APPENDIX-1
TITLE PAGE FOR PRACTICUM NOTEBOOK
IGNOU
MA (PSYCHOLOGY)
Programme Code: MAPC
Course Code: MPCL-007
Name & Enrolment of the Learner: ANKITA TYAGI (Enrolment no : 2106652472)
Address: A/303, New Parvati Apartment, Near Sai Baba Nagar, Kalyan east, thane,
Mumbai – 421306, Maharashtra
Phone No.: 9987527198
Email: tyagiankita303@gmail.com
Study Centre Name/Code/Address: SEVA SADAN’S COLLEGE OF EDU. , CODE
– 1623, SEVA SADAN'S COLLEGE OF EDU.,SEVA SADAN MARG,ULHAS NGR3,DIST.THANE
Regional Centre: 49: MUMBAI
Date:
Signature of the Learner
APPENDIX-2
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Ms/ Mr. Ankita Tyagi
of MA Psychology First Year has conducted and successfully completed the practical work in
MPCL- 007 Practicum: Experimental Psychology and Psychological Testing.
Signature of the Learner
Signature of Academic Counsellor
Name: ANKITA TYAGI
Name: ANITA KUMAR
Enrolment No.: 2106652472
Designation:
Name of the Study Centre: SEVA SADAN
COLLEGE’S OF EDU
Place:
Regional Centre: 49: MUMBAI
Date:
Place: KALYAN
Date:
Practical MA PSYCHOLOGY
Introduction
Activity 1: Social learning theory and social cognitive theory differences and applications
Activity 2: Interpretation of sternberg’s article about what true intelligence is
Activity 3: To understand the process of ageing by thematically analyzing the interview
responses.
Activity 4: Locus of Control
Activity 5: To assess the personality of the subject using 16 P.F.
Activity 6: To understand the application and common uses of halo effect and relationship
between learned behaviour and halo effect.
1) INTRODUCTION ABOUT EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY AND
PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING
Psychological testing is an objective and standardised measure of individuals mental and
behavioural characteristics. Such characteristics are measured based on individual
performance on tasks that have been usually prepared beforehand . A score on a well
constructed test is believed to reflect a psychological construct such as cognitive ability ,
aptitude , personality , emotional maturity etc.
Construction and standardisation of psychological test , steps involved are.
1. Preliminary survey
2. Planning
3. Writing the test items in preliminary form
4. Administering the test (pilot test)
5. Item analysis
6. Writing the test items in final form
7. Establishing reliability and validity
8. Establishing norms
Psychological testing scope
It is applied in field such as
1. TESTING IN EDUCATIONAL SETTING
● General mental ability tests: Group tests – SPM, Cattell’s Culture-fair Test of
Intelligence
● General mental ability tests: Individual tests- Binet – Kamath test, WISC,
WAIS
2. TESTING IN CLINICAL SETTING [10]
● Tests based on the Criterion-Group Strategy- MMPI, California Psychological
Inventory
● Tests based on the Factor-Analytic Strategy- 16 PF, NEO-PI R, EPQ-R
● Tests based on the Theoretical Strategy- EPPS, self-concept inventories,
Jackson Personality Inventory
● Projective and neuropsychological testing
Development of psychological testing
The first large-scale tests may have been examinations that were part of the imperial
examination system in China. The test, an early form of psychological testing, assessed
candidates based on their proficiency in topics such as civil law and fiscal policies.
Other early tests of intelligence were made for entertainment rather than analysis.
Modern mental testing began in France in the 19th century. It contributed to separating
mental retardation from mental illness and reducing the neglect, torture, and ridicule heaped
on both groups.
Englishman Francis Galton coined the terms psychometrics and eugenics, and developed a
method for measuring intelligence based on nonverbal sensory-motor tests. It was initially
popular, but was abandoned after the discovery that it had no relationship to outcomes such
as college grades. French psychologist Alfred Binet, together with psychologists Victor Henri
and Théodore Simon, after about 15 years of development, published the Binet-Simon test
in 1905, which focused on verbal abilities. It was intended to identify mental retardation in
school children.
The origins of personality testing date back to the 18th and 19th centuries, when personality
was assessed through phrenology, the measurement of the human skull, and physiognomy,
which assessed personality based on a person's outer appearances.
These early pseudoscientific techniques were eventually replaced with more empirical
methods in the 20th century. One of the earliest modern personality tests was the Woolworth
Personality Data Sheet, a self-report inventory developed for World War I and used for the
psychiatric screening of new draftees
Content of present report include
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Social learning theory and social cognitive theory differences , applications
My own article on true intelligence based on sternberg article
Thematical analyzation of interview technique based on interview of old age client
Test report on locus of control experiment
Test report on 16PF test inventory administration
key points on halo effect experiment. Uses, application ,relationship between learned
behaviour and hallo effect.
Conclusion
1. By doing the psychological practical report i was able to learn how to administer and
write report based on administration
2. Report writing on other theories helped me to learn and observe the psychological
phenomena through reading and interpretating it.
3. It enabled me to understand how to write article within limits
1: ACTIVITY
TITLE:
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY AND SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY
DIFFERENCES AND APPLICATIONS
AIM:
To understand patterns of human behavior with the help of Bobo Doll
experiment by Albert Bandura
INTRODUCTION:
What is learning?
Learning is a key process in human behaviour. It plays an important role in almost every
activity we perform in our daily life. Learning may be defined as the “semi permanent or
relatively permanent change in behaviour brought out by the knowledge or experience
gained”. Some characteristics of learning can be derived from the definition given
above. First, the term does not apply to temporary changes in behaviour such as those
resulting from fatigue, drugs or illness. Second, it does not refer to changes resulting
from maturation. Third, learning can result from Vicarious as well as from direct
experiences. In other words, one can learn by observing events and behaviour in our
environment as well as by practicing in them
Forms Of Learning
Learning takes place in many ways. Few of the basic forms of learning are given below.
Classical conditioning: It is a form of learning in which two stimulus events are
associated with each other in such a way that the occurrence of one event reliably
predicts the occurrence of the other. Ivan P Pavlov, a Nobel Prize winning physiologist
from Russia identified this form as an important behavioural process. Pavlov conducted
his studies on physiology of digestion on dogs.
Operant conditioning: This type of conditioning was investigated by B F Skinner.
Skinner studied occurrence of voluntary responses when an organism operates in the
environment. He called these responses as operants. Operants are those behaviours
or responses, which are let out by animals and human beings voluntarily and are under
their control. In situations involving operant conditioning, the probability that a given
behaviour would occur changes, depending upon the consequences that follow it.
Skinner conducted his studies on rats and pigeons.
Observational learning: Acquiring new skills by observing the behaviour of the others
is a common part of everyday life. This form of learning takes place by observing others.
In this kind of learning, human beings learn social behaviour. Therefore, it is sometimes
called as social learning. In many situations we do not know how to behave. We
observe others and try to copy their behaviour. Albert Bandura is the most eminent
psychologist who investigated observational learning in detail.
His experimental studies in Social Learning Theory (SLT) and Social Cognitive Learning
Theory (SCLT) have influenced many areas of inquiry like education, health sciences,
social policy and psychotherapy etc.
Social Learning Theory: This theory is based on the idea that we learn from our
interactions with other species present in the environment. By observing the behaviors
of others, people develop similar behaviors. After observing the behavior of others,
people absorb and imitate that behavior, especially if their observational experiences
are positive ones or include rewards related to the observed behaviour.
Social learning theory has become the most influential theory of learning and
development. It is a base of the many concepts of traditional learning theory. This theory
has often been called a bridge between behaviorist learning theories and cognitive
learning theories because it covers attention, memory, and motivation also
Social Cognitive Learning Theory (SCLT): Albert Bandura has expanded his social
learning theory by saying that, human beings are not passive learners. He said that we
are not only the producers but we are the products of this social system. We can be
active agents who can manipulate, can decide what experience (learning’s) we want to
have or don’t want to have.
So, SCLT is a learning theory which has come out on the ideas that people learn by
watching what others do, and also by that human thought processes are central to
understanding personality. SCLT places a heavy focus on cognitive concepts. It is also
focused on how children and adults operate cognitively on their social experiences and
how these cognitions then influence behaviour and development.
DESCRIPTION OF THE EXPERIMENT: The description of the experiment is as given
below
BOBO DOLL EXPERIMENT
Bandura conducted a controlled experiment study to investigate if social behaviours
(i.e.,aggression) can be acquired by observation and imitation
This is one of the most famous experiments which provided evidence for the existence
of observational learning. These experiments have been conducted by Albert Bandura
and his colleagues in 1963. In this, one group of nursery school children saw an adult
engage in aggressive actions against a inflated bobo doll. This adult was serving as a
model. That adult knocked down the doll, sat on it, insulted it verbally and repeatedly
punched it on the face.
Another group of children were exposed to a model who behaved in a quiet, non
aggressive manner. Later, both groups of children were sent to the room with many toys
in that room including a large inflated bubo doll. Their activities were observed carefully.
It was noticed that, those children who had seen the aggressive adult model copied his
behaviour. They too have punched the toy, sat on it, gave verbal comments. Similar
behaviour as of the model was observed from that group of children who were exposed
to the aggressive model. While, in contrast, the children who were there in the room
with the quite model reflected in the same manner i.e peaceful. They didn’t
demonstrated violent actions.
These results may not be very surprising but this experiment has a significant role in
enduring controversy over whether children learn new ways of aggression through
exposure to violent television programs and online videos.
MATERIALS REQUIRED:
(a) Computer with Microsoft word.
(b) Video clip of the experiment.
(c) Study material book MPC-003.
PROCEDURE: In this experiment, first we need to read the social cognitive theory
of personality. After that, by taking reference from the video link provided in the
guidelines, detailed discussion to be made on social cognitive learning theory and social
learning theory by explaining the topics as given in the guidelines.
DISCUSSION:
What is Social Cognitive Theory?
The social cognitive theory is a learning theory which states that people acquire new
behaviors by observing a model, and that personal (or cognitive) factors, the behavior itself
and the environment (in the form of reinforcements) are engaged in a triadic feedback
relationship, called reciprocal determinism, which influences the reproduction of the learned
behavior. This theory was proposed by Albert Bandura officially in his 1986 book, Social
Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory, and is an expansion of his
take on social learning theory. He called it social cognitive theory to emphasize the role of
cognitive factors (encapsulated under the personal factors) in the process of learning as well
as to differentiate it from other social learning theories.
With social cognitive theory, Bandura broadens his social learning theory by starting with a
conceptualization of humanity as having agency and capability, that is, humans are not just
shaped by their environments and inner forces but also shape their environment and can
regulate those inner forces. He maintains his major contributions to social learning theory,
such as modeling, identification, and direct and vicarious reinforcement. He expands
observational learning by adding onto it four cognitive processes that mediate learning,
namely attention, retention, production and motivation. Finally, he adds the concept of selfefficacy, the personal belief in one’s own capability to plan and act accordingly in response
to foreseeable situations.
What is Social Learning Theory?
Social learning theory is a cognitive-behavioral theory of learning which proposes that we
acquire new behaviors simply by observing it along with its consequences. Although
Bandura is credited with most of this body of knowledge, the entirety of social learning theory
is a collective work from different people. The theory traces its roots to a combination of
psychoanalytic and behaviorist concepts. In 1941, Neil Miller and John Dollard published a
book called Social Learning Theory. In it they proposed that biological drives acts as
stimulus for behavior which is in turn reinforced by social interaction. In 1954, Julian B.
Rotter also published his book Social Learning and Clinical Psychology. Rotter theorizes that
the emergence of novel behavior is a function of expectancy of a positive outcome and the
behavior is reinforced by positive outcomes. Sociology also has its take on social learning
theory. Edwin Sutherland’s Differential Association Theory was integrated into operant
conditioning and social learning by criminologists Robert Burgess and Ronald Akers and
they developed a comprehensive theory on how criminal behavior is learned. Throughout all
this, cognitive perspectives maintain that a lot of novel behavior is acquired and reproduced
even without repetition and reinforcement.
It was in this state of the social learning theory that Bandura conducted research on how
novel behavior is acquired in the social context. Through his famous Bobo Doll Experiments
Bandura came to the conclusions that are now basically the core concepts of modern social
learning theory. First, learning occurs by observing the behavior of a model, which includes
extracting information about the observation and deciding on performing the behavior
(modeling or observational learning). Second, behavior can be reinforced by observing the
consequences that happen to the model after the behavior was performed (vicarious
reinforcement). Third, observation is a cognitive skill hence learning is a cognitive-behavioral
process. Lastly, a learner observes and copies the model that he or she sees the most
similarity with or has the most emotional attachment with (identification).
Difference between social cognitive theory and social learning theory
Social cognitive theory and social learning theory are theories that try to explain learning in
the social context, with the main position being that people acquire new behaviors by
observation. The two theories focus solely on behavior, in terms of what can be learned,
setting aside other things such as knowledge or cognitive skills. The word ‘social’ refers to
the influence of social interactions on how we acquire new behaviors which may not
necessarily be social in nature, and how we perpetuate them. Both of these theories are
rooted in behaviorist traditions in that focus on learned behavior and excluding thought and
emotion. Still, both theories do acknowledge the cognitive processes that play a role in
learning and behavior. The two are very similar in content, so similar that both are
sometimes attributed to just one man, Albert Bandura.
Largely due to Bandura’s great contribution to social learning theory, it is difficult to
differentiate it from social cognitive theory. As such, this article sets Bandura’s 1986 book
entitled Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory as the
delineation between the two. Although not by much, social learning theory is a fairly older
body of knowledge while social cognitive theory has a broader scope. And while social
cognitive theory can be attributed solely to Bandura, social learning theory is a collection of
ideas from various thinkers. These two theories are discussed further in the following
sections, along with a summary of how they differ.
Definition
Social cognitive theory is the expanded form of Albert Bandura’s social learning theory which
states that learning can occur by observing a behavior and that the manifestation of that
behavior in the learner is regulated by the triadic reciprocal determinism between personal
(cognitive) factors, the behavior itself, and by the environment (reinforcement). Meanwhile,
social learning theory is a learning theory that proposes that learning occurs in a social
context by means of observation of the behavior and the consequences that follow it.
Proponent/s
Social cognitive theory was proposed by Albert Bandura alone. Social learning theory is a
collective work, with the most contribution coming from Bandura but with earlier contributions
from Neil Miller and John Dollard, Julian Rotter, and Robert Burgess and Ronald Akers, as
well as an influence from cognitive perspectives on learning.
Core concepts
Core concepts in the social cognitive theory are human agency, observational learning and
its four meditational processes (attention, retention, production, motivation), triadic reciprocal
determinism between cognitive, behavioral and environment factors, and self-efficacy. In
social learning theory, the core concepts are observational learning, reinforcement (direct or
vicarious), learning as a cognitive-behavioral process, and identification with a model.
Role of cognitive factors
In the social cognitive theory, cognitive factors play an important and equal role with
environmental factors in the acquisition of new behavior and in its production. In social
learning theory, the cognitive factors are only acknowledged to play a role in the acquisition
of new behavior but not much or none at all in its production.
Role of reinforcement
In the social cognitive theory, reinforcement or environmental factors has an equal role with
cognitive factors in the learning and production of behavior. In social learning theory,
consequences and reinforcement play a major role in the acquisition and production of
behavior.
Scope
Social cognitive theory has a broader theoretical scope as it includes a conceptualization of
humans as agents capable of shaping their environment and of self-regulation. Social
learning theory on the other hand is limited to tackling the learning process in the social
context.
Applications Of Social Learning Theory
Two areas of application of social learning theory in social work include research and
intervention. Researchers can use the theory to understand how aggressiveness and
violence can be transferred through observational learning External link. The theory can
further be used to investigate how positive role models can foster desirable behaviors
and promote social change.
As an intervention tool, a social worker can implement social learning theory to
influence positive new behaviors by altering the reinforcement External link, whether
positive or negative, associated with the source of the issue. It is important to note that
to effectively apply social learning theory principles as an intervention, it is essential a
social worker includes the use of other methods of work such as symbolic coding, stress
management and vicarious reinforcement.
Applications Of Social Cognitive Learning Theory
Media contents studies
Social cognitive theory is often applied as a theoretical framework of studies pertained
to media representation regarding race, gender, age and beyond.
Media effects studies
Social cognitive theory is employed in studies examining attitude or behaviour changes
triggered by the mass media. As Bandura suggested, people can learn how to perform
behaviours through media modeling. SCLT has been widely applied in media studies
pertained to sports, health, and education and beyond.
Public health
Social cognitive theory can be helpful in identifying motivating factors that lead to
increased physical activity across age and gender. SCT can be applied to public health
campaigns in an attempt to foster a healthier public through exercise.
CONCLUSION:
Violence is contagious as it meets the definition of a contagious disease which spreads
from one person to another. By taking results from bobo doll experiment into the
consideration, I feel that Violence is contagious. In human beings most of the learning
takes place by observing others. It is widely accepted that, there is a fair amount of
influence on the development of individual by learned behaviour which results from the
interaction with the environment in which one grows up. I personally seen the cases,
where kids are exposed to the violent actions at their home or surrounding, they behave
in the same way in their kids surrounding. So, in this way this circle of learned behaviour
grows bigger and bigger with the time. Violence being contagious in nature have killed
hundreds of millions people throughout the history as did by the many other infectious
disease.
As human kind always won over the various infectious diseases in the history, we can
always interrupt the spread of violence also by adopting some short term as well as
some long term strategies.
2: ACTIVITY
TITLE:
Theory of Intelligence.
AIM:
Interpretation of sternberg’s article about what true intelligence is?
INTRODUCTION:
What is Intelligence?
Intelligence: We need it in everyday life. We have all heard this word hundreds of times
and probably have a general understanding of its meaning also. But what, precisely, is
intelligence? Psychologists don’t entirely agree, but as a working definition we can
adopt the wordings offered by panel of experts. The term Intelligence refers to
“individual’s ability to acquire and apply knowledge, think and reason effectively, to deal
adaptively with the new environment or change the present environment, to overcome
difficult situations by careful thought”
DESCRIPTION:
Different theories of Intelligence:
Most of the theories of intelligence recognize that, intelligence as a general ability to
handle a wide range of cognitive tasks and problems. Also, the intelligence is expressed
in different ways, and that persons can be high on some aspects of intelligence but low
on others. A brief on theories of intelligence is given below.
Spearman’s General Intelligence Theory:
Spearman's two-factor theory proposes that intelligence has two components: General
intelligence, also known as (“g”) factor, refers to a general mental ability that, underlies
multiple specific skills, including verbal, spatial, numerical and mechanical. Second,
Specific ability, also known as (“s”) factor refers to an individual’s specific ability in one
particular area. Spearman noticed that those who did well in one area of intelligence
tests also did well in other areas. Spearman used a technique known as factor analysis
through which the correlations of related variables are evaluated
Together, these two main factors in the figure above compose Spearman’s two-factor
theory.
Thurstone’s theory of Intelligence:
L.L. Thurstone gave theory of intelligence (also known as Theory of Primary Mental
Abilities) and challenged the concept of a g-factor. Thurstone found that intelligent
behavior does not arise from a general factor, but rather emerges from seven
independent factors that he called primary abilities: word fluency, verbal
comprehension, spatial visualization, number facility, associative memory, reasoning,
and perceptual speed. Although Thurstone did not reject Spearman’s idea of general
intelligence altogether, he instead theorized that intelligence consists of both general
ability and a number of specific abilities, paving the way for future research that
examined the different forms of intelligence.
Cattell’s theory of Fluid & Crystallized intelligence:
In order to determine whether intelligence consists of one or several other components,
psychologists in past decades made use of statistical technique known as factor
analysis; Spearman, for instance. Somewhat different conclusions were reached by
Cattell (1963), who concluded that two major clusters of mental abilities exist: what he
termed as “Fluid and Crystallized intelligence”. Fluid intelligence refers to our largely
inherited abilities to think and reason – in a sense, the hardware of our brains that
determines limits of our information processing capabilities. In contrast, Crystallized
intelligence refers to accumulated knowledge – information we store over a lifetime of
experience, plus the application of the skills and knowledge to solving specific
problems. Then, Crystallized intelligence is the outcome of experience acting on our
fluid intelligence.
Fluid intelligence seems to decrease slowly with age, but Crystallized intelligence stays
level or even increases. This is why older, more experienced individuals can sometimes
outperform younger ones on cognitive tasks ranging from scientific research to chess.
Gardener theory of multiple intelligence:
Following the work of Thurstone, American psychologist Howard Gardner built off the
idea that there are multiple forms of intelligence. He proposed that there is no single
intelligence, but rather distinct, independent multiple intelligences exist, each
representing unique skills and talents relevant to a certain category. Gardner (1983,
1987) initially proposed seven multiple intelligences: linguistic, logical-mathematical,
spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal, and he has since
added naturalist intelligence.
Gardner holds that most activities (such as dancing) will involve a combination of these
multiple intelligences (such as spatial and bodily-kinesthetic intelligences). He also
suggests that these multiple intelligences can help us understand concepts beyond
intelligence, such as creativity and leadership
And although this theory has widely captured the attention of the psychology community
and greater public, it does have its faults. There have been few empirical studies that
actually test this theory, and this theory does not account for other types of intelligence
beyond the ones Gardner lists.
Sternberg Triarchic theory:
Just two years later, in 1985, Robert Sternberg proposed a three-category theory of
intelligence, integrating components that were lacking in Gardner’s theory. This theory is
based on the definition of intelligence as the ability to achieve success based on your
personal standards and your socio-cultural context.
According to the triarchic theory, intelligence has three aspects: analytical, creative, and
practical.
Analytical intelligence: It is also referred to as componential intelligence. It involves
the abilities to think critically and analytically. Persons high on this dimension usually
excel on standard test of academic potential and become excellent students. This is
what a traditional IQ test measure.
Creative intelligence: It is the ability to go beyond what is given to create novel and
new ideas. This type of intelligence involves imagination, innovation and problemsolving. Persons high on this type of intelligence are excellent at zeroing in on what
information is important in a given situation.
Practical intelligence: In many ways, it is the most interesting of all. It is the ability
that individuals use to solve problems faced in daily life. Person high on this aspect are
intelligent in a practical, adaptive sense. Sometimes, these are termed as “street
smarts” and are more adept at solving the problems of everyday life.
CONCLUSION:
Interpretation of Sternberg’s article about what true intelligence is?
The definition of Intelligence is always controversial as it has been defined in many
ways by many great psychologists over the period of time. Recently, during the outbreak
of first wave of COVID-19, the American psychologist Robert J Sternberg defined
Intelligence as the ability to adapt to the environment by correlating to the present
scenario. The standard tests which measure intelligence have got problems which have
standard, short, right or wrong answers but real life problems do not have any specific
and clear answers. In the tests, problems are solved and the job is completed but in real
life problems come back right after we solved them. Thus, solving the tests problems
and scoring high on IQ does not guarantee that the same amount of intelligence will be
actively deployed in real life problems and bring out the same results. So the true
intelligence is adapting to the environment which involves either utilizing knowledge
gained from experience to purposefully change oneself to suit the environment
(adaptation), or changing the environment to suit oneself (shaping). These types of
intelligent people (adaptive to environment) will bring positive changes in the
environment globally. They might lack in scoring higher degrees or making less money
but live happier life and make the world a better place to live for others also.
3: ACTIVITY
TITLE: Interview of an older adult
AIM: To understand the process of ageing by thematically analyzing the
interview responses.
INTRODUCTION:
Ageing is a natural process. Everyone undergo this phase of life at his or her own time
and pace. Ageing reflects all the changes taking place over the course of life. Middle
age is the time when people notice the age-related changes like graying of hair,
wrinkled skin and a fair amount of physical decline. Even the healthiest person cannot
escape these changes.
DESCRIPTION: This is an activity based on an open ended interview with an old
age person. The objective of the interview is to understand the ageing process. The
interview was designed as semi structured in nature. The transcript of the interview for
reference is attached as an Annexure to the report. The interview is totally dependent
on whatever the person has told verbally and I had accepted that as true.
MATERIALS REQUIRED: Questionnaire, voice recorder, notebook, and pen/pencil.
PARTICIPANTS PROFILE: Detailed information about the participant is as given
below.
(a) Name: Sanato Sarkar
(b) Age: 65 years
(c) Gender: Male
(d) Educational qualification: PhD
(e) Occupation: Retired from Professor
PROCEDURE AND ADMINISTRATION: The procedure and administration before the
interview followed is as given below. (The transcript of the interview is attached as
Annexure at the end of the interview).
(a) PREPARATION: A proper sitting arrangement as per the participant comfort
has been made. Before conducting the interview, a well informed consent has
been taken from the subject.
(b) RAPPORT: In order to make subject comfortable before the interview, a friendly
atmosphere needs to be established from the beginning of the interview session.
Before the interview, a general talk carried out.
(c) INSTRUCTIONS: It is required to convince the participant that, whatever he is
telling us is important for us and our interview. Interview should be in depth and semi
structured. The main focus should be on the answers they are giving. It is
made clear to the subject that the interview is only for a practical purpose and all
the contents of the interview would be kept confidential.
(d) PRECAUTIONS: There must be healthy rapport created with the participant
before the interview to ensure that the subject is comfortable. There should be no
interruption between the replies given by the subject.
DISCUSSION: The subject was comfortable during the interview. A semi structured
interview carried out to understand the process of ageing. Based on the replies, it is
understood that the subject was totally aware about the ageing process and well
prepared for it. He was a single child to his parents. He belongs to a healthy family
background and subject also felt proud being following that healthy schedule. He always
kept his fitness regime above all. On asking upon the view on retirement, his answer
shows that he had accepted and confident to go through the ageing process. His replies
show that he understood that the ageing process is normal and every human being has
to go through it. There were no major psychological changes observed in the subject as
he was very active in his life and continued to make fine adjustments in his schedule to
match the lifestyle according to increasing age. He told that earlier he used to run but
now he used to do cycling to keep himself fit. This shows that he promoted his wellness.
Till now he does not have any specific stereotypes neither he have internalize any
stereotype about old age.
CONCLUSION: It is concluded from the responses given by the subject during
interview that ageing is a normal process if you are aware and accepted it. One can live
his/her old age life in a better way by keeping calm and accepting the obvious changes
happens with the increasing age.
Annexure
Interview Transcript
Ques: Tell me your full name and when and where you were born.
Reply: My name is Sanato Sarkar. Basically my ancestors were from
Rajasthan but during the British movement they moved to Uttar Pradesh. So my birth
place is district Rae Bareli in Uttar Pradesh.
Ques: Do you know why you were given that name?
Reply: Yes (smiling), I was named on the name of the then famous leader Late
Mr Lal bahadur shastri.
Ques: Tell me about your parents and siblings and some educational
background.
Reply: As I told my ancestors were basically from Rajasthan. I belong to a rajput
family and my father was employed as a fitness coach at the royal family big house at
Bikaner in Rajasthan (Maharaja Karni singh). My father was very strong and healthy.
That is the reason being healthy is the most important thing in our family. I was born
single child to my parents. My father has always insisted upon self dependency which
made me very enthusiastic to become self dependent as early as possible. He used to
reward me on every achievement I make of my own. I completed my secondary
education and got a offer from my uncle to join the newly evolving BSNL (Bharat
sanchar nigam limited). So I left my studies and started earning at the early age.
Ques: Do you enjoy a slower pace now, or are you as busy as ever?
Reply: No, I never liked being slow in any phase of my life. When we got
computers installed in our offices in the late 90’s, some younger people who recently
joined BSNL started using computer to complete their tasks. I use to do the things as
before because this new technology was completely new to us. But in the end of the
month, my name was maintained at the leader board as before because I use to do the
things so fast manually that younger guys found difficult to catch. So I was never slow
neither I am now. I keep myself busy intentionally which helps me in staying away from
small worries, bogus talks, anger, jealousy etc
Ques: What things you couldn't do now that you did when you were younger?
Reply: Yes, there are few things which I used to do before but now I replaced
those things with some other stuff. For e.g when I was 40 I use to test my fitness by
running more than 30 kms every month. But now I changed that run into bicycle
expedition as I turned 66 this year. I am really good in accepting the things as they
change with time.
Ques: What are the important lessons you learnt in your life?
Reply: Keeping calm and being patient helps in the long run is the most important
lesson learnt in my life. It makes us try harder, again and again, in times when we fail.
Being impatient and giving up on what we set out for only stresses us out. Keep calm
and carry on is the only secret I try to tell everyone.
Ques: What age has been the best age of your life? Why?
Reply: Every period of my life has come up with different challenges and joyful
moments. It is really difficult for me to filter them out. Still If I need to answer then I will
say when I was in my initial days of joining in to BSNL. That was most struggling period
of my life as I went through various traumas during that period. At the same time many
good things happened in my life that turned me into a better man.
Ques: Has retirement been a good or bad experience?
Reply: If you ask retirement from my organizational point of view, retirement from
job was compulsory to me. So, there is nothing good or bad about it. It was a part of
process. Though, sometimes I feel like now I’ve got more time to do extra things which I
always wanted to do but not able to do during regular job time.
Ques: What activities you prefer to do to keep yourself fit?
Reply: I start my day with the meditation followed by a quick aerobics for
minimum 30 mins. I go for cycle expedition for Appx 30 km round the trip once a week.
Ques: Do you feel something lacking in life after retirement?
Reply: I always believed in that ‘‘no one will ever get perfect’’ from the days of my
earlier life. So is now. I always concentrate and focus on the things I got in my control. I
never discuss or act on the situations which are out of my influence.
Ques: What are the most rewarding things about getting older?
Reply: I still remember my days of childhood, where I always wondered that I just
want to grow up, so that i can do what i want. When I was working, there were times
when I imagined about the day I would finally retire. If i sit down and observe about the
very stage of life I am in, It feels good. The most rewarding thing I feel is like I’ve
become less emotional and more thoughtful about my decisions as compare to my
earlier life.
Thank you sir, for taking out time for this interview.
Reply: “Your welcome and good luck”.
Interview ends.
What kinds of things and activities make you the happiest now?
How would you like to be remembered?
What will you do to be relevant even after retirement
What was you crisis point recently faced about your aging
What do you do for self care
Recent stressor- like decline in health, loss of loved ones,
Depression anxiety issue recent
You feel lonely or worry about social contact?
You worry about loss of identity in society
Loss of respect?
Do you feel full of energy
Do you prefer to be at home or go out and do new things
Do you worry a lot about past?
Do you hopeful about future
Do you enjoy getting up in morning?
Do you feel worthless the way you are now?
Are you satisfied with your life?
Do you think it is wonderful to be alive now?
How often do you feel left out?
Have you ever thought in your young days how your life after retirement will be like?
1. How old are you?
2. What does it feel like to be 60?
3. Can you pick up one imp event from your childhood, and young adulthood days?
4. Can you pick up a point in life which you will will say as your highest point?
Then lowest point
Then turning point
5. If you could go back in time and relive any age what age you would pick? And why?
6. How you view your transition from young adult to mid adult life?
7. What are cognitive physical changes you have noticed during these years?
8. What are the most rewarding things about getting older?
9. How would you like to be remembered?
10. Have you ever thought in your young days how your life after retirement will be like?
11. Are you satisfied with your life now?
12. Is there any recent crisis or realisation you have recently faced about your aging?
13. How often do you feel lonely and left out?
14. What kinds of things and activities make you the happiest now?
15. If you could give any piece of advice to young Subrata sarkar what it will be?
16. Is there something that we tend to prioritize when we are younger but as we get older
we realize that actually not important?
17. What is the one thing you fear about most?
18. After a long years of working what will you do to be relevant even after the
retirement?
19. Where do you see yourself in next 5 years?
4: TEST
TITLE: Rotter’s Locus of Control
OBJECTIVE: To measure the locus of control of the subject, that is, to
operationally measure the tendency of the subject to believe that, control resides
internally within the subject or to believe that, control resides externally with others or
with situations.
INTRODUCTION: Concept of internal-external control of reinforcement was developed
from social learning theory which describes the degree to which an individual believes that
reinforcements are contingent upon his/her own behaviour. Internal control refers to
individuals who believe that reinforcements are contingent upon their own behaviour,
capacities or attributes. External control refers to individuals who believe that reinforcement
are not under their personal control but rather are under the control of powerful others, luck,
chance, fate etc. Thus, depending on his past experiences, a person will have developed a
consistent attitude tending toward either an internal or external locus as the source of
reinforcement. The concept of locus of control, as derived from social learning theory,
provides a useful means for measuring individual differences in the extent to which
reinforcement is viewed. Locus of control refers to the tendency to perceive outcomes in life
as a result of one’s own actions and thus being within one’s own control (i.e., internal locus
of control), as opposed to being determined by external factors, such as chance or powerful
others (i.e., external locus of control). People with high internal locus of control typically try
to master their environment, while those with high external locus of control often feel
helpless because they perceive that outcomes in life are outside their own control. Locus of
control was initially described as a personality trait referring to a person’s stable beliefs of
personal efficacy. Later, however, locus of control has also been described as a coping
resource facilitating certain coping styles. According to attribution theory the cause of an
outcome may be perceived to either reside within the person (internal orientation) or outside
of the person (external orientation). An internal locus of causation is related to seeing
negative outcomes in life as caused by personal characteristics like mood, abilities, and
personality, while an external locus of causation is related to seeing negative outcomes as
caused by situational factors like the nature of the situation, luck, or social pressure.
Rotter’s I-E scale provides a useful means for measuring individual difference in the extent to
which reinforcement is viewed as a consequence of one’s own behaviour or a consequence of
such forces a chance, fate or powerful others. The concept of internal- external control has
proved to be a highly useful dimension for understanding the role of reinforcement in a wide
variety of behaviours.
Internal locus of control: Internal locus of control is the belief that individual are
“in charge of the events that occur in their life”. Individuals with an internal locus of
control believe their behaviors are guided by their personal decisions and efforts and
they have control over those things they can change.They take responsibility for their actions.
External locus of control: External locus of control is the belief that “chance,
fate, or outside forces determine life events that occur in an individual’s life”. People with
an external locus of control see their behaviors and lives as being controlled by luck or
fate. These individuals view themselves victims of life and bad luck. (Theories/studies)
For example, In education, locus of control typically refers to how students perceive the
causes of their academic success or failure in school. Students with an internal locus of
control might blame poor grades on their failure to study, whereas students with an
external locus of control may blame an unfair teacher or test for their poor performance.
DESCRIPTION:
This test is devised by Julian Rotter in 1966 to assess the extent to
which an individual possesses internal or external reinforcement beliefs. The test used
here is based on Rotter’s original idea and developed by Tarry Pettijohn. The basic
purpose of this test is to give a general idea of where one individual stand on the locus
of control in personality dimension. There are twenty items (20) in the form of true or
false statements in the test. There is no specific time limit to complete as the test itself
doesn’t require much time to complete. There will be 5 marks for each item as per the
answer sheet. Reliability and validity of test is not known.
MATERIALS REQUIRED: Rotter’s locus of control scale with scoring, Test booklet,
Answer sheet, pencil, and eraser.
PARTICIPANTS PROFILE: Detailed information about the participant is as given
below.
(a) Name: Anushri Rathi
(b) Age: 24 years
(c) Gender: Female
(d) Educational qualification: Master in Arts
(e) Occupation: House Wife
PROCEDURE AND ADMINISTRATION: The procedure and administration during the
test followed is as given below. (Test carried out on participant is attached as
Annexure I at the end of the Test).
(a) PREPARATION: Print out of the test mentioned in the guidelines for
online practical has taken. A proper sitting arrangement as per the participant
comfort has been made. At the very beginning of the test, a well informed
consent has been taken from the participant. After that, a brief about the test has
been given. All doubts regarding the test has been cleared and a perfect
environment for the test has been created.
(b) RAPPORT: In order to maximize the reliability and validity of test results, a
friendly atmosphere needs to be established from the beginning of the testing
session. Before the test, a general talk carried out on the personality subject. All
doubts regarding the test has been cleared and all the general questions have
been answered to make the subject comfortable.
(c) INSTRUCTIONS: There are twenty items (20) in the form of true or false
statements in the test. For each statement, choose the option you believe to be
the most accurate as True or False. There is no right or wrong answers. Try to
give the very first response you get in your mind after reading the sentence. It is
required to answers all the items to complete the test. Feel free to ask any
doubts during the test.
(d) PRECAUTIONS: All instructions must be precise and clear to the participant.
There must be healthy rapport created with the participant before the test to
ensure that the subject is comfortable. While scoring, utmost care needs to be
taken. It should be ensured that the results of the test are kept confidential.
INTROSPECTIVE REPORT: “I enjoyed doing the test. I was eager to calculate the
score and explain the result to the subject. When I was doing the test on myself, I was
worried weather I am answering the items honestly and appropriately or not”.
SCORING AND INTERPRETATION:
5 points to be given for each question if indicated False on questions 2, 3, 5, 6, 9, 10,
12, 13, 14, 16, 19, 20 and 5 points for each question if indicated True on questions 1, 4,
7, 8, 11, 15, 17, 18 as per the answer sheet. After totaling the score, the interpretation of
the resulted score is given below
Sr. no
1
2
3
4
5
Score
0-15
20-35
40-60
65-80
85-100
Interpretation
Very strong external locus of control.
External locus of control.
Both external and internal locus of control.
Internal locus of control.
Very strong internal locus of contro
Remarks
Annexure I
Locus of control
(Test carried out on Participant)
Scoring the locus of control Instrument
Subjects Scores
DISCUSSION: Based on the responses given by participant in the test, score of
the subject is 75. This score shows that subject has internal locus of control.
That means that, subject tends to believe that her behavior is guided by her personal
decisions and efforts and she have control over those things she can change.
CONCLUSION: Subject has internal locus of control.
5: ACTIVITY
Title: Cattell’s 16 P.F
Objective: To assess the personality of the subject using 16 P.F.
Introduction: Speculation by ancient philosophers about why individuals are
unique and why everyone is different in many ways lead to emergence of Personality
concept. Basically, Personality refers to distinctive patterns of behaviour that
characterize each person’s adaptation to the situations of his/her life. As per Gordon
Allport, Personality refers to the dynamic organization within the individual of those
psychophysical systems that determines his unique adjustments to his/her environment.
Allport identified the key human traits along which personality vary and divided into
several categories.
Another, and in some more sophisticated way, British psychologist Raymond Cattell
proposed that the personality is that which permits the prediction of what a person will
do in a given situation. In his explorations of personality, Raymond Cattell found that
variations in human personality could be best explained by a model that has sixteen
variables (personality traits), using a statistical procedure known as factor analysis.
Following this discovery he went on to create and promote the 16 P.F Questionnaire. PF
stands for ‘Personality Factor’ and there are sixteen personality factors, hence it is
known as 16 P.F. These 16 factors are the major source traits. Cattell’s theory states
that every person possesses a degree of each of the following sixteen traits which are
described as below.
Sr. no.
1
Factor
Warmth
2
Reasoning
3
Emotional
stability
4
Dominance
5
Liveliness
6
8
Rule
consciousness
Social
boldness
Sensitivity
9
Vigilance
10
Abstractedness
11
Privateness
12
Apprehension
13
Openness to
change
7
Description
The desire to develop intimate relationships with others:
outgoing versus reserved.
The extent to which a person is able to identify and solve
numerical and verbal problems and connections: abstract
Versus concrete.
How calmly people respond to what life brings or what
happens
in life: calm versus stressed
The tendency to have influence and control over others:
powerful versus submissive.
How free and spontaneous a person expresses themselves:
spontaneous versus restrained.
The extent to which a person values rules: conforming
versus non-conforming.
The extent to which a person feels at ease in social
situations: uninhibited versus shy.
The extent to which emotions and feelings of others affect a
person: tender versus tough.
The extent to which someone is cautious with regard to the
intentions and motivations of others: suspicious versus
Trusting.
The amount of attention that someone pays to abstract rather
than concrete observations: imaginative versus
Practical.
The extent to which someone wishes to keep personal
information to themselves: discreet versus openness.
A person’s tendency to self-criticism: self-critical versus
self- assured
The extent to which a person enjoys new situations and
experiences: Flexible versus connected to the familiar
14
Self reliance
15
Perfectionism
16
Tension
The extent to which a person trusts in his own judgements
and capacities and opts to work solo: self-reliant versus
Dependant.
The need someone feels to trust in structure rather than
leaving things to chance: controlled versus undisciplined
The extent to which a person may be frustrated by different
situations: impatient versus relaxed.
Description: The test was first published in 1949 and thereafter revised by 5
times. Fifth edition of 16 P.F was released in 1993. This test uses a public domain
scales from the Inter-nation Personality Item Pool (IPIP) to measure the same traits.
This personality test consists of 164 multiple choice statements. The participant has to
select one option. There is no right or wrong answer to the statements. Reliability and
validity of the test in not known.
Materials Required: A computer with internet connection.
Participants profile: Detailed information about the participant is as given below.
(a) Name: Nikita Rahi
(b) Age: 25 years
(c) Gender: Female
(d) Educational qualification: Master in Statistics
(e) Occupation: Manager
Procedure and Administration: This personality test consists of 164 statements about
any individual, each required to indicate how accurate it is on the scale of (1) disagree
(2) slightly disagree (3) neither agree nor disagree (4) slightly agree (5) agree. It will
take most people around ten minutes to complete the test on computer. All the ethical
guidelines about the test were followed in letter and spirit. The detailed procedure and
administration during the test followed is as given below. (Test carried out on
participant is attached as Annexure II at the end of the Test in total five pages).
(a) Preparation: A proper sitting arrangement as per the participant comfort has been made.
At the very beginning of the test, a well informed consent has been taken from the
participant. After that, a brief about the test has been given. All doubts regarding the test has
been cleared and a perfect environment for the test has been created.
(b) Rapport: In order to maximize the reliability and validity of test results, a
friendly atmosphere needs to be established from the beginning of the testing
session. Before the test, a general talk carried out on the personality subject. All
doubts regarding the test has been cleared and all the general questions have
been answered to make the subject comfortable.
(c) Instructions: For each statement, choose the option you believe to be the
most accurate. There is no right or wrong answers. Try to give the very first
response you get in your mind after reading the sentence. It is required to
answers all the items to complete the test. Feel free to ask any doubts during the
test.
(d) Precautions: All instructions must be precise and clear to the participant.
There must be healthy rapport created with the participant before the test to
ensure that the subject is comfortable. While scoring, utmost care needs to be
taken. It should be ensured that the results of the test are kept confidential.
Introspective Report: In starting the subject felt that it was a boring task to answer
164 statements. After sometime when she proceeded she felt well and looked anxious
in answering the statements. After completion she was very eager to know scores and
tests final interpretation.
Scoring and Interpretation:
After the completion of the test, it is required to press the submit button. After this on
next page it asks the age, gender, accuracy of the answers given by the participant to
match its statistical calculations.
(Interpretation of test is attached as Annexure III in total two pages)
Discussion: Based on the responses given by participant in the test,
interpretation of the responses calculated on the basis of statistical calculations.
Conclusion: Subject has the personality traits as Attached in Annexure III.
Annexure III (16 PF : TEST CARRIED OUT ON PARTICIPANT)
6: ACTIVITY
TITLE: “Halo effect” experiment conducted by Nisbett and Wilson (1977)”
AIM: To understand the application and common uses of halo effect and relationship
between learned behaviour and halo effect.
INTRODUCTION:
What is “HALO EFFECT”?
The Halo effect (HE) is a cognitive bias in impression formation whereby the general
evaluation of individuals' attributes is based on the evaluation of a single attribute (Nisbett
and Wilson, 1977). When applied to aesthetic appearance, the HE is observed when the
physical appearance is used as a basis for the evaluations of other attributes that are unrelated
to appearance whatsoever. For example, a stranger who looks good is also perceived as
intelligent or smart, even though intelligence and smarts are unrelated to physical
attractiveness (Todorov et al., 2009). As a subclass of the confirmation bias in impression
formation (Nickerson, 1998), the HE is known to be intuitive, pervasive, and constant
(Cooper, 1981; Feldman, 1986; Kozlowski et al., 1986; Feeley, 2002).
The halo effect is generally defined as the influence of a global evaluation on evaluations of
individual attributes of a person, but this definition is imprecise with respect to the strength
and character of the influence. At one extreme, the halo effect might be due simply to an
extrapolation from a general impression to unknown attributes. Global evaluations might
color presumptions about specific traits or influence interpretation of the meaning or affective
value of ambiguous trait information. Thus, if we like a person, we often assume that those
attributes of the person about which we know little are also favorable. (Politicians often seem
to capitalize on this tendency by appearing warm and friendly but saying little about the
issues.) Such a phenomenon could best be described as a deduction from an implicit
personality theory holding that "nice people tend to have nice attributes and less nice people
have less nice attributes." Similarly, the global evaluation may alter the interpretation of the
meaning or evaluation of ambiguous attributes. Thus, if one is told that a warm and friendly
person is impetuous, a quite different set of behaviors come to mind from those that occur
when one is told that the impetuous person is angry and hostile. The evaluation of the
attribute impetuous may differ in the two cases, but the difference could be a mere
interpretive one arising from the ambiguity inherent in the term impetuous.
DESCRIPTION:
Nisbett and Wilson conducted an experiment in which two different videotaped interviews
were staged with the same individual—a college instructor who spoke English with a
European accent. In one of the interviews the instructor was warm and friendly, in the other,
cold and distant. The subjects who saw the warm instructor rated his appearance,
mannerisms, and accent as appealing, whereas those who saw the cold instructor rated these
attributes as irritating These results indicate that global evaluations of a person can induce
altered evaluations of the person's attributes, even when there is sufficient information to
allow for independent assessments of them. Furthermore, the subjects were unaware of this
influence of global evaluations on ratings of attributes. In fact, the subjects who saw the cold
instructor actually believed that the direction of influence was opposite to the true direction.
They reported that their dislike of the instructor had no effect on their ratings of his attributes
but that their dislike of his attributes had lowered their global evaluations of him.
The key takeaways from the main experiment.
It was found that the halo effect was supported by the experiments results. The study proved
that the appearance and mannerism do effect how people view someone. Writing and history
on the halo was not strong at the time of experiment. At that time people did not have enough
understanding of the cognitive development behind it.
DISCUSSION:
How is halo effect being used to one’s advantage?
1. By being aware of the halo effect one can work towards creating a positive image on first
impression in front of the panel before appearing for any interview for any job selection
process.
2. Since the halo effect is primarily based on first-impressions and physical appearance, our
attractiveness can influence to other people.
However, being aware of the halo effect, does not make it easy to avoid its influence on our
perceptions and decisions. But can be minimized up to the some extent.
Application and common uses of halo effect.
Companies create consumer halo effect to manipulate us as consumers so that we buy
their products or services. Halo effect helps them to increase their brand loyalty,
retention, and brand awareness among general public. When a celebrity spokesperson
advertises a particular item, our positive evaluations of that individual can spread to our
perceptions of the product itself.
Job applicants are also likely to feel the impact of the halo effect. If a prospective
employer views the applicant as attractive or likeable, they are more likely to also rate
the individual as intelligent, competent, and qualified.
The halo effect can also play out in the field of medicine. A physician, for example,
might judge a patient based on appearances without conducting tests first. It’s also
possible to judge someone’s health based on first impression. For instance, we might
associate a person who has a “healthy glow” as someone who is happy. This may or
may not be the case.
CONCLUSION:
Due to halo effect we often make a wrong decisions that can affect our whole life. In India
especially in arranged marriage system groom and brides are chosen based on first
impression which will impact people’s whole life. Also when we choose friends when we go
anywhere we often choose based on first impression which we might regret later.This
tendency is a learned behavior that we experience from the time we are children. For e.g In
fairytales those who are good are mostly presented as beautiful princesses and handsome
princes, while the bad ones are depicted as evils. The attractive characters are portrayed as
honest and trustworthy, while unattractive ones are the villains.
Another place in society where the halo effect appears is within the work environment.
Though this is tackled in human resource training it is said to be an unconscious
judgment and even if we were told that our judgments are affected by the halo effect, we
may still have no clue when it influences us.