Topic 2: Module 1- Overview of Colonialism in Africa
Key Background Concepts [NICCE]
African Nationalists
People who believed that Africans should rule themselves and thus
fought against colonial rule.
Ideologies
Different people see the world differently both in terms of its
problems as well as possible solutions. The set of ideas that a person
has in terms of problems and solutions is an ideology. These ideas
usually center on forms of government (democracy, one-party state
etc.) and economic systems (capitalism, socialism etc.).
Colonial Powers
These were powerful European countries who colonised various parts
of Africa. These parts were made into countries (often with arbitrary
borders) by these powers and these countries became colonies. For
example, Kenya was the colony of the colonial power, Britain.
Colonialism
A system whereby a powerful country uses its economic and social
power to take over a weaker country.
Empires
An empire consisted of all of a colonial power’s colonies. For
example, Kenya and India along with others form part of the British
Empire.
Colonialism in Summary
Process of colonization
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Brutal military conquest
Controlling colony politically, economically, socially
Destruction of traditional African values
No plans for social / economic development – just exploitation
Effects of colonization: political
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Indirect rule – British: chiefs appointed as government agents to enforce laws and collect
taxes (no opportunity to be absorbed in government or gain experience)
Direct rule – French, Belgian, Portuguese: Administration done by Europeans, Africans
achieving a certain level of education and prosperity could become citizens of mother
country and vote (very small number)
Rule was authoritarian, no participation
Effects of colonization: economic
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Motive: to acquire raw materials and gain markets
Subsistence economy replaced by commercial cash crop farming
If cash crops fail or prices are low, farmers are without food or income
Fertile land expropriated and given to settlers
Taxes introduced to force farmers to grow cash crops or become migrant workers
Secondary industries and technical skills underdeveloped
Transport systems developed only to support export
1

Economy of colony linked to colonial power, dependant
Effects of colonization: social
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Scientific racism practiced – Europeans had to “civilize” Africans
New social structures introduced – designed to ensure master and servant relationship
Christianity introduced – neg. and pos. consequences
Primary education introduced (positive)
Migrant labour system introduced
Medical, social and welfare services provided, but inadequate
Urbanization led to destruction of ethnic/tribal identity
Section A
Individual Source Analysis
Question 1 Visual Source Analysis
This photograph is of Queen Elizabeth, the Queen Mother, who is inspecting the Second
Battalion of the King's African Rifles near Bulawayo, Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) on July 8, 1957.
1.1 Use your own knowledge to give TWO possible reasons for the presence of the
Queen Mother at a military demonstration in Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) in 1957.
(4)
1.2 How does the photograph portray the relationship between the Queen Mother and
the troops? Support your answer with TWO visual clues.
(6)
1.3 How might anti-colonial activists have used this photograph to discredit British
colonialism? Give TWO points.
(4)
1.4 Provide an appropriate caption for the photograph from the perspective of a
British newspaper. (Must be biased and accurate.)
(2)
2
1.5 Identify and explain ONE value and ONE limitation of photographs as historical
sources. (The question is about photographs in general, not this photograph in
particular.)
(4)
The wind of change




1960 is known as the "Year of Africa".
17 countries gained their independence in 12 months.
On 3 February, 1960 the British Prime Minister, Harold Macmillan, stated in the South
African parliament,
"The wind of change is blowing through this continent. Whether we like it or not, this
growth of national consciousness is a political fact."
The ‘wind of change’ (African nationalism) that Macmillan was referring to swept across
Africa: by 1980, only four African states were not self-governed.
How did African countries become independent?
Three theories:
Theory number one: The decline of the colonial powers
The world wars drained the economies of the colonial powers. They were too economically weak
to maintain their empires.
The colonial powers realized that they did not have to keep political power to maintain
economic influence in their former colonies.
Some analysts say that this theory is Euro-centric, because it puts the European colonial powers
at the centre of the causes for change. It suggests that decolonization happened because the
colonial powers initiated it.
Theory number two: The role of African nationalism
Independence happened because of the growing power of African nationalism. The unity and
efforts of Africans themselves forced the colonizers to leave.
This theory promotes the unifying role of African nationalism, but many historians argue that
African nationalism alone was not strong enough to explain decolonization. In some countries
independence came about without a strong African nationalist movement (for example, in
French West Africa). (Afro-centric)
Theory number three: The impact of the Cold War
The two world superpowers promoted the end of colonialism because they wanted to establish
their own areas of influence in the newly independent African states.
Decolonization:
the process of gaining independence from colonial rule
Uhuru:
means 'freedom' in Swahili, a language which is widely spoken in East Africa
Liberation:
freedom from colonial rule
3
Question 2 Textual Source Analysis
This is an edited extract from the Wind of Change speech by Harold Macmillan, the British
Prime Minister, on the 3 February 1960 to the South African Parliament, Cape Town.
The wind of change is blowing through this continent and, whether we like it or not, this
growth of national consciousness is a political fact. We must all accept it as a fact, and our
national policies must take account of it. (Paragraph 1)
... As I see it, the great issue in this second half of the twentieth century is whether the
uncommitted peoples of Asia and Africa will swing to the East or to the West. Will they be
drawn into the Communist camp? Or will the great experiments of self-government that are
now being made in Asia and Africa, especially within the Commonwealth, prove so successful,
and by their example so compelling, that the balance will come down in favour of freedom
and order and justice? (Paragraph 2)
2.1 What force does Macmillan believe is unstoppable? Provide ONE quote to support
your answer.
(4)
2.2 What is the ‘great issue in the second half of the twentieth century’?
(2)
2.3 On what side of the ‘great issue in the second half of the twentieth century’ is
Macmillan? Explain your answer with reference to Paragraph 2.
(4)
2.4 How useful is this source to a historian studying British attitudes to decolonization
in Africa? Support your answer with TWO pieces of evidence from the source.
(Very useful or not very useful; you must take a clear stand here.)
(6)
2.5 What do you think Macmillan was trying to show about South Africa’s policies in
the 1950s? Refer to Paragraph 1.
(4)
How was independence realised in Africa in the 1960s and 1980s?
What types of economic systems were introduced?
• Features of colonial economic systems:
» Not self sufficient
» Exported unprocessed minerals and cash crops cheaply
» Imported expensive manufactured goods
» Few secondary industries
• New states wanted to promote economic development and industrialisation
• Two main kinds of economic systems:
» Socialism (based on government control of economy)
» Capitalism (based on private ownership, free enterprise, competition)
African socialism
• Leaders supported socialism for different reasons:
» Some said it was similar to traditional African society
» Others said state control necessary for transformation after colonial rule
4
• Different forms of socialism introduced:
» Tanzania: collectivisation of agriculture; economic self-reliance
» Ghana: large-scale government spending on public projects
» Mozambique: closer to Marxism; nationalisation; collectivisation; banning of private business;
one-party government
» Zambia: Zambian humanism; mixed economy - combination of socialism and capitalism
Capitalism
• Based on foreign investment; economic ties with West
• Examples of capitalist economies:
» Kenya: state involvement but not state control of economy; white land sold to African
farmers; marketing boards; foreign investment; African entrepreneurship
- good economic growth but emergence of wealthy elite and dependence on Western
investments
» Cote d’Ivoire: foreign investment in cocoa, coffee, timber industries
- good economic growth but wealth centred in cities, not peasant agriculture
What forms of government were introduced?
Democracy
One-party states
• Lack of democratic structures under
colonial rule
• Many countries became one-party
states
• Many states started off as multi-party
democracies
• This was partly a legacy of colonial
rule:
» No tradition of democratic rule
» Colonial governments used force to
silence criticism or opposition
• Many parties participated in first
elections
• But many later became one-party
states
• Other reasons for establishment of
one-party states:
» Traditional African societies based on
authority of chiefs and consensus; not
competitive elections, rivalry between
parties
» Single party system cheap and
efficient
» Means of creating unity and avoiding
ethnic divisions
» Marxist belief that small group needed
to lead masses and set goals for
development
• Only Botswana had unbroken record of
democracy:
» Elections every 5 years
» Opposition parties allowed to operate
freely
• One-party states led to abuse of
power, dictatorship, reliance on army to
stay in power, military coups, military
dictatorships in:
» Congo/Zaire under Mobuto Sese Seko
» Uganda under Idi Amin
» Ethiopia under Mengistu
5
Question 3 Current Issue in the Media
This is an edited extract from an article published on August 24th, 2017 on a Pan-African
website about the legacy of colonialism in Africa today.
Some of the problems that African countries experience up to this day are a result of the
negative impacts of colonialism. In order for Africa to progress, problems created by the
colonial system have to be addressed. The fact that Africa is still grappling with certain
problems is not entirely attributed to the repercussions of colonialism, but colonialism
problems still exist and they have to be addressed.
The period after many African countries attained their independence was not an easy sail, as
the reality soon dawned on the African populace that flag independence does not necessarily
entail economic independence too. It was such a rude awakening and ever since the problems
have been addressed and solutions proffered; at times with considerable amount of success
and at others with little to no success at all. The problems created by colonialism can still be
felt in the political, economic and socio-cultural contexts.
In the political aspect, a flawed legacy was left behind. When former colonies emerged as
independent states, they found themselves comprised of various tribes, ethnicities, social
structures and cultures that were emotionally distant from each other. These were weak
political entities, which lacked the muscle to flex their absolute sovereignty because of the
complexity in social structures and cultures.
Creating nations and states with such a vast array of diverse people proved extremely an
uphill task for the nationalists. The citizens of these nations and states were naturally
oriented to their sub-groups such that it inevitably led to acrimonious relations between the
peoples. This subsequently led to many civil wars, some which are still in existence up to this
day. The fragmenting impact of colonialism cost Africa dearly in terms of achieving unity. The
Biafra War in Nigeria was a result of this, as such a populous country was composed of at least
ten major ethnic groups within its borders. The threat is latent, and could explode any time.
3.1 Find a historical concept in the source that best fits each of the following
definitions. Write down only the historical concept. (No explanation is required.)
3.1.1 The policy or practice of acquiring full or partial political control over
another country.
3.1.2 The freedom from being governed or ruled by another country.
3.1.3 People who advocate/support the political autonomy of a particular
people.
3.1.4 A community or population made up of people who share a common cultural
background or descent.
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
3.2 According to the article, what was colonialism’s most problematic legacy?
(2)
3.3 According to this article, does the author believe that colonialism alone is
responsible for the instability of the continent? Support your answer with evidence
from the source. (Tricky; “alone” is key here. Also take a stand; Yes/No.)
(4)
3.4 Compare the author’s criticism of the nature of colonialism with what an advocate
of colonialism would have said during the colonial period. Provide THREE points.
(‘Compare’ requires a discussion of similarities and differences.)
(6)
6
Topic 2: Module 2- Tanzania
How was African socialism applied in Tanzania?
•
•
•
1961: British colony of Tanganyika became independent
1964: Tanganyika and Zanzibar united to form Tanzania
Leader of Tanzania was Julius Nyerere
The origins of African socialism in Tanzania
•
Policies after independence:
» Expansion of education
» Promotion of indigenous entrepreneurship
» Establishment of co-operatives for marketing crops
» Tanzania depended on investments from West
•
But Nyerere was concerned about:
» dependence on foreign investments; drain of wealth from Africa
» policies of Western countries towards Africa (e.g. in Rhodesia)
» situation of poor rural farmers
» willingness of civil servants and politicians to enrich themselves, creating class divisions
•
1967: Nyerere’s Arusha Declaration called for:
» a self-reliant, prosperous, classless society
» socialist development strategies instead of foreign investment
» self-reliance based on peasant labour
» economic development combined with nation-building
The nature of African socialism in Tanzania
Economic policies:
•
•
•
» State control of production, distribution, transport
» Banks, insurance companies, large foreign companies nationalised
» Small private companies controlled by state corporations
•
‘Leadership Code’ set rules for government employees and party officials:
» No involvement in capitalist activities
» Could not use positions to gain wealth; fringe benefits cut
» Could not own company shares or houses for rent
» Could not hold private directorships
» Could not receive more than one salary
•
Less corruption in Tanzania than most countries in Africa
Rural development:
» Large, collectivised villages (ujamaa) replaced scattered settlements
» Aim: to increase productivity and prosperity in rural areas
» Land communally-owned; resources shared; leaders elected
» Government provided roads, markets, agricultural services
» Water, health, education infrastructure centralised at ujamaa villages
» Improved access to education and healthcare in rural areas
7
Problems and breakdown of African socialism in the 1970s–80s
•
Resistance to ujamaa villages:
» Peasant farmers reluctant to leave traditional lands
» Also reluctant to give up individually owned plots
» Programme of compulsory ‘villagisation’ introduced:
- 11 million people forced to move to 8 000 new villages
- Reports of use of force and harsh methods
- By 1979: 90% of peasants lived in ujamaa villages
•
Problems in agriculture:
» Some villages were overcrowded and badly situated
» Serious drought in early 1970s
» Food shortages and fewer cash crops for export
» Problems of mismanagement and bureaucracy
» Tanzania needed loans and food aid
- Tanzania not self-reliant, but dependent on foreign aid
•
Problems in urban economy:
» State-owned corporations not efficient; overstaffed
» Not run as businesses – ran at a loss
» Income levels/wages dropped
•
Influence of outside forces:
» 1970s oil price rise led to world economic crisis
» Prices for cash crops on world markets collapsed
» Tanzania became more reliant on external aid
•
In 1980s, Nyerere stated that:
» Tanzania was poorer, not socialist and not self-reliant
» But there was no wealthy elite; and improvements in literacy rates and primary
schooling
SOURCE A
An extract from a South African History Online article on Julius Nyerere.
In his attempt to build an independent country, Nyerere developed an alternative plan for his
country to grow, nationally and internationally. Instead of following Western countries’
strategies and Western ideologies only, he created an African national socialist plan, called
Ujamaa. Ujamaa means ‘family links’ or ‘brotherhood’ in Swahili. The main idea of his
project and theory was to recover local traditions of community ways of working, producing
and relating to the land. There was a process of nationalisation of land and companies
combined with the promotion of new ways of workers’ organisation of labour. In terms of
international relationships, Tanzania became a member of the Non-Aligned movement.
4.
Write down TWO policies that were needed in order to implement Ujamaa.
(4)
5.
Provide ONE piece of evidence from the source to show that Nyerere was
disinterested in participating in the Cold War conflict.
(2)
6.
Use your own knowledge to explain why most people viewed Ujamaa as a failure.
Provide TWO comprehensive points.
8
(4)
SOURCE B
An edited extract from an African Exponent article on Ujamaa.
Nyerere desired a full reversion to the African pre-colonial way of living, one that had been
disturbed by European colonization. Therefore urbanization, which he argued was not
contributing to the better welfare of people, would be reversed and wage labour would be
eroded away. Production was to be done in the villages. This would create a traditional
system of mutual respect and bring units of families together through unity, cohesion, love,
service and a moral way of life. (Paragraph 1)
In the rural areas, families would be brought together in "nucleated" settlements, each of
around 250 families. By doing that, distribution of farming inputs would be made easier.
Villagization would make a Tanzanian complete, and thus avoid the problems of "tribalism,"
something that was bedeviling newly independent African countries. (Paragraph 2)
The rationale behind using ujamaa in the discourse of national development was to use
African ways of living to beat capitalism. The goal was to make Tanzania self-sufficient, a
goal that had been shared by Thomas Sankara, former leader of Burkina Faso. (Paragraph 3)
7.
8.
9.
Use your own knowledge to name TWO other policies, besides Ujamaa, that
Nyerere introduced once he came to power.
(4)
To what extent was Ujamaa a rejection of capitalism? Use evidence from the
source to support your answer. (Quoting is not enough; you need to briefly
explain the two examples from the source that you select. Additionally, you
must take a stand; greater/lesser extent.)
(6)
Does this article suggest that Nyerere was entirely unique in his views? Support
your answer with ONE quote from the source. (Stand required; Yes/No.)
(4)
9
Topic 2: Module 3- Congo
How did the Cold War affect the Congo?
Background
• 1960: Congo became independent from Belgian rule
» Crisis developed
» This brought the Cold War to Africa
» Congo became a tool of the West during the Cold War
The legacy of Belgian rule
• Features of Belgian colonial rule in Congo:
» High taxes
» Forced labour
» Paternalism
» Few secondary schools, no higher education
• After WW2, Belgium was determined to maintain colonial rule in Congo:
» Tried to stop spread of nationalist ideas
» Political parties were banned
» No independent African newspapers were allowed
• 1959: Violent protests in Congo
» Belgium decided to grant independence immediately
» Thought it could maintain control because of the inexperience of the local politicians in Congo
• Formation of political parties:
» Many were regionally or ethnically based
» The MNC (Congolese National Movement) attempted to attain nation-wide support
» The leader of the MNC (a political party) was Patrice Lumumba
• 1960: Elections:
» 120 parties took part
» MNC won most seats but not outright majority
Independence and civil war
• 1960: Lumumba formed coalition government:
» Prime minister: Lumumba
- wanted strong central government
» President: Joseph Kasavubu
- wanted loose federation with regional autonomy
• Events after independence:
» Mutiny of Congolese army
» Attacks on Belgian property and civilians
» Breakaway of Katanga province (wealth from copper; backed by Belgian mining interests)
» Breakaway of Kasai province (backed by USSR)
» Arrival of Belgian troops
- justified as protection for Belgian nationals
- but seen as attempt to restore colonial rule; control copper mines
10
• Lumumba appealed to the UN for help to:
» restore order
» reunite the country
» ensure the withdrawal of Belgian troops
• UN unable to achieve these aims
» unwilling to use force against Katanga (pressure from USA)
• Lumumba appealed to USSR for help
» Arrival of Soviet technicians, aid
» USA and West became alarmed
• Breakdown of government control:
» Lumumba deposed by Kasavubu
» Mobuto seized power
- expelled Soviets; arrested Lumumba
• Jan 1961: Murder of Lumumba
» Mobuto, Tshombe, CIA, Belgian agents all involved
» UN did nothing to protect him
» Regarded as martyr by communists and African nationalists
• Disunity in Congo continued:
» Katanga hired mercenary army
» UN struggled to restore unity
» Struggle for political power continued
Mobutu seizes power
• Nov 1965: Mobuto seized power (with US support)
» Established a one-party state
» Ruled as a dictator (Mobuto Sese Seko) for 32 years
» Changed name of Congo to Zaire
» Received substantial US aid
• Reasons for US support:
» Ally against USSR in Cold War
» Mineral wealth of Zaire (copper, cobalt, industrial diamonds)
• Zaire under Mobuto:
» 1970s: Economic collapse (partly caused by fall in copper prices)
» Autocratic government; opposition brutally suppressed
» Corruption; looting of government funds
» Unconditional support from West (because of Cold War)
• 1990: End of Cold War
» USA no longer needed Mobuto as anti-Soviet ally so it withdrew support
» 1997: Mobuto overthrown in civil war - went into exile
11
SOURCE C
An extract from a LSE blog on Mobuto.
Mobutu’s meteoric rise to power came during the Congo Crisis (1960-1964). The army took on
an important role in the Congo as it was tasked with preventing the secession of the mineralrich provinces of Katanga and Kasaï. Politicians struggled with governing this contested state.
Lumumba was assassinated in 1961, for example, and his successors proved unable to govern
the Congo. In 1965, a constitutional crisis developed in which the Prime Minister, Moïse
Tshombe, and the President, Joseph Kasa-Vubu, wrestled for power. In the midst of this
deadlock, Mobutu launched a successful coup-d’état.
10.1 Find a historical concept in Source C that best fits the following definition: The
forcible removal of an existing government from power through violent means.
(2)
10.2 Find a historical concept in Source C that best fits the following definition: The
action of withdrawing formally from membership of a political state.
(2)
10.3 Find a historical concept in Source C that best fits the following definition: A
situation, involving opposing parties, in which no progress can be made.
(2)
SOURCE D
An extract from an African Exponent article on Ujamaa.
Patrice Émery Lumumba fought for not only the independence of the Congo but the liberation
of Africa in general. He chose death over slavery and laid his life as a price for standing up for
Africa. Like was the case in Ghana, Nigeria, Senegal and other African countries which
participated in the Independence struggle, the colonial masters used someone from the inside
against Patrice Emile Lumumba. (Paragraph 1)
The person responsible for the betrayal of Patrice Emile Lumumba and slavery of the people
of the Congo was Mobutu Sesé Seko. Without surprise, he became president of the country.
The 32 years in which he ruled the country is regarded by many as the worst patch in the
Congo's history. (Paragraph 2)
According to African Facts, he was to be mandatorily shown descending from the clouds like a
god before the day's evening news broadcast. Mobutu treated the Congo as personal property
and is on record to be one of the most lavish presidents Africa has ever seen. Public records
reveal that Mobutu sent the national airline 32 times to Venezuela to ferry 5,000 sheep for his
ranch. One time, when his wife forgot a fashion magazine in France, he sent the plane he
flew into Kinshasa with back to France solely to bring back the magazine. (Paragraph 3)
Apart from being responsible for countless charges of deaths and human rights abuses, Mobutu
sucked the country dry. He embezzled the country's treasury to the point that his unverified
fortune was £6.3bn. This amount was equivalent to the entire debt of the Congo at that time.
With his name, Mobutu Sesé Seko meaning "ETERNAL MOBUTU", he saw himself as a god and
compelled the citizens to treat him as such. (Paragraph 4)
11. List TWO ways in which Mobuto created a cult of personality around him.
(4)
12. Use the source to describe why Mobuto’s international image was that of a
kleptocrat. Your answer should consist of TWO points.
(4)
13. Why was it surprising to many that the United States saw Mobuto as a Cold War
ally? Use an example from the source to explain your answer.
(4)
12
Topic 2: Module 4- Congo and Tanzania Comparison
The successes and challenges faced by independent Africa
At independence, Africans hoped for better systems:
» A. Political: Freedom to choose own leaders and systems of government
» B. Economic: Prosperity with African ownership of resources
» C. Social: Africanisation policies (e.g. in administration, language)
There were some successes but also many challenges.
A. Political: What kind of states emerged in Tanzania and the Congo?
•
•
Each state had different aims and visions
Different political ideologies influenced the kind of states and policies that emerged
•
•
•
Tanzania
Political unity; TANU the
dominant party
•
After Arusha Declaration,
ideology was African socialism:
» Centralised government,
nationalised industries, rural
reform programmes, limits to
capitalist activities
•
Lack of national unity evident
after independence:
» Breakaway of Katanga and Kasai
•
Changes in vision of what sort of
state Congo would be:
» 1960: Lumumba wanted a
socialist state
» 1961–4: Period of conflict and
confusion
» 1965: Mobuto set up one-party
state with Western support
•
Mobuto’s vision for Zaire:
» Authenticité (emphasis on
indigenous beliefs and practices)
» Zairianisation (nationalisation
of foreign-owned small
businesses)
» Mobutoism (personality cult)
•
Comparison with Tanzania:
» Zaire more autocratic, more
corrupt, and more affected by
Cold War
African socialism was adapted in
1980s because of problems
13
Congo/Zaire
No strong political party with
national support
» Many competing interests and
ideologies
» MNC wanted strong centralised
government
» Others wanted regional power
A. Political: What political policies were implemented in Tanzania and the Congo?
•
Political policies determined by:
» leaders; situation in each country; differing legacies of colonialism
Types of leaders
•
Tanzania: Julius Nyerere
Considered to be one of Africa’s greatest leaders because he:
» retained national unity
» opposed political and financial corruption
» was a philosopher and intellectual
» tried to resolve problems of poverty
» promoted education, African cultural values
•
Swahili language
» led a simple lifestyle which made him a role model
» was respected internationally as a leading statesman
•
But there are some criticisms of Nyerere:
» He was not democratic:
- He ruled TANU and Tanzania in an authoritarian way
- He imposed a one-party system
» African socialism did not work
•
•
•
•
Congo: Patrice Lumumba
Positive views of Lumumba based on:
» His support for a truly national government
» His open criticism of Belgian colonialism
» His support for pan-Africanism
» He was the only democratically leader in Congo
» His murder made him a martyr
» He was a symbol of opposition to foreign intervention
» He was let down by the UN
» The problems in Congo were not his fault
But there are also criticisms of Lumumba:
» He did not achieve unity and order before his death
» His support for communism may have involved the Congo in a Cold War conflict
Zaire: Mobuto Sese Seko
Mobuto’s leadership usually seen in negative terms because he:
» was involved in Lumumba’s murder
» was a military leader who ignored democracy
» developed a personality cult and was all powerful
» was corrupt and used Congo’s money for himself
» ignored the poverty of most Congolese
» served Western interests rather than the needs of his people
He is credited with:
» promoting Africanisation
» encouraging a sense of national pride (but not achieving national unity)
14
Political
Issues
Tanzania
British system of
administration gave
some preparation for
independence:
» ‘Native authorities’
gave some powers to
local chiefs
» 1945: African
representatives on
central Legislative
Council
» 1950s: Africans part
of local government
administrations
» These gave some
administrative
experience after
independence
•
No political
opportunities for
Africans under Belgian
rule:
» Belgian administrators
treated Africans as
children
» 1950s: limited role for
some Africans in local
affairs
» But no representation
at central government
level
» Political parties
banned
•
Speed of Belgian
withdrawal added
further problems:
» No orderly handover
of power
» No single party to
unite nationalists
•
1960: Multiparty
elections won by TANU
•
•
1962: Overwhelming
support for TANU in
first postindependence election
•
1966: Government
commission
recommended
establishment of oneparty state.
No strong central
government because:
» No single party had
overall majority
» Many parties
competing for power
» Parties represented
different regions,
ethnicities, ideologies
» Lumumba unable to
consolidate control
under MNC
» Breakaway of Katanga
and Kasai provinces
» Intervention by
Belgian army
» Conflicts following
Lumumba’s death
•
1965: Military coup
» Authoritarian military
government under
Mobuto
Legacies of colonialism
•
Types of government
Congo/Zaire
15
Political stability and instability
•
Political stability
based on:
» Strong support for
TANU
» No challenges to
Nyerere’s leadership
» No regional
separatist movements
(Main Zanzibari party
merged with TANU)
•
One party state but
regular elections for
parliamentary seats
» This led to some
accountability
16
•
Political instability
based partly on internal
factors:
» Regional separatism in
Katanga and Kasai
» Over 100 political
parties
» No single leader
uniting the country
» Conflict between
Lumumba and Tshombe
» Role played by the
army (e.g. mutiny
straight after
independence)
» Government unable to
control looting and
violence
•
Outside interference
also caused instability:
» Belgian troops
undermined authority of
new government
» UN presence
ineffective
•
Political stability
restored when:
» 1963: Katanga forced
to rejoin Congo
» 1965: Military coup
- one-party dictatorship
(no form of democracy
or stability)
B. Economic: What types of ‘Third World’ economies developed?
•
Economic legacy of colonial rule:
» Economies geared to serve needs of colonial powers
» Based on export of unprocessed minerals and cash crops cheaply
» Import of expensive manufactured goods
» Few secondary industries
•
Economic dependence continued after political independence (‘neo-colonialism’)
» African countries became ‘third world’ economies (‘underdeveloped’; ‘developing’)
» Prices for raw materials determined on world markets
» Some countries depended on single export crop or mineral - economies vulnerable if
prices dropped
» Cash crops had replaced subsistence farming - could not grow enough food
•
Tanzania
Economic legacy of colonial rule:
» Economy based on cash crops
(sisal and groundnuts)
» Food shortages caused by
switch to cash crop production
» One of poorest British colonies
» Few manufacturing industries
•
Nyerere tried to improve
economy through:
» Rural production in ujamaa
villages
» Small-scale industries in towns
under state control
» Nationalisation of foreign
businesses
•
But Tanzania still dependent on
world markets
» 1970s: Hit by rising oil prices
and falling prices for cash crops
» increasingly dependent on
foreign aid
17
•
Congo/Zaire
Economic legacy of colonial
rule:
» Economy based on cotton,
rubber, minerals (copper, tin,
diamonds)
» Plantations and mines owned
by Belgian companies
» Profits taken out of Congo
» Workers poorly paid and
exploited
» After WW2: Some local
industries established
» Congo seen as one of richest
colonies
» But settlers and foreigners
owned most of wealth
» Wealth of Congo caused
divisions and conflict after
independence
» Breakaway of Katanga and
Kasai provinces (mineral wealth)
•
Tshombe hoped wealth from
copper would sustain Katanga’s
independence
•
After secession ended, Katanga
copper mines nationalised
» 1970s: Copper formed 40% of
export earnings
» 1980s: Loss of demand and
falling prices for copper
•
Diamond mining in Kasai:
» Provided income for Congo
» But smuggling caused
lawlessness and unrest
C. Social: What were the benefits and challenges regarding social and cultural issues?
•
Cultural legacy of colonialism:
» Western ideas and cultures more highly valued than African ones
» Western legal and government systems replaced local customs and laws
» Missionaries promoted Christianity over indigenous belief systems
» Education based on European curricula (e.g. languages, history)
» African indigenous knowledge systems and cultures devalued
» Schools produced educated elite who rejected their own culture
•
Many African nationalist leaders came from the educated middle class
» But wanted to promote more respect for African values and cultures after
independence
Education
•
Legacy of colonialism:
» Lack of good education system
» High illiteracy rates
» Shortage of skilled clerks and administrators
» Shortage of trained teachers
» Resources scarce
» Dilemma facing governments:
- focus on basic primary education to eliminate illiteracy; or
- tertiary education for some to develop specialised skills
•
•
Tanzania
Focus on basic education for all:
» Based on Nyerere’s Education
for self-reliance
» Wanted to change elitist and
urban-based colonial education
system
» Focus now on rural schooling
and basic literacy
» University students required to
do community service in rural
areas
•
•
Results of educational reforms:
» 97% of children receiving free
primary education
» Adult illiteracy reduced from
80% (1961) to 20% (1981)
» But fewer resources to
secondary schools and
universities
- Severe teacher shortage
- Standard of education
dropped
18
Congo/Zaire
Legacy of colonialism:
» Small number of educated elite
» 1960: Only 14 university
graduates (in population of 14
million)
Features of education after
independence:
» Focus on primary education
(numbers increased from 1,6m to
4,6m)
» French was medium of
instruction
» System favoured urban elites
» Under Mobuto, free primary
schooling replaced by fee-paying
schools.
Africanisation
•
Africans replaced colonial officials and administrators
•
Tanzania
Forms of Africanisation:
» Nyerere promoted Swahili as
national language
» Ujamaa villages promoted
African co-operative community
values
•
•
19
Congo/Zaire
Forms of Africanisation under
Lumumba:
» He called for rapid
Africanisation of army and
administration
- result was army mutiny;
foreign intervention
Forms of Africanisation under
Mobuto:
» Towns renamed (e.g.
Leopoldville became Kinshasa)
» Country renamed Zaire
» People required to adopt
African names (e.g. Joseph-Désiré
Mobutu became Mobuto Sese
Seko)
» Authenticité campaign (to
promote pride in Zairian culture)
- but Mobuto used it to
strengthen authoritarian
position
» Promotion of ‘Congolese’ music
- became popular even
outside Zaire
Revision: What are the key issues in comparing Tanzania and Congo?
•
Colonial legacy:
» Tanzania: gradual preparation by Britain for independence
» Congo: rapid departure by Belgium; no preparation or support
•
Political stability:
» Tanzania: stability under TANU which had mass support
» Congo: regional separatism and competing political parties
•
Leadership:
» Tanzania: Nyerere strong and highly respected
» Congo: Lumumba killed; Mobuto an autocratic dictator
•
Economy:
» Tanzania: poor rural economy
» Congo: considerable mineral wealth; resulted in political separatism
» Both depended on world market prices and demand
•
Impact of Cold War:
» Tanzania; no direct impact
» Congo: intervention of foreign powers (especially USA)
•
Africanisation:
» Both promoted education so that Africans could fill jobs in government
» Both encouraged African culture, knowledge systems, languages
SOURCE E
World leaders applauded Nyerere for his pan-Africanist vision and his work on peace efforts in
Rwanda and Burundi. His funeral drew a host of former revolutionaries who had plotted their
campaigns from Dar es Salaam (Tanzania’s capital) during the scramble for independence of
the 1960s and 1970s. (Paragraph 1)
But Nyerere’s celebrated statesmanship internationally contrasts with resentment at home over
his refusal to allow multiparty politics, which critics say set the stage for four decades of ruling
party government. “He wanted to preserve power. Maybe he did not kill people as other
dictators, but by suppressing dissent he was not different to any other dictator,” said Ismail
Jussa, a senior official in the main opposition Civic United Front (CUF) party. The view was
echoed by Christopher Mtikila, a preacher who successfully won a court case allowing
independent candidates to run in Tanzania’s next election due in 2010. “He was the one to sing
for all of us. If you thought any different you were thinking treason,” he told Reuters. (Paragraph
2)
[Available at: <https://www.reuters.com/article/us-tanzania-nyerere/tanzanians-wonder-whethernyerere-saint-or-sinner-idUSL0220681820070303/>, Accessed 5 November 2020]
14.
Refer to Source E as well as your own knowledge to state whether the
following statements are TRUE or FALSE. Write down only TRUE or
FALSE. (No explanation is required.)
14.1
Nyerere supported political exiles from other African countries in their
fight for independence.
20
(2)
14.2
Nyerere worked on peace efforts in Rwanda and Burundi.
(2)
14.3
The scramble for independence in Africa was over by 1960.
(2)
14.4
The capital of Tanzania is Dar es Salaam.
(2)
14.5
Nyerere was well regarded on the international stage.
(2)
14.6
Nyerere oversaw a multi-party democracy while he was in power.
(2)
14.7
Nyerere was known to often resort to violence in order to stay in power.
(2)
SOURCE F
15.
16.
This is a magazine cover of the popular American magazine, Time,
which put Nyerere on its cover in 1964.
Would this magazine cover be effective in raising Nyerere’s profile internationally
in a positive manner? Explain your answer with TWO pieces of evidence from
the source. (Stand required; very effective/not very effective.)
(6)
Evaluate the reliability of Source F for a historian studying the contribution made
by Julius Nyerere to Tanzania. (6-mark reliability questions are marked by a
rubric. You must take a Stand; greater/lesser extent reliable – answer is
generally lesser extent reliable if used on its own. You must discuss the
Origin of the source, the Intent of the person or entity that created the
source and its Limitation/bias, which you must prove by quoting
text/visuals/description of the source above the source.)
Hence use the SOIL-method so that you remember all the criteria.
21
(6)
SOURCE G
An edited extract from a 1999 New York Times obituary on Nyerere.
Mr. Nyerere [took over] a land that at the time contained nine million people affiliated with more
than 120 tribes … It was one of the poorest countries in the world. Its mostly illiterate citizens
were scattered over remote regions, often unable to find a common language … (Paragraph 1)
By the time Mr. Nyerere gave up … political power in 1990 … Almost 70 percent of the people
had moved from traditional lands into planned villages. After vast investment in education,
literacy rose phenomenally. But it was still one of the poorest countries in the world. The year he
left his party post, the World Bank reported that Tanzanians were surviving on an average
income of $200 a year, and that the economy had shrunk on average half a percentage point a
year between 1965 and 1988. (Paragraph 2)
His defenders credit him with creating a culturally cohesive nation that avoided ethnic conflict
while life expectancy, literacy and access to water increased. Still, his critics condemned him for
adopting paternalistic* and coercive* policies like Ujamaa. They hated his insistence on oneparty rule and price controls, which shrank agricultural production, encouraged corruption and
led to vast squandering of foreign aid. (Paragraph 3)
17.
Was Nyerere largely able to unify Tanzanians across tribal lines? Support your
answer with ONE piece of evidence from the source. (Stand required; Yes/No)
(4)
18.
19.
To what extent were Nyerere’s economic policies successful? Use TWO pieces
from the source to support your answer. (Stand required; Greater/Lesser?)
(6)
Provide ONE quote that suggests Nyerere was intolerant of opposition.
(2)
SOURCE H
This is an edited extract from a 2000 journal article by R.W. Johnson.
… Nyerere oversaw the nationalization of all foreign banks, insurance companies, big firms,
sisal plantations, tobacco companies, breweries, and cement and other factories. This was so
unexpected that it startled even some of his friends abroad. The idea was, of course, that
nationalized enterprises would create a powerful and economically independent state. Nyerere
did not take into consideration the simple fact that he did not have enough qualified people, let
alone managers, to run this sector. Even at the end of his rule these state industries were
working at only 30-50 percent of their capacity, and only 190 of the 415 large state corporations
were profitable. The effect on the economy and on personal income was devastating.
(Paragraph 1)
Until the end, however, Nyerere was proud about how well he had served Tanzanians. As he
told the World Bank: "We took over a country with 85% of its adults illiterate. The British ruled us
for 43 years. When they left, there were two trained engineers and 12 doctors. When I stepped
down there was 91% literacy and nearly every child was at school. We trained thousands of
engineers, doctors and teachers." (Paragraph 2)
20.
Using your own knowledge, briefly explain what nationalization is.
(2)
21.
According to the article, why did nationalization fail in Tanzania? Provide ONE
point.
(2)
Refer to Source G and Source H
22.
What common success of Nyerere’s policies is discussed in both sources?
Explain your answer with evidence from BOTH sources. (Make it clear from
which source the evidence is coming.)
22
(6)
Topic 2: Module 5- Angola
Introduction:
1. How Africa was drawn into the Cold War?

African countries gained independence (1950s and 1960s) within the Cold War context
(1945-1989). These African countries therefore became sites of conflict for the two
superpowers who wanted to expand their respective spheres of influence.

Socialism encouraged a worldwide revolution and promising support for an antiimperialist struggle in Africa was logical for both the USSR and China. The USSR supplied
aid to anti-Western governments in Angola and Mozambique and weapons to Somalia and
Ethiopia. Cuba often supplied the troops and technicians on the ground in these
situations. After the Sino-Soviet split (1960), however, China and the USSR also competed
with each other for influence.

China identified itself more closely with the developing world than the Soviet Union and
imagined that its peasant-centric communism would be better suited to African
countries. During the early 1970s, Chinese aid to Africa outstripped Soviet aid.
Example of Chinese aid: The Tan-Zam railway was a Chinese-supported 1800km long
railway line that linked the Zambian copper belt to the port of Dar-es-Salaam in
Tanzania. It was completed in 1975, involved 20000 Chinese workers and allowed Zambia
to export copper without using South African ports.



The United States was primarily concerned with stopping the spread of communist
influence in Africa and to promote a capitalist agenda that protected trade routes.
American closeness with apartheid South Africa, however, made many African countries
suspicious of American intentions.
Examples of American interference in Africa: Zaire/Congo and Somalia (when a
communist government came to power in neighbouring Ethiopia in 1974).
2. Competing spheres of influence - trade, conflict and aid

For the most part, external powers competed in Africa by providing aid (money, logistical
support, weapons) and seeking trade alliances. Aid was given to both governments in
power and rebel groups, depending on which side the external powers favoured for
ideological reasons. This external ‘support’ invariably lengthened conflicts and made
them more deadly.

Former colonial powers tried to maintain special relations with and influence over the
newly independent states, as access to resources such as minerals, oil and agricultural
commodities remained of interest to these nations, and remained the main source of
income for the newly independent states. The US was especially interested in protecting
private companies that mined diamonds, uranium, manganese, cobalt and chromium.

Some African countries accepted aid from whoever was offering and didn’t officially take
sides in the Cold War (Tanzania), but many African countries were adversely affected
by the Cold War, which was generally a net negative for newly independent African
countries.
23
Angolan Case Study:
1. Colonialism

The first large political entity in the area of modern Angola, known as the Kingdom of
Kongo, appeared in the thirteenth century.

The Portuguese arrived on the coast of Angola in 1483 to set up a trading post and way
station on the route to India. They then set up a trading relationship with the Kingdom of
the Kongo, exchanging new technology such as firearms for slaves, ivory and minerals.
Portuguese presence in the region continued for hundreds of years.

After World War 2, when nearly all European countries were purposefully withdrawing
from their colonies, the Portuguese government under the dictator Antonio Salazar’s
Estada Novo regime was determined not only to deny independence to its African
colonies (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau) but to increase settlement.

The white population of Angola more than doubled between the mid-1950s and the eve of
independence. Most of these new settlers were poor labourers from Portugal – a state
which was one of the poorest and which had the highest illiteracy rate in Europe - who
both resented the plantation-owning elite and saw an opportunity to improve their lot by
exploiting cheap African labour. This increasingly volatile mix of class and racial division,
coupled with resentment towards the loss of land and harsh treatment by colonial
authorities, led to the outbreak of the War of Independence in 1961 with uprisings in the
capital, Luanda, and in northern Angola.
2. The War of Independence (1961-1974)

During the War of Independence, there were THREE main anti-colonial movements
operating in Angola.

The UPA was established in 1954 (later to become the Front for the Liberation of Angola
or FNLA in 1962) under Holden Roberto. It was a separatist movement for the Bakongo
people, which wished to re-establish the 16th century Bakongo kingdom (in the north of
Angola), but it was also a protest movement against forced labour. The FNLA received
aid from the US from 1961, as well as from the governments of Zaire (Mobuto) and China,
as it was seen as a counter to the Soviet-backed MPLA.

The Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola or MPLA was formed in 1956 and came
under the leadership of Agostinho Neto in 1962. Neto would later rule most of Angola
until his death in 1979. The MPLA's core base included the Amabundu ethnic group and
the educated intelligentsia of the capital city, Luanda. Its ideology was Marxist and it
received aid from the USSR as well as Cuba.

The National Union for Total Independence for Angola or UNITA was founded by Jonas
Savimbi when he broke with Holden Roberto’s FNLA in 1966. UNITA's leadership and
support was drawn heavily from Angola's Ovimbundu ethnic group and its base of support
was in the central highlands and the south. UNITA’s policies were originally Maoist and
it received support from China until 1974. They aimed at rural rights and recognized
ethnic divisions. In later years, however, UNITA became more aligned with the United
States and South Africa, espousing support for capitalism in Angola.
24

By the 1970s, colonial wars were costing almost half the Portuguese budget. As such, the
increasing costs of the African wars, the lengthening of conscription and the repressive
conditions in Portugal prompted young military officers to stage a coup in Portugal in
1974. The new military government promised both to introduce democracy to Portugal
and grant independence to Portuguese colonies.

The Organisation of African Unity (now the AU) managed to convince all three groups to
co-operate so that elections could take place in a newly independent Angola. However,
the USSR, USA, Cuba, South Africa and, to a lesser extent, China prevented a peaceful
transition and the three groups had disputes over territory, ideology and resources. As
such, no one was fully in power when the Portuguese left on the 11 November 1975
(independence day).
3. Outbreak of Civil War in 1974
When the civil war started in 1974:



The FNLA had Chinese and CIA (US) support.
UNITA received weapons from China and had the support of the largest ethnic group, the
Ovimbundu.
The MPLA was internally divided, but received Soviet weapons and Cuban military
advisors because China supported the other two. This support allowed the MPLA to gain
control of Luanda and other coastal towns.
Increase in international involvement before 11 November 1975:



The US reacted to Soviet involvement by sending funding, supplies and, later, weapons to
the FNLA and UNITA.
South Africa invaded Angola in October 1975 and was helped by the FNLA and UNITA, as
South African troops tried to capture Luanda.
Soviet and Cuban support allowed the MPLA to hold on to the capital, Luanda, and Neto,
leader of the MPLA, declared the establishment of the People’s Republic of Angola at
independence.
Course of the Civil War (1974-1989):





The American Congress decided against any more direct involvement after independence.
The MPLA had control over the capital, Luanda, the Cabinda oil wells (Angola’s chief
source of income) and with Soviet and Cuban support was able to defeat the FNLA quickly
and stop UNITA from advancing.
The Civil War was then largely characterised as a battle between the MPLA government
forces (known as the People’s Armed Forces for the Liberation of Angola or FAPLA),
supported by Cuban armed forces and weapons, ammunition and fighter planes (MIG23s) from the Soviet Union and UNITA backed by the South African military.
The Civil War cost 1.1 million civilians their lives, injured thousands of others in landmine
incidents and destroyed the economy of Angola, as resources were spent on arms not
economic development and no foreign investment was forthcoming.
The MPLA funded its war effort through the country’s oil wealth while UNITA sold
Angola’s diamonds and ivory.
25
4. The reasons for and nature of outside involvement in Angola
There were TWO reasons for international interest in Angola. One, its natural resources,
especially diamonds and oil. And two, the primary reason, the politics of the Cold War. The
effect of this involvement was to prolong conflict and make it deadlier, costlier and more
destructive.
a. The USSR
 Soviet support of the MPLA was partially ideological; the MPLA was Marxist.
 The USSR wanted a communist ally with natural resources next door to American-backed
Zaire.
 The USSR was also concerned by Chinese and American support for UNITA and the FNLA.
 As a government in power, the MPLA was a Marxist-Leninist regime and a Soviet ally
though it never took orders from the USSR.
b. The USA
 The US wanted to prevent a Soviet-backed communist government from coming to power
in a region where it had a vested interest (Zaire) and so it supplied UNITA and the FNLA.
 The humiliation of the Vietnam War meant the Americans wanted to restore balance in
the Cold War by ‘winning’ against the USSR in Angola.
 However, Vietnam also meant that the Americans were not willing to commit troops to
Angola hence they secretly encouraged South Africa to prevent the MPLA from coming to
power.
c. Cuba
 Angola and Cuba had long-standing historical links as many Angolan slaves ended up in
Cuba during the Atlantic Slave Trade.
 Castro committed to help the MPLA even before the USSR.
 Up to 55000 Cuban troops were sent to Angola and, at least, 2070 died.
 Cuban involvement also forced South Africa to reassess its involvement in Namibia given
its inability to succeed in Angola.
d.






China
China ended up supporting all three liberation groups over the course of the civil war.
In 1963, China agreed to provide weapons to the FNLA.
In 1964, military training was provided to UNITA.
In the early 1970s, MPLA guerrillas received Chinese training.
Owing to the Sino-Soviet split, however, the Chinese ended up backing UNITA and,
especially, the FNLA in order to counter the Soviet-backed MPLA.
China’s involvement was deemed a failure as the MPLA eventually won the civil war and
China only recognised Angola diplomatically in 1983.
e. South Africa
 South Africa was concerned about a domino effect whereby a communist regime in
Angola would threaten the capitalist, white-minority run countries of South Africa, South
West Africa (Namibia) – occupied by South Africa - and Rhodesia (Zimbabwe).
 South Africa was also concerned that a communist Angola would provide support and
bases to the ANC and SWAPO (the South West African People’s Organisation).
 South Africa was trying to prove its worth as an anti-communist ally to the United States
given the unpopularity of apartheid.
 South Africa had economic interests in Angola’s diamond mines, railways and the Cunene
River hydroelectric complex along the border between Angola and Namibia.
26
5. Impact on Regional Stability

After 400 years of colonial rule, Portugal’s sudden withdrawal from Africa in 1975 meant
that South Africa and Rhodesia (both white-minority regimes) no longer had Portuguesecontrolled Angola and Mozambique as buffers against the rest of independent Africa,
which largely supported the liberation movements against white-minority rule.

Additionally, the defeat of the Portuguese and, later, the South African Defence Force
(SADF), gave black South Africans encouragement for their own struggle against
apartheid.

The independence of Angola meant that liberation movements such as the ANC could
establish bases closer to home, which resulted in more MK attacks in South Africa and
more SADF operations against the ANC in exile hence more violence and instability in the
region.

Regional stability was also affected as refugees fled the fighting to neighbouring
countries, especially Zaire and Zambia.

The weapons that were used in the Civil War ended up being circulated throughout the
region, which facilitated more violence.
6. Significance of the Battle of Cuito Cuanavale (1987 and 1988)









Events
In November 1987, MPLA and Cuban forces launched an assault on UNITA in south-eastern
Angola. South Africa made its largest intervention to prevent the collapse of UNITA.
Infantry, tanks and artillery were deployed, destroying the advancing forces in a major
battle.
The SADF and UNITA forces followed the retreating MPLA/Cuban forces to the town of
Cuito Cuanavale on the Cuito River.
In the largest battle fought on the continent since WW2, several attacks were made on
the town, but these were heavily repulsed by Cuban pilots using MIG 23 Soviet planes.
Cuba and the ANC would later claim this as a major defeat for the SADF. While South
Africa also claimed victory, they failed to take the town or dislodge Angolan and Cuban
forces, and thus became bogged down in a stalemate.
Consequences
Cuba found that a large-scale advance would cost many lives.
South Africa could not afford the increasing risk of white national servicemen being killed
or scarce equipment lost.
Both sides therefore found the risks of an escalating war to be higher than they could
stomach.
Regardless of individual successes in the field, Cuito Cuanavale and the Cuban advance
proved to the SADF that it no longer had military supremacy in the region, which led to
South Africa’s withdrawal from Angola and the seeking of a negotiated settlement with
SWAPO (later PLAN) over Namibia.
The battle brought the civil war (with regional/international interference) to an end (it
would restart later but without all the external involvement). Peace negotiations began
and Cuban and South African forces withdrew just as the Cold War was coming to an end.
27
7. The changing nature of international relationships after 1989





At the same time that the Cold War was winding down, both the Soviet Union and the
United States called for talks. In 1989 the Angolan combatants, South Africa and Cuba sat
down to talk. The result was the Angola-Namibia Peace Accords in December 1989.
The results were the South African withdrawal from Namibia, leading to its independence
in 1990, the withdrawal of Cuban forces from Angola and an agreement to have elections
in Angola to end the civil war.
The end of the Cold War meant the end of Soviet support for Marxist movements in
Africa. The MPLA abandoned Marxism and began to follow a more free market economic
policy.
US support for regimes in Africa also ended and this included apartheid South Africa,
which started negotiating with the ANC, as its rooi gevaar justification for apartheid was
no longer valid.
However, the end of foreign intervention did not end the Angolan civil war. After the
MPLA won elections held in 1992, Savimbi complained of electoral fraud and the civil war
restarted. Although at a lower level than the 1980s, the fighting continued until Savimbi’s
assassination in 2002.
8. Timeline of Events (From: sahistory.org) [For your own interest/understanding; not
required for final examinations]
1961
FNLA and MPLA begin a guerrilla campaign to overthrow Portuguese colonial rule.
25 April 1974
Portuguese colonial rule ends after a coup removes the government in Portugal.
July 1975
FNLA is forced out of Luanda by the MPLA, while UNITA voluntarily withdraws to the south of Angola
where it is based. By August the MPLA controls 11 of 15 provincial capitals.
5 August 1975
South Africa’s Prime Minister JB Vorster had previously authorised Operation Savannah, which began
when South African troops invaded southern Angola with armoured vehicles and artillery, sweeping
towards Luanda.
23 October 1975
South Africa deploys troops stationed in Namibia in support of the FNLA and UNITA. Additionally, Zaire
sends armoured cars, paratroopers and infantry battalions in support of the FNLA with the motive of
ensuring a pro-Kinshasa government. Together with South Africa, UNITA manages to capture five
provincial capitals. Major assistance by Cuban forces siding with the MPLA prevents the fall of Luanda to
South Africa and UNITA.
11 November 1975
Angola attains official independence.
28
23 November 1975
The FNLA and UNITA declare a coalition government based in Huambo, with Holden Roberto and Jonas
Savimbi as co-presidents.
March 1976
South Africa withdraws due to a lack of support promised by the United States. UNITA and the FNLA
withdraw to the bush where they launch campaigns against the MPLA.
1977
The MPLA repels an attempted coup by one of its prominent leaders and subsequently establishes itself
firmly as a Marxist-Leninist party.
1979
A stalemate is reached, with UNITA being unable to drive back the MPLA from the provincial capitals,
and the MPLA finding itself unable to crush its opposition. The death of MPLA leader Agostinho Neto
results in Jose Eduardo dos Santos assuming the presidency.
12 May 1980
South African troops infiltrate Cunene province. The Angolan government blames South Africa for civilian
casualties.
21 May 1980
The SADF attacks Cuando-Cubango and the MPLA threatens military action.
7 June 1980
SADF launches an invasion through Cunene and Cuando-Cubango.
1982
South Africa begins a series of secret talks with the MPLA providing for the withdrawal of South African
and Namibian troops.
1984
Secret talks come to fruition in the form of the Lusaka Accord.
1986
Support for UNITA is heavily increased by military assistance from the USA. Additionally, support for the
MPLA is also increased by the Soviet Union, Cuba and other Eastern bloc nations.
1987
South Africa re-enters the struggle in support of UNITA and invades southern Angola, but fails in its
attempt to capture Cuito Cuanavale. Negotiations with the USSR, the USA and Portugal lead to the
conditional withdrawal of South African and Cuban troops from Angola in exchange for Namibian
independence.
1988
Battle of Cuito Cuanavale.
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1989
Dos Santos and Savimbi agree to a ceasefire. The ceasefire collapses shortly thereafter and guerrilla
activities resume.
April 1991
The MPLA denounces Marxism-Leninism in favour of social democracy.
31 May 1991
A peace agreement is signed in Lisbon by dos Santos and Savimbi, resulting in a multiparty constitution.
29 September 1992
Angola holds its first free and fair elections. Savimbi, who receives less votes than dos Santos, rejects
the outcome of the elections, accusing the MPLA of fraud, resumes guerrilla warfare.
1993
UNITA is sanctioned by the UN, and the United States officially acknowledges the MPLA government.
26 September 1993
The US issues Executive Order 12865, declaring a national emergency in Angola and invoking the
International Emergency Economic Powers Act and the United Nations Participation Act, prohibiting any
form of US aid to Angola except through designated entry points, and forbids supply to UNITA.
1994
The MPLA government and UNITA sign the Lusaka Protocol peace accord in Zambia.
January 1995
The MPLA, FNLA and UNITA agree to establish a joint transitional government.
1995
UN peace-keepers arrive in Angola to ensure a peaceful transition government.
1996
Dos Santos and Savimbi agree to a unity government and the merging of troops into a national army.
April 1997
Savimbi declines his position in the unity government and does not attend the inauguration ceremony.
1998
Full-scale fighting resumes.
February 2002
Subsequent to the death of Jonas Savimbi at the hands of the Angolan government, UNITA and the MPLA
sign a ceasefire agreement.
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