Computers in Human Behavior 145 (2023) 107775
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Computers in Human Behavior
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/comphumbeh
Pursuing virtual perfection: Preoccupation with failure mediates the
association between internalized parental criticism and gaming disorder
Ágnes Zsila a, b, *, Reza Shabahang c, Mara S. Aruguete d, Beáta Bőthe e, Zsolt Demetrovics b, f,
Gábor Orosz g
a
Institute of Psychology, Pázmány Péter Catholic University, Mikszáth Kálmán tér 1, 1088, Budapest, Hungary
Institute of Psychology, ELTE Eötvös Loránd University, Izabella u. 46, 1064, Budapest, Hungary
University of Tehran, 16th Azar St., Enghelab Sq, Tehran, Iran
d
Lincoln University, 820 Chestnut St, Jefferson City, MO 65101, Missouri (MO), USA
e
Département de Psychologie, Université de Montréal, Pavillon Marie-Victorin, 90 avenue Vincent d’Indy, Montréal, QC, Canada
f
Centre of Excellence in Responsible Gaming, University of Gibraltar, Europa Point Campus, Gibraltar, GX11 1AA , UK
g
Univ. Lille, Univ. Artois, Univ. Littoral Côte d’Opale, ULR 7369 - URePSSS - Unité de Recherche Pluridisciplinaire Sport Santé Société, F-59000 Liévin, France
b
c
A R T I C L E I N F O
A B S T R A C T
Keywords:
Failure
Gaming disorder
Path analysis
Perfectionism
Video games
The present study examines the potential roles of perfectionism and reactions to failure in understanding gaming
disorder. Specifically, we investigate whether parental perfectionism predisposes players to risk of gaming dis­
order through internalized perfectionism and maladaptive reactions to failure. Hungarian gamers (N = 2,097,
88.5% male, Mage = 26.2 years, SD = 6.8) completed an online survey measuring perfectionism (parental and
self-oriented), reactions to failure in gaming, and gaming disorder. Initially, we developed the Reactions to
Failure in Gaming Scale and established its psychometric properties. Subsequently, we constructed a path model
using a structural equation modeling technique. Parental criticism was associated with over-engagement with
failure via the indirect path of self-critical perfectionism, which was positively associated with gaming disorder.
In addition, higher parental expectations were associated with disengagement from failure via narcissistic
perfectionism, while parental criticism was associated with disengagement through self-critical perfectionism.
The model explained a substantial proportion (42%) of the total variance of gaming disorder, indicating that
parental criticism and self-critical perfectionism have key roles in ruminative responses to failure in gaming.
These results suggest that critical parental and personal attitudes towards performance and over-engagement
with failure make fundamental contributions to the development of addictive gaming behaviors.
1. Introduction
Perfectionism can determine our reactions in demanding situations
where cognitive performance is required (Shafran, Cooper, & Fairburn,
2002). Individuals with high internalized perfectionism often report
high parental expectations as children (Clark & Coker, 2009; Cook &
Kearney, 2014). Internalized perfectionism can be harmful when there is
a discrepancy between unattainably high personal standards and actual
performance (Rice, Ashby, & Slaney, 2007), resulting in self-criticism
and lowered self-esteem (Shafran et al., 2002). Dysfunctional perfec­
tionism has been associated with mental health disorders such as
obsessive-compulsive and eating disorders (see Long & Liu, 2015),
which share common features with behavioral addictions in terms of
compulsivity and loss of control (Lubman, Yücel, & Pantelis, 2004).
Furthermore, evidence shows direct links between maladaptive perfec­
tionism and behavioral addictions such as work addiction and gambling
disorder (Casale, Fioravanti, Flett, & Hewitt, 2014; Kun, Takacs, Rich­
man, Griffiths, & Demetrovics, 2021; Tabri, Werner, Milyavskaya, &
Wohl, 2021; Yoon, Kim, & Han, 2017). Although perfectionism studies
have mostly focused on the association between perfectionism and ac­
ademic achievement (see Madigan, 2019 for a review), Stoeber and Otto
(2006) contend that perfectionism can influence all aspects of life. There
are few studies on how perfectionism can influence leisure activities
such as gaming. In the present study, we develop a survey instrument to
* Corresponding author. Institute of Psychology, Pázmány Péter Catholic University, Mikszáth Kálmán tér 1, 1088, Budapest, Hungary.
E-mail addresses: zsilagnes@gmail.com (Á. Zsila), rezashabahang74@gmail.com (R. Shabahang), aruguetem@lincolnu.edu (M.S. Aruguete), beabothe@gmail.
com (B. Bőthe), demetrovics@t-online.hu (Z. Demetrovics), gaborosz@gmail.com (G. Orosz).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2023.107775
Received 15 November 2022; Received in revised form 28 March 2023; Accepted 2 April 2023
Available online 7 April 2023
0747-5632/© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/bync-nd/4.0/).
Á. Zsila et al.
Computers in Human Behavior 145 (2023) 107775
examine reactions to failure in gaming and establish its psychometric
properties. After establishing a reliable and valid instrument, we test a
path model to explain the associations between parental perfectionism,
self-oriented perfectionism, reactions to failure, and gaming disorder.
We hypothesize that parental perfectionism is associated with
self-oriented perfectionism, which in turn is associated with maladap­
tive reactions to failure in gaming. We also expect that maladaptive
reactions are associated with more symptoms of gaming disorder.
& Kearney, 2014), can be harmful to self-esteem, while high parental
expectations can be considered as adaptive and motivating (Rice et al.,
2007). Based on these findings, we expect that parental criticism will be
associated with gaming disorder, while parental expectations will not
have a direct association with gaming disorder.
According to the social expectation model (Barrow & Moore, 1983),
“children may internalize high standards and expectations from their
parents and develop perfectionism” (Yang et al., 2021, p. 8). Therefore,
parental perfectionism is expected to show associations with
self-oriented perfectionism. Shafran et al. (2002) described how high
internalized perfectionism can alter the ways in which individuals view
their performance and how they respond to failure. Critical parental
feedback can result in higher sensitivity to failure (Gilbert, Clarke,
Hempel, Miles, & Irons, 2004), which in turn increases the use of mal­
adaptive coping strategies (Ayadi, Pireinaladin, Shokri, Dargahi, &
Zarein, 2021). Therefore, we expect that parental criticism will be
associated with maladaptive reactions to failure (i.e., over- and
disengagement).
1.1. Gaming disorder
The American Psychiatric Association first recognized Internet
gaming disorder as a behavioral addiction in section III of the DSM-5
that requires further clinical and empirical evidence. More recently,
the World Health Organization included gaming disorder in the Inter­
national Classification of Diseases (ICD-11; Jo et al., 2019). Gaming
disorder is defined as “persistent and recurrent use of the Internet to
engage in games, often with other players, leading to clinically signifi­
cant impairment or distress as indicated by five (or more) criteria in a
12-month period” (American Psychiatric Association, 2013, p. 795).
Escape, preoccupation, tolerance, and continued use despite harm are
the most commonly reported symptoms of gaming disorder (King &
Delfabbro, 2016). According to a recent meta-analysis, the worldwide
prevalence of gaming disorder is 3.05%, while in Europe the prevalence
is 2.72% (Stevens, Dorstyn, Delfabbro, & King, 2021).
Much of the research on gaming disorder has been guided by the
Interaction of Person-Affect-Cognition-Execution (I-PACE) model
(Brand et al., 2019), which provides an explanation for the develop­
ment, maintenance, and relapse of Internet use disorders (Jhone, Song,
Lee, Yoon, & Bhang, 2021). The I-PACE model views Internet use dis­
orders as resulting from an interaction between person variables
(neurobiological and psychological predisposing factors), affective and
cognitive responses (e.g., coping) and executive functions (e.g., inhibitory
control, Young & Brand, 2017). The affective and cognitive reaction
components are viewed as moderator and mediator variables, which
have a crucial role in behavioral outcomes.
A recent study applying the I-PACE model to gaming disorder found
that adverse childhood experiences are associated with an elevated risk
for gaming disorder, and this relationship is mediated by maladaptive
affective and cognitive reactions to stressful situations (Jhone et al.,
2021). This finding provided support for the crucial role of early-life
distress in the development of gaming disorder (Brand et al., 2019),
and emphasizes the importance of considering maladaptive reactions to
challenging life situations in understanding the processes underlying
Internet use disorders. In the present study, predisposing factors include
both retrospective childhood experiences (i.e., parental perfectionism)
and personality factors (i.e., dimensions of self-oriented perfectionism),
while affective and cognitive mediators are reactions to failure, specif­
ically in a gaming context. We apply the comprehensive I-PACE model
based on the findings by Jhone et al. (2021) showing the applicability of
the model in understanding the mechanisms of gaming disorder.
1.2.2. The three aspects of perfectionism
Hewitt and Flett (1991) proposed three dimensions of perfectionism:
self-oriented perfectionism (demanding perfection of oneself), socially
prescribed perfectionism (perceiving others as demanding perfection of
oneself) and other-oriented perfectionism (demanding perfection of
others). Recently, Smith, Saklofske, Stoeber, and Sherry (2016) pro­
posed a three-dimensional model comprised of rigid, self-critical, and
narcissistic perfectionism. Rigid perfectionism is a type of self-oriented
perfectionism which is reflected in high standards towards the self and
expectations of flawless performance. Self-critical perfectionism in­
volves concerns over possible mistakes, uncertainty, and preoccupation
with negative feedback. Narcissistic perfectionism is an expectation of
perfection from others. Individuals with high narcissistic perfectionism
are critical and demanding in relation to others’ performance (Feher
et al., 2020; Smith et al., 2016). As all three dimensions include
compulsive features, which were associated with maladaptive coping
strategies (Moritz et al., 2018), we expect that self-critical, rigid, and
narcissistic perfectionism will be associated with maladaptive reactions
to failure (i.e., over- and disengagement).
Perfectionism has also been associated with behavioral addictions
such as excessive social media use (Yoon et al., 2017), disordered
gambling (Tabri et al., 2021), problematic Internet use (Lehmann &
Konstam, 2011; Wang, Tian, Zheng, Li, & Liu, 2020), compulsive exer­
cise (Çakın, Juwono, Potenza, & Szabo, 2021), and work addiction (Kun
et al., 2020).These findings indicate that perfectionism transcends
context and is therefore linked with both work and leisure activities. In
relation to gaming, a 12-month longitudinal study of highly engaged
gamers showed that problematic gaming behaviors were more likely to
emerge among players high in perfectionism (Forrest, King, & Delfab­
bro, 2017), suggesting that perfectionism can be a risk factor for gaming
disorder. Moreover, Jhone et al. (2021) recently supported the I-PACE
model, demonstrating that adverse childhood experiences are associated
with gaming disorder, which is partially mediated by stress. Therefore,
we hypothesize that self-oriented perfectionism (i.e., self-critical, rigid,
and narcissistic perfectionism) will be associated with more symptoms
of gaming disorder.
1.2. Perfectionism
1.2.1. Parental expectations and criticism
The I-PACE model theorizes that person-related predispositions
make some individuals more susceptible to gaming disorder (Brand
et al., 2019). Perfectionism is a multidimensional trait that may be a
predisposing factor for gaming disorder.
Frost, Marten, Lahart, and Rosenblate (1990) considered parental
expectations and parental criticism as dimensions of socially prescribed
perfectionism. While parental expectations refer to high standards set by
parents and expected excellence from the child, parental criticism in­
volves children’s perceptions that they are unable to meet the exces­
sively high standards set by their parents (Frost et al., 1990). Therefore,
parental criticism, when perceived as demanding and controlling (Cook
1.3. Reactions to failure in gaming
Gamers constantly experience wins and losses. The I-PACE model
posits that the affective and cognitive reactions to these experiences may
contribute to symptoms of gaming disorder (Brand et al., 2019). Win­
ning can be gratifying to gamers (Frommel, Klarkowski, & Mandryk,
2021), activating the brain’s reward circuit and the ventromedial pre­
frontal cortex (Kätsyri, Hari, Ravaja, & Nummenmaa, 2013). On the
other hand, loss or failure in gaming can be conceptualized as a form of
negative feedback. Orosz et al. (2022) identify three possible cognitive
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Computers in Human Behavior 145 (2023) 107775
and affective reactions to negative feedback: over-engagement
(becoming preoccupied by the experience of failure), disengagement
(suppressing emotions and thoughts related to failure), and constructive
engagement (learning from the setback without rumination or avoid­
ance). Disengagement and over-engagement are maladaptive reactions;
however, constructive engagement is adaptive (Orosz et al., 2022). Ev­
idence suggests that Internet gamers show adaptive and maladaptive
responses to failure. While some failures are seen as opportunities for
growth, others are aversive and lead to feelings of helplessness (Aytemiz
& Smith, 2020). To date, no previous study has used a reliable and valid
assessment instrument to examine reactions to failure in a gaming
context. The present study endeavors to construct a scale assessing
cognitive and affective responses following failure in gaming based on
the theoretical foundations of Orosz et al. (2022) and the I-PACE model
(Brand et al., 2019). We expect that dysfunctional reactions to failure (i.
e., over- and disengagement) will be positively associated with gaming
disorder.
interrelationships between parental and self-oriented perfectionism,
reactions to failure in gaming, and gaming disorder. We proposed the
following hypotheses.
H1. Parental perfectionism (i.e., expectations and criticism) predicts
self-oriented perfectionism (i.e., self-critical, rigid, and narcissistic
perfectionism).
H2. Parental criticism predicts maladaptive reactions to failure (i.e.,
over-engagement and disengagement).
H3.
Parental criticism predicts more symptoms of gaming disorder.
H4. Self-oriented perfectionism (i.e., self-critical, rigid, and narcis­
sistic perfectionism) predicts maladaptive reactions to failure (i.e., overengagement and disengagement).
H5. Self-oriented perfectionism (i.e., self-critical, rigid, and narcis­
sistic perfectionism) predicts more symptoms of gaming disorder.
H6. Maladaptive reactions to failure (i.e., over-engagement and
disengagement) predict more symptoms of gaming disorder.
1.4. Possible relationships between reactions to failure in gaming,
perfectionism, and gaming disorder
2. Methods
The I-PACE model postulates that stress experienced in early life can
have an influential role in developing gaming disorder (Brand et al.,
2019). Jhone et al. (2021) suggest that maladaptive affective and
cognitive responses to stressful situations in later life can further elevate
the risk for gaming disorder (e.g., playing video games to escape from
real life problems). These dysfunctional responses contribute to the
maintenance of addictive behavioral patterns as they increase cravings
and cue sensitivity (Brand et al., 2019; Jhone et al., 2021).
Previous studies have found a direct association between parental
perfectionism and self-oriented perfectionism as children internalize
high expectations of their performance (Clark & Coker, 2009; Cook &
Kearney, 2014). Perfectionism has been associated with maladaptive
coping strategies, which predict higher distress (Park, Heppner, & Lee,
2010). Specifically, rumination (Castro-Calvo, Beltrán-Martínez,
Flayelle, & Billieux, 2022), avoidance (Li, Zou, Wang, & Yang, 2016),
denial, and behavioral disengagement (Schneider, King, & Delfabbro,
2018) have been associated with increased symptoms of gaming
disorder.
More recently, studies have suggested that parental attachment may
have an influential role in the development of gaming disorder (see Kim
& Chun, 2023 for a review). Specifically, positive relationship with
parents was associated with lower risk for gaming disorder (Nielsen,
Favez, & Rigter, 2020) as secure parental attachment facilitated the
development of a positive self-concept, which is a protective factor
against self-criticism (Irons, Gilbert, Baldwin, Baccus, & Palmer, 2006),
maladaptive coping (Lane, Jones, & Stevens, 2002), and
technology-related behavioral addictions (Marino et al., 2019). How­
ever, some studies investigating possible mediators of the relationship
between parental attachment and gaming disorder found only indirect
associations through personal and social variables such as social stigma
(Kim & Chun, 2023) and self-control (Malik, Nanda, & Kumra, 2020).
Kim and Chun (2023) found that the effect of parental attachment on
gaming disorder was larger than the effect of peer attachment, sug­
gesting that negative relationship with parents may have a more influ­
ential role in gaming disorder than peer relationships.
Based on previous empirical findings and the theoretical foundations
of the I-PACE model, the hypothetical structure of the present path
model is as follows: parental perfectionism → self-oriented perfec­
tionism → reactions to failure in gaming → gaming disorder.
2.1. Procedure
Data collection was conducted in collaboration with the most pop­
ular Hungarian gamer lifestyle magazine, GameStar. Data were gathered
using an online questionnaire promoted by the editorial team of the
GameStar magazine. Incentives were used to increase participation
(three 20,000 HUF shopping vouchers were raffled among respondents,
each being worth about 77 USD). Participation in the survey was
voluntary and anonymous. Informed consent was required. Ethical
approval was obtained from the Institutional Review Board of the first
author’s university. The study was conducted following the principles of
the Declaration of Helsinki.
A total of 2,152 participants completed the questionnaire. Exclusion
criteria were: (1) informed consent was not provided (n = 47), and (2)
no variation was observed in the responses across three different mea­
sures, suggesting lack of participant engagement (n = 8). For underage
participants (those between 14 and 18 years of age), passive parental
consent was required, consistent with the current ethical standards in
Hungary. All participants reported that they play video games regularly
(at least 1 h a week). The final sample consisted of 2,097 Hungarian
gamers (88.5% male, Mage = 26.2 years, SD = 6.8). In accordance with
the aim of the study, the total sample was randomly split into three
subsamples. The first and second subsamples (n = 1,049) were used to
explore the factor structure of the Reactions to Failure in Gaming Scale
(RFGS). The third subsample (n = 1,048) was used to provide further
support for the applicability of the RFGS. Following the confirmation of
the psychometric appropriateness of the RFGS, a path model was con­
structed to explore the associations between parental and self-oriented
perfectionism, reactions to failure in gaming, and gaming disorder.
2.2. Participants
According to aim of the present study, three subsamples were used in
the data analysis (see Table 1 for details). The three subsamples were
created by randomly dividing the whole sample into two groups. The
first group (n = 1,049) was then randomly divided again to create the
first and second subsamples, used for the exploratory (EFA) and the
confirmatory (CFA) factor analyses, respectively. The first subsample for
the EFA (Subsample 1) included 525 participants (89.0% men) ranging
in age from 15 to 53 years (Mage = 26.3 years, SD = 7.2). The second
subsample for the CFA (Subsample 2) consisted of 524 participants
(87.6% men, Mage = 26.0 years, SD = 6.8) ranging in age from 14 to 55
years. Finally, to confirm the psychometric appropriateness of the RFGS
and explore the path model, the third subsample was used, including
1.5. Study aims and hypotheses
The purpose of the present study is two-fold. First, we seek to
introduce a measure of reactions to failure in gaming and test the psy­
chometric properties of the measure. Second, we examine the
3
Á. Zsila et al.
Computers in Human Behavior 145 (2023) 107775
something perfectly”; α = 0.86), and narcissistic perfectionism (six
items, e.g., “I am highly critical of other people’s imperfections”; α =
0.78). Participants indicated their level of agreement with each state­
ment using a five-point Likert-scale ranging from disagree strongly (1) to
agree strongly (5). The translation of the items was provided by three
Hungarian experts, following the procedure described for the FMPS
subscales.
Gaming disorder was assessed using the unidimensional Ten-Item
Internet Gaming Disorder Test (IGDT-10; Király et al., 2017). The
IGDT-10 items (e.g., “Have you ever in the past 12 months unsuccess­
fully tried to reduce the time spent on gaming?“) are rated on the
following scale: 0 = never, 1 = sometimes, 2 = often. According to the
scoring guide (see Király et al., 2017), selecting “2 = often” to an item is
considered a positive response, while “0 = never” and “1 = sometimes” is
considered a negative response. Selecting “2 = often” for either the 9th
or the 10th item is considered one positive response; therefore, scores on
the IGDT-10 can range from 0 to 9.
Table 1
and descriptive statistics for three subsamples.
Subsample 1
(n = 525)
Subsample 2
(n = 524)
Subsample 3
(n = 1,048)
Demographic Characteristics
Gender (n; %)
Male
467 (88.95%)
459 (87.60%)
930 (88.74%)
Female
58 (11.05%)
65 (12.40%)
118 (11.26%)
Age (M, SD)
26.31 (7.21)
25.97 (6.79)
26.20 (6.57)
Education (n; %)
Primary school
71 (13.52%)
74 (14.1%)
138 (13.17%)
Secondary school
336 (64.00%)
337 (64.31%)
666 (63.55%)
certificate
College degree or higher
118 (22.48%)
113 (21.56%)
244 (23.28%)
Descriptive Statistics for Study-Variables
Reactions to Failure in Gaming Scale (RFGS; M, SD; range: 1–6)
RFGS Over-engagement
2.06 (1.14)
2.03 (1.09)
1.98 (1.09)
RFGS Disengagement
1.99 (1.27)
2.00 (1.26)
1.92 (1.22)
RFGS Constructive
3.14 (1.32)
2.88 (1.28)
3.04 (1.31)
engagement
Big Three Perfectionism Scale – Short Form (BTPS-SF; M, SD; range: 1–5)
BTPS–SF Rigid
2.96 (1.06)
2.84 (1.05)
2.90 (1.03)
perfectionism
BTPS–SF Self-critical
2.34 (0.96)
2.33 (0.93)
2.33 (0.94)
perfectionism
BTPS–SF Narcissistic
1.72 (0.75)
1.71 (0.68)
1.68 (0.68)
perfectionism
Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (FMPS; M, SD)
FMPS Parental
11.19 (5.56)
11.53 (5.79)
11.03 (5.57)
expectations (range:
5–25)
FMPS Parental criticism
7.74 (4.16)
7.81 (4.16)
7.73 (4.05)
(range: 4–20)
Internet Gaming Disorder
0.96 (1.39)
0.96 (1.44)
0.84 (1.30)
Test (IGDT; M, SD;
range: 0–9)
2.4. Statistical analysis
Descriptive statistics and correlations were computed using SPSS
21.0 (IBM SPSS Inc., Chicago, Illinois), while the exploratory factor
analysis (EFA), confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), and path analysis
were performed using Mplus 7.4 (Muthén & Muthén, 1998-2015). The
EFA was conducted on Subsample 1, using an oblique (geomin) rotation.
The CFA was performed on Subsample 2, using a robust weight least
square estimator with mean and variance adjusted statistics (WLSMV),
which is appropriate for ordinal rating scales with asymmetric response
thresholds (Finney & DiStefano, 2013; Morin, Myers, & Lee, 2019).
Model fit indices were evaluated based upon the following thresholds for
acceptance (Brown, 2015; Hu & Bentler, 1999): the Comparative Fit
Index (CFI; ≥0.95 for excellent, ≥0.90 for good), the Tucker-Lewis Index
(TLI; ≥0.95 for excellent, ≥0.90 for good), and the root-mean-square
error of approximation (RMSEA; ≤0.06 for excellent, ≤0.08 for good)
and its 90% confidence interval (90% CI). Reliability (Cronbach’s alpha)
was considered acceptable above α > 0.60 (Hair, Anderson, Tatham, &
Black, 2003).
A path analysis was performed using Subsample 3 to explore the
associations between parental and self-oriented perfectionism, reactions
to failure in gaming, and gaming disorder. In this mode, gender (1 =
men, 2 = women) and age were included as covariates for all endoge­
nous variables. The structure of the path model was based on theoretical
considerations (Brand et al., 2019) and previous empirical findings (e.g.,
Jhone et al., 2021; Kim & Chun, 2023): parental perfectionism (i.e.,
parental expectations and parental criticism) → self-oriented perfec­
tionism (i.e., rigid, self-critical, and narcissistic) → reactions to failure in
gaming (i.e., over-engagement, disengagement, and constructive
engagement) → gaming disorder. Mediation effects were analyzed for
explorative purposes. We used a robust weight least square estimator
with mean and variance adjusted statistics (WLSMV), which is appro­
priate for ordinal rating scales and categorical variables (e.g., IGDT
items). Following the protocol by Schellenberg and Bailis (2016), total,
total indirect, direct and specific indirect effects were estimated using
95% bias-corrected bootstrapped confidence intervals with 10,000
replication samples.
Note.
M = mean; SD = standard deviation.
1,048 participants (88.7% men, Mage = 26.2 years, SD = 6.6) ranging in
age from 14 to 53 years.
2.3. Measures
Reactions to failure in gaming. Responses to failure were assessed using
the Reactions to Failure in Gaming Scale (RFGS). This instrument was
constructed for this study (see Appendix 1), based upon the guideline
proposed by Bőthe et al. (2018). The RFGS assessed three ways of
reacting to failure in gaming settings (i.e., over-engagement, disen­
gagement, and constructive engagement). The RFGS contained nine
items (three items per factor). Each item was rated on a six-point scale
(1 = almost never to 6 = almost always).
Parental perfectionism was assessed using two subscales (i.e., parental
expectations and parental criticism) of the Frost Multidimensional
Perfectionism Scale (FMPS; Frost et al., 1990). The parental expectations
subscale had five items (e.g., “My parents set very high standards for
me”; α = 0.91), while the parental criticism subscale included four items
(e.g., “As a child, I was punished for doing things less than perfect”; α =
0.86). Participants rated each statement on a five-point Likert-scale
ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5). Items were
translated from English into Hungarian by two psychologists who were
experts in cross-cultural adaptation of self-report measures. The two
translations were compared by a third expert of the research team, and
the final version was prepared based on the consensus of the three
Hungarian experts.
Self-oriented perfectionism was assessed using the Big Three Perfec­
tionism Scale – Short Form (BTPS-SF; Feher et al., 2020). This instru­
ment is comprised of three subscales: rigid perfectionism (four items, e.
g., “I have a strong need to be perfect”; α = 0.88), self-critical perfec­
tionism (six items, e.g., “I judge myself harshly when I don’t do
3. Results
3.1. Exploring the factor structure of the reactions to Failure in Gaming
Scale (RFGS)
First, exploratory factor analysis was conducted on Sample 1 (n =
525; see Table 2). Five possible factor structures were explored from a
single-factor structure to a five-factor structure. Only the first three
structures yielded eigenvalues over 1.00 (eigenvalues = 3.87, 1.90, and
1.01, respectively). However, only the three-factor model (i.e., over4
Á. Zsila et al.
Computers in Human Behavior 145 (2023) 107775
Table 2
Psychometric properties of the reactions to failure in gaming scale (RFGS).
When I fail on an important part of a videogame I’m playing …
Descriptive statistics
Over-engagement
1… I spend my energy ruminating on what happened
2…I am hard on myself, keep thinking about what I did wrong
3…I’m judgmental with myself and preoccupied by the thought of what is wrong with me
Disengagement
4… I do my best to get rid of failure-related memories
5…I do everything I can to eliminate the pain of the failure
6…I put my energy into completely erasing the memory of the failure
Constructive engagement
7… I find a balance in which I neither ruminate on the failure, nor push it away
8…I experience the failure without being overly emotional or avoiding it
9…I’m able to observe the failure from a distance, without ruminating on my feelings and thoughts
Factor
loadings
α
Range
Mean
SD
Skewness
Kurtosis
0.79
1–6
1–6
1–6
1–6
1–6
1–6
1–6
1–6
1–6
1–6
1–6
1–6
2.04
1.93
2.18
2.01
1.82
2.02
2.15
1.82
3.01
3.04
2.97
3.01
1.12
1.13
1.40
1.43
1.27
1.44
1.56
1.36
1.31
1.52
1.72
1.70
1.31
1.42
1.11
1.40
1.30
1.35
1.23
1.71
0.26
0.28
0.37
0.31
1.30
1.72
0.24
0.95
1.80
0.74
0.24
1.89
− 0.77
− 1.01
− 1.22
− 1.22
0.84
0.70
EFA
CFA
0.75
0.83
0.69
0.70
0.79
0.87
0.76
0.86
0.93
0.83
0.91
0.89
0.48
0.87
0.70
0.58
0.79
0.82
Note.
α = Cronbach’s alpha; SD = standard deviation; EFA = exploratory factor analysis; CFA = confirmatory factor analysis.
Standard error was 0.08 for skewness and 0.15 for kurtosis for all items.
Factor loadings for the EFA were calculated using Subsample 1 (n = 525), whereas factor loadings for the CFA were calculated using Subsample 2 (n = 524). Descriptive
statistics were calculated using both samples (n = 1,049).
Instructions: Think back on recent experiences of failure while playing videogames. Please answer as honestly as possible, indicating how frequently you experience
failure in the following ways.
Response options: 1 = almost never, 2 = sometimes, 3 = somewhat less than half the time, 4 = somewhat more than half the time, 5 = most of the time, 6 = almost always.
engagement, disengagement, and constructive engagement) yielded
acceptable fit indices (χ 2 = 26.68, df = 12, p = 0.01; CFI = 0.996; TLI =
0.989; RMSEA = 0.048 [0.023–0.073]). All factor loadings were above
0.4 in their respective factor (see Table 2). There were no high crossloadings. Therefore, all items were retained. Inter-item correlations
are presented in Appendix 2. Regarding inter-factor correlations, the
association between the over-engagement and disengagement factors
was positive and moderate-to-strong (r(s) = 0.52, p < 0.001), whereas
the associations between constructive engagement and overengagement (r(s) = 0.14, p < 0.001) and disengagement (r(s) = 0.14, p
< 0.001) were weak. Cronbach’s alphas indicated acceptable reliability
(α = 0.79 for over-engagement, 0.84 for disengagement, and 0.70 for
constructive engagement). Based on the psychometric appropriateness
of the three-factor model, this three-factor structure was retained and
used in the subsequent CFA.
In the second step, confirmatory factor analysis was performed using
Subsample 2 (n = 524). The three-factor model demonstrated excellent
fit to the data (χ 2 = 52.49, df = 24, p < 0.001; CFI = 0.993; TLI = 0.990;
RMSEA = 0.048 [0.030–0.065]). Factor loadings were above 0.5 (see
Table 2). Overall, the three-factor, nine-item RFGS demonstrated strong
psychometric properties; therefore, the RFGS was used in the subsequent
path model.
3.2. Path analysis exploring the associations between parental and selforiented perfectionism, reactions to failure in gaming, and gaming disorder
Using Subsample 3, the RFGS again demonstrated good fit to the data
(χ 2 = 101.50, df = 24, p < 0.001; CFI = 0.990; TLI = 0.986; RMSEA =
0.056 [90% CI 0.045–0.067]). Factor loadings were between 0.57 and
0.90. Cronbach’s alpha was 0.81 for over-engagement, 0.84 for disen­
gagement, and 0.69 for constructive engagement.
According to the preceding correlation analysis, the relationship
between over-engagement and self-critical perfectionism was positive
and moderate, while the associations between parental and self-oriented
perfectionism, over- and disengagement, and gaming disorder were
positive and generally weak. Constructive engagement had only negli­
gible positive relationships with parental expectations and rigid
perfectionism, and was not associated with gaming disorder (see
Table 3
Correlations among Parental and Self-oriented Perfectionism, Reactions to Failure in Gaming, and Gaming Disorder (n = 1,048).
1. Parental expectations
2. Parental criticism
3. Rigid perfectionism
4. Self-critical perfectionism
5. Narcissistic perfectionism
6. RFG Over-engagement
7. RFG Disengagement
8. RFG Constructive engagement
9. Gaming disorder
M
SD
Range
Skewness
Kurtosis
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
–
0.68***
0.24***
0.35***
0.30***
0.27***
0.18***
0.08*
0.11***
11.03
5.57
5–25
0.75
− 0.40
–
0.17***
0.38***
0.28***
0.33***
0.23***
0.05
0.20***
7.73
4.05
4–20
1.04
0.31
–
0.48***
0.39***
0.31***
0.21***
0.10**
0.15***
2.90
1.03
1–5
− 0.03
− 0.69
–
0.36***
0.50***
0.28***
0.05
0.26***
2.33
0.94
1–5
0.50
− 0.49
–
0.27***
0.22***
0.02
0.14***
1.68
0.68
1–5
1.32
1.96
–
0.41***
0.09**
0.35***
1.98
1.09
1–6
1.36
1.36
–
0.21***
0.26***
1.91
1.22
1–6
1.39
1.14
–
0.01
3.04
1.31
1–6
0.23
− 0.79
–
0.84
1.30
0–9
2.26
6.34
Note.
M = mean; SD = standard deviation; RFG = reactions to failure in gaming.
Standard error was 0.08 for skewness and 0.15 for kurtosis for all variables.
Spearman correlations were conducted for the associations between gaming disorder and all other variables due to the high skewness and kurtosis of the gaming
disorder variable, while Pearson correlations were performed on all other variables.
***p < 0.001; **p < 0.01; *p < 0.05.
5
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Computers in Human Behavior 145 (2023) 107775
Table 3).
A path model was constructed to further explore these associations,
controlling for gender and age (see Fig. 1). The model fit was excellent
(χ 2 = 2404.92, df = 896, p < 0.001; CFI = 0.967; TLI = 0.964; RMSEA =
0.040 [0.038–0.042]). Significant total, direct, and indirect effects with
95% bootstrapped confidence intervals are presented in Table 4.
and narcissistic perfectionism) would predict more symptoms of gaming
disorder. Only narcissistic perfectionism predicted symptoms of gaming
disorder (β = 0.20, 95% CI = [0.04; 0.35], p = 0.011), and the associ­
ation was weak. Therefore, H5 was partially supported.
H6 hypothesized that maladaptive reactions to failure (i.e., overengagement and disengagement) would predict more symptoms of
gaming disorder. Over-engagement (β = 0.44, 95% CI = [0.28; 0.60], p
< 0.001) predicted more symptoms of gaming disorder, with a moderate
effect size. However, the association between disengagement and
gaming disorder did not reach the level of significance (β = 0.14, 95% CI
= [− 0.003; 0.27], p = 0.048). Therefore, H6 was partially supported.
3.2.1. Direct paths
H1 hypothesized that parental perfectionism (i.e., expectations and
criticism) would predict self-oriented perfectionism (i.e., self-critical,
rigid, and narcissistic perfectionism). Parental expectations predicted
all dimensions of self-oriented perfectionism (β = 0.15, 95% CI = [0.03;
0.26], p = 0.010 for self-critical perfectionism, β = 0.31, 95% CI = [0.20;
0.43], p < 0.001 for rigid perfectionism, and β = 0.31, 95% CI = [0.19;
0.43], p < 0.001 for narcissistic perfectionism). Parental criticism pre­
dicted two dimensions of self-oriented perfectionism: self-critical
perfectionism (β = 0.31, 95% CI = [0.21; 0.43], p < 0.001) and
narcissistic perfectionism (β = 0.16, 95% CI = [0.03; 0.28], p = 0.014).
These associations were weak. Therefore, H1 was partially supported.
H2 hypothesized that parental criticism would predict maladaptive
reactions to failure (i.e., over-engagement and disengagement). Parental
criticism was positively but weakly associated with maladaptive re­
actions to failure: over-engagement (β = 0.22, 95% CI = [0.10; 0.35], p
< 0.001) and disengagement (β = 0.23, 95% CI = [0.10; 0.36], p =
0.001). Therefore, H2 was supported.
H3 hypothesized that parental criticism would predict more symp­
toms of gaming disorder. The association between parental criticism and
gaming disorder did not reach statistical significance (β = 0.18, 95% CI
= [− 0.001; 0.36], p = 0.046). Therefore, H3 was not supported.
H4 hypothesized that self-oriented perfectionism (i.e., self-critical,
rigid, and narcissistic perfectionism) would predict maladaptive re­
actions to failure (i.e., over-engagement and disengagement). Selfcritical perfectionism predicted maladaptive reactions to failure (β =
0.49, 95% CI = [0.39; 0.59], p < 0.001 for over-engagement, and β =
0.21; 95% CI = [0.09; 0.32], p < 0.001 for disengagement). The asso­
ciation of self-critical perfectionism was moderate with overengagement, and weak with disengagement. Rigid perfectionism was a
weak predictor of constructive engagement (β = 0.15, 95% CI = [0.03;
0.26], p = 0.014), while narcissistic perfectionism was a weak predictor
of disengagement (β = 0.14, 95% CI = [0.03; 0.24], p = 0.011).
Therefore, H4 was partially supported.
H5 predicted that self-oriented perfectionism (i.e., self-critical, rigid,
3.2.2. Indirect paths
Both parental expectations (indirect path β = 0.07, 95% CI = [0.02;
0.14], p = 0.015) and criticism (indirect path’s β = 0.16, 95% CI =
[0.10; 0.23], p < 0.001) were indirectly and positively associated with
over-engagement via self-critical perfectionism. Parental criticism
showed a significant indirect (indirect path β = 0.24, 95% CI = [0.15;
0.34], p < 0.001) but not a direct association with gaming disorder (β =
0.18, 95% CI = [− 0.001; 0.36], p = 0.046). In turn, parental expecta­
tions showed a negative, direct association with gaming disorder (β =
− 0.20, 95% CI = [− 0.38; − 0.02], p = 0.032), with no significant indi­
rect effect (indirect path β = 0.02, 95% CI = [− 0.08; 0.10], p = 0.726).
Moreover, parental criticism was also associated with gaming disorder
via over-engagement (indirect path β = 0.10, 95% CI = [0.04; 0.18], p =
0.004). However, these associations were weak. The strongest direct
associations were between self-critical perfectionism and overengagement (β = 0.49, 95% CI = [0.39; 0.59], p < 0.001), which in
turn, had a moderate association with gaming disorder symptoms (β =
0.44, 95% CI = [0.28; 0.60], p < 0.001).
Parental expectations and criticism were both indirectly associated
with disengagement, but via different paths. Specifically, parental ex­
pectations were associated with disengagement via narcissistic perfec­
tionism (indirect path β = 0.04, 95% CI = [0.01; 0.09], p = 0.029), while
this association was mediated by self-critical perfectionism for parental
criticism (indirect path β = 0.07, 95% CI = [0.03; 0.12], p = 0.003).
However, direct and indirect associations were generally weak (see
Fig. 1). Finally, higher parental expectations were associated with
constructive engagement via rigid perfectionism (indirect path β = 0.05,
95% CI = [0.01; 0.10], p = 0.030). Overall, the model explained 42% of
the total variance of gaming disorder.
Fig. 1. Path Model Representing Significant Associations between Parental and Self-oriented Perfectionism, Reactions to Failure in Gaming, and Gaming Disorder (n = 1,048).
Note. ***p < 0.001; **p < 0.01; *p < 0.05. Gender (1 = men, 2 = women) and age were included in the model as control variables. Correlations between the variables
are not presented in the figure for the sake of clarity. Standardized regression coefficients are presented.
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Computers in Human Behavior 145 (2023) 107775
The first aim of the study was to develop an instrument that assesses
affective and cognitive responses to failure in a gaming context. Un­
derstanding responses that occur in the gaming context is crucial in the
exploration of possible contributing factors to gaming disorder. Based on
the theoretical foundation proposed by Orosz et al. (2022), a
three-dimensional structure (i.e., over-engagement, disengagement, and
constructive engagement) of the Reactions to Failure in Gaming Scale
(RFGS) was tested for psychometric appropriateness. Exploratory and
confirmatory factor analyses across two subsamples of gamers
confirmed that the three-factor, nine-item RFGS has strong psychomet­
ric properties in terms of internal consistency and factor structure.
Over-engagement refers to being preoccupied by the experience of
failure, which can manifest in rumination, self-blaming, and unpro­
ductive thoughts. Disengagement is a tendency to suppress or ignore
emotions, thoughts, and memories related to failure in an attempt to
alleviate negative feelings, and thus, maintain self-esteem. Constructive
engagement is a healthy response to failure, a balance between preoc­
cupation and repression of the emotional impact of a failure. Over- and
disengagement can be considered as maladaptive responses, while
constructive engagement is an adaptive response to failure (Orosz et al.,
2022).
Table 4
Significant Total, Direct, and Indirect Effects in the Path Model Representing the
Associations between Parental and Self-oriented Perfectionism, Reactions to Failure in
Gaming, and Gaming Disorder (n = 1,048).
Paths
Total effect
Parental criticism → gaming disorder
Parental criticism → over-engagement
Parental criticism → disengagement
Self-critical perfectionism → gaming disorder
Narcissistic perfectionism → gaming disorder
Total indirect effect
Parental expectations → over-engagement
Parental expectations → disengagement
Parental criticism → gaming disorder
Parental criticism → over-engagement
Parental criticism → disengagement
Self-critical perfectionism → gaming disorder
Direct effect
Parental expectations → gaming disorder
β
95% CI
p
0.42
0.38
0.32
0.21
0.25
0.23;
0.26;
0.18;
0.06;
0.09;
0.61
0.51
0.44
0.37
0.40
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
0.006
0.001
0.10
0.09
0.24
0.16
0.08
0.25
0.03;
0.04;
0.15;
0.10;
0.03;
0.16;
0.17
0.14
0.34
0.24
0.15
0.34
0.003
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
0.003
<0.001
− 0.20
− 0.38;
− 0.02
0.10; 0.35
0.10; 0.36
0.04; 0.35
0.032
0.12; 0.26
− 0.25;
− 0.06
− 0.18;
− 0.06
− 0.20;
− 0.06
− 0.21;
− 0.08
− 0.18;
− 0.05
<0.001
0.001
0.06
0.02; 0.12
0.024
0.03
0.01; 0.07
0.034
0.07
0.02; 0.14
0.015
0.04
0.01; 0.09
0.029
0.05
0.01; 0.10
0.030
0.10
0.04; 0.18
0.004
0.07
0.04; 0.11
<0.001
0.16
0.10; 0.23
<0.001
0.07
0.03; 0.12
0.003
0.22
0.13; 0.32
<0.001
Parental criticism → over-engagement
Parental criticism → disengagement
Narcissistic perfectionism → gaming disorder
Direct effect of control variables
Gender → self-critical perfectionism
Age → gaming disorder
0.22
0.23
0.20
Age → over-engagement
− 0.12
Age → disengagement
− 0.13
Age → rigid perfectionism
− 0.14
Age → self-critical perfectionism
− 0.12
Specific indirect effect
Parental expectations → narcissistic
perfectionism → gaming disorder
Parental expectations → self-critical
perfectionism → over-engagement → gaming
disorder
Parental expectations → self-critical
perfectionism → over-engagement
Parental expectations → narcissistic
perfectionism → disengagement
Parental expectations → rigid perfectionism →
constructive engagement
Parental criticism → over-engagement → gaming
disorder
Parental criticism → self-critical perfectionism →
over-engagement → gaming disorder
Parental criticism → self-critical perfectionism →
over-engagement
Parental criticism → self-critical perfectionism →
disengagement
Self-critical perfectionism → over-engagement →
gaming disorder
0.19
− 0.15
<0.001
0.001
0.011
4.2. Direct associations between parental and self-oriented perfectionism,
reactions to failure, and gaming disorder
<0.001
In support of the first hypothesis, higher parental expectations and
criticism were associated with higher levels of self-oriented perfec­
tionism, except for the association between parental criticism and rigid
perfectionism, which was not significant. Moreover, we demonstrated a
moderate association between parental criticism and self-criticism. This
result provides further evidence for the social expectation model
(Barrow & Moore, 1983), which posits that children internalize the high
standards set by their parents. Gilbert et al. (2004) suggested that
parental criticism can lead to the internalization of a critical view of
personal performance, which can result in self-critical perfectionism if
high personal standards are unmet. However, parental criticism was not
associated with rigid perfectionism. This result suggests that critical
parental attitudes have a stronger association with critical attitudes to­
wards the self (i.e., self-criticism) and others (i.e., narcissistic perfec­
tionism), while critical parental attitudes are not directly associated
with high standards towards the self when these standards are perceived
to be attainable. Therefore, the first hypothesis was only partially
supported.
Supporting the second hypothesis, parental criticism predicted
maladaptive reactions to failure. This result is in line with previous
findings suggesting that individuals with higher internalized perfec­
tionism are more prone to use maladaptive coping strategies in stressful
situations (Ayadi et al., 2021; Park et al., 2010). However, contrast to
the third hypothesis, parental criticism was not directly associated with
gaming disorder in the path model. Therefore, future studies are needed
to further investigate the direct relationship between critical parental
attitudes and symptoms of gaming disorder. More recent studies have
also found no direct association between parental attitudes and gaming
disorder, only through indirect paths via self-evaluation (Throuvala,
Janikian, Griffiths, Rennoldson, & Kuss, 2019), self-control (Malik et al.,
2020), and social stigma (Kim & Chun, 2023). The present results also
showed that indirect associations have notable contribution to the
explanation of this association.
Providing partial support for the fourth hypothesis, self-critical
perfectionism predicted maladaptive reactions to failure. However,
narcissistic perfectionism was associated only with disengagement.
Although no previous study has explored the dimensions of perfec­
tionism with reactions to failure in a gaming context, these findings
suggest that gamers who expect flawless performance from others are
more prone to suppress emotions and thoughts related to failure,
thereby distancing the experience of failure from the self to protect self-
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
Note.
95% confidence intervals (CIs) with 10,000 bootstrap replication samples are
reported. Gender was coded as follows: 1 = men, 2 = women.
4. Discussion
4.1. Assessing reactions to failure in video gaming
Previous studies have linked perfectionism to technology-related
behavioral addictions (e.g., Lehmann & Konstam, 2011; Yoon et al.,
2017). The I-PACE model (Brand et al., 2019) posits that personal var­
iables (e.g., perfectionism) as well as affective and cognitive responses
(e.g., maladaptive reactions to stressful situations) can contribute to the
development of Internet use disorders (Brand et al., 2019). Using this
framework, we investigated the interrelationships between parental and
self-oriented perfectionism, reactions to failure, and gaming disorder.
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Computers in Human Behavior 145 (2023) 107775
esteem. This result concurs with previous findings showing that
narcissistic perfectionism is strongly and negatively associated with
honesty and humility (see Flett & Hewitt, 2020). Rigid perfectionism
was associated with constructive engagement, suggesting that high
standards for personal performance without criticism towards the self or
others can contribute to adaptive reactions to failure. In line with this
result, a recent study on male soccer players found that rigid perfec­
tionism can be adaptive to individuals performing at advanced levels as
they may see themselves as competent and able to reach their goals
(Jordana et al., 2022).
In contrast to our fifth hypothesis, only narcissistic perfectionism
showed a weak, direct association with gaming disorder. This result
contradicts previous findings. For instance, Miller and Mesagno (2014)
found that both socially prescribed and self-oriented perfectionism are
associated with exercise addiction. Additionally, Hill, Witcher, Gotwals,
and Leyland (2015) identified self-oriented perfectionism as the most
powerful predictor of exercise dependence. However, these studies did
not include possible mediators to explain this association. The present
results offer a more nuanced picture of the association between
perfectionism and symptoms of addiction in a gaming context. We found
that rigid perfectionism unrelated to maladaptive behavioral outcomes
(i.e., maladaptive reactions to failure and gaming disorder), confirming
more recent findings that high standards towards the self may not be
harmful when these expectations are not associated with self-critical
attitudes (Jordana et al., 2022, Wu, 2022). Self-critical perfectionism
was not directly associated with gaming disorder; however, the indirect
association via over-engagement was powerful compared to other in­
direct associations in the model. Therefore, over-engagement fully
mediated the association between self-criticism and gaming disorder.
Future research should investigate this association in more depth,
involving more possible mediators (e.g., irrational beliefs, maladaptive
coping strategies).
In testing the sixth hypothesis, we found that over-engagement was
positively associated with gaming disorder symptoms. However, disen­
gagement showed no significant association with gaming disorder.
Therefore, the sixth hypothesis was only partially supported. High
standards set by others can manifest in failure avoidance and intolerance
(Flett & Hewitt, 2006), and addictions are often seen as a failure of the
will (Baumeister & Vohs, 2007). Therefore, it is possible that individuals
with a tendency to emotionally distance themselves from the experience
of failure are less likely to lose control over their gaming activity as they
use stronger self-regulation than those with ruminative thoughts over
failure experiences.
parental expectations were not associated directly with harmful
behavioral outcomes (i.e., maladaptive reactions to failure and gaming
disorder). A recent study on alcohol consumption also found that high
standards are not associated with alcohol-related problems, while high
perceived discrepancy between personal standards and actual perfor­
mance predicts alcohol consumption and alcohol-related problems
(Patock-Peckham & Corbin, 2019). Parental criticism was also directly
associated with over-engagement, which increased the risk of experi­
encing symptoms of gaming disorder in the present study. This result
suggests that parental criticism can increase gamers’ tendency to
ruminate on in-game experiences of failure even in the absence of
self-critical attitudes. Regarding parental expectations, preoccupation
with gaming-related failures is experienced through internalized
self-criticism.
Both high parental expectations and criticism were associated with
disengagement, but via different mechanisms. High parental expecta­
tions were associated with disengagement through narcissistic perfec­
tionism. This result suggests that gamers with higher narcissistic
perfectionism are more prone to repress or avoid feelings and thoughts
related to the experience of failure. A possible explanation is that gamers
with high parental standards expect perfection from others, focusing
more on others’ failures while deemphasizing their own mistakes in an
attempt to maintain self-esteem. In turn, parental criticism was associ­
ated with disengagement through self-criticism, indicating that gamers
with internalized perfectionism can also be more prone to suppress their
feelings and thoughts related to failure to maintain their self-esteem.
Self-critical perfectionism was not directly associated with gaming
disorder; however, the indirect association via over-engagement was
powerful in the model. Indeed, over-engagement fully mediated the
association between self-criticism and gaming disorder. This result
aligns with recent findings indicating that parental influences are not
directly associated with gaming disorder but only indirectly through
self-control (Malik et al., 2020), core self-evaluation (Throuvala et al.,
2019), and social stigma (Kim & Chun, 2023). These findings suggest
that the maintenance of a positive self-image and self-regulation may be
crucial factors in preventing the development of gaming disorder in
gamers who experienced critical parental attitudes. The present findings
suggest that gamers with high internalized self-criticism are more prone
to ruminate on past experiences of failure in gaming settings, and
rumination as a compulsive cognitive process is also a core component
of addictive behaviors (Kun et al., 2020).
Competitive video game genres such as FPS (first person shooter),
RTS (real time strategy), and MMORPG (massively multiplayer online
role-playing games) are increasingly popular in online gaming com­
munities (Bányai, Griffiths, Király, & Demetrovics, 2019), providing an
inclusive space for competition and perfectionistic pursuits. These as­
pects of the gaming context share common features with attitudes to­
wards performance in sports (Adamus, 2012). Shafran et al. (2002)
explained that perfectionist individuals raise their personal standards of
performance until these standards become unattainable, which finally
leads to self-criticism and lowered self-esteem. Therefore, it is possible
that gamers with high internalized self-criticism keep playing after one
or repeated experiences of failure driven by the pursuit of success even if
the gameplay is not rewarding anymore. These gamers may keep pur­
suing high goals despite an unsatisfying experience of gaming in order to
overwrite failure and avoid criticism from others or themselves. Sup­
porting this notion, perfectionism has been associated with
obsessive-compulsive symptoms (see Limburg, Watson, Hagger, & Egan,
2017 for a review). Furthermore, González-Hernández, Nogueira, Zan­
geneh, and López-Mora (2021) describe how individuals with exercise
addiction will continue training despite health concerns and injuries, in
order to achieve their personal goals. Moreover, they report feelings of
guilt when they are unable to exercise. This mechanism may provide an
explanation for the elevated risk of gaming disorder among gamers with
high self-criticism and over-engagement with failure. Therefore, gamers
with ruminative tendencies may be at a higher risk for gaming disorder.
4.3. Indirect associations explaining the relationship between parental
perfectionism and gaming disorder
Both parental expectations and criticism were positively associated
with over-engagement through self-criticism. This result suggests that if
high parental standards manifest in a self-critical attitude, gamers are
more prone to ruminate on the experience of failure, which can elevate
the risk of gaming disorder. This finding corresponds to previous
research suggesting that critical parental attitudes can be internalized
later (Clark & Coker, 2009; Cook & Kearney, 2014), making individuals
more prone to dysfunctional reactions to failure (e.g., rumination),
which can increase risk of disordered gaming behaviors (Castro-Calvo
et al., 2022). Miller and Mesagno (2014) also found that both socially
prescribed and self-oriented perfectionism are associated with exercise
addiction. Consistent with the present findings, Hill et al. (2015) iden­
tified self-oriented perfectionism as the most powerful predictor of ex­
ercise dependence. Furthermore, our results corroborate previous
findings suggesting that parental criticism is associated with vulnera­
bility to poor mental health (Enns, Cox, & Clara, 2002) and addiction
(Flett et al., 2008) through internalized dysfunctional perfectionism.
Only parental criticism was indirectly associated with symptoms of
gaming disorder through self-criticism and over-engagement, while high
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Computers in Human Behavior 145 (2023) 107775
However, further research is needed to gain a more detailed picture of
the mediating factors which may explain the association between
perfectionism and gaming disorder.
PACE model, which posits that person variables (i.e., self-critical
perfectionism) as well as cognitive and affective responses (i.e., overengagement) can contribute to an elevated risk of Internet use disor­
ders such as gaming disorder (Brand et al., 2019). The present results
align with the findings by Jhone et al. (2021) indicating that adverse
childhood experiences can contribute to the development of gaming
disorder symptoms through maladaptive responses to stress. Our results
suggest that parental criticism can activate preoccupation with failure
even in an entertainment domain where parental aspirations relating to
performance are rare. Indeed, perfectionism can increase vulnerability
to negative feedback (Gilbert et al., 2004). To avoid criticism and pro­
tect self-esteem, self-critical gamers ruminate on failure experiences,
which may increase their proneness to compulsive gaming. This disor­
dered gaming experience is not rewarding anymore and serves only as a
strategy to avoid guilt and criticism by achieving some success with
prolonged gaming sessions. This study was able to measure and identify
reactions to failure (i.e., constructive, over- and disengagement) of
which over-engagement predicts the risk of gaming disorder. Perfec­
tionism explained a substantial amount of variance of over-engagement
(41%) in the model, while perfectionism and reactions to failure
explained a substantial proportion of variance of gaming disorder
(42%). These results suggest that parental criticism plays a crucial role
in over-engagement with failure in gaming, and can have a substantial
contribution to addictive gaming. These findings highlight the impor­
tance of targeting parental influences in gaming practices (e.g., miti­
gating the strength of association among parental and self-criticism) and
facilitating the development of adaptive coping strategies in perfec­
tionist gamers to deal with failure, both of which could possibly decrease
the risk of gaming disorder.
4.4. Limitations
There are a number of limitations to this study. First, a convenience
sampling method was used, although the sample of gamers was rela­
tively large. The extent to which we can generalize these results to other
populations is unclear. Second, the cross-sectional design of this study
does not permit unequivocal conclusions regarding cause and effect. For
example, though reaction to failure predicts gaming disorder in this
study, the casual relationship remains unclear. Third, the direct associ­
ations of parental criticism and disengagement with gaming disorder
were not significant in the current path model. Future studies should
explore these associations in different settings to clarify the relationship
between these factors. Future studies should also investigate other
possible mediators (e.g., coping strategies) on the association between
parental attitudes and addictive behaviors. The RFGS was developed in
Hungarian language. The psychometric properties of the translated
version of the scale should be established in future studies. Finally, the
present study offers limited evidence for the validity of the RFGS (i.e.,
construct validity). Test-retest, predictive, convergent and discriminant
validity should be examined in future studies.
4.5. Implications
Self-oriented perfectionism increases with age (Stoeber, Otto, &
Dalbert, 2009), suggesting that perfectionism can possibly spread from
education and work to other life domains such as leisure activities and
social relationships (Stoeber & Otto, 2006). The present study used
multiple components from the I-PACE model including retrospective
early-life experiences (i.e., parental perfectionism), person variables (i.
e., dimensions of self-oriented perfectionism), and affective and cogni­
tive responses (i.e., reactions to failure in gaming) to explain gaming
disorder symptoms (i.e., behavioral outcome) in a complex model. Re­
sults highlight the importance of considering parental influences in
addition to other person variables in efforts to reduce the risk of gaming
disorder and enhance mental health. A recent study has found that
depression mediated the association between maladaptive perfec­
tionism and Internet addiction symptoms, highlighting the importance
of investigating the role of mental health status (Yang et al., 2021).
Moreover, Yang et al. (2021) also found that gender moderated this
association, although the moderation effect was weak. Consistent with
this finding, a small gender difference occurred in self-critical perfec­
tionism in the current study (see Table 4). In addition, younger age was
associated with rigid and self-critical perfectionism, maladaptive re­
actions to failure, and gaming disorder, although these associations were
again weak. These results indicate that demographic characteristics
have a modest role in these associations.
Although the present study has limited contributions to clinical
practice due to the self-report nature of the data and the convenience
sampling method, the findings imply that parental attitudes should be
considered in the exploration of the development of gaming disorder
symptoms. Critical parental attitudes may be important risk factors for
gaming disorder when these negative attitudes are internalized. There­
fore, special attention should be paid to the self-esteem and selfregulatory strategies of gamers who experienced excessive parental
criticism. These individuals may be more vulnerable to compulsive
gaming behaviors, especially when ruminative tendencies are also
present.
Authors’ contributions
ÁZ: conceptualization, methodology, formal analysis, wri­
ting–original draft, RS: conceptualization, writing–original draft, MSA:
conceptualization, writing–original draft, BB: data curation, validation,
writing–review& editing, ZD: methodology, writing–review& editing,
GO: conceptualization, supervision, writing–review& editing.
Funding
ÁZ was supported by the ÚNKP-22-4 New National Excellence Pro­
gram of the Ministry for Culture and Innovation from the source of the
National Research, Development and Innovation Fund. BB was sup­
ported by the Banting Postdoctoral Fellowship (Social Sciences and
Humanities Research Council, SSHRC). ZD’s contribution was supported
by the Hungarian National Research, Development and Innovation Of­
fice (KKP126835, FK134807). GO was supported by the ANR grant of
the Chaire Professeur Junior of Artois University and by the Strategic
Dialogue and Management Scholarship (Phase 1 and 2).
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper. The University of Gibraltar receives
funding from the Gibraltar Gambling Care Foundation, an independent,
not-for-profit charity.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
4.5. Conclusions
Overall, this study provided further empirical evidence for the I-
9
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Computers in Human Behavior 145 (2023) 107775
Appendix 1. Technical Report for the Construction of the Reactions to Failure in Gaming Scale (RFGS)
Theoretical background
For the purpose of this study, the Reactions to Failure in Gaming Scale (RFGS) was constructed, assessing three subtypes of reactions to failure: (1)
over-engagement, (2) disengagement, and (3) constructive engagement. The three factors were created based on the theory of Hayes and Feldman
(2004). The assessment of the three factors was improved by Orosz et al. (2022), and items of the RFGS were created based on the Engagement with
Criticism Scale (Orosz et al., 2022), which demonstrated strong psychometric properties.
Over-engagement refers to a maladaptive form of emotional regulation involving preoccupation after experiencing failure (Hayes & Feldman, 2004).
It is characterized by negative emotions (e.g., worry, self-criticism, feeling incompetent), rumination, and obsessive thoughts regarding the event.
Over-engagement also involves the lack of emotional distancing (Kross & Ayduk, 2008, 2011; Kross et al., 2014) which can result in the person
becoming overwhelmed by the emotions related to failure (Hayes & Feldman, 2004).
Disengagement is another maladaptive emotional regulation strategy involving the avoidance of memories and thoughts of failure, in an attempt to
alleviate negative emotions associated with the failure event (Hayes & Feldman, 2004). This may involve intentionally focusing attention to some­
thing else to distract from the negative feelings associated with failure. Disengagement involves emotional distancing (Kross & Ayduk, 2008, 2011;
Kross et al., 2014; Park, Ayduk, & Kross, 2016).
Constructive engagement is a third reaction to failure. This is an adaptive strategy that balances over-engagement and disengagement. Individuals
using constructive engagement neither repress memories and negative emotions associated with failure (disengagement), nor engage in self-critical
rumination (over-engagement). Instead, constructive engagement involves observing the thoughts and feelings associated with the failure event while
maintaining a healthy emotional distance. This distanced view of the experience mitigates negative thoughts and feelings, permitting a healthy
reconstruction of the failure event.
Item construction
The RFGS had three hypothetical factors (i.e., over-engagement, disengagement, and constructive engagement). Each factor consisted of three
items. Based on the principles of item construction for self-report measures (Bőthe et al., 2018; Orosz, Tóth-Király, & Bőthe, 2016; Tóth-Király, Bőthe,
Tóth-Fáber, Hága, & Orosz, 2017), the following criteria were followed: items must (1) be brief and easy to understand; (2) clearly belong to the
theoretically proposed factor, and not to other factors; (3) not be suggestive; and (4) be adjusted to the scaling. The item construction procedure was
based upon the protocol described by Bőthe et al. (2018). Therefore, a focus group of four experts in scale development created three items per factor.
First, the experts shared their thoughts in pairs. Second, they presented their ideas to the group. After reaching consensus regarding the content of the
items, the items were pre-tested by 20 students in an undergraduate course to screen whether the statements were concise and easy to understand.
After finalizing the original English items, three Hungarian experts in scale development translated the items to Hungarian language and
back-translated the statements to English. The response options were: 1 = almost never, 2 = sometimes, 3 = somewhat less than half the time, 4 =
somewhat more than half the time, 5 = most of the time, 6 = almost always. We decided to use a six-point, labeled, ordinal scale instead of a five-point
scale (1) to increase reliability and validity (Lozano, Garcia-Cueto, & Muniz, 2008; Weijters, Cabooter, & Schillewaert, 2010), (2) because labeled
scale points may reduce the bias towards end points (Weijters et al., 2010), (3) and to avoid ignorant or neutral responses that may not represent the
true attitudes of the respondents (Krosnick et al., 2002). Indeed, Krosnick et al. (2002) pointed out that a neutral option can increase social desirability
bias, which is a major limitation of the use of self-report measures. Therefore, the final RFGS comprised three hypothetical factors (each containing
three items), which were rated on a six-point ordinal scale. The instruction and the items are presented in Table 2.
Appendix 2
Inter-item Correlations of the Reactions to Failure in Gaming Scale (RFGS; n = 1,049)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
–
0.51***
0.49***
0.35***
0.35***
0.37***
0.13***
0.05
0.07*
–
0.57***
0.34***
0.38***
0.35***
0.14***
0.15***
0.17***
–
0.44***
0.45***
0.49***
0.05
0.06
0.07*
–
0.63***
0.65***
0.12***
0.06
0.11**
–
0.70***
0.11***
0.17***
0.13***
–
0.05
0.07*
0.10**
–
0.40***
0.37***
–
0.56***
Note.
***p < 0.001; **p < 0.01; *p < 0.05.
Numbers reflect the item numbers presented in Table 2.
Spearman correlations were conducted.
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