MATERNAL AND CHILD
HEALTH NURSING
Maternal and Child Health Nursing involves care of the
woman and family throughout pregnancy and child birth and
the health promotion and illness care for the children and
families.
Primary Goal of MCN
>The promotion and maintenance of optimal family health to
ensure cycles of optimal childbearing and child rearing
ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY
Ovaries
o Almond shaped
o Produce, mature and discharge ova
o Initiate and regulate menstrual cycle
o 4 cm long, 2 cm in diameter, 1.5 cm thick
o Produce estrogen and progesterone
Estrogen: promotes breast dev’t & pubic hair distribution
prevents osteoporosis keeps cholesterol levels reduced &
so limits effects of atherosclerosis
Fallopian tubes.
Approximately 10 cm in length
Conveys ova from ovaries to the uterus
Site of fertilization
Parts: interstitial
isthmus – cut/sealed in BTL
ampulla – site of fertilization
infundibulum – most distal segment; covered with fimbria
Uterus -Hollow muscular pear shaped organ
-uterine wall layers: endometrium; myometrium;
perimetrium
-Organ of menstruation
-receives the ova
-Provide place for implantation & nourishment during fetal
growth
-Protects growing fetus
-Expels fetus at maturity
-Has 3 divisions: corpus – fundus , isthmus (most
commonly cut during CS delivery) and cervix
Uterine Wall
-Endometrial layer: formed by 2 layers of cells which are as
follows:
basal layer- closest to the uterine wall
glandular layer – inner layer influenced by
estrogen and progesterone; thickens and shed
off as menstrual flow
-Myometrium – composed of 3 interwoven layers of smooth
muscle; fibers are arranged in longitudinal; transverse and
oblique directions giving it extreme strength
Vagina
-Acts as organ of copulation
-Conveys sperm to the cervix
-Expands to serve as birth canal
--Wall contains many folds or rugae making it very elastic
Fornices – uterine end of the vagina; serve as a place for
pooling of semen following coitus
Bulbocavernosus – circular muscle act as a voluntary
sphincter at the external opening to the vagina (target of
Kegel’s exercise)
II. PUBERTAL DEVELOPMENT
Puberty: the stage of life at which secondary sex changes
begins the development and maturation of reproductive organs
which occurs in female 10-13 years old & male at 12-14 yrs
old the hypothalamus serve as a gonad stat or regulation
mechanism set to “turn on” gonad functioning at this age
Reproductive Development
Readiness for child bearing
-begins during intrauterine life
-full functioning initiated at puberty
-the hypothalamus releases the GRF which triggers the APG
to form and release FSH and LH. (FSH & LH initiates
production of androgen and estrogen --->2°
Sexual characteristics
Role of Androgen
Androgenic hormones – are produced by the testes, ovaries
and adrenal cortex which is responsible for: muscular
development physical growth inc. sebaceous gland secretions
Testosterone –primary androgenic hormone
Related terms
a. Adrenarche – the development of pubic and axillary hair
(due to androgen stimulation)
b. Thelarche – beginning of breast development
c. Menarche – first menstruation period in girls (early 9 y.o. or
late 17 y.o.)
d. Tanner Staging
-It is a rating system for pubertal development
-It is the biologic marker of maturity
-It is based on the orderly progressive development of: breasts
and pubic hair in female’s genitalia and pubic hair in males
Body Structures Involved
1 Hypothalamus
2 Anterior Pituitary Gland
3 Ovary
4 Uterus
4. Menstrual Cycle
-Female reproductive cycle wherein periodic uterine bleeding
occurs in response to cyclic hormonal changes
-Allows for conception and implantation of a new life
-Its purpose it to bring an ovum to maturity; renew a uterine
bed that will be responsive to the growth of a fertilized ovum
Menstrual Phases
• First: 4-5 days after the menstrual flow; the endometrium is
very thin, but begins to proliferate rapidly; thickness increase
by 8 folds under the influence of increase in estrogenlevel
also known as: proliferative; estrogenic; follicular and
postmentrual phase
• Secondary: after ovulation the corpus luteum produces
progesterone which causes the endometrium become twisted
in appearance and dilated; capillaries increase in amount
(becomes rich, velvety and spongy in appearance also known
as: secretory;progestational; luteal and premenstrual
• Third: if no fertilization occurs; corpus luteum regresses
after 8 – 10 days causing decrease in progesterone and
estrogen level leading to endometrial degeneration;
capillaries rupture; endometrium sloughs off ; also known as:
ischemic
• Final phase: end of the menstrual cycle; the first day mark
the beginning of a new cycle; discharges contains blood from
ruptured capillaries, mucin from glands, fragments of
endometrial tissue and atrophied ovum.
Physiology of Menstruation
1. About day 14 an upsurge of LH occurs and the graafian
follicle ruptures and the ovum
is released
2. After release of ovum and fluid filled follicle cells remain
as an empty pit; FSH
decrease in Amount; LH increase continues to act on follicle
cells in ovary to produce
lutein which is high in progesterone ( yellow fluid) thus the
name corpus luteum or
yellow body
3. Corpus luteum persists for 16 – 20 weeks with pregnancy
but with no fertilization ovum
atropies in 4 – 5 days, corpus luteum remains for 8 -10 days
regresses and replaced by white
fibrous tissue, corpus albicans
Characteristics of Normal Menstruation Period
1. Menarche – average onset 12 -13 years
2. Interval between cycles – average 28 days
3. Cycles 23 – 35 days
4. Duration – average 2 – 7 days; range 1 – 9 days
5. Amount – average 30 – 80 ml ; heavy bleeding saturates
pad in <1hour
6. Color – dark red; with blood; mucus; and endometrial cells
Associated Terms
1. Amenorrhea - temporary cessation of menstrual flow
2. Oligomenorrhea - markedly diminished menstrual flow
3. Menorrhagia - excessive bleeding during regular
menstruation
4. Metrorrhagia - bleeding at completely irregular intervals
5. Polymenorrhea - frequent menstruation occurring at
intervals of less than 3 weeks
Ovulation
1 Occurs approximately the 14th day before the onset of next
cycle (2 weeks before)
2 If cycle is 20 days – 14 days before the next cycle is the 6th
day, so ovulation is day 6
3 If cycle is 44 days – 14 days, ovulation is day 30.
4 Slight drop in BT (0.5 – 1.0 °F) just before day of ovulation
due to low progesterone
level then rises 1°F on the day following ovulation
(spinnbarkheit; mittelschmerz)
5 If fertilization occurs, ovum proceeds down the fallopian
tube and implants on the
endometrium
Menopause
o Mechanism- a transitional phase (period of 1 – 2 years)
calledcl i macte ri c, heralds
the onset of menopause.
o Monthly menstrual period is less frequent, irregular and with
diminished amount.
o Period may be ovulatory or unovulatory - advised to use
Family planning method until
menses have
been absent for 6 continuous months
o Menopause is has occurred if there had been no period for
one year.
Classical signs: Vasomotor changes due to hormonal
imbalance
a. hot flushes
b. excessive sweating especially at night
c. emotional changes
d. insomnia
e. headache
f. palpitations
g. nervousness
h. apprehension
i. depression
j. tendency to gain weight more rapidly
k. tendency to lose height because of osteoporosis (dowager
hump)
l. arthralgias and muscle pains
m. loss of skin elasticity and subcutaneous fat in labial folds
Artificial menopause / surgically induced menopause
a. oophorectomy or irradiation of ovaries
b. panhysterectomy
III. PROMOTE RESPONSIBLE
PARENTHOOD – FAMILY PLANNING
A. Artificial Methods:
1. physiologic method: oral contraceptives ; natural methods
2. mechanical methods
3. chemical methods
4. surgical methods
Oral contraceptive
Action:
inhibits release of FSH no ovulation
Types:
Combined ;
Sequential;
Mini pill
Side Effects: due to estrogen and progesterone
> nausea and vomiting
> Headache and weight gain
> breast tenderness
> dizziness
> breakthrough bleeding/spotting
> chloasma
Contraindications:
a. Breastfeeding
b. Certain diseases:
o thromboembolism
o Diabetes Mellitus
o Liver disease
o migraine; epilepsy; varicosities
o CA; renal disease;recent hepatitis
c. Women who smoke more than 2 packs of cigarette per day
d. Strong family Hx of heart attack
Note: If taking pill is missed on schedule, take one as soon as
remembered and
take next pill on schedule; if not done withdrawal bleeding
occurs.
B. Natural Methods:
a. Rhythm/Calendar/Ogino Knause Formula
o Couple abstains on days that the woman is fertile
o Menstrual cycles are observed and charted for 12 months
Standard Formula:
first day of the beginning of one cycle to the first day of the
next cycle
shortest cycle = minus 18
longest cycle = minus 11
Example: shortest cycle = 28
longest cycle = 35
Shortest cycle:
28 days – 18 = 10
Longest cycle:
35 days – 11 = 24
Fertile pd:
10th to 24th day of cycle = No sexual intercourse
b. Billings Method / Cervical Mucus
o woman is fertile when cervical mucus is thin and watery;
may be extended
o Sexual Intercourse may be resumed after 3 – 4 days
c. Symptothermal Method / BBT
1 Requires daily observation and recording of body
temperature before rising in
the
morning or doing any activity to detect time of ovulation
2 Ovulation is indicated by a slight drop of temperature and
then rises
3 Resume Sexual intercourse after 3 – 4 days
4 Recommended observation of BBT is 6 menstrual cycle to
establish pattern of
fluctuations
C. Mechanical Methods
1.
Intrauterine Device - prevents implantation by non-specific
cell
inflammatory reaction
inserted during menstruation (cervix is dilated)
SE:
increased menstrual flow
spotting or uterine cramps
increased risk of infection
Note: when pregnancy occurs, no need to remove IUD, will
not harm
fetus 2.
Diaphragm
oa
disc that fits over the cervix
of
orms a barrier against the entrance of sperms
o initially inserted by the doctor
o
maybe washed with soap and water is reusable
o
when used, must be kept in place because sperms remains
viable for 6 hrs.
in the vagina but must be removed within 24 hours (to
decrease risk of
toxic shock syndrome)
3.
Condom
1 a rubber sheath where sperms are deposited
2 it lessens the chance of contracting STDs
3 most common complaint of users
interrupts sexual act when to apply
D. Chemical Methods
These are spermicidals (kills sperms) like jellies, creams,
foaming tablets,
suppositories
E. Surgical Method
a.
Tubal Ligation:
Fallopian tubes are ligated to prevent passage of sperms
Menstruation and ovulation continue
b.
Vasectomy:
Vas deferens is tied and cut blocking the passage of sperms
Sperm production continues
Sperms in the cut vas deferens remains viable for about 6
months hence
couple
needs to observe a form of contraception this time to prevent
pregnancy
IV. BEGINNING OF PREGNANCY
A.F e rti l i z ati on
1. Union of the ovum and spermatozoon
2. Other terms: conception, impregnation or fecundation
3. Normal amount of semen/ejaculation= 3-5 cc = 1 tsp.
4. Number of sperms: 120-150 million/cc/ejaculation
5. Mature ovum may be fertilized for 12 –24 hrs after
ovulation
6. Sperms are capable of fertilizing even for 3 – 4 days after
ejaculation (life
span of sperms 72 hrs)
B.Im pl antati on
General Considerations:
o Once implantation has taken place, the uterine endometrium
is now termed
decidua
o Occasionally, a small amount of vaginal bleeding occurs
with implantation due to
breakage of capillaries
o Immediately after fertilization, the fertilized ovum or zygote
stays in the
fallopian tube for 3 days, during which time rapid cell division
(mitosis) is
taking place. The developing cells now called blastomere and
when about to
have 16 blastomere called morula.
o Morula travels to uterus for another 3 – 4 days
o When there is already a cavity in the morula called blastocyt
o finger like projections called trophoblast form around the
blastocyst, which
implant on the uterus
o Implantation is also called nidation, takes place about a
week after fertlization
C. Stages of human prenatal development
1.
Cytotrophoblast – inner layer
2.
Syncytiotrophoblast – the outer layer containing finger like
projections called chorionic villi which
differentiates into:
oL
angerhan’s layer – protective against Treponema Pallidum,
present only during the second trimester
o
Syncytial Layer – gives rise to the fetal membranes, amnion
and
chorion
D. Fetal Membranes
1. Amnion – gives rise to umbilical cord/funis – with 2 arteries
and 1 vein supported by
2. Wharton’s jelly
3. Amniotic fluid: clear albuminous fluid, begins to form at 11
– 15th week of gestation, chiefly
derived from maternal serum and fetal urine, urine is added by
the 4th lunar month, near term is
clear, colorless, containing little white specks of vernix
caseosa, produced at rate of 500 ml/day.
Known as BOW or Bag of Water
E. Amniotic Fluid
Purposes of Amniotic Fluid
Protection – shield against pressure and temperature changes
Can be used to diagnose congenital abnormalities intrauterine–
amniocentesis
Aid in the descent of fetus during active labor
Implication:
Polyhydramios = more than >1500 ml due to inability of the
fetus to swallow the fluid
as in
trachoesophageal fistula.
Oligohydramnios = less than <500 ml due to the inability of
the kidneys to add urine
as in
congenital renal anomaly
F. Fetal Membranes
•Chorion - together with the deciduas basalis gives rise to the
placenta, start to form at
8th
week of gestation; develops 15 – 20 cotyledons
•Purpose of Placenta: respiratory; exchange of nutrients and
oxygen
•Renal system
•Gastrointestinal system
•Circulatory system
•Endocrine system: produces hormones (before 8th weekcorpus luteum produces these
hormones) hCG keeps corpus luteum to continue producing
estrogen and progesterone
•HPL or human chorionic somatomammotropin which
promotes growth of mammary
glands for
lactation
•Protective barrier: inhibits passage of some bacteria and large
molecules
V. FETAL GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
First lunar month
•Germ layers differentiate by the 2nd week
1. endoderm – gives rise to lining of GIT, Respiratory Tract,
tonsils, thyroid (for basal
metabolism),
parathyroid (for calcium metabolism), thymus gland (for
development of
immunity),
bladder and urethra
2. Mesoderm – forms into the supporting structures of the
body (connective tissues,
cartilage, muscles and tendons); heart, circulatory system,
blood cells, reproductive
system, kidneys and ureters.
3. Ectoderm – responsible for the formation of the nervous
system, skin, hair and nails
and the
mucous membrane of the anus and mouth
1 month: 2nd week – fetal membranes
16th day – heart forms ; 4th week – heart
beats
2nd month: All vital organs and sex organs formed; placental
fully developed;
meconium formed (5th –8th wk)
3rd month: Kidneys function - 12th wk- urine formed ; Buds
of milk teeth form ; begin
bone ossification ; allows amniotic fluid ; establishment of
feto-placental exchange
4th month: Lanugo appears; buds of permanent teeth form;
heart beat heard by fetoscope
5th month: Vernix appears; lanugo over entire body;
quickening; FHR audible with
stethoscope
6th month: Attains proportions of full term but has wrinkled
skin
7th month: 28 weeks – lower limit of prematurity; alveoli
begins to form
8th month: 32 weeks – fetus viable; lanugo disappears,
subcutaneous fat deposition begins
9th month: Lanugo continue to disappear; vernix complete;
amniotic volume decrease
Focus of Fetal Development
First Trimester – period of organogenesis
Second Trimester – period of continued fetal growth and
development; rapid increase in
length
Third Trimester – period of most rapid growth and
development because of the deposition
of
subcutaneous fat
Assessing Fetal Well-being
Fetal Movement:
Quickening at 18 – 20 weeks , peaks at 29 -38 weeks
Consistently felt until term
a. Cardiff Method:
“Count to ten” - records time interval it takes for 10
- fetal movements to be felt usually occurs
in 60minutes
b. Contraction Stress Test:
Fetal Heart Rate (FHR) analyzed in conjunction with
contractions
Nipple stimulation done to induce gentle contractions
***3 contractions with 40 sec duration or more must
be present
in 10 minutes window
Normal Result no fetal decelerations with
contractions
c. Non-stress Test:
Measures response of FHR to fetal movement (1020mins.)
with fetal movement FHR increase by 15 beats and
remain for 15 seconds then decrease to average rate
(no increase means poor oxygen perfusion to fetus)
d. Amniocentesis - done to determine fetal maturity: Identify
L/S ratio
16 wks – detect genetic disorder
30 wks – assess
1. Prior to the procedure, bladder should be emptied;
ultrasonography is used
to avoid
trauma from the needle to the placenta, fetus
2. Complications include premature labor, infection, Rh
isoimmunization
3. Monitor fetus electronically after procedure, monitor for
uterine contractions
4. Teach client to report decreased fetal movement,
contractions, or abdominal
discomfort
after procedure.
e. Ultrasound – transducer on abdomen transmits sound waves
that show
fetal image on screen
a. Done as early as five weeks to confirm pregnancy,
gestational age
b. Multiple purposes – to determine position, number,
measurement of fetus(es)
and other structures (placenta)
c. Client must drink fluid prior to test to have full bladder to
assist in clarity of
image
d. No known harmful effects for fetus or mother
e. Noninvasive procedure
VI. NORMAL ADAPTATIONS IN
PREGNANCY
1. Cardiovascular/ Circulatory changes:
a. Physiologic anemia of pregnancy
-30-50% gradual increase in total cardiac volume (peak 6th
month) causing drop in
Hemoglobin
and Hematocrit values (inc only in plasma volume)
Consequences of increased cardiac volume:
1. easy fatigability & shortness of breath due increase cardiac
workload
2. slight hypertrophy of the heart
3. systolic murmurs due to lowered blood viscosity
4. nosebleeds may occur due to congestion of nasopharynx
b. Palpitations
caused by the SNS stimulation during early part of pregnancy;
increased pressure of
the uterus
against the diaphragm during the second half of pregnancy
c Edema of the lower extremities & varicosities
due to poor circulation caused by the pressure of the gravid
uterus on the blood vessels
of the
lower extremities
d. Vaginal and rectal varicosities
- due to pressure on blood vessels of the genitalia
Management: side lying hips elevated on pillow modified
knee chest position
e. Predisposition to blood clot formation
-due to increased level of circulating fibrinogen as a protection
from bleeding
implication: no
massage
2. Gastrointestinal Changes
a. Morning sickness
2 nausea and vomiting in the 1st trimester due to HCG or due
to increased acidity or
emotional
factors
3 Management: dry toast 30 mins before get up in AM
b. Hyperemesis gravidarum
4 excessive nausea & vomiting which persists beyond 3
months causing dehydration,
starvation and acidosis
5 Management: hydration in 24 hrs; complete bed room
c. Constipation and Flatulence
GI displacement slows peristalsis & gastric emptying time; inc
progesterone
d. Hemorrhoids
1 due pressure of enlarged uterus
2 Management: cold compress with witch hazel and Epsom
salts
e. Heartburn
1 due to increased progesterone and decreased gastric motility
causing regurgitation
through gastric
sphincter
2 Management: pats off butter before meals
avoid fried, fatty foods
sips of milk at intervals
small, frequent meals taken slowly
don’t bend on waist
take antacids (milk of magnesia)
3. Respiratory Changes
a. Shortness of Breath
due to inc. oxygen consumption and production of carbon
dioxide during the 1st
Trimester;
and increased uterine size pushing the diaphragm crowding
chest cavity
management: side lying position to promote lateral chest
expansion
4. Urinary Changes
a. Urinary frequency
felt during the 1st trimester due to the increase blood supply to
the kidneys
and then on
the 3rd trimester due to pressure on the bladder.
b. Decreased renal threshold for sugar
due to increased production of glucocorticoids which cause
lactose and
dextrose to spill
into the urine; and inc. progesterone
5. Musculoskeletal changes
a. Pride of Pregnancy
1d
ue to need to change center of gravity result to lordotic
position
b. Waddling gait
1 due to increased production of hormone relaxin, pelvic
bones becomes more
movable
2 increasing incidence of falls
c. Leg cramps
1d
ue to pressure of gravid uterus, fatigue, muscle tenseness, low
calcium and
phosphorus intake
6. Endocrine Changes
a. Addition of the placenta as an endocrine organ producing
HCG, HPL, estrogen
and progesterone
b. Moderate enlargement of the thyroid due to increased basal
metabolic rate
c. Increased size of the parathyroid to meet need of fetus for
calcium
d. Increased size and activity of adrenal cortex increasing
circulating cortisol,
aldosterone, and ADH which affect CHO and fat metabolism
causing
hyperglycemia.
e. Gradual increase in insulin production but there is decreased
sensitivity to
insulin during pregnancy
7. Weight Change
a. First Trimester 1.5 to 3 lbs normal weight gain
b. 2nd and 3rd trimester 10 – 11 lbs per trimester is
recommended
c. Total allowable weight gain during throughout pregnance is
20 – 25 lbs or 10 –
12 kgs.
d. Pattern of weight gain is more important than the amount of
weight gained.
8. Emotional responses
a. 1st trimester: some degree of rejection, disbelief, even
depression because of its future
implication -> give health teachings on body changes and
allow for expression of feelings
b. 2nd trimester: fetus is perceived as a separate entity and
fantasizes
appearance
c. 3rd trimester: best time to talk about layette, and infant
feeding method. To
allay fear of death let woman listen to the FHT.
VII. COMMON EMOTIONAL RESPONSES
DURING PREGNANCY
•Stress –decrease in responsibility taking is the reaction to the
stress of pregnancy not the
pregnancy itself affects decision making abilities
•Couvade – syndrome – men experiencing nausea/vomiting,
backache due to stress, anxiety
and empathy for partner
•Emotional labile – mood changes/swings occur frequently
due to hormonal changes
•Change in Sexual Desire – may increase or decrease needs
correct interpretation… not
as a loss of interest in sexual partner
VIII. LOCAL CHANGES DURING
PREGNANCY
1. Uterus – wt increase to about 1000 grams at full term due to
increase in fibrous and elastic
tissues
a. Becomes ovoid in shape
b. Softening of lower uterine segment: Hegar’s sign seen at
6th week
c. Operculum – mucus plug to seal out bacteria
d. Goodell’s sign – cervix becomes vascular and edematous
giving it consistency
of the earlobe
2. Vagina – increased vascularity occurs
a. Chadwick’s sign – purplish discoloration of the vagina
b. Leukorrhea – increased amount of vaginal discharges due to
increased activity
of estrogen and of the epithelial cells.
a. Must not be itchy, foul smelling, excessive, nor
green/yellow in color.
b. Management: good hygiene
c. Under the influence of estrogen, vaginal epithelium &
underlying tissues
hypertrophic & enriched with glycogen
d. pH of vaginal secretions during pregnancy fall
•Microorganisms that thrive in an alkaline environment:
a. Trichomonas – causes trichomonas vaginalis/vagnitis or
trichomoniasis
s/s: frothy, cream-colored, irritatingly itchy, foul smelling
discharges,
vulvar
edema
Management : Flagyl 10 days p.o. or trichomonicidal cmpd
suppositories
(e.g. Tricofuron, Vagisec, Devegan)
Management:
1. treat male partner also with Flagyl
2. avoid alcohol to prevent SE
3. dark brown urine expected
4. Acidic vaginal douche (1 tbsp vinegar:1 qt water or 15 ml:
1000 ml)
5. avoid intercourse to prevent reinfection
a.Candida Albicans - condition is called Moniliasis or
Candidiasis
6 it thrives in an environment rich in CHO and those on
steroid or
antibiotic
therapy
7 seen as oral thrush in the NB when transmitted during
delivery
8 s/s: white, patchy, cheese-like particles that adhere to
vaginal
walls, foul
smelling discharges causing irritating itchiness
Management :
1. Mycostatin/Nystatin p.o. or vaginal suppositories 100,000 U
BID x 15
days
2. Gentian violet swab to vagina
3. Acidic vaginal douche
4. Avoid intercourse
3. Ovaries
Inactive since ovulation does not take place during pregnancy.
Placenta produces
Progesterone and Estrogen during pregnancy
4. Abdominal Wall
1 Striae Gravidarum – due to rupture and atrophy of
connective tissue layers on the
growing abdomen
2 Linea Nigra
3 Umbilicus is pushed out
4 Melasma or Chloasma – increased pigmentation due
increased production of
melanocytes by the pitutitary
5 Unduly activated sweat glands
IX. SIGNS OF PREGNANCY
I.Pre gna ncy
1 Prenatal care is important for prevention of infant and
maternal morbidity and
mortality
2 Care is a cooperative action based on client’s understanding
of treatment modalities
3 Duration of normal pregnancy 266 – 280 days of 38 – 42
weeks or 9 calendar months
or 10 lunar months.
4 Infant born < 38 weeks pre-term & 42 post term)
5 Diagnosis: Urine examination – tests presence of HCG
(present from 40th –100th day,
peak 60 days) conduct test 6 weeks after LMP
2. Prenatal Visit
History Taking:
personal data
obstetrical data
gravida
para
TPAL
past pregnancies
present pregnancy: cc
LMP
medical data: hx of diseases/illnesses
3. Danger Signals of Pregnancy
1. Vaginal bleeding (any amount)
2. Swelling of face or fingers
3. Severe, continuous headache
4. Dimness or blurring of vision
5. Flashes of light or dots before eyes
6. Pain in the abdomen
7. Persistent vomiting
8. Chills and fever
9. Sudden escape of fluids from the vagina
10. Absence of FHT after they have been initially heard on 4th
or 5th month
4.As se ss me nt
a. Physical examination – review of systems
b. Pelvic examination (ask client to void)
c. IE –
determine Hegar’s, Goodell’s, Chadwick’s
d. Ballotement – on 5th month
e. Pap Smear
f. Pelvic measurements (done after 6th month or 2 wks before
EDC)
g. Leopold’s Manuever: to determine fetal presentation,
position, attitude, est.
size and fetal parts
h. Vital signs
i. Blood studies: CBC Hgb, Hct , blood typing, serological
tests
j. Urinalysis: test for albumin, sugar & pyuria
5. Important Estimates:
a. Age of Gestation:
Nagele’s Rule: -3 calendar months and +7 days
Ex. LMP= May 15, 2006 or 5-15-06
LMP:
51
5
Formula:
-3+ 7
EDC:
2 22 or February 22, 2007
•
McDonald’s Rule: Ht fundus/4 (AOG wks)
1. Measure in cms the length from the symphysis to the
level of fundus
2. Lunar months: Fundal Height (cms) x 2/7
3. Weeks of pregnancy: Fundal height (cms) x 8/7
Ex. Fundal Height = 14 cms
Lunar Month: 14cms x 2 = 28 / 7 = 4 months
Weeks Pregnant: 14 cms x 8 = 112 / 7 = 16 weeks
AOG
•
Bartholomew’s Rule: based on position of fundus in
abdominal
cavity
3rd month = above symphysis
5th month = umbilical level
9th month = below xiphoid process)
b. Fetal Length:
1
Haase’s Rule: 1st half of pregnancy – square number of
months
Example : 2 months = 2x2 = 4 cm
2nd half of pregnancy – number of months multiplied
by 5
Example: 7 months x 5 = 35 cm
c. Fetal Weight:
1 Johnson’s Rule: Fundic Ht – n x k ( k=155; n = 11 not
engaged/12
engaged)
Example for a not engaged fetus
Fundic Height given = 35 cms
n = 11 (standard for not engaged fetus)
k= 155 gms. (9 standard)
Solution: 35 cms – 11 = 24 x 155 =3,720 g
5. Health Teachings
a. Smoking – lead to LBW babies
b. Drinking – can cause respiratory depression in the NB and
fetal withdrawal
syndrome if
excessive; alcohol has empty calories
c. Drugs – may be teratogenic hence contraindicated unless
prescribed by Doctor
d. Sexual activity – allowed in moderation but not during last
6 wks- high
incidence of post
partum infection noted.
♣
counseling is important on changes in desire and positions
contraindication: bleeding, ruptured BOW, incompetent
cervix, deeply engaged presenting part
e. Prepared childbirth/Childbirth education
1 Based on Gate Control Theory: pain is controlled in the
spinal cord and
there
is a gate that can be closed to ease pain felt.
2 Information and breathing techniques help minimize
discomfort of labor
experience
3 Discomfort can be lessened if abdomen is relaxed and
allows uterus to
rise freely against it during contractions
Major Approaches to prepared childbirth
1 Teaching about anatomy, pregnancy, labor and delivery,
relaxation
techniques,
breathing exercises, hygiene, diet and comfort measures
Grant-Dick Read Method: Fear leads to tension and tension
leads to
pain
Lamaze Method: Psychoprophylactic method ; based on S-R
conditioning;
concentration on breathing is practiced
f. Immunization: Tetanus Toxois (TT) =0.5 ml IM for all
pregnant women
shall be
given in 2 doses- 4 wks interval with 2nd dose at
least 3 wks
before delivery
= booster doses given during succeeding
pregnancies
regardless of interval.
= 3 booster doses is equal to lifetime immunity
g. Clinic Visits for Pre-natal check-up
2 First 7 lunar months – every month
3 On 8th and 9th lunar month – every week
4On 10th lunar month – every week until labor
X. LABOR AND DELIVERY
1. THEORIES OF LABOR ONSET
Uterine stretch theory
Oxytocin theory
Progesterone Deprivation theory
Prostaglandin theory
2. FOUR P’S OF LABOR
a. Power - the uterine contraction
b. Passenger – the fetus
c. Passageway – the maternal pelvis
d. Psyche – the mental and emotional aspect of the woman
a. POWER -Uterine Contractions:
a.1. Frequency – the beginning of one contraction to the
beginning of the next contraction
a.2. Interval – pattern which increases in frequency and
duration
a.3. Duration – the beginning of one contraction to the end of
the same contraction
a.4. Intensity – strength of contraction, measured through a
monitor or through touch of
a fingertip
on the fundus (mild, moderate or strong)
b. PASSENGER -Fe t us
b.1. Fetal Skull:
a. largest part of the fetus - most frequent presenting part; least
compressible
Bones: sphenoid, ethmoid, temporal, frontal, occipital, parietal
Suture lines: sagittal/ coronal, lamboidal
b.2. Fontanels - membrane covered spaces at the junction of
the main suture lines
anterior fontanel: larger, diamond shaped; closes at 12 – 18
months
posterior fontanel: smaller, triangular shaped, closes at 2 – 3
months
b.3. Fetal Lie – relationship of the cephalocaudal axis of the
fetus to the cephalocaudal
axis of the
mother.
Measurements:
b.4. Fetal Attitude – fetal position
Pelvis is divided into 6 areas: Anterior, Posterior, Transverse
Left,
Transverse
Right, Posterior Left, Posterior Right
Fetal landmarks: Occiput (O); mentum (M), sacrum (S), and
scapula (Sc)
b.5. Presentation –the part of the passenger that enters the
pelvis is the presenting part
a. Cephalic – Vertex (occiput) ; Brow (sinciput); Face
(mentum)
b. Breech – Complete (sacrum) ; Frank; Footling
c. Shoulder
b.6. Movement of Passenger upon birth or descent:
d. Descent
e. Flexion
f. Internal Rotation
g. Extension
h. External rotation/ restitution
c. PASSAGEWAY – maternal pelvis
c.1. Divisions
a.
False Pelvis -supports the growing uterus during pregnancy
-directs the fetus into the true pelvis near the end of gestation
b.
True Pelvis: the bony canal through which the fetus will pass
during delivery formed by the pubis
in front, the iliac and ischia on the sides and the sacrum and
coccyx behind
c.2. Significant Pelvic Measurements
a. External – Suggestive only of pelvic size
> External Conjugate/ Baudelaocque’s Diameter
- the distance between the anterior aspect of the symphysis
pubis and the
depression
below lumbar 5 (Average: 18 – 20 cm)
b. Internal – the actual diameters of the pelvic inlet and outlet
> Diagonal Conjugate
- the distance between the sacral promontory and
inferior/lower margin of the
symphysis pubis
- widest AP diameter at outlet estimated on vaginal/pelvic
exam (Average:
12.5 cm)
>Obstetrical Conjugate
- the distance from the inner border of the symphysis pubis to
the sacral
prominence
- most important pelvic measurement
- shortest AP diameter of the inlet through which the head
must pass
- 1.5 to 2 cm or less than the diagonal conjugate
>True Conjugate/Conjugate Vera
- the distance between the anterior surface of the sacral
promontory and superior
margin
of the symphysis pubis
- diameter of the pelvic inlet (10.5 -11 cm)
>Bi-Ischial/ Tuberiischial Diameter
- the distance between the ischial tuberosities
- narrowest diameter of the outlet
- transverse diameter of the outlet (Average: 11 cm)
D.PSYCHE- the emotions of the mother
Factors that may increase a woman’s chance of depression:
1 History of depression or substance abuse
2 Family history of mental illness
3 Little support from family and friends
4 Anxiety about the fetus
5 Problems with previous pregnancy or birth
6 Marital or financial problems
7 Young age (of mother
Signs and Symptoms of Post-partum depression:
1 Feeling restless or irritable
2 Feeling sad, hopeless, and overwhelmed
3 Crying a lot
4 Having no energy or motivation
5 Eating too little or too much
6 Sleeping too little or too much
7 Trouble focusing, remembering, or making decisions
8 Feeling worthless and guilty
9 Loss of interest or pleasure in activities
10 Withdrawal from friends and family
11 Having headaches, chest pains, heart palpitations (the heart
beating fast
and
feeling like it is skipping beats), or hyperventilation (fast and
shallow
breathing)
3.PRELIMINARY/PRODROMAL SIGNS OF LABOR
a. Lightening
b. Increased activity level- “nesting behavior”
c. Loss of weight ( 2-3 lbs)
d. Braxton Hick’s Contractions
e. Cervical Changes – effacement
- Goodell’s sign – ripening of the cervix
f. Increase in back discomfort
g. Bloody Show - pinkish vaginal discharge
h. Rupture of Membranes– labor expect in 24 hours
i. Sudden burst of energy
j. Diarrhea
k. Regular Contractions - phases: increment,acme,decrement
- characteristics: intensity, frequency, interval,
duration
False Labor Pains
True Labor Pains
o1 Remain irregular
o2 Confined to abdomen
o3 No increase in duration, frequency,
intensity
o4 Disappears on ambulation
o5 No cervical changes
o6 Becomes regular and predictable
o7 Radiates in girdle like fashion
o8 Increase in duration, frequency, intensity
o9 Continue regardless of activity
o10 Effacement and dilatation occurs
o11 Signs of True labor
Effacement
Dilatation
1 Uterine Changes– upper and lower segments; physiologic
retraction ring
2 Bandl’s pathologic retraction ring- a danger sign of
impending rupture of the
uterus if obstruction is not relieved
1. Nursing Interventions of Woman in Labor:
a. Assessment – history and physical assessment
a.1. Personal data
a.2. Obstetrical data
1 determine EDC
2 obstetrical score
3 amount/ character of show
4 status of the BOW
5 general physical examination
6 Leopold’s Maneuver: presentation
7 Internal examination:
effacement ; dilatation; station
b. Monitoring and Evaluating Progress of Labor
b.1. Blood pressure
b.2. Fetal Heart Tone
b.3. Observe for signs of fetal distress
12 bradycardia
13 fetal thrashing
14 meconium stained amniotic fluid in non-breech
presentation
b.4. Monitor and inform patient of progress of labor
b.5. Monitor progress – fetal
a) during labor check FHR
b) manage fetal distress
5. Analgesia/anesthesia during childbirth
5.1. Analgesia – relieves pain and its perception
5.2. Anesthesia – produces local or general loss of sensation ;
- usually regional anesthesia (e.g. spinal)
o
Relieve uterine and perineal pain
o
Usually safe for the fetus (potential for maternal hypotension)
o
Types of Anesthesia:
a. Paracervical block
b. Peridural block: Epidural/caudal
c. Intradural: spinal/saddle block
d. Pudendal block
e. Local anethesia
o Regional Anesthesia is mostly preferred because it does not
enter
maternal circulation nor affect fetus
o Xylocaine is used (NPO with IV infusion)
> allows to be awake and participate in process;
> can increase incidence of maternal hypotension and fetal
bradycardia
5.3. Analgesics:
5.3.1 Narcotics (Demerol)
op
roduces sedation/relaxation
od
epresses NB’s respiration
og
iven in active labor
o
Special Considerations:
Demerol is most commonly used
Has sedative and antispasmodic effect
Dose is usually 25 –100 mg depends on body weight
Not given early in labor due to possible effect on contractions
Not given too late (1 hr before delivery) can cause
respiratory depression in the newborn
Given if cervical dilatation is 6 – 8 cms.
5.3.2. Narcotic Antagonist: Narcan; Nalline
6. Nursing Care before administration of anesthesia/analgesia
1.1.Assess pain status
1.2.Explain the action of drugs
1.3.Check vital signs of mother and fetus
1.4.Observe safety measures
Evaluate allergies
Provide siderails – have call bell ready
NPO (anesthesia)
Check time last medication was given
1.5.Nursing Care after administration of anesthesia/analgesia
1.6.Monitor: vital signs – BP and FHR (be alert for
bradycardia)
1.7.Record properly
1.8.Provide comfort measures
1.9.Remember that the use ofF orce ps is needed in delivery of
patient under
anesthesia due
to loss of coordination in bearing down during 2nd stage
1.10. Side effects:
a. postspinal headaches – place flat on bed for 12 hrs and
increase
fluid intake
b. common side effect is hypotension (xylocaine –
vasodilator):
Nursing Intervention:
turn to side
elevate legs
administer vasopressor and oxygen as ordered
Fetal bradycardia
Decreased maternal respirations
(Observe for bulging of the perineum)
XI. STAGES OF LABOR
1. Stages of Labor
Stage
Characteristics
First Stage
- the stage of true labor until the
complete cervical dilatation
a. Latent Phase
b. Active Phase
c. Transitional
Phase
Extent:
Primigravida – 3.3.-19.7 hrs
Multigravida – 0.1 - 14.3 hrs
0-4 cms. cervical dilatation
Interval: 15-20 mins interval
Duration: 10-30 seconds
5-7 cms. cervical dilatation
Interval: 3-5 mins
Duration: 30-60 seconds
8-10 cms cervical dilatation
Interval: 2-3 mins.
Duration: 50-90 seconds
Second Stage
- begins with complete dilatation of the cervix until the birth
of the newborn
Duration:
Primigravida – 30 mins. - 2 hrs.
Multi-gravida- 20 mins – 1 hr.
Contractions- 2-3 mins for 50-90 secs
Mother is exhausted and has urge to
push
Third Stage
- from delivery of the newborn to
the delivery of the placenta
Still with mild contractions until the
placenta is expelled.
Usually, placenta is expelled within 30
minutes.
Fourth Stage
- the first hour after complete
delivery until the woman becomes
physically stable
Uterine cramping
Rubra with small clots
2. Principles of Postpartum Care
a. Promote healing and the process of involution
b. Provide emotional support
c. Prevent postpartum complications
d. Establish successful lactation
e. Promote responsible parenthood (FP)
3. Nursing Care of the Woman in First & Second Stage Labor
a. Monitor discomfort/exhaustion/pain control – support client
in choice of pain
control
b. Relaxation techniques taught during pregnancy where
breathing is taught as a
relaxed
response to contraction
c. Low back pain – massage of sacral area
d. Use different breathing techniques during the different
phases of labor
e. Encourage rest between contractions
f. Keep couple informed of progress
g. Administer analgesic : side effects-may prolong labor;
local/ block/ general
4. Nursing Care of Woman in the 3rd Stage of Labor
a. Principle Of Watchful Waiting
b. Use Brandt Andrews Maneuver
c. Note Time Of Delivery (20 Minutes After Delivery Of The
Baby)
d. Check Bp; Injects Oxytocin (Methergin 0.2 Mg/Ml Or
Syntocinon 10 U/Ml Im)
e. Inspect Cotyledons For Completeness
f. Check Uterus For Contraction
g. Check Perineum For Lacerations -Give perineal care; apply
perineal pads
h.
Change gown
i.Place flat on bed
j.Keep warm – provide extra warm blanket
k.
Give initial nourishment – warm milk, tea
l.Allow to rest/ sleep
5. Nursing Care of Woman in Fourth Stage
a. Lactation: promote lactation by encouraging early
breastfeeding to stimulate
milk
production
*** Those mothers who cannot breastfeed:
suppressing agents are given – estrogen- androgen
preparations given
first hours
post partum to prevent milk production. These drugs tend to
increase
uterine
bleeding and retard involution. (e.g. diethylstilbestrol, Parlodel
or
deladumone)
b. Rooming-in-concept
provides opportunity for developing positive family
relationship
promotes maternal infant bonding
releases maternal caretaking responses
c. Assess vital signs, fundus and flow every 15 minutes.
d. Hydration and elimination
e. May ambulate
Puerperium - the 6 weeks period following delivery
Involution- time period for the return of the reproductive
organs to return to its
prepregnant
state
8. Categories of Lacerations
8.1. First degree – involves vaginal mucous membrane and
perineal skin
8.2. Second degree – involves the perineal muscles, vaginal
mucous membrane
and
perineal skin
8.3. Third degree – involves all in the 2nd degree lacerations
and the external
sphincter of
the rectum
8.4. Fourth degree – involves all in 3rd degree lacerations and
the mucus
membrane of the
rectum
XII. PROMOTING HEALING AND
INVOLUTION DURING POST-PARTUM
1. Vascular Changes
- Reabsorption of the 30-50% increase in cardiac volume
within 5 – 10 minutes after
the thirdstage of labor.
- WBC increases to 20,000 – 30,000/mm³
- Activation of the clotting factor
- All blood values are back to prenatal levels by 3rd or 4th
week
2. Location of the Fundus
- Uterine involution is measured by determining the level of
the fundus in relation to
the
umbilicus
- Nursing care:
Assess condition and level of the fundus
Position in prone or knee chest
1 Occurrence of afterpains – it is an indication of uterine
contractions and are
normal. Usually
lasts up to 3 days after birth
Nursing Care:
Explain to client cause of pain
Do not apply heat
Administer analgesics as prescribed
3. Genital Changes/ Discharges
- Presence of Lochia: uterine discharges consisting of blood,
decidua, WBC and some
bacteria
- Characteristics:
pattern should not reverse –
1-3 days – rubra - - - bright red with no or minimal clots
4-9 days – serosa- - - thinner, serous sanguinous blood
10- 3 to 6 wks pp – alba - - - whitish discharge
same amount as menstrual flow, decreased if with
breastfeeding , increased
with activity
with fleshy odor; never foul smelling
4. Perineal Pain
Nursing Care:
Place in Sim’s position – lessens strain on the suture line
Expose to dry heat or warm Sitz bath
Application of topical analgesics or oral analgesics as ordered
Provide/ encourage perineal care
5. Sexual Activity
1 sexual stimulation may be decreased due to emotional
factors and hormonal
changes
2 it may be resumed if bleeding has stopped and episiorrhaphy
has healed by
the 3rd or
4th week
6. Menstruation
1 Breastfeeding influences return of the menstrual flow.
2 Breastfeeding – menses return in 3 – 4 months;
o some do not menstruate throughout lactation period
o ovulation is also possible with lactational amenorrhea
3 Non-Breastfeeding Mothers – menstrual flow return within 8
weeks
7. Urinary Changes
o marked diuresis occurs within 12 hours postpartum to
eliminate excess tissue
fluids during pregnancy
o frequent urination in small amounts may be experienced by
some
o others have difficulty of urination
Nursing Care:
Explain cause of urinary changes
Assist to promote voiding utilizing appropriate measures
(encouraging
voiding, let client listen to sound of flowing water, etc.)
8. Gastrointestinal Changes
- Change is more on the delay of bowel evacuation;
constipation
- Cause:
decreased muscle tone
lack of food intake
dehydration
fear of pain
-Nursing Care: encourage early ambulation
increase fluids
increase fibers in the diet
9. Vital Signs
o Temperature: may increase because of dehydration on the
first 24 hours pp.
o CR 50 – 70 beats/min (bradycardia) is common for 6 - 8
days pp.
o RR – no change is expected
o Weight = 10 – 12 lbs is expected to be immediately lost.
This corresponds to the
weight of the fetus, placenta, amniotic fluid and blood.
Diaphoresis will
contribute to further weight loss
10. Provision of Emotional Support
Post-partum Psychological Phases
1. Taking – in : First 1 – 2 days; mother focuses on herself and
her experience
2. Taking – hold: mother starts to assume her role
3. Letting go
Postpartum Blues – overwhelming sadness that cannot be
accounted for. Could be due
to
hormonal changes, fatigue or feelings of inadequacy.
Nursing Care: Encourage verbalization; crying is therapeutic,
explain that it is normal
11. Establish Successful Lactation
Physiology of Lactation:
Estrogen & progesterone levels stimulates APG to produce
Prolactin acts on
acinar cells to
produce foremilk stored in collecting tubules -> infant
sucking stimulates
PPG to
produce oxytocin causes contraction of smooth muscles of
collecting tubules
milk
ejected forward (milk ejection reflex or let down reflex
hindmilk is produced
Implications of lactation:
1 Breast milk will be produced postpartum
2 Lactation do not occur during pregnancy due to levels of
estrogen and progesterone
3 Lactation suppressing agents are to be given immediately
after placental delivery to be
effective
4 Oral contraceptives decrease milk supply and are
contraindicated in lactating mothers
5 Afterpains are felt more by breastfeeding mothers due to
oxytocin production; have
less lochia and rapid involution
12. Advantages of Breastfeeding
Mother: faster involution
less incidence of CA
economical- time, effort, cost
Infant: bonding with the mother
protection against common illness
less incidence of GI diseases
always available
13. Health Teachings
a. Hygiene
Wash breasts daily
No soap; No Alcohol for cleaning
Handwashing
Insert clean OS squares/ absorbent cloth in brassiere for breast
discharges
b. Feeding Techniques
c. Nutrition: 3000 calories daily; 96 grams protein
d. Contraindications:
Drugs – oral contraceptives, atropine, anticoagulants,
antimetabolites,
cathartics,
tetracyclines.
Certain disease conditions – TB
because of close contact during feeding
(TB germs are not transmitted thru breast milk)
XIII. ASSOCIATED PROBLEMS
1. Engorgement
breast becomes full, tense and hot with throbbing pain
expected to occur on the 3rd post partum day accompanied by
fever (milk fever)last
for 240 due to increased lymphatic and venous circulation
Nursing care:
o encourage breastfeeding
o advise use of firm-supportive brassiere
o (if not going to breastfeed – apply cold compress; no
massage; no breast
pump; apply
breast binder)
2. Sore Nipples
Nursing care:
encourage to continue BF
expose nipples to air for 10 – 15 minutes after feeding
(alternative) exposure to 20 watt bulb placed 12 – 18 inches
away promotes
vasodilation
and therefore promote healing
do not use plastic liners
use nipple shield
3. Mastitis inflammation of the breast
Signs & Symptoms: pain, swelling, redness, lumps in the
breasts, milk becomes
scanty
Nursing Care:
Ice compress
Supportive brassiere , empty breast with pump
Discontinue BF in affected breast
Apply warm dressing to increase drainage
Administer antibiotics as prescribed
*** Postpartum Check-up: 6th week postpartum to assess
involution
XIII. HIGH RISK PREGNANCY
CONDITIONS
1. Infections
2. Bleeding / Hemorrhage/ PIH
3. Diabetes Mellitus
4. Heart Disease
5. Multiple Pregnancy
6. Blood Incompability
7. Dystocia
8. Induced Labor
9. Instrumental Deliveries
1. INFECTIONS
1.1.Syp hi l i s
Cause:
Treponema pallidum - a spirochete transmitted thru sexual
intercourse
Treatment:
2.4 – 4.8 million units of Penicillin (or 30 – 40 gms
Erythrocin)
x 10 days
readily cross placenta thus prevent congenital syphilis
Untreated:
Cause mid-trimester abortion
Cause CNS lesions
Can cause death
1.2. TORCH test series
TOxoplasmosis (protozoa)
avoid eating uncooked meat and handling cat
litter box
Others: Syphilis, Varicella/ Shingles
Hepatitis B; Hepatitis A; AIDS
Rx –
Zoster Immune Globulin ,Penicillin
RUbella
Effect: if contracted early, slows down cell
division during organogenesis causing
congenital defects NB can carry and transmit
the virus for about 12 – 24 months after birth
CYtomegalovirus
(CMV) (DNA virus)
Herpes type 2
Group of maternal systemic infections that can cross the
placenta or by ascending
infection(after rupture of membranes) to the fetus.
Infection early in pregnancy may produce fetal deformities,
whereas late infections
may result in
active systemic disease and/or CNS involvement causing
severe neurological
impairment or
death of newborn
Sources/ Cause:
1. Endogenous/primary sources - normal bacterial flora
2. Exogenous sources - hospital personnel, excessive obstetric
manipulations
breaks in aseptic techniques, coitus late in pregnancy
premature rupture of membranes
General symptoms: malaise, anorexia, fever, chills and
headache
Management:
Complete Bedrest
Proper Nutrition
Increased Fluid Intake
Analgesics
Antipyretics and antibiotics as ordered
1.3. Infection of the perineum
Signs & Symptoms: pain, heat, feeling of pressure,
inflammation of suture line with 1 –2 stitches sloughed off
temperature elevation
Management: drain area & resuturing ; sitz bath & warm
compress
1.4.End o me t ri ti s
- An infection/inflammation of the lining of the uterus
Signs & Symptoms: Abdominal tenderness
Uterus not contracted and
painful to touch
Dark brown
Foul smelling lochia
Management: Oxytocin administration
Fowler’s position to drain out lochia
Prevent pooling of discharges
1.5.Thro mb o p hl e b it i s
-infection of the lining of a blood vessel with formation of
clots, usual an
extension of
endometritis
Signs & Symptoms:
o1
Pain
o2 Stiffness and redness in the affected part of the leg
o3 Leg begins to swell below the lesion because venous
circulation
has been blocked
o4 Skin is stretched to a point of shiny whiteness, called milk
leg
of
Phlegmasia alba dolens
o5 Positive Homan’s sign: calf pain on dorsi-flexing the foot
Specific Management:
1bed rest with affected leg elevated
2a
nticoagulants (e.g. Dicumarol or Heparin) to prevent
formation or extension of a thrombus
Side effect of Anticoagulant: hematuria, increased lochia
Considerations:
1 discontinue breastfeeding
2 monitor prothrombin time
3 have Protamine Sulfate at bedside to counter act severe
bleeding
4 analgesics are given but not ASPIRIN because it prevents
prothrombin formation
which may lead to hemorrhage
2. HEMMORRHAGE/ BLEEDING
Definition: blood loss more than 500 cc. ( normal blood loss
250- 350 cc)
*** Leading cause of maternal mortality associated with
childbearing
2.1. Early Post-partum hemorrhage – first 24 hrs after delivery
2.2. Late Postpartum Hemorrhage
Early Post-partum hemorrhage
Late Postpartum Hemorrhage
Cause
Uterine Atony – uterus is not
well contracted, relaxed or boggy
(most frequent cause)
Lacerations
Hypofibrinogenemia
Clotting defect
Retained Placental Fragments
Management
Bleeding in Pregnancy
blood transfusion
D & C (Dilatation and
Curettage
Predisposing factor:
Overdistension of the uterus (multiparity, large babies,
polyhydramnios,
multiple pregnancies)
Cesarean Section
Placental accidents (previa or abruptio)
Prolonged and difficult labor
Management: Massage –first nursing action
Ice compress
Oxytocin administration
Empty bladder
Bimanual compression to explore retained placental fragments
Hysterectomy (last alternative)
2.3.He mat o ma
- Due to injury to blood vessels in the perineum during
delivery
Incidence: Commnon in precipitate delivery and those with
perineal
varicosities
Treatment:
1 Ice Compress in first 24 hours
2 Oral Analgesics as prescribed
3 Site is incised and bleeding vessel ligated
2.4. Pregnancy Induced Hypertension (PIH)
- A vascular disease of unknown cause
- Occurs anytime after the 24th wk of gestation up to 2 wks PP
- Develops during pregnancy and resolves during postpartum
period
Predisposing Factors:
a. large fetus
b. Older than 35, younger than 17
c. primigravida
d. multiple pregnancy or H mole
e. poor nutrition
f. Hx of DM, renal and vascular disease
g. Morbid obesity or weight less than 100 lb
h. Family history
Diagnosis:
Roll – over test : Assess the probability of developing toxemia
when done
between the
28th and 32nd week of pregnancy.
Procedure of Roll-over test:
1 Patient in lateral recumbent position for 15 minutes until BP
Stable
2 Rolls over to supine position
3 BP taken at 1 minute and 5 minutes after roll over
4 Interpretation: If diastolic pressure increases 20 mmHg or
more,
patient is prone to Toxemia
Types of Pregnancy Induced Hypertension (PIH):
a. Transient hypertension - without proteinuria or edema
b. Pre-eclampsia, mild
o BP of 140/90 mmHg or increase of 30/15mmHg
o 2+ to 3+ proteinuria
o begins past 20th week
o slight generalized edema may be present, weight gain of 1- 5
lbs/wk
c. Pre-eclampsia, severe
o BP of 150-160/100-110 mmHg
o 4+ proteinuria (5 gm/L or more in 24 hrs
o Headache and epigastric pain(aura to convulsions)
o Oliguria of 400 ml or less in 24 hrs. (normal UO/day 1500
ml)
o Cerebral or visual disturbances
d. Eclampsia - Obstetrical Emergency
o HPN
o Proteinuria
o Convulsions
o Coma
Immediate Intervention for Eclampsia:
a. Maintain IV line with large-bore needle
b. Monitor fluid balance
c. Minimize stimuli
d. Have airway and oxygen available
e. Give medications as ordered (e.g Magnesium sulfate,
Apresoline,
Valium)
f. Prepare for possible delivery of fetus
g. Monitor fetal status
h. Type and cross match for blood
i. Postpartum- monitor vital signs and watch for seizure
Management for Eclampsia:
a. Digitalis (with Heart Failure)
Increase the force of contraction of the heart decrease heart
rate
Nursing Considerations: Check CR prior to administration (
do
not give if
CR <60/min)
b. Potassium supplements – prevent arrhythmias
c. Barbiturates – sedation by CNS depression
d. Analgesics; antihypertensives, antibiotics, anticonvulsants,
sedatives
e. Magnesium Sulfate – drug of choice
Action: CNS depressant ; Vasodilator
Antidote: Calcium Gluconate- given 10% IV to maintain
Cardiac and vascular tone
Earliest sign of MgSO4 toxicity disappearance of knee
jerk/patellar reflex
Method of delivery – preferably Vaginal but if not possible CS
Prognosis: the danger of convulsions is present until 48 hrs
postpartum
f. Cathartic – cause shift of fluid from the extra cellular spaces
into the
intestines from where the fluid can be excreted
Dosage:
10 gms initially –either by slow IV push over 5 – 10 minutes
or
deep IM,
5 gms/buttock, then an IV drip of 1 gm per hour (1 gm/100 ml
D10W),
Check first the ff. before administration:
1 Deep tendon reflexes are present
2 Respiratory rate = 12 / min
3 UO = at least 100 ml / 6 hrs.
Nursing Intervention:
a.
Advised bedrest, left lateral
bb
.
.
Encourage a well-balanced diet
c.
Weigh daily, keep daily log
dd
.
.
Education on self – assessment
e.
Diversion
f.
Family support
e.Post-delivery PIH
o with Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation –
anticoagulant
therapy
o Monitor blood pressure for 48 hours
Diagnosis:Roll – over test : Assess the probability of
developing toxemia when done
between the 28th and 32nd week of pregnancy.
Procedure on Roll-over test:
5 Patient in lateral recumbent position for 15 minutes until BP
Stable
6 Rolls over to supine position
7 BP taken at 1 minute and 5 minutes after roll over
8 Interpretation: If diastolic pressure increases 20 mmHg or
more, patient
is prone to Toxemia
Management:
a. Digitalis (with Heart Failure)
Increase the force of contraction of the heart decrease heart
rate
Nursing Considerations: Check CR prior to administration (
do not give if
CR <60/min)
b. Potassium supplements – prevent arrhythmias
c. Barbiturates – sedation by CNS depression
d. Analgesics; antihypertensives, antibiotics, anticonvulsants,
sedatives
e. Magnesium Sulfate – drug of choice
Action: CNS depressant ; Vasodilator
Antidote: Calcium Gluconate- given 10% IV to maintain
Cardiac and
vascular tone
Earliest sign of MgSO4 toxicity disappearance of knee
jerk/patellar
reflex
Method of delivery – preferably Vaginal but if not possible CS
Prognosis: the danger of convulsions is present until 48 hrs
postpartum
f. Cathartic – cause shift of fluid from the extracellular spaces
into the
intestines from where the fluid can be excreted
Dosage:
10 gms initially –either by slow IV push over 5 – 10 minutes
or
deep IM,
5 gms/buttock, then an IV drip of 1 gm per hour (1 gm/100
ml D10W),
May administer if :
4 Deep tendon reflexes are present
5 Respiratory rate = 12 / min
6 UO = at least 100 ml / 6 hrs.
3. DIABETES MELLITUS
a.
Chronic hereditary disease characterized by marked
hyperglycemia
b.
Due to lack or absence of insulin
abnormalities in CHO, fat and protein
metabolism
c.
Effects of pregnancy – may develop abnormalities in glucose
tolerance decreased
renal threshold for sugar due to increased estrogen, inc.
production of
adenocorticoids, Anterior Pituitary hormones, and thyroxin
which affect CHO
concentration in blood (hyperglycemia)
d.
Rate of insulin secretion is increased but sensitivity of the
pregnant body to insulin
is decreased
Pregnancy Risks:
1
Toxemia
2I
nfection
3
Hemorrhage
4
Polyhydramnios
5
Spontaneous abortion – because of vascular complications
which affect placental circulation
6
Acidosis – because of nausea and vomiting
7
Dystocia – due to large baby
Diagnosis : Glucose Tolerance Test (GTT)
Procedure for GTT:
NPO after midnight
2 ml of 50% glucose / 3 kg of pre-pregnant body weight given
IV (oral glucose not
advisable due to decreased gastric motility and delayed
absorption of sugar during pregnancy)
Interpretation of Results:
a. If less than 100 mg% = normal
b. If 100 – 120 mg% possible GDM
c. If more than 120 mg% - overt gestational diabetes
Management:
a.
Diet - highly individualized- adequate glucose intake (1,800 –
2200 calories) to prevent intrauterine growth retardation
b.
Insulin requirements – individualized; increased during 2nd
and 3rd trimester because of more pronounced effect of
hormones
c.
Method of Delivery – Cesarian Section
d.
Postpartum Period – more difficult to control Blood Glucose
because of hormonal changes
Effect on Infant:
a.
Typically longer and weighs more due to: excessive supply of
glucose from the mother
b.
Increased production of growth hormone from maternal
pituitary
gland
c.
Increased secretion of insulin from the fetal pancreas
d.
Increased action of adrenocortical hormone that favor the
passage
of glucose from mother to fetus congenital anomalies are often
seen
e.
Cushingoid appearance (puffy, but limp and lethargic)
f.Born premature more often – RDS common
g.
Greater weight loss because of loss of extra fluid
h.
Prone to hypoglycemia (BG <30 mg%)
Signs and symptoms of Diabetic Babies/ Hypoglemic Infant:
a.
Shrill, high pitched cry
b.
Listlessness/jitteriness/tremors
c.
Lethargy/poor suck
d.
Apnea/cyanosis
e.
Hypotonia; hypothermia
***Consequence of hypoglycemia: untreated hypos brain
damage and even death
***Management: feed with glucose water earlier than usual,
or administer IV of glucose
4. HEART DISEASE
Classification:
Class I
- no physical limitation
Class II
- slight limitation of physical activity
- Ordinary activity causes fatigue, palpitation, dyspnea, or
angina
Class III
- moderate to marked limitation of physical activity; less than
ordinary
activity causes fatigue
Class IV
-unable to carry on any activity without experiencing
discomfort
Prognosis: Classes I & II – normal pregnancy & delivery
Classes III & IV – poor candidates
Signs & Symptoms:
Heart murmur due to increased total cardiac volume
Cardiac output decreased nutritional and oxygen
requirements not
met
Incomplete emptying of the left side of the heart Pulmonary
edema
and HPN (moist cough in Gravidocardiacs danger sign)
Congestion of liver and other organs due to inadequate venous
return increased venous
pressure fluid escapes through the walls of engorged
capillaries and cause edema and
ascites CHF is a high probability due to increased CO during
pregnancy dyspnea,
exhaustion, edema, pulse irregularities, chest pain on exertion
and cyanosis of
nailbeds are obvious
Management: (depends on cardiac functional capacity)
a. Bed rest – especially after 30th week of gestation
b. Diet – gain enough (consider effect on cardiac workload)
c. Medications: Digitalis, Iron preparations
d. Avoid lithotomy
position to avoid increase in venous return, place in
semisitting
position
e. Not allowed to bear down; Birth is via low forceps or
Cesarean section
f. Anesthetic choice – caudal anesthesia
g. Ergotrate and other oxytoxics, scopolamine,
diethylstilbestrol and oral
contraceptives –
h. contraindicated can cause fluid retention and promote
thromboembolism
i. Most critical period: immediate postpartum period when 30
– 50% increased
blood volume
j. is reabsorbed back in 5 – 10 minutes and the weak heart
needs to adjust
5. MULTIPLE PREGNANCY
Risks: Increased Blood Loss
Small for Gestational Age Infants
Premature Birth
Dystocia
Management:
a. Monitor FHT, VS, weight
b. Cesarean Section
c. Health Teaching on importance of regular pre-natal checkup visits
d. Educate regarding proper nutrition and exercise
6. BLOOD INCOMPATIBILITY
- An antigen-antibody reaction which causes excessive
destruction of fetal red blood
cells
Mother
Fetus
Rh- negative
Rh Positive (Father is homozygous
or heterozygous Rh positive)
BloodType O
Either Type A or B (From father)
7. DYSTOCIA - broad term for abnormal or difficult labor
and delivery
Uterine Inertia – sluggishness of contractions
Cause:
Inappropriate use of analgesics
Pelvic bone contraction
Poor fetal position
Overdistention – due to multiparity, multiple pregnancy,
polyhydrmanios or excessively large baby
Management: Stimulation of labor by oxytocin administration
or amniotomy
7.1. Precipitate Delivery
- labor and delivery that is completed in < 3 hours due to
multiparity or
followingoxytocin administration or amniotomy
Effects: Extensive lacerations
Abruptio placenta
Hemorrhage due to sudden
Release of pressure shock
7.2. Prolonged Labor - Usually occurs in primi gravida
- Labor lasting more than 18 hrs and in multigravidas, more
than 12 hours
Effects: Maternal exhaustion
Uterine atony
Caput succedaneum
7.3. Uterine Inversion - fundus is forced through the cervix so
that the uterus is
turned inside out
- Insertion of placenta at the fundus, so that as fetus is
rapidly delivered, fundus is pulled down
- Strong fundal push, attempts to deliver the placenta before
signs of separation
-Management: Hysterectomy
8. INDUCED LABOR
- Stages of labor and birth occurs due to chemical or
mechanical means which is
usually performed to save the mothe or fetusr from
complications which may cause death
Indications:
Maternal – toxemia
Placental accidents
Premature Rupture Of Membrane
Fetal: DM – terminated at about 37 wks AOG if indicated
Blood incompatibility
Excessive size
Postmaturity
Prerequisites to Induce Labor :
No Cephalo- Pelvic Dislocation
Fetus is already viable >32 weeks AOG
Single fetus in longitudinal lie and is engaged
Ripe cervix – fully or partially effaced; Cervical Dilatation at
least 1=2 cm
Procedure for Induced labor:
1. Oxytocin Administration; 10 IU of Pitocin in 1000 ml of
D5W at a slow rate of 8
gtts/min given initially no fetal distress in 30 minutes
rate
16 -20 gts/min
2. Amniotomy – done with Cervical Dilatation = 4 cm ; Check
FHR and quality of amniotic
fluidNursing Considerations:
Monitor uterine contractions potential for rupture
Monitor flow rate regularly
Turn off IV with any abnormality in FHR or contractions
Watch out for complications: HPN, Antidiuresis
Prostaglandin administration: Route: oral or IV (never IM
causes irritation);
effect is slower than oxytocin
9. INSTRUMENTAL DELIVERIES
a. Forceps Delivery
- Use of metal instruments to extract the fetus from the birth
canal, when at +3 / +4 and sagittal
suture line is in an AP position in relation to the outlet (e.g.
Simpson, Elliot, Piper for breech
presentation)
Purposes:
shorten second stage of labor because of fetal distress;
maternal exhaustion;
maternal disease – cardiac, pulmonary complication
ineffective pushing due to anesthesia
prevent excessive pounding of fetal head against perineum
(low forceps for
prematures)
poor uterine contraction or rigid perineum
Prerequisites:
Pelvis adequate, no disproportion
Fetal head is deeply engaged
Cervix is completely dilated and effaced
Membranes have ruptured
Vertical presentation has been established
The rectum and bladder are empty
Anesthesia is given for sufficient perineal
Relaxation and to prevent pain
Types:
Low or Mid Forceps Delivery
Complications:
Forceps marks – noticeable only for 24 – 48 hrs
Bladder or rectal injury
Facial paralysis
Ptosis
Seizures
Epilepsy
Cerebral Palsy
a. Cesarean Section – birth through a surgical incision on the
abdomen
Indications:
o Cephalo-pelvic disproportion (CPD)
o Severe Toxemia
o Placental Accidents
o Fetal Distress
o Previous classic CS – done prior to onset of labor pains;
scheduled birth
Types:
1. Low Segment – the method of choice.
Incision is made in the lower uterine segment, which is the
thinnest and most
passive
Part during active labor.
Advantages:Minimal blood loss
Incision is easier to repair
Lower incidence of post partum infection
No possibility of uterine rupture
2. Lower vertical incision – recommended in:
Bladder or lower uterine segment
Adhesions from Previous operations
Anterior Placenta Previa
Transverse lie
Preoperative Care
a.
The patient is both a surgical and an OB patient
b.
Check vital signs, uterine contractions, and FHR
c.
Physical examination; routine laboratory tests; blood typing
and cross
matching
d.
Abdomen is shaved from the level of the xiphoid process
below the
nipple line,
extending out to the flanks on both sides up to the upper thirds
of the
thighs
e.
Retention catheter is inserted to constant drainage to keep the
bladder
away from
the operative site
f.Preoperative medication is usually only atropine sulfate.
No narcotics are given causes respiratory depression in the
NB
Postoperative Care
a.
Deep breathing, coughing exercises, turning from side to side
b.
Ambulate after 12 hours
c.
Monitor vital signs
d.Watch for signs of hemorrhage – inspect lochia; feel fundus
(if
boggy, massage
with proper abdominal splinting and give analgesics as
ordered)
e.
Breastfeeding should be started 24 hrs after delivery
f. Most common complication: Pelvic thrombosis
10. OTHER RISK FACTORS:
10.1.Ag e :
- Maternal and infant mortality rates tend to be high in age
below 15
and older
than 40 years
Adolescent pregnancy
Advanced age
Most common problems:
Toxemia
A precipitating factor in:
Placental accidents
Iron-deficiency anemia
Toxemia
Uterine atony or inertia
Varicosities; hemorrhoids
Low birth weight babies
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1 (associated
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10.2.Pari t y – first pregnancy is the period of high risk
Multiparity G5 and above and age is over 40
10.3. Birth Interval – 3 months from previous delivery or more
than 5 years
10.4. Weight
Pre-pregnant weight < 70 lbs or > 180 lbs
Weight gain < 10 lbs LBW babies
Weight gain > 30 lbs = sign of toxemia; DM; H-mole;
polyhydramnios;
multiple
pregnancy
10.5. Height
Short stature < 4 feet, 10 inches = contracted pelvis or CPD
XIV. MATERNAL COMPLICATIONS
1. Spontaneous Abortion
Termination of pregnancy spontaneously at any time before
the fetus has attained
viability
Assessment:
1. Persistent uterine bleeding and cramplike pain
2. Laboratory finding – negatively or weakly positive urine
pregnancy test
3. Obtain history, including last
menstrual period
2. Ectopic Pregnancy
- Any gestation outside the uterine cavity
Causes of Ectopic Pregnancy:
a. Pregnancy Induce Hypertension
b. Previous tubal surgery
c. Congenital anomalies of the fallopian tubes
Signs & Symptoms:
1
Severe, sharp, knife-like stabbing pain
2
Rigid abdomen
3
Positive Cullen’s sign (bluish umbilicus)
4
Excruciating pain on IE
5
Signs of shock
Management: Ruptured Ectopic Pregnancy is an emergency
requiring immediate
intervention
Salpingostomy – if Fallopian tube can still be replaced and
preserved,pregnancy
is terminated
Saphingectomy – removal of FT and BT
Nursing Interventions:
1
Help woman to combat shock
2
Elevate foot of the bed
3
Maintain body heat
4
Prepare for surgery
5
Monitor for shock preoperatively and postoperatively
6
Provide emotional support and expression of grief
7
Administer Rhogam to Rh negative women
8
Discharge teaching
3. Hydatidiform Mole (H-Mole)
-Degenerative anomaly of chorionic villi
Signs & Symptoms:
1. Elevated hCG levels marked nausea & vomiting
2. Uterine size greater than expected for dates
3. No FHR
4. Minimal dark red/brown vaginal bleeding with passage of
grapelike clusters
5. No fetus by ultrasound
6. Increased nausea and vomiting and associated with PIH
Management:
1. Curettage to completely remove all molar tissue that can
become malignant
2. Pregnancy is discouraged for 1 year
3. hCG levels are monitored for 1 year (if continue to be
elevated, may require
hysterectomy and chemotherapy)
4. Contraception discussed; IUD not used
4. Incompetent Cervical Os
One that dilates prematurely
Chief cause of habitual abortion ( 3 or more)
Causes:
1
Congenital Developmental Factors
2
Endocrine factors
3
Trauma to the cervix
Signs & Sypmtoms:
1 Presence of show and uterine contractions
2 Rupture of membranes, Painless cervical dilatation
5. Incompetent Cervix
6. Placenta Previa – the placenta is the presenting part
1. First and second trimester spotting
2. Third trimester bleeding that is sudden, profuse, painless
3. Ultrasonography – classified by degree of obstruction
Management:
1
Hospitalization, initially
2
Bedrest side-lying or Trendelenberg position for at least 72
hrs.
3
Ultrasound to locate placenta
4
No vaginal, rectal exam unless delivery would not be a
problem (if necessary must be done in OR
under sterile conditions)
5
Amniocentesis for lung maturity; monitor for changes in
bleeding and fetal status
6
Daily Hgb and Hct
7
Two units of crossmatched blood available
8
Monitor amount of blood loss
9
Send home if bleeding ceases and pregnancy is maintained
10
Limit activity
11
No douching, enemas, coitus
12
Monitor fetal movement
13
NST at least every 1 – 2 weeks
14
Monitor complications
15
Delivery by cesarean if evidence of fetal maturity, excessive
bleeding, active labor, other complications
7. Abruptio Placenta
Signs & Symptoms:
1. Painful vaginal bleeding
2. Abdomen (uterus) is tender, painful, tense (couvelaire
uterus)
3. Possible fetal distress
4. Contractions
(Occurrence increased with maternal HPN and cocaine abuse;
sudden release of
amniotic fluid; short cord; advanced age; multiparity; direct
trauma;
hypofibroginemia)
Management:
a. Monitor maternal and fetal progress
b. Blood loss seen may not match symptom
c. Could have rapid fetal distress
d. Prepare for immediate delivery
e. Monitor for post partal complications
Predisposing Factors:
b. Disseminated intravascular coagulation
c. Pulmonary emboli
d. Infection
e. Renal failure
f. Transfusion hepatitis
Nursing Intervention:
Bedrest
Vital signs, FHT
Monitor intake and output
Seizure precautions
Medications (Magnesium sulfate, Apresoline, Valium)
8. Uterine Rupture -occurs when the uterus undergoes more
straining than it is capable of
sustaining
Cause: Scar from previous CS
Unwise use of oxytocins
Overdistention
Faulty presentation
Prolonged labor
Signs & Sypmtoms:
Sudden severe pain
Hemorrhage and clinical signs of shock
Change in abdominal contour (two swelling on the abdomen
due to retracted
uterus and the extrauterine fetus)
Management: Hysterectomy
9. Amniotic Fluid Embolism – (Obstetric Emergency)
– occurs when amniotic fluid is forced into an open maternal
uterine flood sinus
through some defect in the membranes or after partial
premature separation of the
placenta. Solid particles in the amniotic fluid enter maternal
circulation and reach the
lungs as emboli
Signs and symptoms: Dramatic
Sudden inability to breathe, sits up, grasps chest and sharp
chest pain
Turns pale then bluish gray color