Path370BLStudyGuide Chapter36GIT37GallbladderPancreas38Liver40Endo41DM Please know the eGology, pathogenesis , signs and symptoms , diagnosGc test,treatment of the following condiGons : A. Chapter 36 GIT Disorders 1) Gastroesophageal reflux • Causes stomach acid and parGally digested food to flow back into the esophagus • Symptoms can include heartburn, regurgitaGon, and chest pain • Lifestyle modificaGons, medicaGons, and someGmes surgery are used for management 2) Esophageal varices • Enlarged and swollen blood vessels in the lower part of the esophagus • Usually caused by liver cirrhosis • Can lead to life-threatening bleeding if they rupture • Management involves medicaGons to reduce bleeding, endoscopic therapies, and addressing the underlying cause 3) GastriGs • InflammaGon of the lining of the stomach • Symptoms may include abdominal pain, nausea, vomiGng, and loss of appeGte • Common causes include infecGon (H. pylori), medicaGons, alcohol abuse, and autoimmune diseases • Treatment involves medicaGon to reduce stomach acid, anGbioGcs for infecGon, and lifestyle changes 4) GastroenteriGs • InflammaGon of the stomach and intesGnes • Can be caused by viral, bacterial, or parasiGc infecGons • Symptoms include diarrhea, vomiGng, abdominal pain, and fever • Management focuses on fluid and electrolyte replacement, rest, and symptomaGc relief 5) PepGc ulcer – Gastric and duodenal ulcer • Open sores that develop on the lining of the stomach (gastric ulcer) or the upper porGon of the small intesGne (duodenal ulcer) • Most commonly caused by infecGon with H. pylori bacteria or long-term use of nonsteroidal anG-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) • Symptoms can include abdominal pain, bloaGng, nausea, and vomiGng • Treatment involves medicaGons to reduce stomach acid, anGbioGcs for H. pylori, and lifestyle modificaGons • 6) UlceraGve coliGs • Chronic inflammatory bowel disease that primarily affects the colon and rectum Symptoms include abdominal pain, diarrhea (o]en with blood or mucus), weight loss, and faGgue • Treatment opGons include medicaGons to manage inflammaGon, lifestyle modificaGons, and in severe cases, surgery 7) Crohn’s disease • Another type of chronic inflammatory bowel disease that can affect any part of the digesGve tract • Symptoms may include abdominal pain, diarrhea, weight loss, and faGgue • Treatment aims to reduce inflammaGon, manage symptoms, and prevent complicaGons 8) AppendiciGs • InflammaGon of the appendix, a small finger-shaped pouch a_ached to the large intesGne • Typically caused by an obstrucGon of the appendix by fecal ma_er, enlarged lymphoid Gssue, or tumor • Symptoms include abdominal pain, fever, loss of appeGte, nausea, and vomiGng • Treatment usually involves surgical removal of the appendix (appendectomy) 9) Hirschsprung disease aka megacolon • A congenital disorder in which nerve cells in the large intesGne are missing, leading to a parGal or complete blockage • Symptoms appear shortly a]er birth and depend on the extent of the blockage, typically including consGpaGon, abdominal distenGon, and failure to pass meconium (first stool) • Diagnosis is made through imaging tests and rectal biopsy • Treatment is surgical removal of the affected porGon of the large intesGne (pull-through procedure) B. Chapter 37 Gallbladder & Pancreas disorders 10) Cholelithiasis & cholecysGGs • Cholelithiasis refers to the formaGon of gallstones in the gallbladder, which are solid deposits made up of cholesterol or bilirubin. • CholecysGGs is the inflammaGon of the gallbladder, o]en caused by the blockage of the cysGc duct by gallstones. • • • • Common symptoms include abdominal pain (parGcularly in the right upper quadrant), nausea, vomiGng, and someGmes fever. Cholelithiasis can someGmes be asymptomaGc, while cholecysGGs usually presents with more severe pain and inflammaGon. Treatment for cholelithiasis may involve lifestyle changes, medicaGons, or surgical removal of the gallbladder (cholecystectomy). CholecysGGs o]en requires hospitalizaGon, with management involving anGbioGcs, pain control, and surgery if necessary. 11) PancreaGGs • PancreaGGs is the inflammaGon of the pancreas, an organ located behind the stomach that produces digesGve enzymes and hormones such as insulin. • It can be categorized into acute (short-term) or chronic (ongoing) pancreaGGs. • Common causes include gallstones, alcohol abuse, trauma, infecGon, certain medicaGons, and geneGc factors. • Symptoms include severe abdominal pain (usually in the upper abdomen), nausea, vomiGng, and fever. • Treatment may involve pain management, intravenous fluids, bowel rest, and addressing the underlying cause. • Severe cases may require hospitalizaGon and potenGally surgical intervenGon. C. Chapter 38 Liver diseases 12) Hepatocellular failure • Hepatocellular failure refers to the dysfuncGon or damage to the liver cells (hepatocytes), leading to impaired liver funcGon. • It can be caused by various factors such as viral hepaGGs, alcohol abuse, drug-induced liver injury, autoimmune diseases, and geneGc condiGons. • Symptoms may include jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes), faGgue, weakness, nausea, abdominal pain, and fluid retenGon. • Treatment depends on the underlying cause and may involve supporGve measures, medicaGons, or potenGally liver transplantaGon. 13) Portal hypertension • Portal hypertension is increased blood pressure in the portal vein, which carries blood from the digesGve organs to the liver. • • • • It is usually a result of liver disease, such as liver cirrhosis, where scar Gssue develops and obstructs blood flow through the liver. ComplicaGons of portal hypertension can include the development of varices, ascites (fluid accumulaGon in the abdomen), and hepaGc encephalopathy (brain dysfuncGon). Treatment focuses on managing the underlying liver disease, controlling symptoms, and prevenGng complicaGons. 14) Gastroesophageal varices Gastroesophageal varices are enlarged and swollen blood vessels in the lower part of the esophagus that result from portal hypertension. • These varices can be fragile and prone to bleeding, which can be life-threatening. • They most commonly occur in individuals with liver cirrhosis. • Treatment opGons include medicaGons to reduce the risk of bleeding, endoscopic procedures to treat or prevent bleeding, and addressing the underlying liver disease. 15) Acute viral hepaGGs A,B,C,D,E – modes of transmission • HepaGGs is inflammaGon of the liver caused by viral infecGons. • HepaGGs A is usually transmi_ed through contaminated food or water, hepaGGs B through exposure to infected blood or body fluids, hepaGGs C primarily through blood contact (e.g., sharing needles), hepaGGs D in conjuncGon with hepaGGs B infecGon, and hepaGGs E usually through contaminated water. • Each type of viral hepaGGs has different characterisGcs and varying degrees of severity. • PrevenGon involves vaccinaGon (hepaGGs A and B), pracGcing safe sex, avoiding sharing needles, and maintaining good hygiene. 16) Liver cirrhosis • Liver cirrhosis is a late stage of liver disease, wherein healthy liver Gssue is replaced with scar Gssue due to long-term liver damage. • It can result from various causes, such as viral hepaGGs, alcoholic liver D. Chapter 40 Endocrine disorders 17) Hypothyroidism • Hypothyroidism refers to an underacGve thyroid gland that does not produce enough thyroid hormones. • Common causes include autoimmune thyroidiGs (Hashimoto's thyroidiGs), surgical removal of the thyroid gland, and certain medicaGons. • • • Symptoms may include faGgue, weight gain, feeling cold, dry skin, consGpaGon, depression, and cogniGve impairment, bradycardia. Treatment typically involves thyroid hormone replacement therapy to restore normal hormone levels. 18) Hyperthyroidism • Hyperthyroidism is an overacGve thyroid gland that produces excessive amounts of thyroid hormones. • The most common cause is an autoimmune condiGon called Graves' disease, but it can also be due to toxic mulGnodular goiter or thyroid nodules. • Symptoms may include weight loss, increased appeGte, heat intolerance, sweaGng, palpitaGons, anxiety, and tremors, tachycrdia, diarrhea. • Exopthalamos aka bulging eyes and photophobia aka light fear Treatment opGons include medicaGons to suppress thyroid hormone producGon, radioacGve iodine therapy to destroy a porGon of the thyroid gland, and in some cases, surgery. 19) Cushing’s disease • Cushing's disease is a condiGon characterized by excessive producGon of corGsol, a hormone produced by the adrenal glands. • It is most commonly caused by a noncancerous tumor in the pituitary gland, which triggers the overproducGon of corGsol. • Symptoms may include weight gain (parGcularly in the upper body), rounded face (moon face), thinning skin, easy bruising, muscle weakness, and mood changes. • Treatment may involve surgical removal of the pituitary tumor or medicaGons to reduce corGsol producGon. 20) Addison’s disease • Addison's disease, also known as primary adrenal insufficiency, occurs when the adrenal glands do not produce enough corGsol and aldosterone. • The most common cause is autoimmune destrucGon of the adrenal glands. • Symptoms can include faGgue, weight loss, abdominal pain, low blood pressure, salt craving, and darkening of the skin. • Treatment involves lifelong replacement therapy with corGsol and aldosterone. 21) Diabetes insipidus • Diabetes insipidus is a condiGon characterized by excessive thirst and excessive urinaGon. • It is caused by a deficiency or decreased response to the hormone vasopressin (ADH), which normally helps regulate fluid balance in the body. • • • Symptoms may include extreme thirst (polydipsia) and the producGon of large amounts of dilute urine (polyuria). Treatment depends on the underlying cause and may involve medicaGons or hormone replacement therapy. 22) Syndrome of Inappropriate ADH secreGon • SIADH is a condiGon characterized by excessive secreGon of anGdiureGc hormone (ADH) by the pituitary gland or another source. • ADH helps regulate water balance in the body by decreasing urine producGon and increasing water reabsorpGon in the kidneys. • In SIADH, there is unregulated and excessive release of ADH, leading to increased water retenGon in the body. • Common causes include certain medicaGons, pulmonary disorders, brain tumors, or as a result of certain cancers. • Symptoms may include hyponatremia (low sodium levels in the blood), fluid overload, concentrated urine, and signs of water intoxicaGon (such as headache, confusion, and seizures). Treatment involves addressing the underlying cause, fluid restricGon, and medicaGons to block the effects of ADH or increase sodium levels. E. Chapter 41 Diabetes mellitus 23) Type 1 diabetes mellitus • Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune condiGon where the body's immune system mistakenly destroys the insulin-producing cells (beta cells) in the pancreas. • As a result, the body is unable to produce enough insulin to regulate blood sugar levels effecGvely. • Type 1 diabetes o]en develops in childhood or early adulthood and requires lifelong insulin therapy for blood sugar control. • Symptoms may include excessive thirst, frequent urinaGon, weight loss, faGgue, and increased suscepGbility to infecGons. 24) Type 2 diabetes mellitus • Type 2 diabetes is a metabolic disorder characterized by insulin resistance and inadequate insulin producGon. • It is o]en related to lifestyle factors such as obesity, physical inacGvity, and an unhealthy diet. • Unlike type 1 diabetes, type 2 diabetes can be managed with lifestyle modificaGons, oral medicaGons, and someGmes insulin therapy. • • Symptoms may be similar to type 1 diabetes, but they may develop gradually or be absent in some cases. 25) GestaGonal diabetes mellitus • GestaGonal diabetes occurs during pregnancy and is characterized by high blood sugar levels that develop during pregnancy. • It usually resolves a]er delivery, but women who had gestaGonal diabetes are at increased risk of developing type 2 diabetes later in life. • GestaGonal diabetes is commonly managed with dietary changes and, in some cases, insulin therapy to maintain blood sugar levels within a target range. 26) DiabeGc ketoacidosis • DKA is a life-threatening complicaGon of diabetes, parGcularly in type 1 diabetes. • It occurs when there is a severe deficiency of insulin, leading to a buildup of ketones (byproducts of fat breakdown) and acidosis. • Symptoms may include excessive thirst, frequent urinaGon, fruity breath odor, abdominal pain, nausea, vomiGng, and altered mental status. • DKA requires urgent medical a_enGon and is treated with intravenous fluids, insulin therapy, and correcGon of electrolyte imbalances. 27) Non-ketoGc hyperglycemic hyperosmolar syndrome • HHS typically occurs in older adults with underlying medical condiGons, such as infecGons, heart disease, or kidney problems. • It is characterized by extremely high blood sugar levels (hyperglycemia) and severe dehydraGon, leading to an altered mental state and neurological symptoms. • Unlike diabeGc ketoacidosis (DKA), which is more common in type 1 diabetes, HHS does not usually involve significant ketone producGon or acidosis. • Symptoms may include extreme thirst, dry mouth, confusion, weakness, visual changes, and in severe cases, seizures or coma. • HHS requires immediate medical a_enGon and treatment in a hospital sehng, including intravenous fluids to rehydrate the body, electrolyte replacement, and insulin therapy to bring down blood sugar levels.
