Bridging the industry–education skills gap
for human resource development
Nana Arthur-Mensah
Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this study is to describe one advanced manufacturing company’s efforts to
build a channel of skilled workforce by developing an apprenticeship programme with high schools.
Design/methodology/approach – Using a qualitative case study approach, the authors interviewed the
members of the organisation to gain insights into opportunities and challenges they faced in addressing
their skills needs.
Findings – The analysis showed that the collaboration and commitment of stakeholders were essential to
the success of the programme. Furthermore, flexibility in employer’s expectations to allow for career
progression was critical to motivating students to continue in the programme. A positive impact of the
programme on overall employee morale and organisational culture was revealed.
Research limitations/implications – Although the findings may be relevant to other similar
organisations, they may have limitations in their applicability to other contexts.
Practical implications – The study holds promise for the field of human resource development, as
practitioners and scholars can benefit from the renewed interest in youth apprenticeship to identify how
their activities within and outside of the organisation can build and retain the human capacity needed for
organisational performance and competitiveness.
Originality/value – Employer–education partnerships have been touted as a solution to the skills gaps in
industries. However, there is very little literature on employer-initiated apprenticeships focused on youth
in the USA. Industry–education apprenticeship programmes offers employers an opportunity to address
the skills problem in ways that meet their need.
Nana Arthur-Mensah is
based at the Department of
Political Science, Criminal
Justice and Organizational
Leadership, Northern
Kentucky University,
Highland Heights,
Kentucky, USA.
Keywords Skills development, Apprenticeships, Human resource development
Paper type Research paper
ith socio-economic workforce changes, advances in technology and globalisation,
employers in the USA and other countries have decried the lack of skills in the
labour market (Lerman, 2016; Holzer, 2015; OECD, 2016). Notably, employers in
the advanced manufacturing industry in the USA – which has seen a resurgence in recent
years – have reported a skills gap, exacerbated by retiring older workers, lack of youth
interest in manufacturing and the misplaced educational focus on increasing youth college
attendance (Cappelli, 2012; Lerman, 2016; Stone and Lewis, 2012). A report by Symonds
et al. (2011) stressed that many new jobs in the future will require high levels of skills and
knowledge, but the current educational system is failing to produce graduates with the
requisite skills needed by the labour market. The authors called for stakeholder
collaborations to provide multiple career pathways for American youth work-based learning
activities that promote both academic and practical learning.
W
Work-based learning programmes such as apprenticeships, which seek to address the
industry–education gap, are a potential strategy to address the skills challenge in many
industries (Holland, 2018; Lerman, 2012; Stone and Lewis, 2012; Schwartz, 2016; Symonds
et al., 2011). Apprenticeships in the USA targeted at adolescents declined in the past, as
they were criticised for preparing individuals for specific trades or occupations, limiting
DOI 10.1108/ICT-11-2019-0105
VOL. 52 NO. 2 2020, pp. 93-103, © Emerald Publishing Limited, ISSN 0019-7858
Received 23 November 2019
Revised 20 December 2019
1 February 2020
Accepted 4 February 2020
j INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL TRAINING j PAGE 93
possibility of acquiring other skills (Halpern, 2009; Lerman, 2012; Christman, 2012). In
contrast, other western countries such as Germany have successfully developed and used
youth apprenticeship to ensure a channel of skilled workers (OECD, 2010; Lerman, 2016).
Thus, successes in other countries and the urgent need for enhanced labour skills have
pushed apprenticeships back to the forefront as an alternative pathway for developing
career and life skills among the American youth. An important factor is the value of
apprenticeships to bridge education and work gaps, when aligned with the values and
expectations of the major key players, students, employers and educators and policy
makers (Cappelli, 2012; Crowson et al., 2000; Hamilton, 2010; Lerman, 2012, 2016;
Remington, 2018; Stone and Lewis, 2012).
Employer–education partnerships have been touted as a solution to the skills gaps, as
employers have been called to lead skills development efforts (Christman, 2012; Fuller
et al., 2014; Lerman, 2016; Remington, 2018) by creating opportunities for young people to
develop needed skills (Casner-Lotto and Barrington, 2006). Successive US administrations
have also emphasised the need for employers to collaborate with educational institutions at
all levels to develop apprenticeship programmes for skills development.
Although employers realised the importance of championing skills development efforts, they
have been wary of investing in apprenticeship programmes due to cost, time and
uncertainty about benefits to them (Fuller et al., 2014). The potential of long-term benefits,
as noted by Lerman et al. (2009), is an insufficient motivation for small to medium sized
firms to advance apprenticeship programmes due to the financial costs involved (Fuller
et al., 2014; Lerman, 2016; Remington, 2018).
Applying the lens of human resource development (HRD), employer involvement in
apprenticeships can be viewed as an organisation’s effort to increase its competitive
advantage by addressing human capital needs (Griffiths and Koukpaki, 2012). This has
engendered calls for practitioners and scholars to look beyond internal organisational
activities to strategically promote and support initiatives that develop human capital
(Holland, 2018; Garavan and McGuire, 2010; Kim, 2012; Kuchinke, 2010). Organisations
can address human resource needs by developing the skills and competencies that they
desire to see in their workers, and at the same time, maintain a certain level of control over
labour supply. As skills training is driven by organisational need, employers can develop
timely and relevant skills to address the skills mismatch (Holzer and Lerman, 2014).
While studies on youth apprenticeships and employer involvement abound in other
countries, there is a dearth of literature on high school–employer apprenticeships in the
USA, although researchers have stressed the value of focusing on youth apprenticeship in
the USA to develop the relevant skills to meet labour market needs (Christman, 2012;
Hamilton, 2010; Halpern, 2009; Remington, 2018; Lerman, 2016). Most of the current
discourse on industry–education apprenticeships in the USA focused on adults and
community college partnerships. Limited examples of effective youth apprenticeship
programmes exist in Georgia, WI and South Carolina (Holzer and Lerman, 2014). These
programmes have been facilitated at the state level with a coalition of industries. To the best
of the researcher’s knowledge, hardly any studies exist on employer-initiated youth
apprenticeship programmes. This article seeks to contribute to the literature on the growing
calls for employer involvement in skills development though apprenticeship.
With the increased interest among policyholders and educators in encouraging industryeducation partnerships for skills development, it is important to examine the nature of such
partnerships and understand the role and experiences of employers who participate in
youth apprenticeship, to understand the implications of such a programme for the
employer. The purpose of this study is to describe one advanced manufacturing company’s
efforts to build a channel of skilled workforce by developing an apprenticeship programme
with high schools. It further seeks to highlight the employer’s experiences with the
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programme. This qualitative case study was guided by a single question. What were the
employer’s experiences in developing an apprenticeship programme with educational
institutions to address its skills needs?
Apprenticeship in the USA
Apprenticeship offers an opportunity for individuals to learn valuable trade skills in the
workplace while earning a wage. The approach combines theoretical and practical
courses that are related to a trade or profession resulting in a certification for a skilled
trade (Halpern, 2009; Lerman, 2008; Lerman et al., 2009; Stone and Lewis,
2012). Apprenticeships in the USA are managed by the Employment and
Training Administration (ETA) in the Department of Labour’s (DOL) Office of Registered
Apprenticeship Programmes. Registered apprenticeship programmes are operated by a
partnership network of sponsors such as employers, employer groups’ labour unions,
government and educational institutions. Although the apprenticeship system is
overseen at the federal level, individual states are given a level of discretion on how local
systems are managed. The typical age of an apprentice in the USA is about 27 years,
unlike other western industrialised countries where students enter apprenticeship
programmes in their adolescent years (Hamilton, 2010), US youth apprenticeships are
regarded as a low-profile scheme that trains marginal youth (Glover and Bilginsoy, 2005;
Parton, 2017; Remington, 2018). By contrast, apprenticeship programmes have been the
mainstay of many industries in Germany and other western countries, sustaining their
respective economies by developing youth to meet socio-economic needs, thereby
rapidly increasing workforce skill levels (Hamilton, 2010 Holzer and Lerman,2014; OECD,
2016; Symonds et al., 2011).
The most notable US youth apprenticeship initiative was the School to Work Opportunities
Act (STWOA) of 1994. This Act allocated funds for a national apprenticeship system that
facilitated partnerships between schools and industry to provide young students with
knowledge and skills required for the workplace. Despite the investment made in the
programme, the STWOA was discontinued with the change in administrations. To date, two
US states, WI and Georgia, have sustained promising youth apprenticeship programmes to
meet industry needs (Lerman, 2016).
Employer involvement
Apprenticeship programmes do not exist in a vacuum. They involve an array of
stakeholders such as educators, employers, students and policy makers, to ensure
effective adoption and implementation (Christman, 2012; Fuller et al., 2014; Remington,
2018; Lerman, 2016). Sustained commitment from employers is critical to the success of
apprenticeships as well as the overall personal and professional development of
apprentices (Fuller and Unwin, 2007; OECD, 2010; Symonds et al., 2011). Thus, the active
engagement of businesses and employers is vital to ensuring that training and education
delivers the skills needed to be productive and decently rewarded in a global economy of
rapidly changing industries.
Fuller et al. (2014) contend that business leaders must spearhead skills development
efforts if they are to find solutions to the skills problem. By offering practical hands-on
experiences to apprentices, employers can bridge the gap between what is learnt at
school and work (Remington, 2018; Holzer and Lerman, 2014). Furthermore, as a
unique solution to enhancing worker supply and meeting employer demands,
apprenticeships are better able to upgrade jobs, train workers to ensure an adequate
supply to meet organisational needs and ensure the development of relevant technical
and soft skills needed for success (Hoffman and Schwartz, 2017). Equally important,
Acemoglu and Pischke (1998) stressed that employer-led occupational training allows
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firms to enhance hiring and training strategies as they adjust to labour market
shortages. Additionally, as the manufacturing workforce ages, there is the need for
older workers to mentor younger workers to pass on knowledge and experiences to
sustain the industry (Lerman, 2016).
Research design
This research followed the case study methodology from Yin (2009) using evidence from
interviews and documents such as correspondence between stakeholders, training
documents and press releases. A qualitative instrumental case study approach was
determined to be the best method to obtain the information needed to answer the central
research question. This method allows the researcher to study the participants in their
natural setting to “make sense of, or to interpret a phenomenon in terms of the meanings the
people bring to them” (Lincoln and Denzin, 2000, p. 3). The investigation of the programme
was positioned using the human capital theory as a theoretical framework. The alignment of
the case study design and the theoretical framework guided the researcher’s decisions
regarding key informants and data analysis.
Purposeful sampling was used to select four participants within the organisation for the
study. They were: Jeff, the owner and CEO of the company, Melinda, the human resource
director, Jude, an apprentice supervisor and mentor; and Jake, a director in charge of
implementing and organising the programme. The actual identities of the informants were
masked to ensure confidentiality. Interviews were the primary source of data collection.
The interviews were conducted in-person and later transcribed. Each interview was treated
separately and coded. The coded data was then combined into broader sets of categories.
A thematic analysis of the interview data was supported by illustrative evidence from a
document analysis (Yin, 2009). Major themes were developed, refined and modified as data
was accumulated. Various methods were used to ensure trustworthiness and rigor
(Creswell, 2012), including the researcher’s regular consultation with colleagues throughout
the design and analysis processes, analysis of multiple data sources and checks on
participant concepts and categories. These measures maximised the likelihood of a
credible analysis and minimised the possibility of misinterpreting the findings (Creswell,
2012). The findings were developed into a case report and shared with the key informants.
Their feedback on the case report helped to further validate study findings.
Context and case background
The apprenticeship programme, initiated by the CEO, was a partnership between the
employer and two high schools in a mid-western city in the USA. Five students were
recruited for an academic year, attending classes in the morning and working at the
employer site in the afternoon for 30 h each week as per state guidelines. They were paid
US$9 per hour. Apprentices were required to wear bright, orange shirts with “Apprentice”
written boldly on the back. This served as a constant employee reminder for apprentice
safety precautions and job task limitations. Each apprentice underwent an eight-week
rotation of the five different areas in the plant; quality technician, tool room, fabrication and
computer numerical-controlled machining (CNC). They also worked with supervisors who
doubled as mentors. In addition to receiving a high-school diploma, the apprentices earned
the National Institute of Manufacturing (NIMS) certification upon graduation. The
programme was in its second year at the time of the study.
Findings
The analysis showed that the collaboration and commitment of stakeholders were essential
to the effectiveness of the programme. Additionally, the employer realised the need to
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adopt a broad social agenda as an industry champion to attract and retain young
apprentices. Flexibility in the employer’s expectations to allow for career progression was
critical to motivating students to continue in the programme. The findings also discovered a
positive impact of the programme on overall employee morale and organisational culture.
Becoming an industry champion
Given the current and future needs of his organisation and the advanced manufacturing
industry, Jeff (CEO) noted:
One of the reasons we did it was that businesses need to take a leadership role in this area and
begin to help the education system. This is because the education system by itself is failing to
prepare the young ones for the labour market, so we need to be jumping in and doing our part to
help.
Jeff was emphatic that his goal for starting the programme was to help address the skill gap
in both his company and industry, as long as students through the programme, developed
the right skill sets needed for the manufacturing industry.
Melinda (HR) captured the organisation’s vision as:
For someone like Jeff, seeing beyond the current environment and understanding what the
future held, that we would not find qualified employees within the ranks, i.e., the unemployed,
underemployed and adult community at large, it was important to him that employers adopt a
strategy that would address these challenges in the long term.
Stakeholder commitment
As a novel programme within the organisation, it was essential that the employer gained the
commitment of the other stakeholders: educators and students. Jeff commended the school
principal for responding positively and quickly to his idea of developing an apprenticeship
programme. He noted that “the timing was right as educators were looking for strategic
partnership opportunities in industry to provide practical, hands-on experiences for
students.” To ensure the fidelity of the programme, Jeff further sought insight and approval
from district-level administrators, who understood the nuances and legalities involved in
developing a high school apprenticeship programme.
The principals and teachers ensured that the apprentices’ schedules were amended to
meet the programme needs. Apprentices took core academic courses in the morning and
left at midday for work. Additionally, teachers were assigned to monitor students’
attendance and performance at the workplace. Jeff also noted the adaptability of educators
who worked to ensure the competencies met the employer’s needs. For instance, when the
employer complained about the lack of basic math skills among students, the school
responded to this concern by organising a “boot camp” for the students to familiarise
themselves with math skills required to function successfully in their new roles. The students
also had to understand the commitment involved. The HR director stressed the importance
of impressing on the students that the programme was “not a chance to get out of school
early and make some money”.
Commitment of resources
Besides the obvious financial investment of the apprentices’ salaries, the employer noted
hidden costs not taken into consideration from the outset. Jake (engineering director)
doubled as the director of the apprenticeship programme. While he (Jake) appreciated his
role in the development of the apprentices, he noted the “extra effort” required. It was a
busy manufacturing company eager to help address the apprentices’ needs; however,
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dealing with the apprentices’ schedules and other needs took away a substantial amount of
time from employees’ own tasks.
The apprentices were assigned mentors to train and support them. Jeff explained the
importance of the mentoring programme to the overall development of the apprentices. He
shared that:
All of these guys [mentors] are really busy, but they have to carve out some time to devote to
develop these kids, so they [apprentices] are getting the best of who we have here.
Furthermore, in addition to a high school diploma, the apprentices earned the NIMS
certification. To formalise the NIMS process within the organisation, a select group of
employees (mostly mentors and supervisors) were trained and certified through
NIMS, authorising them to teach apprentices and grade exams. The NIMS helped the
mentors and supervisors align training given with what apprentices needed to be
certified.
Jeff acknowledged four or five students per year was a cost within the organisation’s
means though there was currently no matching pay off yet. Jeff noted that the
programme was still in its infancy and the commitment to exposing youth to careers in
manufacturing was strong. Also, the employer realised it would need an individual
dedicated to administering the programme, a cost that the company could not afford to
incur at the time.
Finding balance with school curriculum
One challenge the employer understood well was the impracticality of directly influencing
curriculum at the high school. To Jeff, it was important to know the limits of the partnership;
the apprenticeship programme only served as an extension of the students’ learning
experiences. The idea of sharing or influencing one another’s curriculum would be a major
challenge. A principal’s focus was on ensuring that his (or her) students met state
requirements, not directly connected to the experience gained at a manufacturing plant.
Thus, to enhance the partnerships, the employer found innovative ways to help educators
keep abreast of changes in the industry through summer externships for teachers. The
employer believed externships offered teachers “a feel of what manufacturing was about
and how it was separated from the high school” experience so that teachers’ exposure to
new processes and equipment would furnish them with knowledge needed to help them
align school curriculum with the real world.
Pathways for growth and professional development
Jeff emphasised the importance of career and educational progression for the students.
The students were often told they “don’t have to just stop here [high school apprenticeship]
but could work within the company in different areas” to gain skills needed to enhance their
careers while they pursued their education. In his view, part of the reason young people
were not interested in apprenticeships was the general perception that they provided
limited options for career progression. Jake (director) noted that the programme was
designed to ensure a broad learning experience for the students.
An important piece of the programme was to develop essential soft skills among the
apprentices. Although technical skills were equally important, the employer knew the
apprentices could easily acquire such skills through regular workplace and classroom
training. However, soft skills that rated high on the employers’ expectations of skills
developed. Melinda mentioned the need to “treat the students as adults and not baby them
too much” as previous year’s group. It was important to regard the apprentices as “mature
students” looking for a professional experience that included learning to ask for help,
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building relationships with other employees and adjusting to workplace demands. As
members of the organisation, the apprentices were required to adhere to the same rules
and regulations as other employees. Through these behaviours and activities, apprentices
would develop lifelong skills that would serve them in the future.
Impact on organisational members and culture
It became apparent that having apprentices in the organisation had an impact on
members overall. Jude, a supervisor stated that, he and others derived an “intrinsic
value” from teaching and mentoring the apprentices. He explained how other
organisational members had approached him to express their appreciation to the
organisation for “reaching out to the youth in order to develop the next generation of
workers in the industry.” Others on the shop floor expressed pride at students’
enthusiasm and understanding of work process when they assessed students’ final
outcomes and products manufactured. Also, it seemed that older organisational
members were happy to know they could transfer skills and knowledge to the younger
generation before retirement. Jake saw the potential long-term benefits of replacing
aging and retiring employees through early engagement of adolescents in practical
real-world experiences.
The employer also realised that the students served as advocates for the programme in
their school and communities. There was a growing interest of other students, inquiring
about future programme participation. Jeff mentioned the “verbal excitement” generated,
evidenced by frequent requests from policy makers and others in industry to organisational
leaders to share programme experiences.
Retention of apprentices
From the first year of the programme, two of the five apprentices stayed on with the
organisation. As at the time of the study, three apprentices in the current year had
indicated their desire to stay on, including one who was planning to pursue a college
degree in engineering. The employer was willing to support the college bound student
with an internship. Jeff acknowledged a low return on investment but was encouraged
by the interest generated within the high schools and among policy makers. The CEO
was willing to give the programme some time but also noted that if retention continued
at an average of 50 per cent, then they would reassess the value of the programme to
the organisation.
Discussion
This study sought to highlight one organisation’s experiences in addressing the need for
skilled workers through a high-school student apprenticeship. The results showed the
initiative required a significant investment in terms of cost, time and resources relating to the
training and mentoring of apprentices, completing administrative tasks and providing
apprentices’ salaries and externships for school teachers. While the employer was willing
and able to absorb the cost of the programme, the long-term sustainability would require a
positive return on investment, whereby apprentices choose to further their careers with the
organisation.
As the programme matures, a dedicated programme administrator role becomes important.
This person would be responsible for liaising with educators, policy makers and
organisational members to ensure an effective programme. While larger organisations may
be able to afford dedicated individuals to oversee apprenticeship programmes, smaller
organisations may have to rely on regular employees to train students. It is possible that
small- to mid-sized companies like the employer in this study can partner with other
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employers with similar interest to form a coalition of employers who can take on apprentices
and develop a pool of workers.
A successful apprenticeship programme requires committed stakeholders who share a
common goal for addressing labour market needs while developing the future
workforce with relevant skills. Educators, policy makers, student/apprentices must
understand the need for each investor to reap benefits. The educators involved were
willing to adjust students’ schedules and closely monitor their progress in the
programme. District-level educators worked with the high schools and employer to
ensure that the right structures were put into place to address the needs of the
employer and schools without much disruption to the workplace, school and
apprentices.
Organisational investment in an apprenticeship programme helps to build a pipeline of
workers with needed skills and competencies. The programme studied was structured to
enable apprentices to develop high technical skills in core areas of the organisation.
Additionally, the apprentices were able to develop essential soft skills – communication,
problem-solving, organisation and team-building skills – which the employer found to be
essential in the fast-evolving fields of advanced manufacturing.
There was a positive impact of the programme on the overall employee engagement and
organisational culture. Mentors reported an increase in personal growth and development,
as they took younger ones under their wings. As mentors and mentees relied on each other,
both formal and informal learning occurred, as the organisation worked towards increasing
performance and building its human capital.
Conclusions
The lack of industry-relevant skills among labour market entrants has challenged
employers for many years. While the dual apprenticeship programme that exists in
other western countries such as Germany have been successful in providing a channel
of skilled workers into different industries, the American labour market is structured
differently. Thus, youth apprenticeship programmes in the USA will look very different
as employers can provide modified programmes that fit the structure of the labour
market.
Industry–education partnerships have long been touted as a solution to the skills gaps
in the USA. Organisations have risen to the task, but these initiatives have sometimes
fizzled, due to excessive administrative burdens or the lack of employer desire to
champion such efforts. Although apprenticeship is not a panacea to the skills gap
challenge, it offers employers and educators an opportunity to address the skills
problem in ways that meet their need. This study highlights some of the opportunities
and challenges for employers as they find creative ways to address their skills need.
Focusing on high school students with an interest in the career and further technical
training holds promise for addressing the long-term skills problem. Employers can
channel their resources to develop relevant skills needed to ensure organisational
goals are met.
In the final analysis, employers are concerned with the bottom line and the effectiveness of
their investment in training. Thus, the human capital theory provides a framework to facilitate
dialogue and to outline processes that ensure that employers, who are willing to work with
youth, are not overly burdened by lack of financial and non-financial resources. As has
been observed from this study, employers want to help, but the efforts of one employer can
be limiting. Thus, a coalition of similar-minded employees in industries should work in
tandem with schools to prepare – through apprenticeship programmes – students
interested in their fields. When other companies see how apprenticeship programmes can
be developed even on a small basis, they can be encouraged to grow their own employees.
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From such small steps, apprenticeships can become an attractive option for students and
employers.
Implications
Although high-school apprenticeships are not common in the USA, strategic
programmes such as the one in this study hold promise for some organisations. HRD
professionals can demonstrate the value of apprenticeships to organisations by
managing the partnerships with educators and developing and refining
organisational structures. This will ensure the programme’s harmony with internal
activities and help the organisation reach its goals while addressing current and
future workforce needs.
Recruiting adolescents into the workforce presents a change in organisational culture and
work structures. HRD professionals must understand the change in dynamics when
adolescents enter the workforce and facilitate the adjustment of both the adolescents and
adults who work together. As a younger and inexperienced generation in the workforce,
their learning styles and behaviours may be different; consequently, those who take
adolescents under their wing must understand how to guide them as they adapt to working
in an adult environment. HRD can develop appropriate learning strategies for both
apprentices and organisational members to capitalise on existing resources to increase
performance at all levels within the organisation.
Research into the structure and organisation of youth apprenticeship models successful in
organisations will help HRD capitalise on a different mode of attracting young people into
fields that offer various career opportunities.
Limitations and future research
This study involved a single case study focused on the experiences and role of one
stakeholder in a programme. Although the findings may be relevant to other similar
organisations, it may have limitations in its applicability to other contexts such as an
established programme or different industry. A study that includes the experiences of
educators and students or a comparative case may provide additional insights and
strengthen study findings.
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from PIAAC data”, OECD Economics Department Working Papers, No. 1209. Paris.
Corresponding author
Nana Arthur-Mensah can be contacted at: arthurmenn1@nku.edu
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