VITAMINS AND HORMONES
CONTENT
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Introduction to Vitamins
Characteristics of Vitamins
Classification of Vitamins
Vitamins Water-Soluble
Vitamins Fat-Soluble
Introduction to Hormones
How Hormones Work
Characteristics of Hormones
Types of Hormones in Human Body
Types of Glands in our Body
Conclusion
 Reference
INTRODUCTION TO VITAMINS
Vitamins are groups of highly complex compounds, organic in nature in small
quantities for multiple biochemical reactions for growth, survival and
reproduction of the organism, and which, generally, cannot be synthesized by
the body and must therefore be supplied by the det. The most prominent
function of the vitamins is to serve as coenzymes (or prosthetic group) for
enzymatic reactions.
Vitamins are present in foodstuffs in traces, essential for normal metabolism and
absence of these nutrients cause disorders whereas, resupply of these nutrients
can cure the deficiency symptoms (Marshall, 1986). Vitamins are diverse in
nature relative to fats, carbohydrates and proteins. Vitamins are differentiated
from other groups by their organic nature and their classification depends on
chemical nature and function. Very trace amounts of vitamins are needed for
growth, development, health and reproduction. Some vitamins are deviants from
usual definition and not always needed to be part of food stuff i.e. ascorbic acid,
vitamin D and niacin. Ascorbic acid is synthesized by animals, niacin
synthesized from tryptophan amino acid and vitamin D synthesized from UV
radiation from sunlight. Therefore, specific species and under certain conditions
vitamin D, ascorbic acid and niacin does not fit in the definition of vitamins
(McDowell, 2000). So, far as classification of vitamins is concerned, these are
divided into two main categories i.e., water soluble and fat-soluble vitamins.
Vitamins of B complex and C are water soluble whereas, vitamin A, D, E, and
K are fat soluble. Fat soluble vitamins have association with fats and absorb
with dietary fats. Absorption of fat soluble vitamins follow the same mechanics
as for absorption of fats. Water soluble vitamins are not associated with fats and
rendered unaffected by alterations in fat absorption (McDowell, 2000; Wardlaw
et al., 2004).
Human body is unable to synthesize the vitamins so, their intake through diet is
necessarily vital. Vitamins are chemically complex compounds and have
significant role in growth and development of the human body. There are
numerous vitamins like; vitamin A, vitamin C (ascorbic acid), vitamin D,
vitamin E, vitamin B12 (cobalamin), vitamin B6, vitamin B5 (Pantothenic acid),
vitamin B1 (thiamine), vitamin B3 (niacin), vitamin B2 (riboflavin) and vitamin
B9 (folate, folic acid, or folacin), flavonoids (vitamin P).
CHARACTERISTICS OF VITAMINS
1. Vitamins are natural substances found in plants and animals and known as
Essential nutrients for human beings. The name vitamin is obtained from
"vital amines" as it was originally thought that these substances were all
amines. Human body uses these substances to stay healthy and support its
many functions.
2. Vitamins are generally regarded as organic compounds required in the diet
in small amounts to perform specific biological functions for normal
maintenance of optimum growth and health of the organism.
3. Vitamins are not plastic material. Exception is vitamin F.
4. Vitamins are not an energy source. Exception is vitamin F.
5. Vitamins are essential for all vital processes and biologically active already
in small quantities.
6. They influence biochemical processes in all tissues and organs, i.e., they
are not specific to organs.
7. Vitamins are not synthesized by the body and must come from food. An
exception are vitamin B3 (PP), which active form NADH (NADPH) can
be synthesized from tryptophan and vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol),
synthesized from 7- dehydrocholesterol in the skin. Amount of those ones
and vitamins partially synthesized by intestinal microflora (B1, B2, B3,
B5, B6, K, and others) is normally not sufficient to cover the body's need
them.
8. They can be used for medicinal purposes as a non-specific tool in high
doses for: diabetes mellitus - B1, B2, B6, colds and infectious diseases vitamin C: bronchial asthma - vitamin PP; gastrointestinal ulcers - vitaminlike substance U and nicotinic acid; in hypercholesterolemia - nicotinic
acid.
Lack of vitamins leads to the development of pathological processes in the
form of specific hypo- and avitaminosis. Widespread hidden forms of
vitamin deficiency have not severe external manifestations and symptoms,
but have a negative impact on performance, the overall tone of the body
and its resistance to various adverse factors.
CLASSIFICATION OF VITAMINS
There are two types:
1)Water-Soluble
Water-soluble vitamins cannot be stored in the body, so you need to get them
from food every day. They can be destroyed by overcooking. These are easily
absorbed by the body. Human body doesn't store large amounts of water-soluble
vitamins. B-complex vitamins and vitamin C are water-soluble vitamins that are
not stored in the body and must be replaced each day. These vitamins are easily
destroyed or washed-out during food storage and preparation. They are
eliminated in urine so; body needs a continuous supply of them in diets.
Proper storage and preparation of food can minimize vitamin loss. To reduce
vitamin loss, refrigerate fresh products, keep milk and grains away from strong
light, and use the cooking water from vegetables to prepare soups. An excess of
water-soluble vitamins should not result in any side effects as they will disperse
in the body fluids and voided in the urine.
Nine of the water-soluble vitamins are known as the B-complex group:
Thiamine (vitamin B1), Riboflavin (vitamin B2), Niacin, Vitamin B6, Folate,
Vitamin B12, Biotin, Pantothenic acid and Vitamin C. These vitamins are
widely distributed in foods.
2)Fat-Soluble
The fat-soluble vitamins include vitamins A, D, E and K - since they are soluble
in fat and are absorbed by the body from the intestinal tract. The human body
has to use bile acids to absorb fat-soluble vitamins. Once these vitamins are
absorbed, the body stores them in body fat. When you need them, your body
takes them out of storage to be used. Eating fats or oils that are not digested can
cause shortages of fat-soluble vitamins.
Fat soluble vitamins should not be consumed in excess as they are stored in the
body and an excess can result in side effects. An excess of vitamin A may result
in irritability, weight loss, dry itchy skin in children and nausea, headache,
diarrhea in adults.
VITAMINS WATER-SOLUBLE
 These include the B-vitamins and vitamin C.
 They are soluble in water and can therefore be excreted in the urine.
 They share few common properties besides their solubility
characteristics.
Vitamin B1(Thiamin)
Biological importance:
Importance of vitamin B1 can be realized with the fact that it acts as gate
keeper among the carbohydrate breakdown (less energy step), Krebs cycle (high
energy step) and electron transport chain.
Food Sources:
Fortified breakfast cereals, Pork, Fish, Beans, lentils, green peas, enriched
cereals, breads, noodles, rice, sunflower seeds, yogurt.
Deficiency:
Deficiency disease: Beri-Beri
Deficiency symptoms: Symptoms include fatigue, depression, decreased mental
functioning, muscle cramps, nausea, heart entanglement and eventually beribeir.
Alcoholics are at increased risk of a deficiency.
Structure:
VITAMIN B2(Riboflavin)
Biological importance:
Glutathione is most important antioxidant which provides antioxidative
protection to body, and this antioxidant is recycled in the human body by
vitamin B2. This vitamin promotes iron metabolism.
Food sources:
Dairy milk, Yogurt, Cheese, Eggs, Lean beef and pork, Organ meats (beef
liver), Chicken breast, Salmon, Fortified cereal and bread, Almonds, Spinach
Deficiency:
Deficiency disease: Ariboflavinosis, painful tongue and fissures to the corners
of the mouth, chapped lips.
Deficiency symptoms: Symptoms include red, swollen, cracked mouth and
tongue; fatigue; depression; anaemia; and greasy, scaly skin. The formation of
cataracts may be a result of this vitamin deficiency.
Structure:
VITAMIN B6(Pyridoxin)
Biological importance:
Functionally B6 is very important vitamin as it is involved in red blood cell
production, carbohydrate metabolism, liver detoxification, brain and nervous
system health.
Food sources:
Beef liver, Tuna., Salmon, Fortified cereals, Chickpeas, Poultry,
Some vegetables and fruits, especially dark leafy greens, bananas, papayas,
oranges, and cantaloupe
Deficiency:
Deficiency disease: Anaemia
Deficiency diseases: Symptoms include weakness, mental confusion, irritability,
nervousness, inability to sleep, hyperactivity, anaemia, skin lesions, tongue
discolouration, and kidney stones.
Structure:
VITAMIN B12(Cobalamin)
Biological importance:
This vitamin is very important for cardiovascular health of human. Vitamin B12
is involve in production of red blood cells which are oxygen carrier throughout
the blood stream with the help of haemoglobin pigment.
Food sources:
Fish, shellfish, Liver, Red meat, Eggs, Poultry, Dairy products such as milk
yogurt, Fortified nutritional yeast, Fortified breakfast cereals.
Deficiency:
Deficiency disease: Megaloblastic or Pernicious Anaemia
Deficiency symptoms: Symptoms include nausea, loss of appetite, sore mouth,
diarrhoea, abnormal gait, loss of sensation in hands and feet, confusion,
memory loss and depression.
Structure:
VITAMIN B7(Biotin)
Biological importance:
Biotin is a water-soluble vitamin and serves as a coenzyme for five
carboxylases in humans. Biotin is also covalently attached to distinct lysine
residues in histones, affecting chromatin structure and mediating gene
regulation.
Food sources:
Beef liver, eggs, salmon, avocados, pork, sweet potato, nuts, seeds.
Deficiency:
Deficiency disease: Alopecia
Deficiency symptoms: The signs and symptoms of biotin deficiency typically
appear gradually and can include thinning hair with progression to loss of all
hair on the body; scaly, red rash around body openings, conjunctivitis, ketolactic
acidosis and aciduria seizures, skin infection, brittle nails.
Structure:
VITAMIN C (ASCORBIC ACID)
Biological importance:
This vitamin has antioxidant properties and protect the lens of eyes, molecules
circulating in bloodstream and genetic material (DNA) from harmful effects of
free radicals.
Food sources:
Citrus (oranges, kiwi, lemon, grapefruit), Bell peppers, Strawberries, Tomatoes,
Cruciferous vegetables (broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, cauliflower), White
potatoes.
Deficiency:
Deficiency disease: Scurvy
Deficiency symptoms: Symptoms include prolonged healing of wounds, easy
bruising, frequent infections, prolonged colds, Scurvy: weak muscles, fatigue,
loss of teeth, bleeding beneath the skin, nosebleeds.
Structure:
VITAMINS FAT-SOLUBLE
 The fat-soluble vitamins include vitamins A, D, E, and K.
 Fat-soluble vitamins play integral roles in a multitude of physiological
processes such as vision, bone health, immune function, and coagulation.
VITAMIN A(RETINOL)
Biological importance:
Vitamin A is most complicated in nature. It can be obtained both from plant and
animal sources.
Food sources:
Tomatoes, Cantaloupe, mango, Beef liver, Fish oils, Milk, Eggs, Fortified foods.
Deficiency:
Deficiency disease: Night blindness and keratomalacia
Deficiency symptoms: Symptoms include defective teeth and gums, allergies,
dry hair, retarded growth, eye irritations, sinus trouble.
Structure:
VITAMIN D(CALCIFEROL)
Biological importance:
Vitamin D is very important for human body but exact intake dose is variable
and has inconsistent pattern because exposure of sunlight also produce vitamin
D in human skin.
Food sources:
Cod liver oil, Salmon, Swordfish, Tuna fish, Orange juice fortified with vitamin
D, Dairy and plant milks fortified with vitamin D, Sardines, Beef liver, Egg
yolk, Fortified cereals.
Deficiency:
Deficiency disease: Rickets and osteomalacia
Deficiency symptoms: Symptoms include bone pain and tenderness and muscle
weakness. In children, Rickets may occur in which bone lose calcium and
become soft and curved. Without proper intake there is an increased risk of
Osteoporosis, Arthritis and cancer.
Structure:
VITAMIN E(ALPHA-TOCOPHEROL)
Biological importance:
Vitamin E is a broad term which comprised of four different tocopherols and
four different tocotrienols. LDL (low-density lipoprotein) cholesterol is
protected by vitamin E from oxidative damage caused by free radicals.
Food sources:
Sunflower seeds, Almonds, Peanuts, peanut butter, Beet greens, collard greens,
spinach, Pumpkin, Red bell pepper, Asparagus, Mangoes, Avocados.
Deficiency:
Deficiency disease: Very rare but mild haemolytic anaemia in new-born infants.
Deficiency symptoms: Symptoms include in infants’ irritability, Fluid retention.
Adult symptoms may include lethargy, loss of balance and anaemia.
Structure:
VITAMIN K(MENAQUINONE/PHYLLOQUINONE)
Biological importance:
Blood clotting is beneficial or harmful depending upon the conditions of
occurrence. Blood clotting is very complex process because there is
involvement of twenty different proteins for completion of clotting process and
four proteins among them requires vitamin K for their activity.
Food sources:
 Phylloquinone
Green leafy vegetables including collard and turnip greens, kale, spinach,
broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, lettuces, Soybean and canola oil, Salad
dressings made with soybean or canola oil, Fortified meal replacement shakes
 Menaquinones
Natto (fermented soybeans), Smaller amounts in meat, cheese, eggs
Deficiency:
Deficiency diseases: Bleeding diathesis, Delayed clotting and Haemorrhaging,
Cholestatic constipation.
Deficiency symptoms: symptoms include prolonged clotting time, easy bleeding
and bruising. This deficiency is rare in adults and normally limited to those with
liver or food absorption disorders.
Structure:
INTRODUCTION TO HORMONES
A hormone (from the Greek participle "setting in motion") is any member of a
class of signalling molecules in multicellular organisms, that are transported to
distant organs to regulate physiology and behaviour. Hormones are required for
the correct development of animals, plants and fungi. The lax definition of a
hormone (as a signalling molecule that acts distant from its site of production)
means that many different classes of molecule can be defined as hormones.
Among the substances that can be considered hormones, are eicosanolds (e.g.,
prostaglandins and thromboxane’s), steroids (e.g., oestrogen and
brassinosterold), amino acid derivatives (e.g., epinephrine and auxin), protein /
peptides (e.g., insulin and CLE peptides) and gases (e.g., ethylene and nitrous
oxide).
Hormones are used to communicate between organs and tissues. In vertebrates,
hormones are responsible for the regulation of many physiological processes
and behavioural activities such as digestion, metabolism, respiration, sensory
perception, sleep, excretion, lactation, stress induction, growth and
development, movement, reproduction, and mood manipulation. In plants
hormones modulate almost all aspects of development, from germination to
senescence.
HOW HORMONES WORK
A hormone will only act on a part of the body if it 'fits'. A hormone can be
thought of as a key, and its target site (such as an organ) has specially shaped
locks on the cell walls. If the hormone fits the cell wall, then it will work.
The hormones can set off a cascade of other signalling pathways in the cell to
cause an immediate effect (for instance, insulin signalling leads to a rapid
uptake of glucose into muscle cells) or a more delayed effect (glucocorticoids
bind to DNA elements in a cell to switch on the production of certain proteins,
which takes a while to produce).
The endocrine system is a tightly regulated system that keeps the hormones and
their effects at just the right level. One way this is achieved is through 'feedback
loops'. The release of hormones is regulated by other hormones, proteins or
neuronal signals. The released hormone then has its effect on other organs. This
effect on the organ feeds back to the original signal to control any further
hormone release. The pituitary gland is well known for its feedback loops.
CHARACTERISTICS OF HORMONE
Hormones possess the following characteristics:
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Endocrine cells release hormones into the body.
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Circulating in bodily fluids, hormones are chemical messengers.
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They act on one portion of the body after being secreted in another.
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Unlike enzymes, hormones do not catalyse any reactions.
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They are not stored beforehand and are only secreted in minute amounts
when necessary.
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The nervous system uses the feedback effect to control hormone secretion.
TYPES OF HORMONES IN HUMAN BODY
Even though there are several types of hormones in a human body, they are
primarily classified into three categories based on their chemical structure. These
are –
1. Lipid-Derived Hormones
Lipid-derived hormones are primarily derived from cholesterol, and they
share a similarity in terms of their structure. Steroid hormones are the
primary lipid hormones in the human body, and chemically they are either
ketones or alcohols. Examples of steroid hormones are cortisol and
aldosterone.
2. Amino Acid-Derived Hormones
These classes of hormones originate from amino acids, tyrosine and
tryptohan. Examples of such hormones as norepinephrine and epinephrine.
The medulla section of the adrenal glands produces these. Moreover, the
pineal gland in the brain synthesizes melatonin, which controls the sleep
cycle.
3. Peptide Hormones
The structure of the peptide hormone is similar to that of the polypeptide
chain (chain of amino acids). A popular example of peptide hormone is
insulin produced by the pancreas.
TYPES OF GLANDS IN OUR BODY
Our body contains two different kinds of glands.
1. Endocrine Glands: These glands, such as the pituitary and adrenal glands,
do not have ducts and deliver their secretions through the blood straight to
the site of action.
2. Exocrine Glands: These glands have ducts by which their secretions are
transported. Example: sweat and liver,
Endocrine glands secrete “Hormones”.
Let’s study about the hormones released by endocrine gland.
ENDOCRINE GLANDS
The endocrine system is made up of organs called glands. Glands produce and
release different hormones that target specific things in the body. You have
glands all over your body, including in your neck, brain and reproductive
organs. Some glands are tiny, about the size of a grain of rice or a pea. The
largest gland is the pancreas, which is about 6 inches long.
The main glands that produce hormones include:
1. Hypothalamus
This gland is present in the brain located at a level lower than the thalamus. It
functions as the thermostat of the body as it is responsible for the regulation of
body temperature. As part of the endocrine system, the hypothalamus has
a control over the pituitary and indirectly over the other glands as well.
The hypothalamus contains special secretory cells known as the neurosecretory
cells which secrete releasing and inhibitory hormones that act on the pituitary. The
various releasing and inhibitory hormones secreted by the hypothalamus are:
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Growth Hormone Releasing Hormone
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Growth Hormone Inhibiting Hormone
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Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone
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Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone
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Thyroid Releasing Hormone
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Oxytocin
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Antidiuretic Hormone
These hormones act on the pituitary to release their corresponding hormone that
further goes to act on the target gland or organ.
2. Pituitary gland
The pituitary gland is present in the brain attached to the hypothalamus
inferiorly. The pituitary gland is called as the hypophysis. It is divided
anatomically and functionally into two lobes- the anterior pituitary called
the adenohypophysis and the posterior pituitary known as
the neurohypophysis.
The anterior lobe of the pituitary gland
The anterior lobe of the pituitary gland releases 7 hormones which are:
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Growth Hormones (GH): It brings about growth and repair and affects
all the cells in the body.
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Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)- This hormone stimulates the
thyroid gland to secrete thyroxine.
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Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)- This hormone stimulates the
adrenal cortex portion of the adrenal glands.
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Follicle Stimulating Hormones (FSH)- This hormone stimulates the
gonads in both the males and females to produce sperm and egg
respectively.
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Luteinizing Hormone (LH)- This hormone stimulates the gonads
(ovaries and testes) to produce their respective sex hormones.
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Prolactin: The main action of this hormone is on the mammary glands
to produce milk.
The posterior lobe of pituitary gland
Unlike the glandular anterior lobe, the posterior lobe is made up of nervous tissue.
It produces one hormone is the males and two in the females.
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Oxytocin: This hormone is released by the pituitary during childbirth
that assists in dilating the cervix to allow easy passage of the child
through the vaginal canal.
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Anti-diuretic hormone: This hormone is also called vasopressin and it
acts on the kidneys to stimulate re-absorption of water.
3. Thyroid gland
The thyroid gland is present in the lower part of your neck. It is a butterfly-shaped
gland and lies in close approximation to the trachea or the windpipe. The thyroid
releases three hormones:
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Thyroxine or T4
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Triiodothyronine or T3
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Calcitonin
T3 and T4 affect metabolism in the body whereas calcitonin is responsible to
reduce the calcium levels in the blood.
4. Pancreas
This gland is found in close proximity to the stomach in the abdominal
cavity. The pancreas is said to contain both endocrine and exocrine cells
and so it is called as a heterocrine gland. The endocrine part of the pancreas
is made up of cells known as the islets of Langerhans. The islets consist of
two types of cells- alpha and beta. While the exocrine part is responsible for
secreting enzymes for digestion, the endocrine part is responsible for
controlling blood sugar levels. The alpha cells of the pancreas release
glucagon that increases the blood sugar levels. The beta cells of the
pancreas release insulin that is said to reduce the blood sugar levels.
5. Adrenal gland
These glands are also known as the suprarenal glands as they are found superior to
the kidneys. They are two in number and are divided into two layers: Adrenal
Cortex and Adrenal Medulla.
Adrenal Cortex: The adrenal cortex secretes release the steroid hormones known
as corticosteroids. Corticosteroids are of two types: Glucocorticoids and
Mineralocorticoids.
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Glucocorticoids (cortisol and cortisone) are responsible for regulating
glucose metabolism and are also said to be anti-inflammatory in
nature.
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Mineralocorticoids(aldosterone) are responsible for mineral
absorption in the kidneys.
Few androgens are also produced in the adrenal cortex.
Adrenal Medulla: It releases epinephrine(adrenaline) and
norepinephrine(noradrenaline). These hormones are released by the adrenal
medulla on any form of sympathetic stimulation. Adrenaline is known as the
‘fight and flight’ hormone for the reason that it is produced in situations of ‘fight
or flight’. Adrenaline increases the heart rate, body temperature, pulse rate, causes
increased sweating, increased metabolism etc. Noradrenaline increases the effect
of adrenaline on the body.
6. Gonads
The gonads are made up of Ovaries in the females and testes in the males. Each of
these organs releases hormones to affect the sexual growth and reproduction.
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Ovaries: Locates superior to the uterus in females in the pelvic cavity,
they are two in number. They release the female sex hormonesestrogen and progesterone. Estrogen is considered to be the primary
sex hormone in females while progesterone plays an important role in
ovulation and pregnancy.
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Testes: The testes release the male sex hormone known as the
testosterone at the time of puberty. This causes the development of
secondary sexual characters in males and also the production of
sperms.
In addition to these specific endocrine glands and organs, many other organs
produce small amounts of hormones.
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, there are two types of vitamins, which are essential to the body,
water-soluble vitamins and fat-soluble vitamins; both types play an effective
part in the human body. Nobody can deny the necessity of these vitamins to the
body in all ages, and the lack of it can result in severe damage in certain parts of
the body according to which vitamin and age as well as the health status of each
person. Vitamins have different jobs to help keep the body working properly.
Some vitamins help you resist infections and keep your nerves healthy, while
others may help your body get energy from food or help your blood clot
properly.
Hormones - biologically active substances, which released into the blood by the
endocrine glands and humoral way (through blood, lymph, saliva, cerebrospinal
fluid). They regulate metabolism and physiological processes. Hormones, as
universal regulators of the body functioning, play an important role in the
maintenance of homeostasis. They influence on all essential life processes, such
as: growth, metabolism, development, immune defense, reproduction, behaviour
and adaptation to the conditions of existence.
REFERENCE
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