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A LECTURE NOTE ON RESEARCH METHODS
Research · February 2023
DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.27074.45764
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MARIO INSTITUTE OF HOSPITALIY MANAGEMENT AND
ENTREPRENUERSHIP EDUCATION, UHUNOWERRE, IGBO-EZE SOUTH
LGA AREA OF ENUGU STATE.
LECTURE NOTE
COURSE: RESEARCH REPORT WRITING
LECTURER: JUDE ASOGWA
2nd May, 2022
CONTENTS
RESEARCH ..................................................................................................................................................... 3
SCIENTIFIC METHOD ..................................................................................................................................... 4
RESEARCH PROJECT ...................................................................................................................................... 7
FORMAT OF WRITING AND PRESENTING A RESEARCH PROJECT REPORT.................................................... 7
TYPES OF RESEARCH ..................................................................................................................................... 8
PURPOSE OF RESEARCH .............................................................................................................................. 10
UNDERSTAND HOW TO FORMULATE A VIABLE RESEARCH TOPIC ............................................................. 10
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................. 13
Background of the Study............................................................................................................................. 13
Statement of the Problem ......................................................................................................................... 14
TIPS ON WRITING STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM .................................................................................... 15
Purpose /Objective of the Study ............................................................................................................... 16
Significance of the Study ............................................................................................................................ 16
Scope of the Study...................................................................................................................................... 17
Research Questions .................................................................................................................................... 18
CHAPTER TWO ............................................................................................................................................ 20
Review of Literature ................................................................................................................................... 20
NEED FOR LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................................................................. 20
BREAKING UP THE REVIEW AND PROPER ORGANIZATION......................................................................... 21
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK....................................................................................................................... 21
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ...................................................................................................................... 22
RELATED EMPIRICAL STUDIES .................................................................................................................... 22
SUMMARY OF LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................................... 22
QAULITITES OF A WELL PLANNED LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................... 23
CHAPTER THREE .......................................................................................................................................... 24
Research Methods...................................................................................................................................... 24
DESIGN OF THE STUDY ............................................................................................................................... 24
TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN ..................................................................................................................... 25
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Area of Study .............................................................................................................................................. 25
Population of the Study ............................................................................................................................. 26
SAMPLE AND SAMPLING TECHNIQUES: .................................................................................................... 27
The Sample Size of the Sample: .................................................................................................................. 29
Instrument for Data Collection ................................................................................................................... 29
Validation of Instrument ............................................................................................................................. 31
Reliability of the Instrument ....................................................................................................................... 31
SPLIT-HALF PROCEDURE ............................................................................................................................. 31
Kuder-Richardson Approaches ................................................................................................................... 32
Method of Data Collection.......................................................................................................................... 33
Method of Data Analysis............................................................................................................................ 34
CHAPTER FOUR: PRESENTATION OF RESULTS ............................................................................................ 36
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION OF RESULTS ................................................................................................... 38
Discussion of findings: ................................................................................................................................ 38
Implication of findings: .............................................................................................................................. 38
CONCLUSION: ............................................................................................................................................. 38
Limitation of the study: .............................................................................................................................. 39
Suggestions for further studies:................................................................................................................. 39
References/bibliography: .......................................................................................................................... 39
How to Write References ............................................................................................................................ 40
Important notes ......................................................................................................................................... 41
Citations ...................................................................................................................................................... 41
Appendices/Annexure: .............................................................................................................................. 42
Important Notes to take when writing research project ............................................................................ 42
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................................ 44
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RESEARCH
The word research originated from the old French word “recerchier” meaning to search and search
again. It literally implies repeating a search for something and implicitly assuming that the earlier
search was not exhaustive and complete in the sense that there is still scope for improvement.
(Sajjad Kabir, 2016). Take for instance, when someone is given an assignment to find the meaning
of hospitality. As a researcher one is expected to find the existing meaning of hospitality and add
what one understands based on situation of things at the time of the research. If not, if the
researcher finds the existing meaning of hospitality only without making any contribution as to
what the researcher understands then it can only be called a search for information not research.
Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge. In other words, a systematic search
for pertinent information on a specific topic or area. Take for instance, if a researcher is given an
assignment to write on the topic “the role of networkers in hospitality industry” for this to be a
research, the person who is to do the assignment is expected not to download from internet or other
information sources and claim to have done research. The researcher is expected to contribute to
what others have written by adding what he or she understood in relation to the topic at hand after
consulting information sources. The reason is that time is changing and available literature is fast
getting outdated due to the pace of development. Specifically, social media networks and other
information technologies were not rampart twenty (30) years ago unlike today, as such the research
should reflect the current happenings in the field and it is only then that the researcher has
contributed to existing knowledge and we can call the persons work a research. In addition, the
researcher must acknowledge information sources used in the work inform of citations and
references in order to avoid plagiarism.
Moreover, research is a scientific investigation. In other words, a scientific and systematic search
for information on a specific topic/area. Therefore, research is scientific if it follows the scientific
method.
3
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
Scientific method is the systematic process through which scientists discovered and continued to
make scientific discoveries. (Azuka and Nkemdilim, 2012). The process or method is systematic
and sequential. In other words, there are steps that must be followed in arriving at scientific facts
or knowledge. According to Akaneme (2004) the steps are as follows:
I.
II.
Observation
Problem definition
III.
Hypothesis formulation
IV.
Experimentation
V.
VI.
VII.
Conclusion
Theory formulation
Law
1. OBSERVATION: this is seen as the first and very crucial step of scientific method. It acts
as spring balance which initiates other processes. Thus, anything that cannot be observed
cannot be further studied. Hornby (2000) defines observation as the act of watching or
noticing something/somebody carefully for a period of time especially to learn something.
Power of observation is developed by cultivating the habit of watching things and events
with an enquiry mind. Scientific observations must be repeatable by several scientists
independently to be of value to science. Specifically, a cosmetologist might notice that the
pomade “Caro-White” causes bleaching on its user’s body.
2. DEFINITION OF PROBLEM: this is the second step of scientific method. Curiosity would
further drive a scientist or anybody to ask questions based on the observation. Significantly,
not everybody sees that there may be a problem connected with an observation, the moment
one makes an observation and goes further to ask questions concerning the observation,
scientific method has been applied. At this stage the researcher sees it as a problem and
asks questions to arrive at answers. As such, frames it into a researchable topic thus:
“causes of bleaching among Caro-white users in Mario institute of hospitality management
and entrepreneurship education, Uhunowerre, Igbo-Eze South LGA of Enugu State”
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3. HYPOTHESIS FORMULATION: this is the third step of scientific investigation.
Hypothesis is a tentative answer to a question. In formulating hypothesis, one guesses what
the answer to the question posed could be. To achieve this, the researcher can use
hypothesis and or research questions. However, hypothesis testing is not compulsory.
There are studies that really don’t need it except we just want to include them, though it
can be forced in a work. Meanwhile, there are studies where hypothesis is a must such as
in experimental studies. Therefore, we shall focus on research questions. Samples of
research questions derived from the topic stated in definition of problem are thus:
I. To what extent is Caro-white being produced by licensed professional?
II. To what extent are chemicals used in the production mixed in the correct proportion?
III. What are the chemicals used in the production of Caro-white?
IV. What are the body types of Caro-white users?
V. At what time of the day do Caro-white users apply it?
4. EXPRIMENTATION: this is the fourth step of scientific method. Experiment provides
necessary evidence to accept or reject hypothesis. It is also at this point that a researcher
does data analysis to arrive at answers to research questions after collecting data with
questionnaire. Moreover, it is at this point that the cosmetologist tests his/her hypothesis
or research questions to find out the reasons that Caro-white bleaches. The cosmetologist
tests the hypothesis or research questions one after the other until he/she gets a tangible
result. It is possible that all the hypothesis or research questions might be true or false.
5. CONCLUSION: the experimental results should be presented in concise and organized
form so that the scientific investigation as well as others can draw accurate conclusions
based on results. In other words, the cosmetologist will now draw conclusions based on the
results of the experiments. Take for instance, if the experiment supports hypothesis or the
answers from research question (4) proves that Caro-white bleaches light skinned people,
it will now become a conclusion.
6. THEORY FORMULATION: According to Akaneme (2004) a scientific theory is an
explanation about cause or causes of broad range of phenomena. A theory is usually
proposed when a hypothesis or research question has been supported by really convincing
evidence obtainable in many different laboratories and by many independent researchers.
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7. LAW: theories are open tests, revisions and tentative acceptance or rejection. The existing
theory is reversed as soon as new information emerges in the course of applying the theory.
Then, new theory emerges making the old one obsolete. A theory that is proven correct by
independent researchers after a long period of time becomes a scientific law.
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RESEARCH PROJECT
According to Ofoha et al (2019) research project is an important condition to be satisfied
before any student can graduate from a program of study in a tertiary educational
institution.
Research project writing is a painstaking exercise that systematically addresses the solution
to a specified problem of study. It is usually guided by a format and varies from one
educational institution to another. However, the basic ingredients are essentially the same.
FORMAT OF WRITING AND PRESENTING A RESEARCH PROJECT REPORT
1. PRELIMINARY PAGES
1.2 Title page
1.3 Approval page
1.4 Certification page
1.5 Dedication page
1.6 Acknowledgement page
1.7 Table of contents page
1.8 List of tables or figures page
1.9 Abstract
2. CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
2.1 background of the study
2.2 statement of the problem
2.3 purpose/objective of the study
2.4 significance of the study
2.5 scope/delineation of the study
2.6 research questions
2.7 hypothesis
3. CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
3.1 conceptual framework
3.2 theoretical framework
3.3 review of related empirical studies
3.4 summary of literature review
4. CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODS
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4.1 Research design or design of the study
4.2 area of study
4.3 population
4.4 sample and sampling technique
4.5 instrument of data collection
4.6 validation of instrument
4.7 reliability of the instrument
4.8 method of data collection
4.9 method of data analysis
5. CHAPTER FOUR: PRESENTATION OF RESULTS
This chapter contains the results or the findings of the study. They are usually presented in
tables, figures and charts. The calculations involved in the analysis are not presented here.
Only the summaries of such analysis in the forms of tables, figures and charts are presented
in this chapter. The number is usually written in Arabic numeral and not roman numerals.
For tables, the number and title should appear on the top of the table where as for figures,
the number and the title should appear below the figure.
It is advisable to present the results according to the research questions or hypotheses to
which they relate.
6. CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
6.1 Discussion of findings
6.2 implication of findings
6.3 conclusion
6.4 limitation of the study
6.7 suggestions for further study
TYPES OF RESEARCH



Descriptive research vs. analytical research
Applied research vs. fundamental research
Quantitative research vs. qualitative research
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
Conceptual research vs. empirical research
1. DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH VS ANALYTICAL RESEARCH: descriptive research
includes surveys and fact finding enquiries of different kinds. The description of the state
of affairs as it exists at present. In hospitality and tourism studies, studies such as: relevance
of catering services, preferences of hotel patrons are examples of descriptive researches.
The methods of research utilized in descriptive research are mostly survey methods of all
kinds, including comparative and correctional methods. In analytical research however, the
researcher has to use facts or information already available and analyses these to make a
critical evaluation of the material.
2. APPLIED RESEARCH VS FUNDAMENTAL RESEARCH: Applied research aims at
finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an organization. This type
of research is also called acting research. This type of research is mainly concerned with
generalization and with the formulation of a theory. Research concerning some natural
phenomena or relating to pure research are examples of fundamental research but research
aimed at certain conclusions (say, a solution) facing a concrete social or business problem
is an examples of applied research. Thus, the central aim of applied research is to discover
a solution for some pressing practical problem where as basic research is directed towards
finding information that has a broad base of applications and thus, adds to the already
existing body of scientific knowledge.
3. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH VS QUALITATIVE RESEARCH: Quantitative research
is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can
be expressed in terms of quantity. Examples are citation analysis, analysis of hotels, and
analysis of food vendor’s etc. qualitative research on the other hand, is concerned with
qualitative phenomena i.e. phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind. For instance,
when we are interested in investigating the reasons for human behavior (i.e. why people
think or do certain things) we quite often talk of motivation research, an important type of
qualitative research.
4. CONCEPTUAL RESEARCH VS EMPIRICAL RESEARCH: conceptual research is that
research that is related to some abstract ideas or theory. It is generally used by philosophers
and thinkers to develop new concept or reinterpret existing ones. On the other hand,
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empirical research relies on experience and observation alone, often without due regard for
system and theory. It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions which are capable
of being verified by observation or experiment. In empirical research, the researcher must
first provide himself with a working hypothesis or guess as to the probable results. He then
works to get enough facts (data) to prove or disprove his hypothesis. Empirical research is
appropriate when proof is sought that certain variables affect other variables in some way.
Evidence-gathered experiments or empirical studies are today considered to be most
powerful support possible for a given hypothesis. All other types of research are variations
of one or more of the above stated approaches.
PURPOSE OF RESEARCH
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it.
2. Portray accurately the characterization of a particular individual, situation or a group.
3. Determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated.
4. Test causal relationship between two or more than two facts or situations.
5. Know and understand a phenomenon with a view to formulating the problem precisely.
6. Describe accurately a given phenomenon and to test hypothesis about relationships among
its different dimensions.
UNDERSTAND HOW TO FORMULATE A VIABLE RESEARCH TOPIC
1. A research project particularly at undergraduate level must have at least two variables
namely: the independent variable and dependent variable. Examples are seen in the
following topics:
I.
II.
III.
INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
Effects of bad meal planning
DEPENDENT VARIABLE
among elderly people in Uhunowerre,
Igbo-Eze south LGA of Enugu state
Strategies for good front office in hotels in Igbo-Eze North LGA of
operations
Enugu state
Challenges facing nuptial services
among students of Mario institute of
hospitality
management
and
10
entrepreneurship education, Uhunowerre,
Igbo-Eze South LGA of Enugu state
2. There must be an individual or a group which has some difficulty or problem. E.g. students,
teachers, caterers etc.
3. There must be some objectives to be attained at. If one wants nothing, one cannot have a
problem. The researcher must have a reason for doing the research based on the problem
the researcher has.
4. There must be some environments to which the difficulty pertains like Uhunowerre, Udenu
LGA, Chiken Republic, Obollo Intl., etc
5. The research into the problem must be feasible. The researcher should ensure that data and
related literature are available.
6. The topic should not be either too broad or too narrow. Specifically, such topic as
“CHALLENGES FACING HOSPITALITY INDUSTRY IN NSUKKA LGA OF ENUGU
STATE” is too broad, this because there many sectors in hospitality industry such as hotels,
restaurants, motels, bars etc. and as such the topic will be ambiguous and too complicated
to handle, so therefore, the researcher should narrow the topic down to one of the sectors
such as: CHALLENGES FACING HOTELS IN NSUKKA LGA OF ENUGU STATE”. On
the other hand, the topic should not be too narrow such topic as “IMPORTANCE OF
BITTER LEAF AMONG PREGNANT WOMEN IN IGBO-EZE SOUTH LGA OF ENUGU
STATE” is to narrow. Besides, the researcher may even run out of available literature to
carry out such research. As such, the researcher can reframe the topic to “ IMPORTANCE
OF VEGETABLES AMONG PREGNANT WOMEN IN HEALTH CENTRES IN IGBO-EZE
SOUTH LGA OF ENUGU STATE OR IMPORTANCE OF BALANCED DIET IN
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PREGNANT WOMEN IN HEALTH CENTRES IN IGBO-EZE SOUTH LGA OF ENUGU
STATE.
Moreover, Nworgu (2006) on his own part wrote that research problems can take various
forms. These include:

An unsatisfactory state of affairs

An unanswered question

A missing link or gap

A need and

An imbalance
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CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study
1. It is the historical development of the problem of the study.
2. The background sets the general tone for your study. The researcher is expected to discuss
in detail and convincingly the background, need and rationale for the topic. It should start
by introducing the broad overall topic and providing basic background information
surrounding the dependent variable of interest from a global approach and narrowing the
topic down to a more specific research context. In other words, this should have a funnel
structure.
3. Background to a study is likened to the detailed information a patient gives to a medical
doctor prior to the latter’s identification of the specific ailment or problem of the patient.
For instance, a patient does not just get into a medical doctor’s consulting room and
declares to him/her” I am suffering from malaria fever”. No. A normal patient will give a
detailed and comprehensive account of him/her general body feelings on the bases of which
the doctor recommends specific diagnostic test that would lead to identification of the
actual problem of the patient and subsequent prescription of appropriate drugs.
4. Background of the study as historical development of the problem of a study, should be
written from different sources of information.
5. Self-opinionated information alone as “based on 10 years’ experience as a cosmetologist,
it is known that students perform poorly” in the background is discouraged except when
corroborated by other literature sources which must be duly acknowledged.
6. Avoid no literature syndrome.
7. Do not use obsolete information sources
8. The appropriate practice is to contextualize the meanings and roles of the relevant
dependent and independent variables of the study the first time they are mentioned within
the background of a study.
9. Avoid poor landing: poor landing of the background to a study is the habit of ending the
background in such an abrupt style that puts the reader of the background in a confused
state. Such abrupt styles include but not restricted to ending the background:
I. Without relating it to the title or purpose of the study
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II. Without showing the roles of the variables vis-à-vis other variables in the study
III. In such a style that does not flow meaningfully and logically into the problem of the
study.
Statement of the Problem
1. Citations and verbatim quotations should be avoided in the writing of the problem
statement. This is because if the background to the study is comprehensively well written,
the case for the problem of the study would have been sufficiently made through the
utilization and citation of relevant literature sources in the background.
2. A well written problem statement should only capture, in a concise and precise form the
problems the study intends to address. It is recommended that an ideal statement of a
problem should not exceed one page of A4 double spaced, word processed and in 12 font
size.
3. The statement of the problem has four basic aspects that must be highlighted such as: the
ideal, the real, the gap and the need. Specifically,
THE IDEAL: the supposed situation, take for instance, I am supposed to be healthy to live
a full filled life.
THE REAL: the current situation: however, I am not well at all
THE GAP: the situation has some effects and might worsen if not attended to example, the
sickness has made me too weak to work, and it has made me not to be available for work
sometimes and might stop me from working totally if not attended to.
THE NEED: therefore, the need to find solution to the sickness and consequently research
has to be carried out to find the solution
An example of “statement of the problem” on the topic “CHALLENGES FACING
HOSPTIALITY AND TOURISM STUDIES EDUCATION IN MARIO INSTITUTE OF
HOSPITALITY
MANAGEMENT
AND
ENTREPRENUERSHIP
EDUCATION,
UHUHOWERRE, IGBO-EZE SOUTH LGA OF ENUGU STATE” the statement of the
problem will go thus:
14
“the essence of hospitality and tourism studies education is to produce the right set of
workers with required skills, knowledge and attitude to manage the industry in the present
while plan adequately and wisely to meet the challenges of manpower needs the industry
might face in the future. In addition, vocational enterprise institutes and innovative
enterprise institutes are designed to widen access to vocational education and offer
credible alternative to higher education through the provision of relevant industry specific
employable skills. Students are expected to acquire competence-based skills that are
relevant to the demands of the industries and employers. In other words, graduates of
hospitality and tourism studies are expected to be self-employed and running their own
establishments.
However, the researcher as a student of hospitality and tourism studies observed that most
of the graduates of hospitality and tourism studies are not self-employed instead they seek
employment that may not be available. Moreover, even when they are lucky to be employed,
they are paid peanuts as salaries notwithstanding that they have acquired competence
based skills while in school. The situation is a big threat to the relevance of hospitality and
tourism studies education and is likely to worsen if not attended to, as a result, the
researcher was prompted to carry out a research on “challenges facing hospitality and
tourism studies education in Mario institute of hospitality management and
entrepreneurship education, Uhunowerre, Igbo-Eze South LGA of Enugu State.”
TIPS ON WRITING STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
1. Find out the supposed situation of your variables
2. Find out their situation at the moment, are they what they are supposed to be?
3. State the effects the gap has already and worse effects that are likely to take place in
not attended to
4. State that the gap is the need for the research
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Purpose /Objective of the Study
The general purpose of the study is to ascertain the challenges facing hospitality and
tourism studies education in Mario institute of hospitality management and
entrepreneurship education, Uhunowerre, Igbo-Eze South LGA of Enugu State.
Specifically, the study is focused on the achievement of the following objectives:
1. To find out, the extent to which demonstration centers are available in the institute.
2. To find out, the extent to which skilled personnel are available in the institute.
3. To find out, the extent to which the curriculum of the institute is relevant to industry
practice.
4. To find out, the extent to which the students engage in practical.
5. To find out, the likely solutions to the challenges facing hospitality and tourism studies
education.
Significance of the Study
1. A discussion of the significance of a study typically includes its potential benefits and its
overall impact.
2. The significance often explains which specific groups of people can benefit from the
research. It typically indicates how the specific project fits within the developing body of
knowledge and explains the overall importance of that larger project as well.
3. The researcher should consider how the study might fill in knowledge gaps in their field,
develop better theoretical models or point the way towards further study.
4. Researchers should also examine what impact the study might have not just on the
academic or scientific community but also on the general public.
5. It is important that the reader of the research work is convinced of the validity of the study.
The enthusiasm and confidence for the study need to be convincingly communicated.
6. The significance is the value thrust of the expected results of the particular study in the
potential merits of its findings is expected to be presented in an ambiguous language.
16
7. Moreover, the significance of the study is concerned with utilizable benefits of the results
of the study. It strives to provide answers to the following posers: what are the benefits of
the study? To whom is the result important? Why and how is it important?
EXAMPLE:
The study is designed to identify the challenges facing hospitality and tourism studies education
in Mario institute of hospitality management and entrepreneurship education, Uhunowerre, IgboEze South LGA of Enugu State.
The result of the study will be of immense benefit to the institute and similar institutions in Nigeria.
It will help to re-emphasize the relevance of demonstration centers, skilled personnel and practical
in such institutions and make them to take such factors seriously. In addition, the result of the study
will x-ray likely solutions to challenges confronting hospitality and tourism studies education
which will be useful to them while handling certain issues relating to the administration of the
institute.
Moreover, the results of the study will also be important to NBTE (National Board for Technical
Education). This is because it will enable them to find out, how relevant the current curriculum is
to industry practice and as such, make decision as to whether to review the curriculum or not. The
result of the study will also serve as a pointer to NBTE as regards important areas to emphasize as
it has to do with accreditation requirements and quality assurance visits.
Scope of the Study
This can also be called delineation of the study or delimitations of the study. Scope to study refers
to the extent or the depth or the limit of the identified problem to be pursued in the study. The
scope delineates the dimension or content of the problem to be covered in the study and must not
cover more or less the limits of the problem and purposes of the study.
The following have been identified to be the recurrent errors associated with the writing and
presentation of the scope of the study:
I.
Presentation of geographical scope or area of the study in place of the scope of the study.
II.
Combining geographical scope or area of the study and the scope of the study in this
subsection.
17
III.
Failure to validly justify where necessary, the rationale for delineation of the scope of the
study.
EXAMPLE:
The investigation is limited to the challenges facing hospitality and tourism studies education in
Mario institute of hospitality and tourism studies education, Uhunowerre, Igbo-Eze South LGA of
Enugu State.
The study will delve into the availability of demonstration center in the institute, availability of
skilled personnel in the institute, the relevance of the curriculum of the institute to industry
practice, engagement of students in practical and the likely solutions to the challenges facing
hospitality and tourism studies education.
Research Questions
Research questions are clear and concise questions around which a research is focused. They are
posers for a study that guide the researcher’s pursuit of appropriate source of information that
will lead to the emergence of the desired results of that study. Research questions do not need to
be unnecessarily wordy. Indeed, the only introductory statements required is a statement like”
The following are the guiding research questions for this study, the number, structure and content
research questions of a study are often determined generally by the problem of the study and
specifically by the specific purposes of the study. It is often recommended that in a study in
which the specific purposes are well stated, each of the latter should have a corresponding
research question patterned after it. In generating research questions, caution should be taken
against:
1. Having more or less research questions than the specific purposes of the study
2. Using unclear and ambiguous words or phrases
3. Generating research questions that are prone to “yes” or “no” answers e.g do boys
achieve higher than the girls in mathematics?
4. In other words, the research questions is a question format of the objectives using
example above.
EXAMPLE:
18
The following are the guiding research questions for this study:
1. To what extent is demonstration centers available in the institute?
2. To what extent are skilled personnel available in the institute?
3. To what extent is the curriculum of the institute relevant to industry practice?
4. To what extent do the students engage in practical?
5. What are the likely solutions to the challenges facing hospitality and tourism studies
education?
19
CHAPTER TWO
Review of Literature
In research, literature does not especially refer to English or French or Igbo literature as widely
known. Literature in research, refers to a collection of materials provided in forms of books,
journals, magazines, newspapers, abstracts, extracts etc. dealing with a specific subject area.
Literature review according to Uzoagulu (2008) is concerned with an exhaustive survey or
search for what has been done or known on a given research problem. When a researcher
identifies a problem and raises a topic therefrom, it is important to review what has been written
already regarding the problem or related areas. He would want to know the extent of what has
already been covered in the area.
Nworgu (2006) observes that the review of related literature is an exercise, in which the
researcher tries to identify, locate, read and evaluate previous studies, observations, opinions
and comments related to his intended research topic. A researcher that ignores literature review
runs the risk of duplication previous studies, using in appropriate techniques and therefore not
contributing much to the advancement of knowledge.
NEED FOR LITERATURE REVIEW
Uzoagulu (2008) has listed eleven reasons why we need literature review for a research work.
They are as follows:
1. The literature review helps the researcher to discover the extent of work done already in
the problem area.
2. It helps to formulate some hypotheses or straighten out the research questions.
3. It helps to build a mental picture of what the solution to the problem may likely be.
4. To discover whether the problem has already been studied , that is, to ascertain whether
answers to the problem understudy has already been given and documented to prevent
unnecessary duplication and waste of efforts
5. To discover other possible problems arising as a result of the problem studied.
6. It sharpens the general picture of the problem in focus so that the research obtains a more
precise knowledge of the problem.
20
7. To discover research techniques, arguments, analysis, conclusions or previous studies of
similar nature.
8. To define and control goals in a research study.
9. Literature review gives insights into methods to be used in the study as well as new
approaches
10. It helps the researcher to delimit his research problems.
11. It exposes the gap that is existing after previous studies which the present study should aim
at filling.
BREAKING UP THE REVIEW AND PROPER ORGANIZATION
It is recommended that literature review should start with an opening sentence such as:
The review of literature for this study has been organized under the following sub-themes
OR
This chapter deals with the review of literature considered important to this study. The literature
review is discussed under the following sub headings:
According to Eze (2011) it should be borne in mind that there are subthemes that must be included
in the listing of subthemes irrespective of the nature of study. They are:

Conceptual framework

Theoretical framework

Related empirical studies

Summary of literature review
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
This is the definition of concepts. The conceptual model of the study should be provided here with
explanation of linkages.
21
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Here you should have a review of the major theory or theories related to the topic and indicate the
relevance of the theories to your study. For each theory being reviewed by the researcher, the
researcher should state the following:
I. The propaganda of the theory
II. The year it was propounded
III. The basic tenets of the theory: the major point of the theory or the theory is all about
IV. The relationship between the theory and the researchers work
NOTE: There is on minimum or maximum number of theories it can be one or even more.
RELATED EMPIRICAL STUDIES
The researcher is expected to review a minimum of five studies and they should be related to the
study at hand. For each empirical studies reviewed the researcher is expected to state the
following:
I.
II.
The of the author or authors
The year
III.
The topic or purpose of the study
IV.
The research design
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
The population
Reliability of the instrument
Methods
Major findings
Sample size and sampling technique
SUMMARY OF LITERATURE REVIEW
The literature reviewed should be summarized in line with the subheadings including the
conceptual framework, theoretical framework and related empirical studies. In addition, the gap
that arose from the various subheadings should be clearly stated as a justification for your own
research.
22
QAULITITES OF A WELL PLANNED LITERATURE REVIEW
A well planned literature review must:
1. Be sequentially arranged according to subheadings arising from research questions and or
hypothesis.
2. Synthesize gaps which the expected results of the research would fill in the summary
subsection.
3. Identify areas of controversy in the literature that the ongoing study would resolve.
23
CHAPTER THREE
Research Methods
Start with an introductory statement such as this:
“In this chapter, the processes and procedures that were followed in carrying out
the study are discussed under the following sub-headings”
Or
This chapter discussed the research procedures adopted by the researcher to
examine “challenges facing hospitality and tourism studies education in Mario
institute of hospitality management and entrepreneurship education, Uhunowerre,
Igbo-eze south LGA of Enugu State. The procedures are structured under the
following subheadings:

Design of the study or research design

Area of study

Population of the study

Sample and sampling technique

Instrument of data collection

Validation of instrument

Reliability of instrument

Method of data collection

Method of data analysis
DESIGN OF THE STUDY
State the design you want to use and the justification for such design. Choice of research design
should be appropriately justified by first defining the design from a good and known literature
source, citing the source and using the relevant variables of the study to describe how the study
fits into chosen conventional design.
24
TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN
i.
Survey Research Design: This is the type of design that attempts to describe and explain
conditions of the present by using many subjects and questionnaires to fully describe a
phenomenon. It is one of the most popular for dissertation research.
ii.
Historical Research Design: Historical research is the type of research that examines past
events or combinations of events to arrive at an account of what has happened in the past.
The purpose is to collect, verify, synthesize evidence to establish facts that defend or refute
the hypothesis of the study.
iii.
Case Study: This design uses few subjects in an in-depth study of a particular situation
rather than a sweeping statistical survey. It is a method used to narrow down a very broad
field of research into an easily researchable topic.
iv.
Correlational Design: A correlational study is a scientific study in which a researcher
investigates associations between variables. It attempts to explore relationships to make
predictions. It uses one set of subjects with two or more variables for each.
v.
Causal Comparative or Ex-post facto Design: This research design attempts to explore
cause and effect relationships where causes already exist and cannot be manipulated.
vi.
Experimental Research Design: This design is most appropriate in controlled setting such
as laboratories. The design assumes random assignment to groups (E AND C). It attempts
to explore cause and effect relationships where causes can be manipulated to produce
different kinds of effects. Because of the requirement of random assignment, this design
can be difficult to execute in the real world (non-laboratory) setting such as in the social
science and education among others.
NB: The researcher is expected to choose the most appropriate research design to their topic in
collaboration with their supervisors.
Area of Study
The area of the study is the geographical area or boundaries where the study is carried out. All
research studies have areas or boundary limits where they cover. If you studied a population that
25
is spread all over Nigeria, if the population is limited to Anambra state, then the area of study will
not include Enugu State.
Take for instance, if a research topic is “challenges facing hotels in Nsukka LGA of Enugu State”
the researcher can state his/her area of study as
“The area of study is Nsukka local government area in Enugu State. In Nsukka local government
there are 20 hotels”
Population of the Study
The population of a study is the large collection of individuals or objects known to have similar
characteristics that is the main focus of a study. It is the defined group that is studied or generated
data through which the problem of the study is addressed.
In addition, it is the totality of all the respondents to whom the findings of the study will be
generalized. The researcher is therefore expected to provide the population of the study that make
up his/her study. Take for instance, a research on the topic “challenges facing hotels in Nsukka
local government area of Enugu state” then the population goes thus:
“The population is made up of all the hotels in Nsukka which are twenty in number at the time of
the research”
Table 1: the total number of all the staff in the twenty hotels in Nsukka LGA
S/N
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
HOTEL
Ikenga
Golden Valley Hotel And Suites
Ehkofells hotel and suites
Thornberry kennan laundry lodge
Asabana Suite
Gerry Mariot Hotel
Grace Minor
Jucony Hotel and Resort
Milipat Hotel Nsukka
Flamingo Suites
Best Desire Hotel
26
NO OF STAFF
50
25
55
23
27
26
21
31
42
53
67
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
Golden Eve Hotel
Oxford Guest House
Podez Hilltop Hotel
Royal Guest House
Iykcom Global Suites
Vic. G. Will Garden Hotel and Suites
The Alta Gate Hotels
Obollo Lodge
Next Level Hotel
Total
59
47
56
51
34
35
39
46
50
837
The table above is because the researcher is supposed to specify the relevant characteristics of the
population in terms of size, grouping and according to relevant independent variables in the study.
The specification of these elements at this stage facilitates the sampling process.
SAMPLE AND SAMPLING TECHNIQUES:
The sample refers to a section of the population that was used for the study. The sampling
technique discusses the techniques you have adopted in choosing the sample from the population.
Indicate your sample size, also the technique used in selecting the sample should be stated and you
should give justification for the adoption of such technique as it relates to your study.
There are different techniques for sampling such as simple random sampling technique,
proportionate stratified random sampling technique, disproportionate stratified random sampling
technique and cluster sampling technique.
However, we shall emphasize on proportionate stratified random sampling technique. This is
because proportionate stratified sampling ensures greater representativeness of the sample relative
to the population and guarantees that minority constituents of the population are represented in the
sample. A population could be stratified along the following variables or dimensions: sex, location,
socio-economic status, religion, tribe, age, state of origin, political affiliations, level or years of
study etc.
27
Computation of sample size: suppose in a population of 5000 students of Mario Institute, we want
to draw a sample, the students can be distributed according to categories as in yr 1, yr 2, and IT
students.
Table 2: Distribution of a population of 5000 students according to category of students.
CATEGORY OF STUDENTS
YR 1
YR 2
IT
TOTAL
SIZE
2000
2500
500
5000
PROPORTION
0.40
0.50
0.10
1.00
Assuming the researcher wishes to draw a sample of 1000 students from this population, the
number of the students to be drawn from each stratum is first determined by multiplying the
proportion of each stratum in the population by the desired sample size. Using this method, for
example, the number of students that will be drawn will be drawn from the stratum will be:
Yr 1 students 1000 × 0.40 = 400 students
Yr 2 students 1000 × 0.50 = 500 students
IT students 1000 × 0.10 = 100 users
Total Sample Size = 1000 students
Alternatively, the proportion of the sample to population (or what is called the sampling fraction)
is determined first
Sampling fraction is Sample
=
Population
n
1000 = 0.20
N
5000
The sample size in each stratum will therefore be made up of this proportion or percentage of the
population in that stratum. Using this approach, the sample size for each stratum is computed as
follows:
28
Yr 1 students: 0.20 × 2000 = 400 students
Yr 2 students 0.20 × 2500 = 500 students
IT students 0.20 × 500 = 100 students
The Sample Size of the Sample:
The size of the sample should neither be excessively large nor too small. It should be optimum.
An optimum is one which fulfills the requirements of efficiency, representativeness, reliability and
flexibility. The size of the population variance needs to be considered. In case of larger variance,
a bigger sample is needed. However, for some studies, the group of items to which the study relates
(i.e. population) may be small enough to warrant the inclusion of all of them in the study.
Instrument for Data Collection
The researcher should describe in details all the instruments used in collecting the data for the
project. The instrument should be explained including how it is patterned, sectioned and scaled in
terms of expected responses and weightings.
The methods of collecting data are observation method, interview method, questionnaire and
schedules. However, questionnaire is mostly used in surveys and descriptive researches. Therefore,
a researcher can state his/her instrument for data collection thus:
“The instrument used for data collection in this study was questionnaire. The questionnaire was
made up of two (2) sections, Section A and B. Section A dealt with the personal data of the
respondents. Section B consist of twenty-three questionnaire items based on the five research
questions to be used for eliciting information from the respondents.
The questionnaire is designed on the five point likert scale assigned to each as follows.
Strongly Agree (SA)
= 5 points
Agree (A)
= 4 points
Undecided (UN)
= 3 Points
Disagree (D)
= 2 points
29
Strongly Disagree (SD)
= 1 point
30
Validation of Instrument
The process involved in the validation of your instruments should be explained in details. This is
mostly based on face validity, content validity, construct validity and predictive validity depending
on the nature of your study. Examples of conditions requiring the establishment of some of these
types of validity according to Eze (2015) are shown below:
Therefore, a researcher can state thus “the initial draft of the questionnaire formulated was given
to my supervisor and two other experts from Hospitality and Tourism Studies department as such,
necessary corrections were made and it was validated using face validity.
Reliability of the Instrument
Explain the method of reliability, how it was done and results obtained. There should be an
explanation of the type of reliability that was undertaken and its justification. This could be testretest, split half, kuder-richardson or some other methods, depending on the nature of your study.
Reliability refers to the consistency of scores obtained. Reliability coefficients must range from
0.00 to 1.00 that is, with no negative values. According Eze (2015) internal consistency methods
are used when there is need to estimate the extent of closeness in a content of a set of items in a
section of an instrument or the entire instrument and often in a multi choice or linkert response
items. Moreover, hence our research instruments are most likely to be in a multi-choice format or
likert type response items shall emphasize on the two major internal consistency methods. Split
half procedure and kuder-richardson approaches. Thus “
SPLIT-HALF PROCEDURE
The split-half procedure involves scoring two halves (usually odd items versus even items) of a
test separately for each person and then calculating a correlation coefficient for the two sets of
scores. The coefficient indicates the degree to which the two halves of the test provide the same
results, hence describes the internal consistency of the test.
The reliability is calculated using what is known as the Spearman-Brown Prophecy formula. A
simplified version of this formula is as follows:
Reliability of scores on total test = 2 × reliability for “test
1 × reliability for “test
31
Thus, if we obtained a correlation coefficient of .56 by comparing one half of the test items to the
other half, the reliability of scores for the total test would be:
Reliability of scores on total test = 2 × .5 = 1.12 = 0.72
1 + .56
1.56
This illustrates an important characteristics of reliability. The reliability of a test (or an instrument)
can generally be increased by increasing its length if the items added are similar to the original
ones.
Kuder-Richardson Approaches
Perhaps, the most frequently employed method for determining internal consistency is the KuderRichardson approach, particularly formula KR20 and KR21. The latter formula requires only three
pieces of information: the number of items on the test, the mean and the standard deviation. Note,
however, that formula KR21 can be used only if it can be assumed that the items are of equal
difficulty. A frequency used version of KR21 formula is the following:
KR21 reliability =
K
Coefficient
K-1
1-M (K-M)
K (SD2)
Where:
K = Number of items on the test
M = Mean of the set of test scores
SD = Standard deviation of the set of test scores
Although, this formula may look intimidating, it use is quite simple. For example, if K = 50, M =
40 and SD = 4, the reliability coefficient would be calculated as shown below:
Reliability = 50
49
1- 40 (50 – 40)
50 (42)
32
=
1.02
(1 -
40 (10)
50 (16)
= 1.02
1 - 400
800
= 1.02
(1-0.50)
= (1.02) (.50)
= .51
Thus, the reliability estimate for scores on this test is .51. Is a reliability estimate of .51 good or
bad, high or low? As is frequently the case, there are some benchmarks we can use to evaluate
reliability coefficient. First, we can compare a given coefficient with the extremes that are
possible. As you know, a coefficient of .00 indicates a complete absence of a relationship, hence
no reliability at all, whereas 1.00 is the maximum possible coefficient that can be obtained.
Method of Data Collection
This section describes step by step how the instruments were administered i.e give the details of
how the data collection was carried out it can be written thus:
“The researcher distributed copies of the questionnaire items to one hundred and twenty staff in
the twenty hotels in Nsukka local government area. However, the researcher employed the
assistance of general managers in the respective hotels for distribution and collection out 120
33
questionnaire copies that were given out only 115 questionnaire were returned as such 92% return
was achieved”
Method of Data Analysis
State the statistical tools used in the analysis such as percentages, frequency counts, mean, standard
deviation, median, pie chart, histogram, box plots, scatter plots, chi-square test, analysis of
variance (ANOVA) etc.
However, the important statistical measures that are used to summarize the survey/research data
are measures of central tendency or statistical averages, measures of dispersion, measures of
asymmetry and measures of relationship. Moreover, mean, median and mode are most popular
averages
. Mean is also known as the arithmetic average is the most common measure of central
tendency and may be defined as the value which we get by diving the total of the values of various
given items in a series by the total number of items.
The mean is usually expressed as:
The data gathered was analyzed using mean.
The formula
Where
x
x = mean of the sample
Ʃ = Sum of all the nominal value items
F = Frequency of responses categories
X = Nominal value of the responses
N = Number of respondents to an item
To arrive at a decision rule using the scales therefore the average of the rating is calculated as
follows:
Sum of the total number of scaling items.
34
Sum of nominal values
5+4+3+2+1
5
Therefore, the cut-off point is determined by adding the interval scale of 0.5 to the mean 3.0, which
gives 3.50. Hence, any response with a mean of 3.50 and above is accepted, while any item with a
mean rating below 3.50 is rejected.
The justification for the choice of mean as a method of data analysis can be that “mean has the
greatest reliability than other measures of central tendency. The mean is the most stable from
sample to sample. It is therefore the most consistent measure. A researcher can state under method
of data analysis thus:
“The analysis of the data was done using mean. The choice of mean was because mean has the
greatest reliability than other measure of central tendency and it is the most stable from sample to
sample”
35
CHAPTER FOUR: PRESENTATION OF RESULTS
This is where you report your findings and present them in a systematic manner. It should be
reported in sufficient details to justify any conclusion. The use of tables and figures must be
judiciously employed to present summaries. Number the tables in the order of occurrence in the
text. In referring to the tables or figures use” as shown in table 2”. Avoid such references as “the
table below” or “the table above”
Start the chapter with an introductory statement such as this:
“The results of the study are presented in accordance with the research questions and or
hypotheses”
OR
“The results of the study are here under presented in tables, graphs or charts in accordance with
the research questions and/or hypotheses guiding the study”
The recommended order or presentation in presenting the results is:

The first research question or hypothesis exactly in the same word, it is stated in the
appropriate sub-section in the introductory chapter

The table , chart or graph that should have been properly numbered and titled which
contains the results of the data analysis or information relevant in addressing the first
research question or hypothesis.

The result in prose reflecting exactly the contents of the table, chart or graph ensuring that
no information in the table relevant in responding to the research question or hypothesis is
left out.

SUMMARY OF THE FINDINGS:
Summarize the findings by listing them out in line with the research questions, show how the
research questions have been addressed or answered. In the subsection, the researcher can use any
of these sentences as introductory statement:
“The following are the major findings”
Or
36
“The results revealed the following major findings”
Or
“Based on the analysis of data the following finding emerged”
37
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
Start with an introductory statement this way
“In this chapter, the researcher discussed the following sub-headings:”

Discussion of findings

Implication of findings

Conclusion

Limitation of the study

Suggestions for further study
Discussion of findings:
This is where you elaborate on your findings, and explain what you found (in the case of
research questions) or start with a clear statement in support or non-support of the main
hypotheses of the project. Areas of similarities and differences between the results and the work
of others should be stated, adding your own personal interpretations. In discussing the findings,
you are required to accomplish three things (1) state what your findings are (2) discuss how each
finding agrees or disagrees with the previous research mentioned in the literature review and then
(3) put your work into perspective by justifying why your own findings agree or disagree with
the work of others. For instance, if there are five set of findings in your study, you should discuss
each finding based on the three points listed above, addressing each finding individually.
Implication of findings:
Implications of the study relate to what the findings suggest either in terms of theory or practice.
In other words, the implications of the findings relate to specific uses either (in the theoretical or
practical sphere) to which the findings can be put.
CONCLUSION:
The presentation in this subhead is mainly judgmental. That is the researcher is expected to
thoroughly evaluate the findings of the study in respect of the extent to which they have been
able to advance knowledge in the discipline. In other words, the presentations here should be
able to provide answers to such question as: to what extent has the research problem of the study
38
been solved? Have the objectives been achieved? What has been learnt from the results? How
can this knowledge be used? To what extent have the gaps hitherto this study been filled by its
findings?
Limitation of the study:
These are those shortcomings in the design and execution of the project which would affect the
generalizability of the findings.
Suggestions for further studies:
In research, solving one problem gives rise to other problems. The researcher therefore is
expected to state those problems that have arisen out of the one he/she has investigated for other
people to investigate.
References/bibliography:
This is a list of sources which were made use in preparing the study. The difference between a
bibliography and reference is that where as a bibliography and reference is that where as a
bibliography consists of a listing of all sources that were useful in the execution of the study
whether or not they were actually cited in the work, references is a listing of all the sources that
were actually cited in the work. In addition,
Referencing is used to tell the reader where ideas from other sources have been taken in an
assignment. It uses the ideas and research of other sources; books, journal articles, website.
Ethics and the laws of copyright require authors to identify their sources citations within the
body of an assignment and a reference list at the end. The purpose is to allow the reader to locate
the original material and to examine it. Accuracy and consistency are very important when
citing.
References are used to:
 Enable the reader to locate the sources you have used;
 Help support your arguments and provide your work with credibility; Show the scope and
breadth of your research;
 Acknowledge the source(s) of an argument or idea. Failure to do so could result in a charge of
plagiarism.
39
How to Write References
The basic components of a reference
BOOKS: authors (or editor), (year), title, publisher, place of publication
JOURNAL ARTICLES: author, year, article, title, journal title, volume NO., Issue NO., pages
WEBSITES: Author (or company or organization), web page title, URL, Date (posted or
revisited) Date retrieved
APA REFERENCING STYLE FOR BOOKS
Author’s surname, first initial. (Year). Book title: subtitle. (Edition) [If other than the 1st]. Place:
publisher.
EXAMPLES:
ONE AUTHOR
Brader,T.(2006).Knowledge management: information organization and sharing. Chicago:
university press.
TWO AUTHORS
Wilson, S., and Smith, J. (2004). Art of gardening: a look at wildflowers in zimbabwe. Gweru:
Mambo press.
THREE AUTHORS
Brader, T., Wilson, S., and Smith, J. (2006) Knowledge management: Information organization
and sharing. Chicago: university of Chicago press.
MORE THAN THREE AUTHOURS
Brader, T., et al (2006).Knowledge management: Information organization and sharing. Chicago:
University of Chicago press.
BASIC FORMAT FOR JOURNALS
Authors surname, first initial. (Year). Article title. Magazine/journal/newspaper title (in italics).
Volume number, (issue number), page numbers.
EXAMPLE
Ndebele, S. (2002). Women in Zimbabwe: a case study. Studies in African culture. Vol 14(3),
61-64.
40
Internet Sources
Troy, S. (2000). Genocide and psychological healing. Retrieved October 20, 2010, from annual
psychological review http://www.iowa.edu/index.html
Important notes
I.
The last name (surname) is written first, followed by the initial of the first name and that
of the first name and that of the middle name (if any).
II.
Only the first word, and any word after a colon, is capitalized in the title.
Do not use a shortened form of the publisher’s name; but terms such as publishers, Co.,
III.
Ltd., and Inc. may be omitted.
IV.
V.
The latest copyright date for the edition used should be given.
Indent all lines after the first line, three spaces
Citations
1. Assuming no mention was made about the author’s name or the year in the sentence, all
the pieces of information should be included in the parenthetical reference with a comma
after the author and after the year e.g., (Nwabueze, 2001).
2. If the sentence includes the author’s name, the year of the publication is given immediately
after the name e.g., Nwabueze (2001)
3. WORKS BY ONE AUTHOR: the same as in number 2 such as Eze (2001)
4. WORKS BY TWO AUTHORS: if a work has only two authors, the names of both authors
are cited every time the reference occurs in the text e.g., Abraham and Bello (2006).
5. WORKS BY MORE THAN TWO AUTHORS BUT LESS THAN 6: If a work is written
by more than two authors but less than six, all the authors are cited the first time the
reference occurs in the text but in subsequent citations, only the surname of the first author
is included followed by et al. and the year. The “et al.” is not italicized and there is a period
(.) after al. e.g., Bello, Okeh, Okonkwo,Udensi and Ukanna (2014). Subsequent citations
will be: Bello et al. (2014)
6. WORK BY SIX OR MORE AUTHORS: if a work has six or more authors, cite only the
surname of the first author followed by et al. and the year of publication for the first and
all subsequent citations.
41
7. WORKS OF COPORATE AUTHOURSHIP: Corporate authors include associations,
institutions, government agencies and establishments whose publications cannot be
credited to specific individuals as author(s). Rather the names of such establishments are
cited as authors. The rule for such authorship is that they are written in full each time they
are cited in the text e.g., (University of Ibadan, 2005). However, if the name of the
corporate author is long and if the abbreviation is familiar or readily understandable, the
name may be abbreviated in subsequent citations as illustrated below: (United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), 2014). Subsequent citations
will take the form (UNESCO, 2014).
8. AUTHORS WITH THE SAME SURNAME: when two or more authors have the same
surname, the authors’ initials are included in all text citations, even when the year of
publication differs. This is to avoid confusion e.g., C.E Obi (2013) and B.C Obi (2014)
reported that ……………..
9. UNDATED PUBLICATIONS: For and undated publication, use n.d for no dated no dated
in place of year e.g., Ugonna (n.d) or (Ugonna, n.d)
Appendices/Annexure:
This is the last part of a research work and consists of all materials that are related to the report
and which may be referred to for greater details but which are not suitable for inclusion in the
main body of the report. Such materials include the instrument used for the study, calculations,
raw data, letters of introduction etc.
Important Notes to take when writing research project
- Research project topic should contain a maximum of 23 words
- All chapter titles in block letters and center placed
- All sub-headings in initial capital except words like in, on, of, the, a, an etc.
- All chapters and Sub-headings in bold text
- Use A4 size of paper - Set equal margins of 1inch s
- Use Times New Romans font style with 12 font size
- Justify the typing lines
42
- Each chapter must start from a new page
- Use indented paragraph in typing the body of the report
- Use double line spacing
43
REFERENCES
Akaneme, F.I (2004) History and philosophy of science. Lagos. National Open University of
Nigeria.
Azuka, I. and Nkemdilim, E. (2012) Nature, History and Philosophy of Science. Umunze.
Annyco press.
Eze, D.N. (2011) Writing research proposal and report without tears. Enugu. Ephrata publishers.
Nworgu, B.G. (2006) Educational: basic issues and methodology. Nsukka. University trust
publishers.
Ofoha, D. et al (2019) Research project manual and format of writing and presenting a research
report. Faculty of education research guidelines committee.
44
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