative alternatives (e.g., becoming intoxicated, isolating themselves, or running away from home), whereas
the non-depressed adolescents generally used positive alternatives (e.g., minimizing the importance of the events) in
dealing with the life events experienced. According to several other authors, major depressive disorder was generally
positively correlated with emotion-focused strategies [4]
and cognitive avoidance [5], and negatively correlated
with problem-focused coping [4]. In Nolen-Hoeksema
et al.’s study [14], the association between life events and
depressive disorders was related to chronic disruption in
the child’s environment; among older children, the impact
of life events on depressive disorders was mediated by
pessimistic explanatory style, and among girls by selfperceived body image, self-esteem, and self-efficacy.
Children who were exposed to high stress levels were
especially likely to become depressed if the mothers were
currently symptomatic [10]. Thus, the presence of the
mother to help buffer the ill effects of stress may moderate
the impact of stressors on children’s probability to develop
depressive disorders. In Goodyer et al.’s study [8], adolescents whose mothers had a history of psychiatric disorder
were exposed to more negative events than those whose
mothers had no such history. Thus, both lifetime maternal
psychiatric disorder and increased exposure to undesirable life events significantly exerted an increased risk for
major depressive disorder in adolescents.
It should, however, be stated that life events appear to
be a nonspecific risk factor for major depressive disorder;
that is, negative life events increase the risk of both depression and a number of other psychiatric disorders. As
shown by [12], parental loss before the age of 17 years
was significantly related to the presence of five major
psychiatric disorders.
5. Ebata, A. T., & Moos, R. H. (1991). Coping and adjustment in
distressed and healthy adolescents. Journal of Applied Developmental
Psychology, 12, 33–54.
6. Garrison, C. Z., Addy, C. L., Jackson, K. L., McKeown, R. E., & Waller,
J. L. (1992). Major depressive disorder and dysthymia in young
adolescents. American Journal of Epidemiology, 135, 792–802.
7. Goodyer, I. (1991). Life events, development and childhood psychopathology. Chichester: Wiley.
8. Goodyer, I. M., Cooper, P. J., Vize, C. M., & Ashby, L. (1993).
Depression in 11-16-year-old girls: The role of past parental psychopathology and exposure to recent life events. Journal of Child
Psychology and Psychiatry, 34, 1103–1115.
9. Goodyer, I. M., Wright, C., & Altham, P. M. (1988). Maternal
adversity and recent stressful life events in anxious and depressed
children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 29, 651–667.
10. Hammen, C., & Goodman-Brown, T. (1990). Self-schemas and vulnerability to specific life stress in children at risk for depression.
Cognitive Therapy and Research, 14, 215–227.
11. Johnson, J. H., & McCutcheon, S. M. (1980). Assessing life stress in
older children and adolescents: Preliminary finding with the life
events checklist. In I. G. Saranson & C. D. Spielberger (Eds.), Stress
and anxiety Vol. 7 (pp. 111–125). Washington, DC: Hemisphere.
12. Kendler, K. S., Neale, M. C., Kessler, R. C., Heath, A. C., & Eaves, L. J.
(1992). Childhood parental loss and adult psychopathology in
women. Archives of General Psychiatry, 49, 109–116.
13. Monck, E., & Dobbs, R. (1985). Measuring life events in an adolescent population: methodological issues and related findings. Psychological Medicine, 15, 841–850.
14. Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Girgus, J. S., & Seligman, M. E. P. (1992).
Predictors and consequences of childhood depressive symptoms:
A 5-year longitudinal study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 101,
405–422.
15. Paykel, E. S. (1983). Methodological aspects of life events research.
Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 27, 341–352.
16. Reinherz, H. Z., Giaconia, R. M., Pakiz, B., Silverman, A. B., Frost,
A. K., & Lefkowitz, E. S. (1993). Psychosocial risks for major depression in late adolescence: A longitudinal community study. Journal
of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 32,
1155–1163.
17. Shahar, G., Henrich, C. C., Reiner, I. C., & Little, T. D. (2003).
Development and initial validation of the Brief Adolescent Life
Event Scale (BALES). Anxiety, Stress and Coping, 16, 119–128.
18. Williamson, D. E., Birmaher, B., Ryan, N. D., Shiffrin, T. P., Lusky,
J. A., Protopapa, J., et al. (2003). The stressful life events schedule for
children and adolescents: development and validation. Psychiatry
Research, 119, 225–241.
References
1. Adams, A., & Adams, J. (1991). Life events, depression, and perceived
problem solving alternatives in adolescents. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 32, 811–820.
2. Brown, G. W., & Harris, T. O. (1978). Social origins of depression:
A study of psychiatric disorder in women. London: Tavistock.
3. Coddington, R. D. (1972). The significance of life events as etiologic
factors in diseases of children. I. A survey of professionals. Journal of
Psychosomatic Research, 16, 205–213.
4. Compas, B. E., Davis, G. E., Forsythe, C. J., & Wagner, B. M. (1987).
Assessment of major and daily stressful events during adolescence:
The adolescent perceived events scale. Journal of Consulting and
Clinical Psychology, 55, 534–541.
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Life Satisfaction
DAVID N. MILLER
University at Albany, SUNY Division of School
Psychology, Albany, NY, USA
Synonyms
Quality of life; Well-being
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Life Satisfaction
Definition
Life satisfaction is a cognitive appraisal process in which
individuals subjectively assess life quality on the basis of
their own unique set of criteria.
Description
In recent years there has been an increased emphasis on
examining the positive aspects of human nature. This
movement, known as positive psychology, has been
defined as “the scientific study of ordinary human
strengths and virtues” ([10], p. 216). One topic within
the domain of positive psychology that has attracted substantial interest is how and why individuals, including
children and adolescents, experience their lives in positive
ways [5]; that is, there has been increased interest in
examining those variables that contribute to the development of subjectively perceived life satisfaction.
Research on life satisfaction has been conducted
from social indicators, marketing, and quality of life perspectives [11]. However, much of the recent research
in this area has been most influenced by the work of
Diener and his colleagues [1, 2], who conceptualize life
satisfaction as one of three important components (the
others being positive and negative affect) within the
larger domain of subjective well-being. This perspective
conceptualizes life satisfaction as “a cognitive judgmental
process in which individuals assess the quality of their
lives on the basis of their own unique set of criteria”
([9], p. 164).
Although the appraisal of life satisfaction is a cognitive
one, it is largely based on the positive experiences and
emotions that collectively contribute to subjective wellbeing. However, these cognitive judgments are largely
independent from an individual’s immediate and
emotional interpretation of a particular event; reports of
life satisfaction “are believed to transcend momentary
emotional experiences within and across life situations
and are thus considered more stable than affective states
when assessing life quality over time” ([11], p. 28). That
said, researchers are recognizing that life satisfaction is tied
to specific, concrete experiences, and that it yields unique
variance not accounted for by assessing more global
life satisfaction indices alone. This has lead to the development of measures that assess satisfaction within specific domains, such as students’ perceptions of school
satisfaction [11].
Most of the research on life satisfaction to date has
been conducted with adults, with research involving child
and adolescent samples having begun only recently.
Research suggests that although most children and
adolescents are generally satisfied with their lives,
a minority appear very dissatisfied [7]. Low life satisfaction is associated with several adverse outcomes, including
those related to internalizing problems (e.g., depression,
anxiety) and school adjustment. In contrast, high life
satisfaction functions as a psychological strength and
actively fosters resilience and well-being [7]. For example,
in a study examining the characteristics of adolescents
who reported high levels of global life satisfaction, Gilman
and Huebner [6] found that high life satisfaction was
associated with mental health benefits that were not
found among youth reporting comparatively lower life
satisfaction levels.
Moreover, school experiences can strongly influence
life satisfaction in children and adolescents. Behavioral
contexts (e.g., grades received; in-school conduct), social
contexts (e.g., school climate), and cognitive contexts
(e.g., academic personal beliefs; attachment to school)
associated with schools are all linked to students’ global
life satisfaction [11]. Some research has suggested that
academic achievement in school is moderately correlated
with adolescents’ global life satisfaction [6] and school
satisfaction [3]. Suldo and Shaffer [12] found that middle-school students with the highest reported levels of
subjective well-being had superior grades in courses and
superior scores on standardized achievement tests. In contrast, lower levels of life satisfaction have been associated
with problem behaviors in school, including disruptive
and acting-out behaviors [11].
Over the past decade, several psychometrically sound
life satisfaction scales for children and adolescents have
been developed on the basis of unidimensional or
multidimensional models. Most reviewed measures to
date have adequate internal consistency reliability and
acceptable test-retest reliability across several time frames
(up to a year), and have also demonstrated strong evidence
of various types of validity [4, 11]. To date, most measures
have been self-reports and have been primarily used to
illustrate similarities and differences between life satisfaction and related psychological constructs, such as
self-concept [7].
The assessment of life satisfaction in children and
adolescents is still in its beginning stages and more
research is needed. It is clear, however, that assessing
constructs such as life satisfaction provides a broader,
more comprehensive perspective of psychological functioning, and that assessing problems in the absence of
strengths provides an incomplete and distorted picture
of children and youth [8]. Given that life satisfaction is
a meaningful indicator and determinant of well-being in
Limbic System
children and adolescents, school and clinic-based mental
health professionals should become well-versed in its
assessment as well as interventions to promote it.
References
1. Diener, E. (1984). Subjective well-being. Psychological Bulletin, 95,
542–575.
2. Diener, E., Suh, E. M., Lucas, R. E., & Smith, H. L. (1999). Subjective
well-being: Three decades of progress. Psychological Bulletin, 125,
276–302.
3. Gilman, R. (2006). Students who like and dislike school. Applied
Quality of Life Research, 1, 139–150.
4. Gilman, R., & Huebner, E. S. (2000). Review of life satisfaction
measures for adolescents. Behaviour Change, 17, 178–192.
5. Gilman, R., & Huebner, E. S. (2003). A review of life satisfaction
research with children and adolescents. School Psychology Quarterly,
18, 192–205.
6. Gilman, R., & Huebner, E. S. (2006). Characteristics of adolescents
who report very high life satisfaction. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 35, 311–319.
7. Huebner, E. S., Suldo, S. M., & Gilman, R. (2006). Life satisfaction. In
G. G. Bear & K. M. Minke (Eds.), Children’s needs III: Development,
prevention, and intervention (pp. 357–368). Bethesda, MD: National
Association of School Psychologists.
8. Miller, D. N. (2010). Assessing internalizing problems and wellbeing. In G. Gimpel Peacock, R. A. Ervin, E. J. Daly, & K. W. Merrell
(Eds.), Practical handbook of school psychology: Effective practices for
the 21st century (pp. 175–191). New York: Guilford.
9. Pavot, W., & Diener, E. (1993). Review of the Satisfaction with Life
Scale. Psychological Assessment, 5, 164–172.
10. Sheldon, K. M., & King, L. (2001). Why positive psychology is
necessary. American Psychologist, 56, 216–217.
11. Suldo, S. M., Huebner, E. S., Friedrich, A. A., & Gilman, R. (2009).
Life satisfaction. In R. Gilman, E. S. Huebner, & M. J. Furlong (Eds.),
Handbook of positive psychology in schools (pp. 27–35). New York:
Routledge.
12. Suldo, S. M., & Shaffer, E. J. (2008). Looking beyond psychopathology: The dual-factor model of mental health in youth. School Psychology Review, 37, 52–68.
13. Suldo, S. M., Shaffer, E. J., & Riley, K. N. (2008). A social-cognitivebehavioral model of academic predictors of adolescents’ life satisfaction. School Psychology Quarterly, 23, 56–69.
Life Style
▶Adler, Alfred
Lifestyle Mores
▶Cultural Difference
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Limbic System
CHAD A. NOGGLE1, JOHN JOSHUA HALL2
1
SIU School of Medicine, Springfield, IL, USA
2
The University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little
Rock, AR, USA
Definition
The Limbic System is a network of brain structures that
together play a pivotal role in emotional processing and
regulation as well as aspects of memory.
Description
The Limbic System represents one of the three divisions of
the Telencephalon, in addition to the Basal Ganglia and
the Cerebral cortex. Anatomically, the Limbic System is
a network of structures that surround both the basal
ganglia and the thalamus [1]. These structures include,
but are not limited to, the Hippocampus, Dentate Gyrus,
Cingulate Gyrus, Septal areas, Amygdala and aspects of the
Diencephalon [4]. From a functional standpoint the Limbic System is best conceptualized as a holistic system as few
one-to-one structure-function relationships have been
established. Rather, many of the structures included
within the system demonstrate overlapping roles in the
modulation of the various functions regulated by the
limbic system. Specifically, the Limbic System, in concert
with aspects of the Frontal lobes and Temporal lobes, are
involved in the control of memory and emotion [2]. This
corresponds with aspects of emotional processing and
regulation as well as aspects of recent memory [4]. Beyond
these areas, which are most commonly linked with the
interconnections and workings of this network of structures, the Limbic System has also been associated with
autonomic functions (e.g., arousal), and olfaction [4].
Furthermore, the limbic system has been found to play
a pivotal role in mediating the drives or instincts that assist
in the attainment of fundamental biological needs [2].
In terms of the Limbic Systems role in memory,
explicit memory, including semantic and episodic memory, represents the domain of memory that is dependent
upon the network. However, there is greater reliance on
the actions of the Hippocampal formation, Amygdala and
Rhinal cortices in comparison to other structures of the
Limbic System [3]. In addition, the Prefrontal cortex as
well as additional structures of the Temporal lobe that do
not fall under the umbrella that is the Limbic System, are
linked to the aforementioned domains of memory [3]. Yet,
the key component still remains to be the Hippocampal
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formation as it has been specifically linked to memory
acquisition [5]. The role of the Hippocampal formation
in memory has been best seen in individuals with bilateral
injuries of the Hippocampus, such as the classic case of
H. M. who following bilateral Hippocampal resection
presented with dense anterograde amnesia in which he
had severe difficulties in learning new information.
Aside from those structures included as part of the
network, the Limbic System has also been closely related to
the Hypothalamus. It is this connection that provides for
the integration and organization of autonomic processes
related to the emotional expression of behavior [5]. In
terms of those structures viewed as playing more prominent roles in the regulation of emotions, the Cingulate
gyrus and Amygdala constitute those of greatest interest.
While the Amygdala has been linked to aspects of fear
conditioning, in addition to strengthening stored memories by linking emotional cues to the information to be
recalled, the Cingulate gyrus plays a vital role in controlling the experience of emotion [2]. Again, this is related to
its projections to the Hypothalamus, which is then
responsible for directing the autonomic and endocrine
effectors of emotion [2]. However, while this relationship
and the workings of the Hypothalamus may impact the
experience of emotion, higher cortical areas, such as the
Frontal lobes, constitute the gateway that in turn determines what behavior is exhibited in response to the emotional experiences. This is the basis of inhibition.
Finally, the manner in which the Limbic System is
involved in mediating drive and/or instincts for basic
survival is largely related to the bidirectional nature of
the Limbic-Hypothalamus link. Specifically, while emotional reactivity, as processed by the Limbic system, transmits to the Hypothalamus to mediate concurrent
organization of autonomic responses to the emotionally
stimulating environment, the Hypothalamus is the
starting point in terms of signaling when there is
a biological need, this impulse is then passed along to
the Limbic System to assist in increasing arousal and
processing the nature of the stimuli.
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Elias, L. J., & Saucier, D. M. (2006). Neuropsychology: Clinical and
experimental foundations. Boston, MA: Pearson Allyn & Bacon.
Filley, C. M. (2001). Neurobehavioral Anatomy (2nd ed.). Boulder:
University of Colorado Press.
Kolb, B., & Whishaw, I. Q. (2003). Fundamentals of human neuropsychology (5th ed.). New York: Worth Publishers.
Loring, D. W. (1999). INS dictionary of neuropsychology. New York:
Oxford University Press.
Zillmer, E. A., & Spiers, M. V. (2001). Principles of neuropsychology.
Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/ Thomson Learning.
Limbitrol
▶Chlordiazepoxide
Limited Play
▶Restrictive Play
Linguistic Determinism
▶Whorfian Hypothesis
Linguistic Intelligence
▶Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences
Linguistic Relativity
▶Whorfian Hypothesis
Literacy
STACY A. S. WILLIAMS
State University of New York at Albany, Albany, NY, USA
Synonyms
Book Learning; Learning; Reading/Writing Proficiency;
Scholarship
Definition
Literacy is the ability to articulate one’s thoughts, listen,
read and write.
Description
The National Literacy Trust (NLT), a non-profit organization for the enhancement of an individual’s life through
literacy, defines literacy as the ability to speak, listen, read,
Literacy
and write in order to fulfill one’s potential. The NLTargues
that speech, language, and communication skills are
essential in developing reading and writing competency
[5]. Literacy does not refer to a single ability but to
different types and levels of skills. At one end of the
spectrum are the early developing skills in young children
that are essential to literacy growth. These are referred to
in the literature as emergent and early literacy skills. At the
other end of the spectrum are the essential skills for functioning adults, identified by the National Assessment of
Adult Literacy (NAAL) as prose, document, and quantitative literacy [4].
Much of the research in the last decade has focused
primarily on the reading development of young children.
According to the most recent National Assessment of
Educational Progress (NAEP) report, approximately one
fourth of fourth graders fail to exhibit basic levels of
reading skills and one tenth of fourth graders fail to
demonstrate basic writing skills. In particular, children
in low-income households display disproportionate literacy and writing skills [3, 7]. Furthermore, the NAAL 2003
report indicates that there are 11 million adults in the
United States who are illiterate. Furthermore, 14% of
adults (30 million) are performing below basic at the
most simple and concrete literacy level [4].
Emergent and Early Literacy
Understanding the multidimensional aspects of literacy is
crucial to reducing the illiteracy rate. At the beginning
level, researchers often refer to two types of literacy skills
that are considered to be the precursors to literacy development: emergent and early literacy. Emergent literacy
refers to a broader concept of literacy that starts prior to
formal instruction and leads to an awareness of print.
Embedded within this concept are specific skills that relate
to reading development. These skills are an awareness of
print, relationship of print to speech (i.e., understanding
the differences between oral and written language), comprehension of text structures (i.e., knowledge of grammar
and organization of stories), phonological awareness
(i.e., sensitivity and awareness of sounds in oral language),
and letter knowledge (i.e., knowledge of the alphabet and
related sounds) [2].
The other type of literacy skill, early literacy, refers to
the discrete basic skills that are the foundation for reading
success. Researchers have examined skills such as letter
knowledge, phonological awareness, concepts of print,
and naming of letters, colors, and objects to determine
acquisition rates and prediction of later achievement [2].
Students are expected to learn the aforementioned skills
during the first formal years of education. Knowledge of
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letters and phonemic awareness have been found to bear
a strong and direct relationship to the success and ease of
reading acquisition [1, 6]. This relationship is strong
despite the instructional approach used. The predictive
strength of these two skills suggests that the letter-tosound relation is of special interest to beginning readers [1].
The letter-to-sound relation is referred to in the literature as phonological awareness, which refers to the sensitivity of sounds in spoken words as well as the ability to
manipulate the sounds. Phonological awareness is but one
skill within the abilities of phonological processing. The
ability to manipulate sounds in oral language encompasses a broad range of skills that are hierarchically
arranged. In the beginning, phonological awareness activities may include rhyming or identifying words with similar beginnings or endings. Later phonological activities
require more manipulation at the phoneme level
(i.e., segmenting or blending activities). Phonological
processing abilities include three types of skills: phonological awareness, phonological coding, and retrieval of
phonological codes. Phonological coding refers to the
ability to hold phonological information in working
memory, while retrieval of phonological codes refers to
the rate at which an individual can access the phonological
information. Each of these processing abilities is implicated in the varying levels of literacy achievement. In
addition to being able to manipulate sounds in oral language, knowledge of the written symbols that represent
sounds in language is also important. Letter naming fluency in particular has been found to be a good predictor of
reading success. The acquisition of letter knowledge typically follows a gradual accumulation of alphabet knowledge from 3 to 7 years old.
During the formative years of literacy acquisition, students are learning to read. By the time students reach third
grade, they are reading to learn. Accordingly, the building
blocks of later years focus primarily on fluency and comprehension. Developing reading fluency is critical to
becoming a competent reader. Research suggests that fluent
readers are more likely to comprehend what they read and
are more likely to seek out reading opportunities [2].
Adult Literacy
The skills necessary for developing fluent reading are the
building blocks for literacy activities in adulthood. While
literacy in earlier years focuses on learning the skills necessary for fluent reading, literacy in teen to adulthood
years focuses on functional literacy. The NAAL, in its
assessment of adult literacy, addresses prose, document,
and quantitative literacy. Prose literacy is defined as the
ability to search, comprehend, and use information from
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Literacy Development
continuous texts such as news articles and instructional
materials. Document literacy is the ability to search, comprehend, and use information from noncontinuous texts
such as job applications, maps, and food labels. Quantitative literacy refers to the ability to identify and perform
computations using numbers embedded in printed materials (e.g., balancing checkbooks). These literacy tasks
require seven types of literacy skills: the ability to search
text efficiently, to infer from texts, to decode and read
fluently, to apply knowledge, to understand the structure
and meaning of sentences, to identify the calculations
required to solve a problem, and to perform the calculations [4]. In summary, literacy refers to the range of skills
that are essential for an individual to realize his or her
potential. It is the ability to understand oral and written
materials and communicate one’s intentions clearly.
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Adams, M. J. (1990). Beginning to read: Thinking and learning about
print. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
Daly III, E. J., Chafouleas, S., & Skinner, C. H. (2005). Interventions
for reading problems: Designing and evaluating effective strategies.
New York: The Guilford Press.
Justice, L. M., Kaderavek, J. N., Fan, X., Sofka, A., & Hunt, A. (2009).
Accelerating preschoolers’ early literacy development through classroom-based teacher–child storybook reading and explicit print
referencing. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 40,
67–85.
Kutner, M., Greenberg, E., Jin, Y., Boyle, B., Hsu, Y., & Dunleavy, E.
(2007). Literacy in everyday life: Results from the 2003 national assessment of adult literacy (NCES 2007-480). National Center for Education Statistics: U.S. Department of Education, Washington, DC.
The National Literacy Trust. (2008). Viewpoint. Literacy Today, 55,
15–17.
Turan, F., & Gözde, G. (2008). Early precursor of reading: Acquisition of phonological awareness skills. Educational Sciences: Theory
and Practice, 8, 279–284.
Walker-Dalhouse, D., & Risko, V. J. (2008). Homelessness, poverty,
and children’s literacy development. The Reading Teacher, 62, 84–86.
Definition
Literacy typically includes the two areas of reading and
writing. Literacy development refers to the on-going
development of skills needed to successfully communicate
through written communication.
Description
Communication through written texts is a two-sided conversation. Writers capture their thoughts and ideas in
written text and the reader actively receives and responds
to written texts. Reading for understanding requires an
active thinking process that is influenced by the reader’s
prior knowledge and experiences [6]. This active thinking
process develops over time in a natural state that
“mimics children’s natural development of oral language skills” [7].
Literacy development is reported to be a natural process that begins at birth. The “pre-reading stage” [3] or
stage 0, involves caretakers reading to, speaking to, and
modeling writing. Chall describes this stage as the
moment in literacy development where children are
acknowledging the surrounding print and spoken language. The next stage is referred to as stage 1. This stage
begins in the early primary years when children learn
about the alphabetic principle and is referred to as the
“Initial Reading or Decoding Stage.”
The next stage is referred to as stage 2, which involves
readers building automaticity with the associations
acquired in stage 1. During stage 2, readers participate in
continual practice and are exposed to an abundance of
print at an independent or easy level, which assists readers
with acquiring automaticity. Stage 3 begins reading to
learn during grades 4–8 where children are refining their
print skills and stage 4 occurs during the High School
years as students are developing multiple perspectives,
Finally, stage 5 transpires during college years and beyond.
Relevance to Childhood Development
Literacy Development
ROBERTA SIMNACHER PATE1, STEPHANIE A. GROTE-GARCIA2
Texas A&M University, Corpus Christi, TX, USA
2
University of the Incarnate Word College of Education,
Texas A&M University-Corpus Christi, Corpus Christi,
TX, USA
1
Synonyms
Reading development; Writing development
Literacy Development encompasses perspectives inclusive
among theorists over the past 80 years, from the 1930s to
present. Several different theories of development include:
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development (1969), Maturation Theory (1931), Holdaway’s Theory of Literacy
Development (1969), Stage Models of Reading (1983),
Emergent Literacy Theory (1985), and Family Literacy
Theory (1983). The culmination of these theories is relevant to child development as they impact the teachers’
knowledge and understanding of child development. This
realm of knowledge is essential in providing appropriate
literacy instruction.
Lithium
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Adams, M. J. (1990). Beginning to read: thinking and learning about
print. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Barr, R. (1984). Beginning reading instruction: from debate to reformation. In P. D. Pearson (Ed.), Handbook of reading research.
New York: Longman.
Chall, J. (1983). Stages of reading development. New York:
McGraw-Hill.
Holdaway, D. (1979). The foundations of literacy. Sydney, Australia:
Ashton Scholastic. Distributed by Heinemann, Portsmouth, NH.
Morrow, L. M. (2001). Literacy development in the early years
(4th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
National Excellence in Reading Initiative. (2000). Report of the
national reading panel: teaching children to read. Washington:
National Institute of Child Health and Human Development.
Tracey, D. H., & Morrow, L. M. (2006). Lenses on reading: an
introduction to theories and models. New York: Guilford.
Smith, F. (2004). Understanding reading (6th ed.). Mahwah:
Erlbaum.
Venezky, R. L. (1995). Literacy. In T. L. Harris & R. E. Hodges (Eds.),
The literacy dictionary: the vocabulary of reading and writing. Newark:
International Reading Association.
Literatherapy
▶Bibliotherapy
Literature Based Instruction
▶Whole Language Approach
Lithane
▶Cibalith-S
Lithane®
▶Lithium
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Lithium
ANISA FORNOFF
Drake University, Ankeny, IA, USA
Synonyms
Cibalith-S; Eskalith®; Eskalith-CR®; Lithane®; Lithobid®;
Lithonate®; Lithotabs®
Definition
A prescription medication FDA approved for the management of bipolar disorder and treatment of mania in
patients with bipolar disorder.
Description
This medication works in the central nervous system, but
the exact way this medication works is not known. Lithium
is available in short acting capsules, short acting tablets,
and short acting syrup. It is also available in both long
acting capsules and tablets. Other reasons this medication
may be taken, which are not FDA approved, are as an
augmenting agent for depression, aggression, posttraumatic stress disorder, and conduct disorder in children.
The recommended starting dose for this medication in
short-acting form is 300–600 mg taken three times a day.
For long-acting dosage forms, the recommended starting
dose is 300–600 mg three times a day or 450–900 mg twice
a day. Maximum suggested dose is 1,800 mg a day. Doses
for children over the age of 12 are generally similar to
doses for adults. This medication should only be taken as
directed by a doctor. It may take 1 or 2 weeks to see the
effects of this medication.
Lithium may be taken with food if it upsets your
stomach. It is recommended to limit caffeine intake and
avoid drinking alcohol. It is recommended to drink two or
three liters of water daily. Use caution in hot weather and
in activities that may make you sweat. Inform your doctor
if you have heart disease or kidney disease. Also, tell your
doctor if you are dehydrated or have low sodium. It is very
important that you do not take more of this medication
than your doctor prescribed. Your doctor will monitor
lithium levels in your blood. The slow release or sustained
release products must be taken whole, do not crush or
chew.
Some side effects are listed here: swelling, changes in
heart rhythm, dizziness, sedation, restlessness, headache,
fatigue, dry or thinning hair, changes in thyroid function,
upset stomach and diarrhea, increase in urination, weight
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gain, and blurred vision. Certain side effects may go away
during treatment. Tell your doctor immediately if you
notice the following: diarrhea, tremors, lack of coordination, muscle weakness, blurred vision, seizures, or slurred
speech. These may be signs of an overdose of this medication. If these should occur, seek medical attention
immediately.
This medication should be stored out of reach of
children and pets and away from light, heat, and moisture.
Relevance to Childhood Development
Lithium is not FDA approved for use in children younger
than 12 years old. This medication may cause weakened
bones in children.
Women should let their doctor know if they are pregnant or planning to become pregnant. This medication
has been shown to cause adverse effects to the fetus. Talk
with your doctor before breastfeeding.
References
1.
2.
3.
American Management Association. (2008). AHFS drug information
(24th ed., pp. 2629–2638). Maryland: American Society of HealthSystem Pharmacists.
Lexi-Drugs Online [database online]. Hudson, OH: Lexi-Comp.
Accessed August 26, 2008.
Medical Economics Staff. (2007). Advice for the patient: Drug information in lay language. USP DI Vol II. (27th ed., pp. 1006–1008).
Kentucky: Thompson Micromedex.
Lithonate
▶Cibalith-S
Lithonate®
▶Lithium
Lithotabs
▶Cibalith-S
Lithotabs®
▶Lithium
Little People
▶Dwarfism
Lithizine
▶Cibalith-S
Locke, John
ERIN HAMBRICK
University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, USA
Lithobid
▶Cibalith-S
Lithobid®
▶Lithium
Life Dates
1632–1704
Introduction
John Locke, an English politician, doctor, and philosopher, was a forerunner of British ▶Empiricism and is
referred to by some as the father of cognitive psychology.
Locke’s view of the mind and the origin of knowledge and
ideas was reductionist and individualistic; he believed that
at birth no innate ideas exist and that all knowledge is
derived from personal experience.
Locke, John
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Educational Information
Contributions
Locke, similar to most wealthy children of his era, was
homeschooled until he was granted admission to Westminster school. Westminster was a private grammar
school for privileged and intelligent adolescents and was
where he became proficient in many different languages,
such as Latin and German. Locke was named the Westminster School King’s Scholar and was subsequently
granted admission to Oxford University. After achieving
his undergraduate degree, Locke received his master’s in
medicine and indulged in other educational interests such
as philosophy (Locke was especially well read in both Plato
and Descartes) and government. By 1650, he had obtained
his master’s and decided to stay at Oxford to teach for the
next few decades.
Though the schools Locke attended largely influenced
his education, Locke’s father, Locke’s bent toward travel,
and the political zeitgeist of his time had just as large an
impact. Locke’s father was a respected political radical
who believed in ▶parliament rule (or rule by the people)
instead of monarchical rule. Locke grew up in what has
been named the “Glorious Revolution”: a time in English
history when political unrest and change inspired many to
become radical thinkers and to challenge not only political
but philosophical hegemony.
Locke’s contributions to psychology are prodigious.
Locke, in contrast to many of his philosophical contemporaries, abandoned the question of whether or not there
is an actual reality and assumed the workings of the mind
were real and could be studied. In order to understand the
way the mind worked, Locke took an historical, reductionist approach. Locke derived his understanding of
knowledge acquisition by breaking knowledge down into
its smallest parts (sensory experiences) and by considering
the developmental history of each person (at birth people
have little or no knowledge and then accumulate it as they
develop). Lockean thought marked a philosophical shift
from the use of logic to understand reality to empiricism,
or the use of systematic observation to understand reality.
For example, Locke decided that because at birth we
require other people and sensory experiences to grow,
that each person is born a blank slate and this blank slate
is influenced solely by experience. Or, that all knowledge
and ideas are derived from observable, concrete sensory
input instead of from innate or genetically predisposed
tendencies. Locke asserted that if we are willing to attend
to stimuli, then sensory input is acquired passively. Once
this input has reached our mind, then our mind actively
reflects on (or perceives) the input and associates this new
input with previous experiences. This process of reflection
and association results in complex thoughts, and throughout our lives we have increasingly more sensory input that
gives rise to more complex thoughts and thus more
knowledge.
Locke’s delineation of the process of association has
especially influenced psychology. In cognitive psychology,
association has influenced memory research; many cognitive psychologists believe that we retrieve memories by
thinking of an idea that is associated with past experiences
and/or by having new experiences that are associated with
past experiences. In behavior psychology, the principle of
association was applied learning theory. Behaviorists
assert that we associate certain behaviors with particular
outcomes and thus either increase or decrease that
behavior depending on that behavior’s associated
consequences.
Locke’s “blank slate at birth” or “▶tabula rasa” belief
also had strong humanitarian implications. To say that
each person is born a blank state essentially means that
all people are equal at birth. Thus, Locke’s view of the
nature of knowledge caused him to antagonize the patriarchal views of his time and possibly jump-start the
feminist movement [3]. Also, this belief landed Locke
on the nurture side of the ubiquitous nature-nurture
debate in psychology, a debate that may never be fully
Accomplishments
Locke’s most well known accomplishments are his writings, which were largely penned during the 1690s. Locke’s
An Essay Concerning Human Understanding has widely
influenced philosophical and psychological thought
pertaining to the processes of the mind and the origin
knowledge. Locke’s Two Treatises on Government was
partly a polemic against monarchy and influenced the
decision of America’s founding fathers to establish
a democracy instead of a monarchy in the New World.
Locke also wrote religious pieces, such as Letters
Concerning Toleration, which influenced the Protestant
Reformation in England and which precipitated America’s
laws on the separation of church and state. A lesser-known
piece by John Locke is Some Thoughts Concerning Education, which is a compilation of letters Locke wrote to
friends on how to parent their children. Though Locke
was never a father, he believed that his ideas on knowledge
acquisition made him a resource for parents in search of
how to help their children develop appropriately. In addition to his writings, Locke was an influential leader at
Oxford. He was named the Censor of Moral Philosophy
and opened an experimental lab on Oxford’s campus.
Though Locke was a trained physician, medicine was
more of a hobby to him than a profession.
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resolved but that will always be important to both
clinical and experimental work.
Possibly the most important contribution Locke had
to psychology was his role in founding British Empiricism, a scientific school of thought that believed knowledge can only come from observable experiences.
Empiricists also believed that the further one’s conclusions moved from directly observable experiences, the
more likely one was to make a thinking error. Though
Locke would not have been a proponent of the psychological method of ▶introspection that succeeded him
(which depended on the self-report of private,
unobservable thoughts), his empirical work did encourage
the study of the mind simply because he was one of the
first to unequivocally claim that the mind was real and
could be studied.
Further, several of Locke’s theories on how to raise
children are still present in child rearing practices today.
For example, because Locke believed that all knowledge is
learned via experience, he encouraged parents to provide
young children with as many sensory experiences as possible. We now know that certain sensory experiences must
be present during critical and sensitive periods in the first
years of life to facilitate normal development. In older
children, Locke believed knowledge was the path to reason, and that if one had multiple divergent experiences
then one would be capable of reasoning in a moral,
upright fashion [1]. According to Locke, gaining knowledge via experience was the ultimate path toward righteous, pro-social actions. Thus, Locke influenced many
human rights movements. Further, Locke may have
influenced person-centered, Humanistic thought by his
contention that because everyone has had different sensory experiences, differences between people must be tolerated. Further, Locke thought that when trying to
understand and tolerate others we must make an effort
to understand their phenomenological worldview.
Locke can also be credited for promoting public collections of items, which are today called museums, zoos,
and encyclopedias. Because he believed that sensory experiences gave rise to complex ideas, he encouraged collections that would provide experiential learning.
4.
5.
6.
Cope, K. L. (1999). John Locke revisited. New York: Twayne.
Woolhouse, R. (2007). Locke: A biography. Cambridge: New York.
Yolton, J. W. (1985). Lock: An introduction. New York: Basil
Blackwell.
Locus Coeruleus
CHAD A. NOGGLE
SIU School of Medicine, Springfield, IL, USA
Definition
▶Locus Coeruleus: The Locus Coeruleus is a cluster of
neurons in an area of the hindbrain known as the Pons
that contains over half of the norepinephrine-based neurons of the central nervous system.
Description
The Hindbrain represents the lowest and most posterior
division of the human brain. The Pons is a structure
within the Hindbrain, that in addition to its’ link with
motor and sensory action, houses the Locus Coeruleus,
which lies just beneath the fourth ventricle. The Locus
Coeruleus is a grouping of neurons that contains over
half of the Norepinephrine neurons in the Central Nervous System [3]. Norepinephrine is an essential neurotransmitter of the Central nervous System that plays a vital
role in regulating sleep-wake cycles, memory, attention,
hormones through its influence on the Hypothalamus,
Cerebral blood flow, and motor behavior [4]. One of the
catecholaminergic neurotransmitters [2], norepinephrine’s influence can be either inhibitory or excitatory [1].
In addition, Norepinephine is commonly indicted with
Serotonin in the manifestation of depressive and anxiety
disorders as it plays a vital role in the regulation of mood.
The holistic impact Norepinephrine has on the CNS is
directly related to the widespread ascending noradrenergic
projections from the Locus Coeruleus and rostral tegmental area to aspects of the Forebrain, Cerebellum and Spinal
Cord [1], that thus correspond with Norepinephrine’s
influence on the broad aforementioned functions.
References
References
1.
1.
2.
3.
Benjamin, L. T. (2006). A history of psychology in letters (pp. 15–26).
Malden, MA: Blackwell.
Billig, M. (2008). The hidden roots of critical psychology (pp. 28–72).
Los Angeles, CA: Sage.
Butler, M. A. (2007). Early liberal roots of feminism: John Locke’s
attack on patriarchy. In N. J. Hirschmann & K. M. McClure (Eds.),
Feminist interpretations of John Locke (pp. 91–121). University Park,
PA: Pennsylvania State University Press.
2.
3.
4.
Blumenfeld, H. (2002). Neuroanatomy through clinical cases.
Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates.
Elias, L. J., & Saucier, D. M. (2006). Neuropsychology: Clinical and
experiemental foundations. Boston, MA: Pearson Allyn & Bacon.
Loring, D. W. (1999). INS dictionary of neuropsychology. New York:
Oxford University Press.
Zillmer, E. A., & Spiers, M. V. (2001). Principles of neuropsychology.
Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.
Locus of Control (External and Internal)
Locus of Control (External
and Internal)
DAVID BRANDWEIN
Kean University, Union, NJ, USA
Synonyms
Locus of control reinforcement
Definition
The internal-external locus of control construct ([8]),
describes the extent to which one perceives there to be
a causal connection between one’s behavior or cognition
and subsequent outcomes.
Description
The concept of locus of control was developed by ▶Julian
Rotter in the 1960s. In looking to bridge two different
branches of psychology (behavioral and cognitive), he
believed that behavior was greatly influenced by rewards
and punishments, and these rewards and punishments
shaped how people understand the results of their own
actions. Rotter ordered people on a continuum according
to how much they attribute the cause of events in their
lives to their own actions, motivations, or competencies
(internal control) versus how much they assume the cause
of these events to be determined by other forces such as
luck, chance, or powerful others (external control). Based
on Rotter’s conception of locus of control, Nowicki and
Strickland [4] developed the Locus of Control Scale for
Children, which is still in use today.
An important aspect of locus of control has to do with
the concept of expectancy, which is related to events that
will happen in the future. Locus of control is grounded in
expectancy-value theory, which describes human behavior
as determined by the perceived likelihood of an event or
outcome occurring contingent upon the behavior in question, and the value placed on that event or outcome. More
specifically, expectancy-value theory states that if (a)
someone values a particular outcome and (b) that person
believes that taking a particular action will produce that
outcome, then (c) they are more likely to take that particular action.
An alternative conception of locus of control was
proposed by Levenson [3]. Instead of conceiving locus of
control along a one-dimensional continuum (internal to
external), Levenson proposed three independent dimensions: Internality, Chance, and Powerful Others.
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897
According to Levenson’s view of locus of control,
a person can choose each of these dimensions of locus of
control independently as well as together. For example,
a person might simultaneously believe that both oneself
and powerful others influence outcomes, but that chance
does not. Researchers in ▶health psychology have
embraced Levinson’s conceptualization, and Wallston,
Wallston & Devillis [10] developed the Multidimensional
Health Locus of Control Scales to evaluate how locus of
control relates to health and illness.
Relevance to Childhood Development
The variable of locus of control is of significant influence
on child behavior and development.
Research completed in academic contexts ([2]) found
that a belief in destiny was a major determinant in school
achievement. In short, internal students feel outcomes
(both negative and positive) are derived from a basis of
empowerment, whereas external students view such outcomes from a basis of disengagement.
Other research ([6]; [9]; [1]) revealed that an external
locus of control was associated with increasing tendencies for lower levels of academic achievement, negatively
associated with performance in areas of reading, mathematics, and teachers ratings of study habits, and reading
attitudes and aptitudes, while internality was found to
be a positive factor in predicting academic performance,
particularly with regard to attitudes about the reading
experience.
Locus of control has also been shown to be associated
with other psychological characteristics and perceptions.
Nunn [5] found significant relationships between an
internal locus of control and positive perceptions of
adjustment within the home, school, and peer relations.,
and Nunn & Nunn [7] have also shown that students
who are considered at-risk for educational failure have
developed more external views of themselves, are more
anxious, have lower self-esteem, and exhibit more symptoms of depression than students who are successful.
Tesiny et al. [9] also found that external locus of control
was significantly associated with both depression scores
and academic achievement measures, e.g., reading, math,
teacher rating of study habits, and peer nominations of
children who exhibited symptoms of depression.
References
1. Blaha, J., & Chomin, L. (1982). The relationship of reading attitudes
to academic aptitude, locus of control, and field independence.
Psychology in the Schools, 19, 28–32.
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Locus of Control Reinforcement
2. Coleman, J. S., Campbell, E. Q., Hobson, C. J., McPartland, J.,
Mood, A. M., Weinfeld, F. D., et al. (1966). Equality of educational
opportunity. Washington DC: United States Office of Education.
3. Levenson, H. (1973). Multidimensional locus of control in
psychiatric patients. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology,
41(3), 397–404.
4. Nowicki, S., & Strickland, B. (1973). A locus of control scale for
children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 40, 148–154.
5. Nunn, G. D. (1988). The relationship between children’s locus of
control and Perceptions of home, school, and peers. Journal of
Human Behavior and Learning, 5, 18–21.
6. Nunn, G. D., Montgomery, J. D., & Nunn, S. J. (1986). Criterionrelated validity of the Nowicki-Strickland Locus of Control Scale
with academic achievement. Psychology: A Quarterly Journal of
Human Behavior, 23, 9–11.
7. Nunn, G. D., & Nunn, S. J. (1993). Locus of control and school
performance: some implications for teachers. Education, 113(4),
636–640.
8. Rotter, J. B. (1966). Generalized expectancies for internal versus
external control of reinforcement. Psychological Monographs,
80(1, Whole No. 609).
9. Tesiny, E. P., Lefkowitz, M. M., & Gordon, N. H. (1980). Childhood
depression, locus of control, and school achievement. Journal of
Educational Psychology, 72, 506–510.
10. Wallston, K. A., Wallston, B. S., & Devillis, R. (1978). Development of
the multidimensional locus of control scales. Health Education
Monographs, 6, 161–170.
Lone/Single Parent/Caregiver
Families
▶Single Parent Families
Longitudinal Methods
XENIA ANASTASSIOU-HADJICHARALAMBOUS, MARIA STYLIANOU
University of Nicosia, Nicosia, Cyprus
Definition
The term longitudinal methods represent a research
design in which participants are repeatedly assessed over
an extended period with repeated evaluations which are
often spread across at least several years.
Description
It is quite common to distinguish between two types
of longitudinal designs: the panel study and the cohort
study.
Locus of Control Reinforcement
▶Locus of Control (External and Internal)
Logagraphia
▶Spelling Disabilities
Logical Reasoning
▶Critical Thinking
Logical-Mathematical Intelligence
▶Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences
Panel Study
In the Panel Study a sample, often a national representative sample is evaluated at different points in time [6].
Studies utilizing this approach can potentially reveal
behavioral patterns and attitudes that could not be
addressed by other designs. Depending on the aim of the
study the participants could be evaluated on the assessments on a regular basis (i.e., continuous panel) or on
certain assessments during predetermined intervals (i.e.,
interval panel). This approach allows the utilization of
sophisticated statistical analyses that may potentially
determine causal influences over time and therefore offers
unique information for the investigation of the developmental aspect of a phenomenon. For instance, is parental
stress implicated in the child’s development? Is parental
psychopathology implicated in the child’s psychopathology? How does it develop? Does anxiety symptomatology
precede depressive symptomatology or vice versa? What is
the developmental course? An illustration of a panel study
is the British Household Panel Study (BHPS) which
started in 1991 [8]. The wave 1 panel consisted of a
national representative sample of 10, 300 participants in
5, 500 households drawn from 250 areas of Great Britain.
Assessments are carried out in an annual basis annually
Longitudinal Methods
across six main areas of interest: health, household organization, labor market behavior, income and wealth,
housing and socioeconomic values. The resulting data
base is a key data resource for social science researchers.
Cohort Study
In a cohort study a sample of at least one cohort (sometimes the entire cohort) is evaluated across at least two
points in time [6]. For research purposes, a cohort consists
of individuals who share a significant life event or
a characteristic within a given time period. This characteristic could be of varied nature. For instance, being born in
1940–1945, having a certain disease, having a certain education, and having a certain employment status and so on.
Cohort studies are often a useful alternative to randomized
control studies in which ethical concerns are applicable.
For example a randomized control study for the investigation of the impact of inept parental discipline practices on
the child’s development and well being would be unethical.
Consequently an ethical alternative would be to identify
parents who generate incompetent practices and follow
them across time to determine whether inept parental
practices are implicated in the child’s psychopathology.
A classic illustration of a cohort study is the National
Child Development Study (NCDS) which was initially
motivated by the concern for perinatal mortality [9]. The
NCDS follows all children born in Great Britain between
3 and 9 March 1958 (about 17,000 participants) and monitors their physical, educational and social development.
The study aims to improve understanding of the factors
affecting human development over the whole lifespan and
it is a popular database for social science research.
Advantages
The significant advantage of the longitudinal methods lies
upon their unique ability to trace developmental trajectories [2, 3]. Given that each individual has his/her unique
genetic makeup the longitudinal design allows intraindividual variability to be minimized.
Drawbacks
A significant drawback of longitudinal methods is the
problem of attrition or loss of participants across time
due to factors such as decision of participants to withdraw, unexpected life events such as death, movement and
so on [7]. The problem with attrition lies in the possibility
that the individuals who withdraw from the study may
vary in a systematic way from those who remain in the
study, making the generalisability of the results hard to
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make. For instance in the USA those individuals that
are more likely to move from place to place, are at the
same time those individuals who derive from lower
socio-economic status. Menard [1] refers to a study of
adolescent drug abuse in the USA in which 55% of participants withdrew from the study making the results
difficult to interpret. Of course attrition rates do not
typically reach as high as 55%, but when the attrition is
high caution should be exercised in the interpretation of
the results.
A further problem inherent in the longitudinal design
is that a panel conditioning effect is plausible [3–5]. In
other words, the possibility that ongoing participation in
a longitudinal study could itself potentially affect how
participants behave. Menard [1] cites a study of caregiving
in families and reports that 52% of the participants
reported that their participation in the study drove them
toward providing different care for the family.
A third problem inherent in the longitudinal methods
is the significant financial cost coupled sometimes with
poor planning of the design which often results in large
data pools without valuable research output.
Finally a further shortcoming inherent in the longitudinal methods are the normative and nonnormative
changes that occur in society across a given time threshold
that are always different to the conditions of another time
point in history [3–5]. For instance individuals born in
1940 and followed for 20 years had different historical
conditions to those born in 1990 and again followed for
20 years. It is not only the individual that changes, the
world itself changes as well. For example, if the results of
a longitudinal design found that individuals born between
1990–1995 reported different opinions about energy conservation in the first wave of data collection, that occurred
in 2000, in relation to the fourth wave of data collection,
that occurred in 2009; Does this indicate a developmental
change of these individuals or a change in the world?
Consequently in interpretations of the findings of longitudinal designs historical conditions need to be taken into
consideration.
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Menard, S. (1991). Longitudinal research. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Davies, R. B., & Pickles, A. R. (1985). Longitudinal versus crosssectional methods for behavioural research: A first-round knockout.
Environment and Planning A, 17, 1315–1329.
Menard, S. (2002). Longitudinal research (2nd ed.). London: Sage.
Ruspini, E. (2002). An introduction to longitudinal research. London:
Taylor & Francis.
Skinner, C. J. (2003). Introduction to part D: Longitudinal research.
In R. L. Chambers & C. J. Skinner (Eds.), Analysis of survey data
(pp. 197–204). New York: Wiley.
899
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6.
7.
8.
9.
Longitudinal Research
Hagenaars, J. A. P. (1990). Categorical longitudinal data: Log-linear
panel, trend and cohort analysis. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Taris, T. W. (2000). A primer in longitudinal data analysis. London: Sage.
http://www.iser.essex.ac.uk/survey/bhps
http://www.esds.ac.uk/longitudinal/access/ncds/
Longitudinal Research
AUDREY MCKINLAY
University of Canterbury, Christchurch, Canterbury,
New Zealand
Definition
Longitudinal research refers to the analysis of data collected at multiple points in time.
points of time. For example, to examine the effects of poor
nutrition in early life on aging, data could be collected
from a group of young poorly nourished individuals who
could then be followed over time. In this example, one of
the advantages of using a longitudinal design would be
that it would enable the researchers to identify what
changes were due to aging compared to those that are
due to other factors such as the habits of the individual
i.e., smoking.
An example of one well known study which uses is
longitudinal design is the Baltimore Longitudinal study
which was initiated in 1958 and has examined a number of
issues related to aging (e.g., [1]). The Baltimore Longitudinal study has over 1,400 volunteers (age between 20–90
years). The aim of this study is to examine what happens
as people age.
Cross-Sectional Design
Description
Longitudinal Design
Using this longitudinal research it is possible to examine
changes over time. As shown by the yellow squares in
Fig. 1, in research that uses a longitudinal design a single
group of participants is followed and assessed at multiple
By comparison, in cross-sectional design information
from different subgroups is collected a single point in
time (see Fig. 2). A major disadvantage of a cross-sectional
design which collects data at a single point in time is that
any findings may be compromised by cohort effects.
Cohort effects refer to findings that are due to factors
e.g., education, religion, or cultural expectations.
Time at testing
1945
1955
1965
1975
1985
70–80
Age at testing
900
60–70
50–60
40–50
30–40
0–30
Longitudinal Research. Fig. 1 Shows how a longitudinal design can be used to examine the effects of aging. The participants in
this design were first assessed between 0–30 years of age. The same individuals were assessed on five separate occasions,
the final assessment taking place when they were between 70–80 years of age.
Loss of Ego Boundaries
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901
Time at testing
1945
1955
1965
1975
1985
Age at testing
70–80
60–70
50–60
40–50
30–40
0–30
Longitudinal Research. Fig. 2 Shows how a cross-sectional design can be used to examine the effects of aging. In the design
depicted above sub-groups of participants between 0–80 were evaluated at one point in time (1945).
L
References
1.
McCrae, R. R., Costa, P. T., & Arenberg, D. (1980). Constancy of adult
personality structure in males: Longitudinal, cross-sectional and
times-of-measurement analyses. Journal of Gerontology, 35, 877–883.
enhanced synaptic transmission, or the improvement in
the ability of two neurons to communicate with oneanother across a synapse.
Description
Long-Term Effects of Divorce
▶Sleeper Effect of Divorce
Long-Term Memory
▶Autobiographical Memory
▶Declarative Memory
Long-term potentiation is an example of synaptic plasticity; the ability of the connection, or synapse, between two
neurons to change in strength. It may help explain how
short-term memories are encoded into long-term memory, as well how some types of human and animal learning
occur. Evidence for its role in learning has been found in
humans where long-term potentiation has been demonstrated to be characteristic of the cells in the neocortex
and hippocampus.
References
1.
Kolb, B., & Whishaw, I. (2009). Fundamentals of Human Neuropsychology. Worth Publishers: New York, NY.
Long-Term Potentiation
Definition
In neuroscience, long-term potentiation refers to a longlasting change in synapse transmission that results from
the simultaneous activation of two neurons. The result is
Loss of Ego Boundaries
▶Childhood Psychosis
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Loss of Privileges
Loss of Privileges
▶Response Cost
Loss of Reinforcement
▶Response Cost
Lovaas, Ole Ivar
JOY JANSEN
Neurology, Learning, and Behavior Center,
Salt Lake City, UT, USA
Contributions
Through his work, Dr. Lovaas developed a model known
as the Lovaas Model of ABA. The Lovaas Model utilizes the
principles of ABA, however, he expands beyond the classic
ABA model by considering the time of implementation
relative to a child’s unique needs.
Current Involvement
Currently, Dr. Lovaas is a Professor Emeritus of Psychology and continues to teach at the University of California
at Los Angeles (UCLA). In addition, Dr. Lovaas has
authored more than 70 publications throughout his career
and is the author of two books, Teaching Developmentally
Disabled Children: The Me Book in 1981 and, in 2002,
wrote, Teaching Individuals With Developmental Delays:
Basic Intervention Technique.
References
Life Dates
1.
(1927–Present)
2.
Introduction
Dr. Lovaas is an internationally-renowned and influential
clinical psychologist who has devoted the last forty years in
establishing, implementing and evaluating programs to
help children with autism develop essential life skills to
improve the quality of life.
Educational Information
Originally from Norway, Dr. Lovaas came to the United
States to advance his knowledge and research at the University of Washington, where he received his doctorate of
philosophy. Dr. Lovaas’ focus of study was the environment and how it affects behavior and in the early 1950s
began working with children with autism. His approach
autism was influenced by Dr. Skinner and used the underlying concept of behaviorism, also known applied behavior analysis (ABA). Using the ABA method, Dr. Lovaas has
demonstrated, through consistent and dedicated work,
ABA is a valuable and effective tool in assisting children
with autism as well as children with other psychological
conditions.
Accomplishments
Early in his career Dr. Lovaas founded the Lovaas Institute
for Early Intervention (LIFE) and took a professorship at
the Unicles (UCLA). LIFE is internationally recognized
organization for its success in working with children
with autism.
Lovaas Institute. (2007). Retrieved October 24, 2007, from http://
www.lovaas.com/
Lovaas, O. I. (1987). Behavioral treatment and normal intellectual
and educational functioning in autistic children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 55, 3–9.
Low Birth Weight
ANNA MAZUR-MOSIEWICZ, RAYMOND S. DEAN
Ball State University, Muncie, IN, USA
Synonyms
LBW
Definition
Low birth weight (LBW) is defined as a birth weight of
2,500 g or less in a liveborn infant. The LBW infants
further subdivided into two groups: very low birth weight
(VLBW) infants, who are born with birth weight equal or
below 1,500 g, and extremely low birth weight (ELBW)
infants, who are born weighting 1,000 g or less [1, 3]. LBW
indicates an increased risk of mortality and morbidity.
Description
Infants with LBW belong to two general categories: infants
who have LBW due to premature birth, and infants with
Luria, Alexander Romanovich
intrauterine growth restriction (low for gestational age),
which is typically related to problems with placenta,
maternal health, or to birth defects. To differentiate premature LBW from mature growth-retarded LBW several
types of data are necessary and include obstetrical history,
newborn physical examination, and examination for maturational age. In general, the LBW infants are four times
likely than infants born with normal weight to die in their
first month of life. These who survive are two to three
times more likely to suffer from short and long-term
disabilities [2–4].
The percentage of all newborns born with low weight
in the United States is around 7%. However, percentage of
the LBW infants is higher in minority groups, particularly
African-Americans, and the percentage of the AfricanAmerican babies born with LBW is more than double of
that for the Caucasian-American newborns [1, 3].
Risk factors for LBW are largely preventable. They
include poor maternal nutrition, adolescent pregnancy,
use of alcohol and drugs, premature births, smoking,
multiple births, and sexually transmitted diseases. The
use of assisted reproductive technology additionally
accounts for a disproportionate number of LBW and
VLBW infants in the United States, which is partially
due to increases in multiple gestations and higher rates
of LBW among singleton infants conceived with this
technology.
903
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Amon, E. (1995). Preterm labor. In E. A. Reece & J. C. Hobbins
(Eds.), Medicine of the fetus and mother (pp. 1529–1581). Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott.
Hay, J. C., & Persaud, T. V. N. (1999). Normal embryonic and fetal
development. In E. A. Reece & J. C. Hobbins (Eds.), Medicine of the
fetus and mother (pp. 29–47). Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott.
Kabler, J. L., & Delmore, P. M. (1997). Alterations on health status of
newborns. In I. F. H. Nichols & E. Zwelling (Eds.), Maternal-newborn
nursing: Theory and practice (pp. 1352–1354). Philadelphia, PA: W. B.
Saunders Company.
Novak, J. C., & Broom, B. L. (1995). Maternal and child health
nursing. St Louis, MO: Mosby.
Schieve, L. A., Meikle, S. F., Ferre, C., Peterson, H. B., Jeng, G., &
Wilcox, L. S. (2002). Low and Very Low Birth Weight in Infants
Conceived with Use of Assisted Reproductive Technology. The New
England Journal of Medicine, 346, 731–737.
Low Social Status Children
▶Rejected Children
L
Low Socio-Economic Status
▶Inner City Poverty
Relevance to Childhood Development
Children born with LBW are at high risk of several types
of neonatal complications. Generally, the lower the
weight of infants, the greater the risk for complications.
Clinical problems most commonly associated with LBW
are hypothermia; hypoglycemia; aphnea; metabolic acidosis; hypoglycemia; perinatal asphyxia; respiratory problems, particularly the Respiratory Distress Syndrome and
aphnea of prematurely; fluid and electrolyte imbalances,
which increases risk of dehydration, fluid overload,
hypernatremia, hyponatremia, hyperkalemia, hypocalcemia, and hypermagnedemia; hyperbilirubinemia; anemia;
impaired nutrition; infections; and sudden infant death
syndrome [1, 3, 4].
Additional long-term problems related to LWB
include chronic neurological problems such as intraventricular hemorrage, periventricular leukomalacia, and
increased risks for cerebral palsy; developmental delay ;
ophthalmologic complications; hearing deficits; lung disease; adult-onset diabetes; coronary heart disease; high
blood pressure; intellectual problems; sensory disabilities; physical disabilities; and psychological and emotional distress [2, 5].
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Low-Accepted Children
▶Rejected Children
Ludes
▶Depressants
Luria, Alexander Romanovich
DAVID MORRISON, MARY JOANN LANG
Azusa Pacific University, Azusa, CA, USA
Life Dates
(1902–1977)
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Luria, Alexander Romanovich
Introduction
Alexander Romanovich Luria (1902–1977) is a worldrenowned Russian psychologist/scientist who is best
known for his theories about localization and cerebral
organization of mental functions. Luria’s impact on the
Western scientific community continues to be significant
three decades after his death. Luria has left an enduring
legacy that is widely respected in the scientific community
[2]. Although he is often referred to as the father of
neuropsychology, this interest developed much later in
his professional career. Luria has been widely celebrated
and honored outside of the Soviet Union, yet his contributions have not been fully recognized by his native country of Russia [3].
Luria was born in Kazan, Russia in 1902. He died in
Moscow of heart failure in 1977. In 1933, Luria married
Lana Linchina, also a scientist, and together they had one
daughter, Elena Alexandrovna Luria, herself a distinguished
microbiologist.
Luria is highly regarded in the field of neuropsychology. Despite extraordinary advances in the field of neuroscience, his contributions have been so significant that,
according to Tupper [11], he is the most cited soviet
scholar in North American literature. Due to this distinction, he is sometimes regarded as the father of
neuropsychology.
Luria is described by his student, friend and colleague,
Goldberg [2] as a “complex man living in a complex time.”
A.R. Luria came from a well-educated family. His father
and mother were both well-respected physicians. His
father taught at the Kazan Medical School. Luria identifies
his family as being part of the Russian “intelligentsia.”
Luria was greatly impacted by the tumultuous times of
pre-revolution Russia and the subsequent chaotic postrevolution cultural shift on Russian society. Luria identifies that the revolution freed the younger generation,
regardless of social standing, to explore and discuss new
philosophies and social systems. However, Luria indicates
that despite the openness to these new opportunities, it
was not necessarily conducive to “highly organized scientific inquiry.” Luria’s expansive and shifting intellectual
pursuits and interests are considered to be a result of the
social and political culture in which he lived [8].
Despite the challenges that confronted him, Luria is
considered one of the most influential Soviet scientists of
his time. His collaboration with Lev Vygotsky led to extensive and enduring contributions that are recognized
throughout the world. Luria is best known for his contributions in developing a comprehensive theory of brain
functioning, which remains as the cornerstone for
brain-behavior research. His influence in the field of
neuropsychology continues to be foundational for many
academic programs of study. He is frequently cited in
neuropsychology literature, and is best known for his
conceptualization of brain organization. However, during
the course of his career, his interest went well beyond
the more narrow recognition of neuropsychology, and
included such areas as child development, educational
and rehabilitative interventions, instructional methods,
mental retardation, and linguistic phenomena such as
aphasia [3, 11].
Educational Information
Luria’s education started within the tumultuous political
backdrop of the Russian Revolution. From 1912 to 1918
he attended the gymnasium, a secondary school, preparing him for university studies. He completed his secondary studies at the age of 16, at which time he received
his diploma. In 1918 he entered Kazan University and
pursued studies in the Social Sciences. He describes his
studies at Kazan University as being chaotic. He became
absorbed with questions concerning man’s role in shaping
society. In 1921 he completed his studies in the Social
Sciences and continued his studies in the Medical Department of Kazan University. In addition, he pursued his
interest in psychology and concurrently enrolled at the
Pedagogical Institute, as well as the Kazan Psychiatric
Hospital. Luria was influenced by such notable scholars
as Sigmund Freud, Alfred Adler, Jung, and Pavlov. His
interest in psychoanalytic research led to the formation
of the Kazan Psychoanalytic Association. He later joined
the staff of the Moscow Institute of Psychology. His work
with Vygotsky, which started in 1924, clearly shaped and
greatly influenced his life’s work. His regard for Vygotsky
as a genius is well documented. Weekly collaborations
with Vygotsky, Leontiev and Luria led to the development
of research questions in cognitive psychology, such as
perception, memory, attention, speech, problem solving,
and motor activity. These weekly meetings, known as
the “troika,” laid to the foundation for a new comprehensive approach to human psychology, which would incorporate the notion that, as higher processes take shape,
the entire structure of behavior is changed [8, 10].
The late 1930s are considered to be a critical turning
point in Luria’s career [2]. At this time Luria added a
medical degree to his full professorship, became more
involved with the biological aspects of psychology, which
led to his contributions in neuropsychology. Luria’s interest in cognitive, cultural, and developmental research most
certainly influenced his approach to neuropsychology.
Luria, Alexander Romanovich
Luria returned to Moscow in 1934. At that time, he
worked in the Moscow Medical Genetic Institute as
head of the Laboratory of Psychology. He also headed
the Laboratory of Pathopsychology in the All-Union Institute of Experimental Medicine. His research focus at the
Moscow Medical Genetic Institute was on twins, where
he studied the role of heredity and external factors in
the development of mental processes.
World War II was particularly devastating on the citizenry of the Soviet Union. Luria was commissioned to
organize a rehabilitation hospital to treat soldiers with
brain and peripheral nerve injuries. The task of the hospital had two primary goals: Devise methods of diagnosing
local brain lesions and of recognizing and treating complications such as inflammation and secondary infection
that were caused by wounds. Second, he was to develop
rational, scientifically-based techniques for the rehabilitation of destroyed functions. The extensive and dedicated
effort by Luria and his staff led to the development of his
theories of brain function and methods for the remediation of focal brain lesions. It was during this time that he
developed the systematic approach to the brain and cognition, which has come to be known as the discipline of
neuropsychology. Following the war, Luria continued his
research activities in neuropsychology.
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standardized tests to gauge students’ intelligence. He
believed that when exploring what the child knows to
determine intellectual ability, it is more beneficial to
explore the student’s ability to solve problems independently. Through his efforts, Vygotsky became a major
figure in Luria’s life from the beginning of their interactions. Luria’s writings and scientific research were slowly
influenced by Vygotsky. Luria based his concepts of higher
order psychological functions on the theories of Vygotsky.
Luria further expanded on Vygotsky’s model, using qualitative analysis to help both in depth and breadth, in
order to further explain higher order thinking that has
impacted the fields of neurology, psychology, and neuropsychology [1, 10].
Functional Units of the Brain
David E. Tupper, in an article discussing Luria’s influence
on worldwide neuropsychology, discussed Luria’s contributions. Basically, according to Tupper, Luria has provided contributions in at least five major areas. These
areas include:
Cultural-historical Development of Higher Psychological Functions; Functional Units of the Brain; Qualitative
Analysis of Neurodynamic Factors; Syndrome Analysis;
Systemic Localization of Brain Function, and Verbal Regulation of Behavior [11].
Luria’s most enduring contribution to the field of neuropsychology is his theory on the functional organization of
the brain. According to Luria, the brain is made up of three
main blocks or functional units incorporating basic functions. Luria conceptualized the cortex as working in the
following way: Sensory input enters the primary sensory
zones, is elaborated in the secondary zones, and is integrated in the tertiary zones of the sensory, or posterior,
unit. Luria (1974, p. 43) also proposed that each of these
units is “hierarchical” in structure and consists of at least
three cortical zones built one above the other. A primary
“projection” area receives impulses. A secondary “projection-association” area processes incoming information and
programs information for projection to efferent pathways.
The tertiary “zones of overlapping” area is last to develop
and is responsible for complex forms of mental activity,
which requires the integrated participation of many cortical structures. According to Luria, these units and zones,
when functioning properly, work together to regulate all of
our behaviors, from waking and sleeping, to hearing and
seeing, and thinking and problem solving [4, 5].
Cultural Historical
Syndrome Analysis
Luria and Vygotsky’s lifespan overlapped 32 years.
Vygotsky began his research on issues in education, and
focused on the education of handicapped and retarded
individuals. He believed in the interaction between the
mind (internalized modes of behavior) and the environment. One of Vygotsky’s major theories is titled the
zone of proximal development, which discusses the difference between what a student can actually do without
help and what he/she can do with help. This model was
developed by Vygotsky to argue against the use of
One way that Luria assisted in the diagnosis and treatment of patients was his ability to use syndrome analysis (see Luria, 1980, pp. 392.). He was among the first
neuropsychologist to clearly state that no simple,
unequivocal relation between symptom and localization can be proved. There is, as a rule, no specific
way to determine which areas of the cortex could be
affected on the basis of a neuropsychological symptom,
such as specific disturbances of gnosis or praxis
(Online Book).
Contributions
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Luria, Alexander Romanovich
If mental activity is a complex functional system, involving
the participation of a group of concertedly working areas
of the cortex. . .a lesion of each of these zones or areas
may lead to disintegration of the entire functional system,
and in this way the symptom or “loss” of a particular
function tells us nothing about its “localization.” (Luria,
1972, p.35)
Understanding neurodynamic factors that may precipitate
a patient’s signs and symptoms is facilitated by Luria’s
concept of syndrome analysis and qualitative analysis.
These applications to clinical thinking provide for
a discussion regarding “neurodynamic change.” Currently,
this process, with regard to the practice of neuropsychology in North America, is used in concert with a more
quantitative approach to understanding brain behavior
relationships.
Systematic Localization of Brain Function
Luria structured the neuropsychological assessment of
brain functioning on the basis of a systemic way of thinking. Two questions guide this approach as presented by
(Online Book):
1. Which processes are involved in the cognitive functions in consideration?
2. What cerebral structures support the functional system and constitute the neuronal basis for the function
in consideration?
The relationship between symptom and localization can
be very complex. A symptom can result from lesions in
both the anterior and posterior cortical areas of the brain
[7]. A circumscribed cortical lesion can simultaneously
affect many functional systems and, as a result, lead to
various manifestations of symptoms. In summary, this
concept of complex brain behavior relationships is essential to understand for practitioners and researchers exploring neuropsychological problems and correlating these
problems to brain function.
Summary
It is important to understand the theoretical and methodological differences between a qualitative approach to
understanding brain function as proposed by Luria, and
the North American approach, which is more quantitative, to understanding brain behavior relationships.
Luria based his theories on clinical experience, and his
research focused on attempts to develop a theory of
neuropsychological functioning based on analyzing and
synthesizing information into a meta-theory. Luria often
based this process on Vygotsky’s earlier work and
theories. In contrast, in North America neuropsychology
has been derived from a more psychometric or quantitative approach to understanding brain behavior relationships. Standardized tests are the norm in terms of
understanding brain behavior relationships in clinical
populations. Despite his disregard for methodological
considerations such as standardization, quantification,
validation and reliability, several standardized tests have
been or are being developed that incorporate both the
qualitative approach supported by Luria and the quantitative information that has been historically used in
North America [2, 9].
Publications
Much of Luria’s work has yet to be translated from Russian
to English. The following is a partial list of books that have
been translated into English.
Ape Primitive Man and Child: Essays in the History of
Behavior (1992)
Cognitive Development: Its Cultural and Social Foundations (1976)
The Making of Mind: A Personal Account of Soviet
Psychology (1979)
Higher Cortical Functions in Man (1980)
The Man With a Shattered World: The History of a Brain
Wound (1987)
The Mind of a Mnemonist: A Little Book About a Vast
Memory (1987)
The Human Brain and Psychological Processes (1966)
Nature of Human Conflicts (1981)
The Neuropsychology of Memory (1976)
Traumatic Aphasia: Its Syndromes, Psychology and Treatment (1970)
Working Brain: An Introduction to Neuropsychology
(1973)
References
1. Friedgut-Kotik, B. (2006). Development of the Lurian approach:
A cultural neurolinguistic perspective. Neuropsychology Review,
16(1), 43–52.
2. Goldberg, E. (1990). Contemporary neuropsychology and the legacy of
Luria. Hillsdale, NJ: L. Erlbaum Associates.
3. Kuzovleva, E., & Das, J. P. (1999). Some facts from the biography of
A. R. Luria. Neuropsychology Review, 9(1), 53–56.
4. Languis, M. L., & Miller, D. C. (1992). Luria’s theory of brain
functioning: A model for research in cognitive psychophysiology.
Educational Psychologist, 27(4), 493–511.
5. Luria, A. R. (1970). The functional organization of the brain. Scientific American, 222(3), 66–78.
6. Luria, A. R. (1972). The man with a shattered world. New York: Basic
Books.
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7. Luria, A. R. (1974). The working brain: An introduction to neuropsychology. New York: Basic Books.
8. Luria, A. R. (1979). The making of mind: A personal account of Soviet
psychology (M. Cole & S. Cole, Trans.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press.
9. Luria, A. R. (1980). Higher cortical functions in man (2nd ed., Rev.).
New York: Basic Books.
10. Nell, V. (1999). Luria in Uzbekistan: The vicissitudes of cross cultural
neuropsychology. Neuropsychology Review, 9, 45–52.
11. Tupper, D. E. (1999). Introduction: Alexander Luria’s continuing
influence on worldwide neuropsychology. Neuropsychology Review,
9(1), 1–7.
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