Chapter 2
Theories of Aging
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Terms to Know
Aging: the process of growing older that begins at
birth
Nonstochastic theories: explain biological aging as
resulting from a complex, predetermined process
Stochastic theories: view the effects of biological
aging as resulting from random assaults from both
the internal and external environment
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Introduction
No single known factor causes or prevents aging; no
one theory can explain the complexities of aging.
Theories of aging offer varying degrees of
universality, validity, and reliability.
Research efforts aim toward better understanding of
aging process to guide health and postpone
negative consequences.
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Biological Theories of Aging
Biological aging differs from species to species.
No two individuals age identically.
Theorists divide the many factors, both internal and
external of human body, into two categories:
o Stochastic: Random assaults from both internal
and external environment over time
o Nonstochastic: Complex, predetermined process
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Stochastic Theories #1
 Cross-linking theory
o Cellular division is threatened as result of radiation or
chemical reaction, creates cross-linking agent which
interferes with normal process
 Free radicals and lipofuscin theories
o Oxidative metabolism and effects of free radicals;
damage and replace normal process
o Lipofuscin accumulation leads to interference of normal
process
 Wear and tear theories
o Repetitive use, injury, stress results in breakdown of
body; role of stress inconclusive
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Stochastic Theories #2
Evolutionary theories
o Mutation accumulation theory: declining force of
natural selection with age
o Antagonistic pleiotropy theory: accumulated
mutant genes that have negative effects in late
life may have beneficial effects in early life
o Disposable soma theory: aging related to use of
body’s energy rather than genetics
Biogerontology
o Pathogens may be responsible for certain
physiologic changes during aging process
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Nonstochastic Theories #1
Programmed/apoptosis
o Programmed cell death that continuously occurs
throughout life due to biochemical events
Genetic theories
o Programmed theory of aging: born with genetic
program that predetermines life span
o Error theory: genetic mutations cause organ
decline as result of self-perpetuating cellular
mutations
o Others: failure to produce growth substance;
production of aging factor; impaired cell function
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Nonstochastic Theories #2
Autoimmune reactions
o Changes in immune function with aging
Neuroendocrine and neurochemical theories
o Changes in brain and endocrine glands
Radiation theories
o Radiation may induce cellular mutations that
promote aging.
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Nonstochastic Theories #3
Nutrition theories
o Good diet may minimize or eliminate some of
the ill effects of aging process.
Environmental theories
o Ingestion of various substances, air pollutants,
living conditions, high noise levels, etc., thought
to influence how we age.
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Question #1
Which statement best describes the autoimmune
theory of aging?
A. Genetic programs determine life expectancy.
B. Cells undergo change, and the body identifies
them as foreign.
C. Organs decline as a result of cellular mutations.
D. Failure of the production of a growth substance
causes aging cells to die.
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Answer to Question #1
B. Cells undergo change, and the body identifies them
as foreign.
Rationale: One hypothesis regarding the role of
autoimmune reactions in the aging process is that the
cells undergo changes with age, and the body
misidentifies these aged, irregular cells as foreign
agents and develops a plan to attack them.
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Sociologic Theories of Aging #1
Disengagement theory
o Process of gradual disengagement between
society and individual; transfer of power from
old to young; old released from societal role;
theory discredited
Activity theory
o Older person should continue middle-aged
lifestyle, denying existence of old age; society
should not advocate diminishing activity,
interest, and involvement as members grow old
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Sociologic Theories of Aging #2
Continuity theory
o Personality and basic patterns of behavior will
remain unchanged as individual ages
Subculture theory
o Older adults are a group with distinct norms,
beliefs, expectations, habits, and issues that
separate them from rest of society
Age stratification theory
o Persons within similar age group generally have
similar experiences, beliefs, attitudes, and life
transitions that offer unique shared history
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Question #2
Is the following statement true or false?
The continuity theory of aging states that personality
and basic patterns of behavior are said to remain
unchanged as the individual ages.
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Answer to Question #2
True
Rationale: The continuity theory of aging relates
personality and predisposition toward certain actions
in old age to similar factors during other phases of the
life cycle. For instance, activists at 20 years of age will
most likely be activists at 70 years of age.
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Psychological Theories of Aging #1
Developmental tasks
o Challenges that must be met and adjustments
that must be made in response to life
experiences that are part of continued growth
through life span
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Psychological Theories of Aging #2
Developmental tasks
o Erikson’s stages
Stages
Satisfactory
Unsatisfactory
Infancy
Trust
Mistrust
Toddler
Autonomy
Shame
Early childhood
Initiative
Guilt
Middle childhood
Industry
Inferiority
Adolescence
Identity
Identity diffusion
Adulthood
Intimacy
Isolation
Middle age
Generativity
Self-absorption
Old age
Integrity
Despair
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Psychological Theories of Aging #3
Developmental tasks (cont.)
o Robert Peck
 Ego differentiation vs. role preoccupation
 Body transcendence vs. body preoccupation
 Ego transcendence vs. ego preoccupation
o Robert Butler and Myrna Lewis
 Adjusting to one’s infirmities
 Developing sense of satisfaction with life lived
 Preparing for death
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Psychological Theories of Aging #4
Gerotranscendence
o Transition from rational, materialistic
metaperspective to cosmic and transcendent
vision
o Desire to shed roles
o Invest time in discovering hidden facets of
oneself
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Nursing Theories of Aging #1
Functional consequences theory
o Promotion of wellness by addressing individuals
holistically, recognizing interconnection of body,
mind, and spirit; promote wellness and alleviate
or reduce impact of negative factors, promoting
positive functional consequences
Theory of thriving
o Everything that impacts people throughout their
life must be linked to create a holistic view of
aging; process of thriving is continuous and
enables aging individuals to find meaning in life
and adapt to changes
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Nursing Theories of Aging #2
Theory of successful aging
o Considers physical, mental, spiritual well-being,
and self-appraisal; high level of personal control,
positive affect, participation in health-promoting
activities will result in greater life satisfaction
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Applying Theories of Aging to Nursing
Practice
No single theory can adequately explain the aging
process.
Biological, psychological, and social processes of
aging interrelated.
Knowledge of all theories can guide nursing
interventions to promote health and longevity.
Factors that contribute to long and healthy life: diet,
activity, play and laughter, faith, empowerment,
stress management
Nurses assist older adults in experiencing health,
fulfillment, and sense of well-being
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Question #3
Is the following statement true or false?
The genetic theories of aging best describe how and
why a person ages.
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Answer to Question #3
False
Rationale: No single factor causes or prevents aging;
therefore, it is unrealistic to think that one theory can
explain the complexities of the aging process.
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