Food and Humanity 1 (2023) 543–552
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Food and Humanity
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Sous vide processing for food quality enhancement: A review
Poornima Singha,b, Zainab Sultana, Vinay Kumar Pandeya,c, , Rahul Singha,
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a
b
c
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Department of Bioengineering, Integral University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Mahatma Gandhi Chitrakoot Gramodaya Vishwavidyalaya, Chitrakoot, Madhya Pradesh, India
Department of Biotechnology, Axis Institute of Higher Education, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India
A R T I C L E
I N F O
Keywords:
Sous vide
Vacuum
Pathogens
Seafoods
Meat products
A B S T R A C T
As customer preferences shift, innovative food processing procedures that have little influence on food quality
(prevent loss of nutrients, volatiles, and moisture content) and ensure microbiological safety are being developed. A recent innovation called Sous vide (SV) evenly distributes heat by cooking food in vacuum packaging at
precise temperatures. An overview of the state of the science for using SV methods for food processing and
preservation is provided below. In contrast to traditional thermal food processing methods, the SV method
increases the quality of the food, nutritional content, and storage life while destroying microorganisms
(Salmonella, Clostridium, and many more). The majority of the time, SV cooks food at the range of 60–100 °C
generally for 1–7 h. Microbiological pathogens such as parasites and vegetative and spore types of bacteria
cannot be completely erased even though it works well for processing and preparing food. The nutritional, and
sensory characteristics of food are only minimally impacted by integrating the process with other non-thermal
methods (High-pressure processing and microwave cooking,), and spore-forming microbe inactivation can be
improved. In addition to investigating the method of operation of SV technology, the difficulties associated with
its adoption in the food business are examined. This review looks at the possibilities, applications, and effects of
the SV technique on spore-forming microorganisms and spore inactivation. The discussion and debate presented
may serve as a starting point for additional study and actual applications of this food manufacturing system.
1. Introduction
The professional cooking technique known as sous-vide often referred to as the vacuum cooking technique, has applications in the
catering, home, food industry, and molecular gastronomy (Zavadlav
et al., 2020). On the one side, sous-vide has long been regarded as the
world's best-kept culinary secret, it was developed in response to rising
consumer demand for processed meals that tasted "fresh-like" and were
of high quality (nutritional and sensory characteristics) (Aguilera,
2018; Zavadlav et al., 2020). The phrase "sous-vide" means "under vacuum" and refers to a technique in which raw or partially cooked food is
placed in a plastic bag or pouch, kept in vacuum condition, and cooked
for a prolonged time in a water bath at 60–100 °C (usually from 1 to
7 h) (Kilibarda et al., 2018a). For some foods (meat and meat products),
this could take up to 48 h or longer. By using this technique, naturally
derived juiciness can be preserved without overcooking. The heat used
during sous vide processing may be sufficient to denature specific
proteins, changing their structure and characteristics and, ultimately,
the quality of the meat. The connective tissue proteins, mostly collagen,
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contract and solubilize, the myofibrillar proteins, primarily myosin and
actin, shrink transversely and longitudinally, and the sarcoplasmic
proteins aggregate and gel. According to researchers, the degree and
type of denaturation, contraction, and expansion of meat proteins
mostly rely on the rate of heat transmission, temperature, and time. The
shrinking of myofibrils, which occurs at a linear rate up to 80 °C, causes
the quickest alterations in the proteins of meat between 35 and 40 °C
(Aguilera, 2018). Sarcoplasmic proteins begin to aggregate and gel at
temperatures of about 40 °C and reach their peak around 60 °C. Meat
softness rises while cooking at 60–70 °C due to collagen solubilization
and a decrease in interfiber adhesion. At temperatures about 60 °C, the
collagen fibers start to contract; at temperatures above 65 °C, they
contract more intensively, shattering the triple-stranded helix structure
and turning the collagen fibers into haphazard coils that are soluble in
water, which increases tenderness. With an increase in temperature,
collagen denaturation grows exponentially (Kilibarda et al., 2018a). It
has been observed that sous vide cooking at low temperatures for an
extended period of time, 58–75 °C for 6.5–24 h, can soften tough meat
and dissolve collagen (Aguilera, 2018; Onyeaka et al., 2022). In
Corresponding author at: Department of Bioengineering, Integral University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India.
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: vinaypandey794@gmail.com (V.K. Pandey), rahulsingh.jnu@gmail.com (R. Singh).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foohum.2023.06.028
Received 9 January 2023; Received in revised form 8 May 2023; Accepted 23 June 2023
2949-8244/© 2023 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
P. Singh, Z. Sultan, V.K. Pandey et al.
Food and Humanity 1 (2023) 543–552
addition to its numerous benefits, sous-vide cooking provides customers
with premium-quality prepared food at minimal operating and equipment costs as compared to high-pressure processing, ultrasound processing, and ozonation (Onyeaka et al., 2022; Aguilera, 2018; Zavadlav
et al., 2020). Based on the intensity of the applied heat treatment, sousvide products can be divided into different types- Low-temperature sous
vide and high-temperature sous vide. For example, the low temperature
and long cooking method (LTLT) produce food products with beneficial
properties such as enhanced delicacy and preferable mouthfeel, reduction in lipid oxidation, improved flavour and aroma, and reduced
delicacy losses, which results in prolonged shelf life, reduced flavour
losses (due to vacuum packaging), and improved colour and visual
appeal as the volatiles and textural properties are deteriorated by high
temperature. Even though the fact that there is no need for chemicals or
preservatives when food is cooked sous-vide, certain nutrients (such as
proteins) are changed to improve functionality (Zavadlav et al., 2020;
Karki et al., 2022).
Regardless of whether it is intended for restaurants or home usage,
food is promptly cooled once it has reached the ideal intended textural
characteristics, and the internal temperature and is then kept chilled or
frozen until it is time to serve to prevent microbial growth and preserve
the texture (Choi et al., 2018), (Zavadlav et al., 2020). It is necessary to
optimize the heat treatment settings in order to successfully inactivate
pathogenic E. coli germs in meat, according to the researchers, who
believe that a heat treatment temperature of 71 °C may not be sufficient. Despite this, some pathogenic Escherichia coli, such as the isolate
of E. coli AW 1.7 from beef, have been discovered to be heat resistant,
raising concerns regarding the method's efficacy in inactivating pathogens during the processing of beef (Karki et al., 2022). However, the
impact of heat on E. coli depends on the strain's variability as well as
the characteristics of the food formulations, such as the salt and water
activity levels. It is important to be aware that heat causes changes in E.
coli cells, especially in the DNA, ribosomes, and cytoplasm of the cells
as well as the membrane. Foods including meat, milk, vegetables,
seafood, and eggs are contaminated by these germs (Smith, 2020). For
this culinary technique, microbial safety assessment is crucial, so it's
crucial to understand how such treatments affect microorganisms to
assess the products' safety. The components are first cooked at mild
temperatures after being vacuum-sealed in a bag. In addition to reducing the danger of bacterial contamination, these preserving techniques
can prevent the growth of anaerobes in food throughout storage due to
temperature pressure combination. As a result, cooked food can be kept
for longer in storage and cool down quickly after cooking. The cooking
duration and temperature may also be precisely regulated. Foods have
excellent flavor because vacuum-sealed packaging effectively transfers
heat while limiting oxidation, loss of volatile ingredients, and moisture
(Aguilera, 2018). According to several studies, viruses (such as rotavirus Norwalk virus, and hepatitis viruses) present in sous-vide foods
when are present in sous-vide foods when they are consumed come
from raw ingredients since they survive cooking (Choi et al., 2018;
Aguilera, 2018; Zavadlav et al., 2020). In addition to lessening the
detrimental effects of cooking on nutrients (such as proteins, lipids, and
vitamins), precisely controlled temperature and duration also boost
total polyphenols and antioxidant activity and enhance the overall
texture and color of food (Kilibarda et al., 2018a). Here, we thoroughly
examine the impacts of sous-vide techniques, a novel cooking technique, on food safety, nutritional value, and eating quality, as well as
potential causes. The purpose of the current research was to evaluate
cutting-edge and useful sous-vide methods for producing wholesome,
premium food while considering safety.
ingredients for cooking using the sous vide method, the same procedures as with the conventional cook-chill method must be followed. The
SV is a particular cooking method that involves cooking food in evacuated, vacuum-sealed containers (Choi et al., 2018; Smith, 2020). SV
cooking, which entails pre-packaging meals in plastic containers or
bags, creating a vacuum, and then preparing food inside the bags at
controlled pasteurization temperatures, is a crucial step in this procedure. To guarantee that the best sensory and nutritional qualities are
produced and kept, the method is often used by professional chefs at
low temperatures of 50–65 °C. Other temperatures used in SV vary from
50° to 75°C for processing meat, fish, and shellfish, and are maintained
for several hours or even days. Vegetables are processed at high temperatures of 90–100 °C for a short period of time. The following steps
shown in Fig. 1 are included in the basic sous vide system (PilavtepeCelik et al., 2014).
Preparation-Before cooking, the raw components are prepared by
performing operations including washing, trimming, peeling, seasoning, and others, depending on their origins. At this point, a conventional strategy, such as the typical cook-chill approach, can be used
(Smith, 2020).
Pre-cooking-Since the food is warmed up inside a plastic container
during the sous vide process rather than being heated directly, it may be
necessary to pre-brown some products using conventional cooking
methods. Additionally, some vegetables must be blanched (i.e.
88 ± 99 ℃), and prior to packaging to stop the browning of the product and some strong flavors must be imitated (Smith, 2020; Gazzala,
2004).
Vacuum packaging-It is placing cooked food into specialized plastic
bags or pouches that are airtight and allow efficient heat transfer. These
plastic multi-laminate materials, which are used to manufacture the
bags and pouches, have great resistance to heat and gas leakage.
Aluminum, ethylene vinyl alcohol, polyethylene (PE), and polyamide
plastic laminating bag were suggested for sous vide processing because
of their low oxygen permeability and lack of harmful effects on color.
An especially made vacuum chamber with a pump is used to create a
vacuum after the food has been filled into the container. The pack is
quickly thermally sealed after that to prevent vacuum loss. The most
crucial step in sous vide is vacuum packaging, so the bag's residual air
content needs to be effectively reduced (Karki et al., 2022).
Pasteurization-Depending on the special qualities of the food to be
cooked, the packed food is pasteurized for a predetermined period of
time at a predetermined temperature. This step can be completed in a
steam composite oven or a water bath. One of the most crucial stages in
this process to produce highly flavorful, tender food is sous vide processing, which can be accomplished with the later unit's ability to
control temperature more precisely (Smith, 2020).
Service-It is possible to serve sous vide-cooked food right away or to
take chilled (0–3 °C), pre-packaged, unpasteurized food packs out of the
chill store and pasteurize them right away before serving (Karki et al.,
2022).
Quick cooling-Within 90 min, the packed pasteurized foods are refrigerated to a temperature between 1° and 3° An ice-cold water bath
(direct chilling) is the equipment used for this stage. It is both more
affordable and effective than blast chilling, which is generally used in
traditional cook-chill processes.
Cold storage-Before use, chilled storage at 0 °C should be maintained
for a while. A continuous temperature recorder, an alert system for
when the actual storage temperature deviates from the predetermined
set levels, and a digital real-time logging data logger of storage conditions are all required for chilled storage. In this case, the food is stored
in airtight containers, which slows down the rate of microbial degradation and other potential chemical changes while also preventing
the growth of aerobic bacteria.
Regeneration-This entails reheating and maintaining the food item.
According to the conventional cook-chill technique, the dish must be
reheated to at least 70 °C in the center. For this purpose, a variety of re-
2. Sous vide (SV) processing
A variation of the traditional cook-chill catering approach is sous
vide. With this system, food that has been vacuum-sealed in multiplelaminate plastics is cooked. In order to prepare the food and raw
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Fig 1. Steps involved in sous-vide processing of food.
heating techniques can be used, such as heating the food in a water bath
or a steam oven while it is still under vacuum, or heating the food on
either the stovetop or the interior of the oven and placed in a heatresistant dish. The use of microwaves, where the bag is perforated and
heated, is the more popular method of reheating food. Normal microwaves should not be used, though, as they might not evenly reheat food
unless the product can be heated in only 30 min of being removed from
the cold store. The time allowed between reheating and service is no
more than five minutes (Kilibarda et al., 2018a; Smith, 2020; Gazzala,
2004).
processing pulses, fruits, vegetables, meat, and meat products, which
are discussed below and shown in Fig. 2.
3.1. Sous vide in meat and meat products
The use of low-heat processing methods, Recently, there has been a
lot of interest in using techniques like SV technology to enhance the
quality of dishes that contain meat as shown in Fig. 2. The appropriate
mix of time and temperature factors in SV cooking is critical to the
meat's water-holding ability, textural qualities, and juiciness. The researchers found that compared to chicken breast treated at a single
temperature of 60 °C, chicken breast treated at two temperatures
(50–60 °C) had better textural properties, lower cooking losses, tolerable redness values, and lower lipid degradation levels due to the
role of endogenous enzymes like cathepsins (Gazzala, 2004). On the
week of storage, SV-cooked shrimp retained their distinct fresh seaweed aroma, but conventionally cooked shrimp lost their freshness
aroma following vacuum packaging. Heating at temperatures above
70 °C is thought to assist define the characteristic of volatile aromatic
constituents in mature meat, but SV at temperatures below 50–60 °C
does not result in a nice, cooked meat flavor (Kilibarda et al., 2018a;
Choi et al., 2018). Meat contains around 20% protein, 75% water, and
5% fat and other ingredients. Heat is used to alter (or denature) these
proteins when we cook. Temperature and, to a lesser extent, time
determine which proteins get denatured and how much. Many categorize the proteins into three groups: connective tissue (10–15%),
sarcoplasmic (30–34%), and myofibrillar (50–55%). The connective
tissue proteins (mostly collagen) and myofibrillar proteins (primarily
3. Sous vide application in food
Because it provides better accuracy and consistency, better control
over doneness, a safe level of microbial decrease at lower temperatures,
and more texture options than conventional cooking methods, SV
cooking is a valuable tool in today's kitchen. Additionally, vacuumized
packaging improves heat transfer, reduces the loss of food nutrients to
the cooking environment, decreases the possibility of recontamination
and lengthens the food's life span, and decreases flavors due to deterioration and unique color than conventional processing (Zavadlav
et al., 2020).
When cooking, precise temperature control enables you to benefit
from both quick and gradual changes: The maximum temperature that
food achieves determines fast changes, such as doneness; slow changes,
which often take hours to days, allow you to tenderize tough portions of
meat that would typically be cooked while keeping medium-rare doneness (Aguilera, 2018). The sous vide method is very useful in
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Fig 2. A schematic representation of the application of sous-vide with advantages.
characteristics like color tone, softness, chewiness, and overall quality, the
sensory quality of chicken breast flesh that had been cooked sous vide was
higher. According to Gil et al., (Gil et al., 2022), musculus semitendinosus
and longissimus thoracis samples were taken from beef half-carcasses for
the investigation. 2 h of sous vide cooking at 65 °C after conventional food
preparation in water at 95 °C until the piece's internal temperature attained 65 °C. The experiment was conducted following two and twentyone days of cold storage. Instruments were used to evaluate the textural
parameters (texture profile analysis), color, and sensory aspects of meat.
Meat that had been kept for 21 days performed better in terms of physicochemical and sensory analysis than meat that had been tested 48 h after
death (Przybylski et al., 2021; Gil et al., 2022). The study also found that
sous vide heat treatment had a good effect on textural metrics and sensory
qualities, as well as variations in the production of quality attributes
amongst muscles (Kilibarda et al., 2018a). This study investigates the effects of a novel three-step sous-vide (SV) process on bacterial growth and
variety, as well as the relationship between these factors and product
storage life. Vacuum-packed naturally infected steaks were sequentially
cooked at 39 °C (60 min), 49 °C (60 min), and 59 °C (4 h), then stored at
1.5 and 2 °C for 28 days, with comparative SV at 59 °C for 4 h. After incubation at 39 or 49 °C, none of the seven indicator bacteria examined
grew; microbial diversity was also impacted. Both SV techniques lowered
bacterial burden by up to 6 log units. On the 28th, the odor of all steaks
remained good. Pseudomonas, rather than Lactobacilli, unexpectedly predominated the microflora on steaks cooked using either SV method during
storage. This was most likely caused by the psychrotrophic bacteria's resistance to heat and/or the temperature change lag phase (Przybylski
et al., 2021; Hasani et al., 2022). In summary, the three-step SV did not
encourage bacterial growth or reduce the amount of time cooked foods
could be stored.
myosin and actin) constrict when heated, whereas the sarcoplasmic
proteins expand (Karki et al., 2022).
Muscle fibers contract transversely and longitudinally, sarcoplasmic
proteins gel and clump, and connective tissues contract and solubilize
when heated. For quick changes, muscle fibers start to contract at
35–40 °C, and shrinkage rises almost linearly with temperature until it
reaches 80 °C. Sarcoplasmic protein aggregation and gelation start at
around 40 °C and end at about 60 °C. Around 60 °C, connective tissues
begin to contract, but at 65 °C/150°F, they contract more forcefully.
Through the gradual changes' breakdown of collagen into gelatin and reduction of interfiber adhesion, tenderness is primarily increased (Smith,
2020). These rapid variations give rise to the misconception that the
greatest temperature at which meat is considered to be cooked—50 °C/
125°F for rare, 55 °C for medium-rare, 60 °C for medium, and 70 °C and
above for well done—determines the degree of doneness. The color of two
comparable slices may differ, despite the fact that they will both be similarly plump and juicy when cooked to the same internal temperature.
Meat cooked at 55 °C for 90 min up to 48 h and note how the meat cooked
for 48 h is noticeably paler than the meat cooked for 3 h. The color of meat
cooked to the same temperature depends on how quickly it reaches that
temperature and how long it is held at that temperature. The faster it
comes up to temperature, the redder it is. the longer it is held at a particular temperature, the paler it is (Hasani et al., 2022). Furthermore,
compared to the one-step sous vide technique, the two-step SV method
showed a significantly higher total soluble protein of the chicken breast.
For inactivating the main pathogens of interest (C. perfringens and L.
monocytogenes) in vegetative cells, based on pasteurization values, the twostep sous vide technique was just as secure as the one-step sous vide
technique (Hasani et al., 2022; Gazzala, 2004). According to Przybylski
et al. (2021), the study was done to analyze the impact of the thermal
treatment method, namely the sous-vide method, on the sensory attributes
of poultry meat, along with the process's efficiency in terms of technological quality. The cooking yield of poultry meat using the sous-vide
method was higher than the usual way of cooking in water. The flesh was
also determined to be more delicate and redder and less yellow. In terms of
3.2. Sous vide in vegetables
The International Fresh-cut Produce Association defines minimally
processed produce as "any fresh food or any combined effect that has
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Food and Humanity 1 (2023) 543–552
been physically changed from its native incarnation but remains in a
fresh state" (IFPA). SV is distinguished from minimally processed produce by this. The preparation of minimally processed vegetables includes a number of methods other than cooking; these methods include
eating the vegetables raw. Additionally, these foods don't need special
preparations before eating (Garrett, 1999; Zavadlav et al., 2020).
On the other hand, vegetables that have been sous-vide processed,
even at a low temperature, are not minimally processed because they are
no longer "fresh."Various procedures are used to process the raw veggies,
including sorting, chopping, peeling, washing, cutting, blanching, and
pre-cooking (Iborra-Bernad et al., 2014; Guillén et al., 2017; Amoroso
et al., 2019). Convectively heated foods are heated to the appropriate
temperature, typically at the set temperature, with the length of holding
being the sole consideration. The time required to cook and chill food to
optimum temperatures, however, is as crucial (Gazzala, 2004). The difficult part of preparing veggies is defining the right circumstances to
keep their good quality. After cooking, vegetables are quickly cooled
down to below 3.3 °C (in no more than 2 h), at which point the product's
temperature should be maintained throughout storage and distribution
(Aguilera, 2018; Iborra-Bernad et al., 2014).
Various vegetables have been researched for the use of sous-vide
technology, but not fruits. Although chefs occasionally boil pears and
apples until they are soft, fruits are typically eaten raw. Compared to
other traditional methods like boiling, steaming, or microwaving, The
reduced oxygen content in the pack will generally tend to sustain the
nutritional value and sensory qualities of vegetables (Iborra-Bernad
et al., 2014; Guillén et al., 2017; Kosewski et al., 2018; Gonnella et al.,
2018; Amoroso et al., 2019). These methods of processing vegetables
result in a loss of nutrients because heat damages the cellular walls,
allowing nutrients and water to flow out. As the temperature rises, the
rate of chlorophyll degradation rises, as does the rate of color degradation (Gonnella et al., 2018). Vegetable cellular membranes are
largely left unchanged during the sous-vide process, and the food is
made delicate by solubilizing the pectin that maintains the cells together (Sila et al., 2006). It is also seen that cell separation or debonding can result in the weakening of intermediate lamellae when
linking texture to the structure. This results in a mealy or dry texture
because the cells are not split and so do not release intracellular contents when eaten (Guillén et al., 2017; Kosewski et al., 2018; Gonnella
et al., 2018). In terms of physicochemical qualities, water activity, and
pH are essentially identical to raw vegetables after processing, most
likely due to the absence of chemicals. Even the addition of salt as a
flavor enhancer does not affect the product's water activity (Carlin,
2014). dos Reis et al. (2015), found that compared to fresh samples,
after being cooked sous-vide, the pH of the inflorescences of both
cauliflower and broccoli decreased by half a point (90 ℃, 20 min). The
most likely cause of this is cellular wall ruptures that released interior
acids. The weight reduction of processed vegetable food items may be
reduced via sous-vide treatment. According to Gonnella et al. (2018),
the weight loss of asparagus spears after the sous-vide process (80 ℃,
15 min) was 2.1%. When vegetables are cooked sous-vide, they seem to
retain their phenolic chemicals better than when they are boiled or
steam-cooked using conventional techniques. Compared to carotenoids,
this was most likely because of these substances' limited capacity for
oxidation in vacuum settings (Chiavaro et al., 2012). Regarding this,
Martnez-Hernández et al (Martínez-Hernández et al., 2013)., found that
when compared to raw vegetables, kailan-hybrid cauliflower cooked
sous-vide (90 ℃, 15 min) had a slight improvement (less than 1.4 times)
in phenolic content.
Furthermore, Sacha inchi kernels SV cooked at 100 ℃ for approx.
2 h showed a 5% increase in total phenolic content, according to
Štěrbová et al (Štěrbová et al., 2017). In addition, Carrot slices with a
modest increase in phenolic content due to sous-vide preservation (less
than 5% compared to raw samples) as compared to the conventional
method. The researchers suggested that the quality of Sacha inchi
kernels during food preparation can be considerably influenced by
heating technique and enough time. As a result of the production of
novel compounds, roasting Sacha inchi kernels, particularly at 190 ℃
for 35 min and honey roasting at 170 ℃ for 30 min, has a good impact
on boosting TPC. The tocopherols held up rather well during the boiling
operations, but roasting is when they are most likely to degrade. The
loss of tocopherols was offset by a rise in TPC, therefore thermal processing had no effect on the Sacha inchi kernels' ability to scavenge
radicals. The values of the tested parameters were least affected by the
sous-vide method. From this vantage point, it appears to be a fairly
gentle way of preparing Sacha inchi kernels. Last but not least, more
study is required to determine whether sous-vide processing alters the
vegetable matrix, that is, whether this method of preparation results in
phytochemical constituents that are more readily bioaccessible—that is,
more readily released from the matrix and absorbed in the intestinal
system—and useful for physiological functions (bioavailability)
(Banerjee & Verma, 2015).
3.3. Sous vide in seafoods
The development of various process technologies, such as minimal
cooking techniques is the outcome of efforts in fishery products processing to ensure healthy and premium-quality products as the demand
for naturally occurring and minimally processed efficient seafood items
grows (Banerjee & Verma, 2015). Marine organisms contain long-chain
fatty acids, highly digestible proteins, non-protein nitrogen molecules,
fiber, taurine, sterol, and pigments. They also contain elements that are
absent from creatures that live on the ground (Hosomi et al., 2012).
However, due to the high concentration of polyunsaturated fatty acids
in marine organisms' muscle lipids, which makes them very susceptible
to oxidation, improper handling and processing can quickly cause these
substances to lose their sensory and nutritional qualities, leading to
rancidity and the development of off-flavors (Banerjee & Verma, 2015;
Choi et al., 2018). The most popular techniques used to process vegetables (e.g., stewing, roasting, microwaving, boiling, and steaming)
Fabari (Fabbri & Crosby, 2016), could also be employed in seafood
processing (Barbosa et al., 2018; Pilavtepe-Celik et al., 2014). On the
other hand, cooking promotes several unfavorable physicochemical
processes, the most damaging of which are lipid oxidation and hemeprotein denaturation (Kristinova et al., 2014). When vegetables, meat,
or seafood are prepared at higher temperatures, water-soluble nutrients, such as vitamins and minerals, are frequently lost because of
evaporation and as exudates depart the food. This contains phytochemicals and antioxidants, which are crucial for the health of immunity (Puertollano et al., 2011). Some proteins that are water-soluble
may also be lost during the cooking process. As a result, Wan et al (Wan
et al., 2019)., suggested that sous-vide cooking might be employed as a
healthier alternative because it was shown to help retain the quality of
slices from the largemouth bass. However, careful monitoring of operational technological parameters is essential to protect nutritional
and sensory performance during the thermal treatment of marine organisms.
Heat and cooking time have been shown to affect lipid oxidation in
seafood products (Cropotova et al., 2019). The membrane gaps in fish
muscles are also altered by a range of metabolic processes, protein
aggregations, and conformations that are brought on by higher temperatures (Wan et al., 2019). By employing improved process parameters during the sous-vide preparation of wild salmon, Głuchowski
et al. (2019), were able to achieve a comparable level of cooked fish
flavor and aroma without noticeably deteriorating texture. Vacuum
treatment, however, can be used to reduce lipid damage during the
heating process as well as to separate oxygen and prevent metabolic
processes that require oxygen (Głuchowski et al., 2019).
According to Dominguez-Hernandez et al (Dominguez-Hernandez
et al., 2018)., low-temperature long-time cooking (LTLT) had a number
of benefits over conventional high-temperature cooking (Singh et al.,
2016; Cropotova et al., 2019)., reducing the heat-related degradation of
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proteins, lipids, and nutrient-rich fluid (Singh et al., 2016). Preparing
and cooking squid and octopus using SV technology is one of the most
difficult tasks today, as both are not always of consistent quality (Mo
et al., 2020). In squid and octopus, like abalone and clam, cooking
should be done gently to avoid the muscle tissue from toughening.
Cephalopods retain their structure when cooked sous-vide at a moderate temperature. Prior to sous-vide thermal treatment, cephalopods
can be completely vacuumed inside the container due to their strong
muscles and firmness. The connective tissue structure that resides just
below the skin and is said to be resistant to autolytic processes has
likely changed as a result of rigidity. The collagen concentration in
seafood has a strong correlation with muscle hardness, making squids
particularly challenging to prepare (Singh et al., 2016; Mo et al., 2020).
The majority of techniques call for either rapid frying or low and slow
roasting, both of which can still cause the meal to become harder to
chew. According to researchers, in order to become more delicate and
maintain a succulent structure, the mantle from cephalopods like Sepia
officinalis and Loligo forbesii has to be heated for a very brief period of
time at low temperatures (50–60 C). Squid-cooked sous-vide at low
temperatures may have a tender, melt-in-your-mouth feel (DominguezHernandez et al., 2018). On the other hand, sous-vide cooking at higher
temperatures promotes protein denaturation and coagulation of sarcoplasmic proteins on the surface, which also drastically changes color
(Głuchowski et al., 2019). Cuttlefish must be tenderized before cooking
because it is challenging to prepare because it turns tough or rubbery
when cooked. The use of sous-vide technology has the advantage of
preventing the meat from shrinking and tenderizing the meat, resulting
in meals that are soft and succulent. Additionally, aromatics are not lost
when a plastic sheet and a vacuum seal are used. This study suggests
that, when compared to conventional processing techniques, SV treatment at reduced temperatures can suppress bacterial development
while improving nutritional quality (Singh et al., 2016; Mo et al.,
2020).
4. Effect of sous vide on microorganisms
The ability of processing technology to stop the growth of microbial
spores and bacteria that form spores is what determines the safety of the
food. As a result, the primary objective for food preservation and shelflife extension remains the prevention of degradation and food-borne
microbes (Kilibarda et al., 2018b).
Microbial contamination is the root cause of food spoilage, outbreaks of foodborne illness, and product failure. Food contamination by
microorganisms has resulted in millions of dollars’ worth of packaged
food recalls worldwide. In order to effectively and efficiently manage,
the impact of microbes on food, preservatives, and techniques are
crucial. Analysis In this situation, it is critical to assess the SV technique's potential to eliminate spore-forming microbes and spores, enhance food safety, and lengthen shelf life shown in table 2. The lowtemperature range used in SV technology has been criticized for being
insufficient to ensure microbial food safety as a preserving strategy
(Kilibarda et al., 2018a).
4.1. Effect on bacteria
Numerous studies have suggested that the microorganisms found in
the finished sous vide foods are most likely caused by bacteria that were
present in the raw materials and survived throughout processing. The
microbes of concern in sous vide foods are classified into four types. E.
coli, Vibrio, Salmonella, Campylobacter, and Staphylococcus aureus are
examples of vegetative bacteria that cannot grow at cold temperatures.
The first category also includes other bacterial species (Onyeaka et al.,
2022; Kilibarda et al., 2018b; Hart et al., 2022). Pasteurization primarily inactivates these germs. Listeria monocytogenes, Yersinia, and
Aeromonas are examples of vegetative bacteria that can thrive and reproduce at refrigerated temperatures. Contrary to vegetative bacterial
cells, Bacillus and Clostridium spores frequently resist different safety
risks are presented by food preservatives and preservation methods to
producers and processing businesses. Due to their ability to produce
spores and toxins, they are considered a significant pathogen in heattreated foods and are sensitive to pH levels above 4.4 (Kilibarda et al.,
2018a; Onyeaka et al., 2022). Unexpectedly, the shelf-life recommendation is only 10 days, unless the storage environment is below
2.5 °C, in which case the storage period shouldn't exceed 90 days. In
contrast to other techniques, the SV method preserves the nutritional
value and organoleptic qualities of the food without allowing nonproteolytic bacteria spores to grow and produce neurotoxins (Onyeaka
et al., 2022). This is due to SV's shelf-life and storage temperature
(Kilibarda et al., 2018b). It has been asserted that SV vacuumed packs
comprise some remaining oxygen, but not enough to prevent Bacillus
and Clostridium, at pH 4.2–4.4 which are frequently found in packaged
foods, from reproducing and growing. Bacillus and Clostridium spores
may or may not recover and grow after being damaged by the high
temperatures produced by SV (Hart et al., 2022).
Under favorable conditions, the germination of microspores in food
may result in food contamination, deterioration, and disease outbreaks.
Microorganisms called spores have an innately specific conformation
that enables them to tolerate and withstand harsh environmental conditions like high temperatures, radiation, and toxic substances (Tehri
et al., 2018). SV, well-known for its low heat treatment requirements,
might be adequate for vegetative cells but ineffective for killing off L.
monocytogenes, C. botulinum, and B. cereus bacterial spores, which are
regarded as serious microbiological risks (Cabo et al., 2009; Cosansu &
Juneja, 2018). Between 77 and 94 °C, an SV-processed meal had a 3-log
decrease in B. cereus counts, decreasing from 0.5 to 1.0 logs. This shows
that spores regerminated at 10 °C in a day (Miguel-Garcia et al., 2009).
However, when paired with other treatments or used as an adjuvant
strategy, SV has been demonstrated to be effective in inhibiting microbial spores and inhibiting spore germination/outgrowth. The combination of pediocin and nisin inhibited the growth of Bacillus subtilis in
3.4. Sous vide in pulses
Pulses or grain legumes are dicotyledonous pods of plants in the
family Leguminosae that are grown primarily for human consumption
and harvested for dry grain. The edible seeds of some legumes, such as
different types of beans, and lentils, are known as pulses. Pulses are
abundant in essential amino acids, plant-based protein, carbohydrates,
and dietary fiber, as well as the right levels of vitamins and minerals.
The study conducted by Kirse et al., (Ķirse et al., 2017), was to determine the effects of high-pressure processing (700 MPa/20 °C/10 min)
and To determine consumer acceptance of processed pulse spreads after
22 days of storage, to assess the nutritional properties of cowpea and
maple pea spreads after processing and 2 months of storage at 5 °C
temperature, and to assess the nutritional coverage of pulse spreads in
comparison to reference intake for adults and adolescents, sous vide
treatment (80 °C/15 min) was used. The ingredients for pulse spreads
included cooked pulse seeds, citric acid, salt, oil, and spice. Under vacuum, pulse spreads were properly sealed. Standard techniques were
used to establish the nutritional composition, and a 5-point hedonic
scale was employed to gauge overall acceptance. The results imply that
high-pressure processing has no impact on the general acceptance of
pulse products when compared with the untreated specimen and sous
vide pulse spreads. The goal of Kirse et al., (Kirse et al., 2016), the study
was to create creative pulse spreads using various pulses grown in
Europe and evaluate the spreads' sensory quality both before and after
SV cooking. Two varieties of pulse spreads, a conventional (control)
spread and a spread with spices, were made from cowpeas and maple
peas. The SV treatment had no effect on consumers' preferences for
cowpea and maple pea spreads, according to consumer hedonic analysis. New pulse spreads could be SV treated to lengthen their shelf life
and preserve their sensory quality for a minimum of 22 days. The effect
of SV in different commodities is shown in table 1.
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P. Singh, Z. Sultan, V.K. Pandey et al.
Food and Humanity 1 (2023) 543–552
Table 1
Application of Sous-vide processing in different food products.
Food
Treatment
Analysis
Reference
Cauliflower, Brussel
sprouts, and
Broccoli
45 min at 90 ℃ (cauliflowers and broccoli)50 min at 90 ℃
(Brussels sprouts)Traditional cooking time: 10 min
(cauliflowers and broccoli) or 15 min (other vegetables)
(Brussels sprouts)Cooking time: 7 min at 100 °C.
(Kirse et al.,
2016)
-Cauliflower, Brussel
sprouts, and
Broccoli
-Cauliflowers and broccoli can be sous-vide cooked at 90 °C
for 45 min or 90 °C for 50 min. (Brussels sprouts)Cauliflowers and broccoli are traditionally cooked for 10 min
in unsalted water or for 15 min in salted water (Brussels
sprouts)Storage: 21 °C for 0, 48, and 120 h for steam cooking;
100 °C for 7 min for storage.
Asparagus spears
Boiling: 99.0 ± 1.0 °C for 5 minutesSteaming: 99.0 ± 1.0 °C
for 6 minutesMicrowaving conventionally: 2450 MHz,
900 W, 1.5 minSous-vide cooking: 99.0 ± 1.0 °C for 5
minutesSous-vide: 80 °C for 15 minutesMicrowave time:
1.5 min, 2450 MHz, 900 W
Pumpkin
Cooking with a 0.2% salt addition:8 min of boiling in water12
minutes of steaming at 95°CMicrowave—2450 MHz, 10
minutesSous-vide—90 °C, 30 min
Tomato powder
Sous-vide cooking for 4 h at 60 ◦C
Salmon
Par-roasting at 300 ◦C (3 min) Sous-vide at 80 ◦C (43 min)
Pirarucu
Sous-vide at 60 ◦C(9.48 min)
Lobster
High-Pressure Processing (HPP): 150 MPa/350 MPa (10 min)
at 4 ◦C Sous-vide at 65 ◦C (10 min)
-Low-temperature SV cooking had not affected the
vegetables' microbiological safety or quality.-In
contrast to uncooked vegetable samples, cooked
veggies had greater GLS concentrations.-Six of the nine
discovered glucosinolates (glucoiberin, glucoraphanin,
progoitrin,gluconapin, 4-metoxyglucobrassicin, and
glucobrassicin) were found in larger concentrations in
SV broccoli than in typically cooked broccoli.- SV
preparation of Romanesco-style cauliflower and
Brussels sprouts resulted in greater GLS losses than
conventional cooking.-A sophisticated technique for
preparing broccoli for consumption is SV cooking.
-SV proved to be the best favorable in terms of pcoumaric, caffeic, and gallic acid stability.-In both raw
and thermally processed vegetables, there was
discovered to be a strong positive correlation between
antioxidant activity and total phenolic components.Regarding the preservation of the phenolic component
in Brassica vegetables, the SV technique is thought to
be the best thermal approach.
Microwave produced the greatest change in weight,
dry weight increase, and overall colour difference
compared to unprocessed samples- All cooking
techniques were deemed to be sensory-acceptable, but
sous vide-microwave cooking garnered the most
favour.-Sous vide- microwave preserves the nutritional
quality and colour attributes better than other cooking
methods.- When compared to unprocessed samples,
Sous vide- microwave samples had a 42% increase in
violaxanthin level.- The cooking procedures had no
statistically significant effect on rutin levels.Sous videmicrowave was discovered to be the best way for
preserving asparagus stalks.
-Ascorbic acid was lost during all cooking processes by
about 50% when compared to raw samples.- The total
flavonoids' decline (30.27%) was most significantly
impacted by the sous-vide cooking technique.- The
richest concentrations of anthocyanins and carotenoids
were found in microwaved samples, whereas the
lowest concentrations of both pigments—reductions of
54.37% and 50.0%, respectively—were found in sousvide samples.- The total polyphenol content was
lowered from 49.68% to 64.94% across all cooking
techniques.-Microwaved pumpkins demonstrated the
greatest sensory adaptability, Boiling, steaming, and
sous-vide cooking come next.
-Following the SV cooking of tomato powder, losses for
L-ascorbic acid (20.35%), lycopene (10.93%), and total
phenol content (15.98%) were calculated.-After being
sous-vided, tomato powder had an Amadori
component concentration that was roughly 2.2 times
higher than it had been before.-The results of all four
tests showed that tomato powder that had been sousvide treated had higher levels of antioxidants than
untreated samples.- The cooking procedures had no
statistically significant effect on rutin levels.-The most
effective method for preserving asparagus stalks was
found to be SV-MW.
-On days 18, 22, and 25, the existence of Enterobacteria
was discovered, however, it was always below the
minimum detection level.-Salmon kept at 2 C for up to
25 days had it’s Enterobacteria growth effectively
slowed down thanks to SV cooking.-Based on the
sensory investigation, the sous-vide salmon's shelf life
was determined to be 18 days.
-The dorsal cut of pirarucu performed best for
producing the SV product when compared to other raw
pirarucu cuts.- On the hedonic scale, the SV product
obtained sensory scores of 7 for acceptance on day 0
while the qualities obtained an average score of 5 on
day 49. Anaerobes remained within permissible levels
throughout storage.
-Raw lobster that had been cooked or compressed at
350 MPa had During storage, microbial numbers are
(Florkiewicz
et al., 2019)
(Gonnella et al.,
2018)
(Da Silva et al.,
2017)
Yang et al.
(Díaz et al., 2009)
(Rondanelli et al.,
2017)
(Humaid et al.,
2020)
(continued on next page)
549
P. Singh, Z. Sultan, V.K. Pandey et al.
Food and Humanity 1 (2023) 543–552
Table 1 (continued)
Food
Treatment
Analysis
Sacha inchi kernels
Sous-vide at 100 °C for 135 min
Cowpea and maple
pea
HPP (700 MPa/20 °C/10 min) and sous vide treatment
(80 °C/15 min)
chicken breast
Two steps sous-vide treatment
markedly reduced.-No pre-treatment with HPP
increased the shelf life of SV-cooked goods. SV can
encourage the availability of cooled lobster tails for
sale commercially in order to produce a variety of
products made from lobster that are superior quality
and more readily available than refrigerated lobsters.
A 5% increase in total phenolic content in Sacha inchi
kernels
High-pressure processing has no impact on how wellliked pulse products are in general when compared to
raw samples and SV pulse spreads.
Compared to chicken breast treated at a single
temperature, those treated at two temperatures (50
and 60 °C) possessed improved texture traits, reduced
cooking losses, manageable redness values, and
reduced lipid degradation levels. Furthermore,
compared to the one-step sous vide technique, The
chicken breast's total protein soluble content was
substantially higher using the two-step sous vide
technique.
Reference
(Štˇerbová et al.,
2017)
(Ķirse et al.,
2017)
(Hasani et al.,
2022).
Table 2
Sous-vide processing and effect on microorganisms.
Microorganism
Remarks
References
Non-proteolytic bacteria spores
Unless storage conditions are below 2.5 °C, in which case storage should not go beyond 90 days without
affecting the food's nutrient value or organoleptic qualities only a 10-day storage life is suggested.
Bacterial spores that are damaged by the high temperatures created by SV may or may not restore and
develop.Vacuumed packs contain some residual oxygen but not enough to prevent Bacillus and
Clostridium from reproducing and growing.
Inhibiting microbial spores and inhibiting spore germination/outgrowth
T. gondii tissue cysts in meat are generally inhibited at a minimal cooking temperature of 67 °C
Even low heat treatments using swine meat, such as 49 °C (5.6 min), 55 °C (44 sec), and 61 °C (6 sec),
have been found to deactivate this parasite.
MNV-1 and Tulane virus (TV) were inhibited substantially faster when treated with SV at temperatures
over 58 °C. After 1 m of thermal processing at 67 °C for MNV-1 and 63 °C for TV, the infection rate was
below the detection limit.
the preservation of an improved cold chain to guard against C. perfringens in tomato sauce-marinated
SV-processed pork meat. The combination of pediocin and nisin stopped Bacillus subtilis and Bacillus
licheniformis from growing at a temperature of 15 °C.
(Onyeaka et al., 2022).
Bacillus and Clostridium
C. perfringens spore
T. gondii tissue
T. gondii tissue
MNV-1 and Tulane virus (TV)
C. perfringens spore
mushrooms and Bacillus licheniformis in shellfish salad at 15 °C. It is well
known that the biopeptides nisin and pediocin kill Gram-positive microbes as well as spore-forming bacteria and clostridium (Scott &
Taylor, 1981; Onyeaka et al., 2022).
(Hart et al., 2022)
(Cosansu & Juneja, 2018)
(Hill & Dubey, 2016)
(Mirza Alizadeh et al.,
2018)
(Shao et al., 2018)
(Miguel-Garcia et al.,
2009)
44 sonds, and 61 °C for 6 sonds using swine meat (Mirza Alizadeh et al.,
2018). Greening et al. (2001), discovered that viruses are reasonably
constant at 37 °C and can keep the infection rate for weeks or days at
4 °C, as well as being infectious after freezing. Feline calicivirus and
murine norovirus injected into spinach were shown to be inactivated at
56 °C, with D-values ranging from 0.16 (72 °C) to 14.57 (50 °C) and 0.15
(72 °C) to 17.39 (50 °C), respectively (Bozkurt et al., 2014). In another
investigation using oysters, both MNV-1 and Tulane virus (TV) were
inhibited substantially faster when treated with SV at temperatures over
58 °C. The infection rate was below the detection limit after 1 m of
thermal processing at 67 °C for MNV-1 and 63 °C for TV (Shao et al.,
2018). Similar results were observed for non-vacuum-packed dried
mussels at 60 °C, where HAV decreased by 16 logs.
4.2. Effect on parasites and viruses
Noroviruses and the hepatitis A virus are the two most prevalent
human pathogens that cause foodborne infections. An emerging foodborne virus is the Hepatitis E virus (HEV). There are unconfirmed reports
that canned foods may contain live virus particles because there are no
culture techniques to identify them, limiting the ability to examine how
norovirus and hepatitis E virus are affected by heat (Horn et al., 2016).
Because of this, viruses do not grow on food. However, at low infectious
dosages of 10–100 particles, there is a tendency for low-level infections
to progress to full-blown infections as a result of exposure. In the food
industry, temperature control, such as high or low-temperature treatments, is frequently used to inactivate parasites (Kotula et al., 1991). One
of the most common parasitic diseases brought on by food is toxoplasmosis, which is brought on by Toxoplasma gondii. At a minimum
cooking temperature of 67 °C, T. gondii tissue cysts in meat are typically
inhibited (Hill & Dubey, 2016). This parasite, however, has been found to
be deactivated by even low heat treatments of 49 °C for 5.6 min, 55 °C for
5. Advantages
When compared to conventional cooking techniques, SV can increase the nutritional value of food products while also lengthening
their shelf life. SV may also offer consistency and repeatability of
cooking results that traditional cooking methods cannot match because
it allows for better control of cooking time and temperature (Onyeaka
et al., 2022; Da Silva et al., 2017). In addition, the SV technology is easy
to use and does not require workers to be professionally trained, saving
550
P. Singh, Z. Sultan, V.K. Pandey et al.
Food and Humanity 1 (2023) 543–552
labor costs and improving the industrial application of SV to food
products. Contrary to conventional cooking, sous vide uses plastic bags
to minimize mineral loss and increase bioavailability. The researcher
examined the availability of copper, calcium, potassium, iron, and
magnesium in the bovine liver, and supported these conclusions. Even
though the evaluation's primary concern is food safety, it will be helpful
to emphasize the advantages of SV cooking (Da Silva et al., 2017). The
approach has been shown to preserve mineral content, and increase the
digestibility of nutrients and solubility (Rondanelli et al., 2017). Other
advantages of SV technology include preventing aerobic bacterial
growth, minimizing volatile flavor, aroma, and moisture loss, preserving nutritional value, lowering chemical species known to be harmful
to human health, such as heterocyclic amines and aromatic hydrocarbons, improving the juiciness and tenderness of the meat, and preventing plant pigment oxidation (Kilibarda et al., 2018a). Although SV
technology has many benefits, one significant drawback is the lack of
microbiological safety of products that have undergone SV processing
when treatment is carried out alone. According to reports, SV technology effectively inactivates aerobic and reproductive bacteria like
Bacillus and Clostridium species. Additionally, using SV cooking requires the use of specialized tools and training. Overall, mild thermal
treatment and anoxic, as well as a decline in the method's acceptance by
food producers and regulators, are the biggest problems with SV.
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steaming on contaminants of emerging concern levels in seafood. Food and Chemical
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Cabo, M. L., Torres, B., Herrera, J. J., Bernárdez, M., & Pastoriza, L. (2009). Application of
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products. Journal of Food Protection, 72(3), 515–523. https://doi.org/10.4315/0362028x-72.3.515
Carlin, F. (2014). Microbiology of sous-vide products. In R. Robinson, C. Batt, & C. A. Batt
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6. Conclusion
In order to assess the nutritional value, microbiological security, and
storage stability of food products, SV has primarily been studied in vacuum and low-temperature cooking. The use of SV cooking techniques
satisfies modern consumer preferences for fresh produce that hasn't been
heated to a high temperature. The technique's effectiveness has been demonstrated by the effective results obtained in the processing of meat,
vegetable, and plant-based foods, and seafood treatment. Even though this
technology enhances the nutritional and organoleptic qualities of food,
concerns remain regarding the microbiological quality of processed foods.
Combining SV cooking with other barriers can help remove microbial
pathogens from food more effectively. With these methods, commercially
sterile food can be produced at temperatures lower than those required for
traditional cooking, which may alter the idea of SV cooking. Future uses of
SV technology should consider the creation of standardized, precisely
controllable tools that produce uniform cooking. Treatment variables like
heat and cooking time should be modified for different food varieties and
classes. Future research must focus on synergistic benefits in conjunction
with non-thermal food production technologies in the case of food quality
and spore deactivation. In the upcoming years, SV-food products are likely
to garner more interest and market share as convenient, wholesome, and
healthful goods.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
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