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A bust of Zeno of Citium, considered the founder of Stoicism.
Stoicism is one of the four major schools of thought established in the Hellenistic period. It was
founded in the ancient Agora of Athens by Zeno of Citium around 300 BCE. The stoics believed
that the practice of virtue is both necessary and sufficient to achieve eudaimonia: a well-lived,
flourishing life. The Stoics identified the path to achieving it with a life spent practicing
certain virtues in everyday life such as courage or temperance and living in accordance with
nature.
Alongside Aristotelian ethics, the Stoic tradition forms one of the major founding approaches
to virtue ethics.[1] The Stoics are especially known for teaching that "virtue is the only good" for
human beings, and that external things, such as health, wealth, and pleasure, are not good or
bad in themselves (adiaphora) but have value as "material for virtue to act upon". Many Stoics—
such as Seneca and Epictetus—emphasized that because "virtue is sufficient for happiness",
a sage would be emotionally resilient to misfortune. The Stoics also held that certain destructive
emotions resulted from errors of judgment, and they believed people should aim to maintain a
will (called prohairesis) that is "in accordance with nature". Because of this, the Stoics thought
the best indication of an individual's philosophy was not what a person said but how a person
behaved.[2] To live a good life, one had to understand the rules of the natural order since they
believed everything was rooted in nature.
Stoicism flourished throughout the Roman and Greek world until the 3rd century AD, and among
its adherents was Emperor Marcus Aurelius. It experienced a decline after Christianity became
the state religion in the 4th century AD. Since then, it has seen revivals, notably in
the Renaissance (Neostoicism) and in the contemporary era (modern Stoicism).[3]
History[edit]
The name Stoicism derives from the Stoa Poikile (Ancient Greek: ἡ ποικίλη στοά), or "painted
porch", a colonnade decorated with mythic and historical battle scenes on the north side of
the Agora in Athens where Zeno of Citium and his followers gathered to discuss their ideas, near
the end of the 4th century BC.[4] Unlike the Epicureans, Zeno chose to teach his philosophy in a
public space. Stoicism was originally known as Zenonism. However, this name was soon
dropped, likely because the Stoics did not consider their founders to be perfectly wise and to
avoid the risk of the philosophy becoming a cult of personality.[5][better source needed]
Zeno's ideas developed from those of the Cynics (brought to him by Crates of Thebes), whose
founding father, Antisthenes, had been a disciple of Socrates. Zeno's most influential successor
was Chrysippus, who followed Cleanthes as leader of the school, and was responsible for
molding what is now called Stoicism.[citation needed] Stoicism became the foremost popular philosophy
among the educated elite in the Hellenistic world and the Roman Empire[6] to the point where, in
the words of Gilbert Murray, "nearly all the successors of Alexander [...] professed themselves
Stoics".[7] Later Roman Stoics focused on promoting a life in harmony within the universe within
which we are active participants.
Scholars[8] usually divide the history of Stoicism into three phases: the Early Stoa, from Zeno's
founding to Antipater, the Middle Stoa, including Panaetius and Posidonius, and the Late Stoa,
including Musonius Rufus, Seneca, Epictetus, and Marcus Aurelius. No complete works survived
from the first two phases of Stoicism. Only Roman texts from the Late Stoa survived.[9]
Philosophical system[edit]
Philosophy does not promise to secure anything external for man, otherwise it would be
admitting something that lies beyond its proper subject-matter. For as the material of the
carpenter is wood, and that of statuary bronze, so the subject-matter of the art of living is each
person's own life.
— Epictetus, Discourses 1.15.2, Robin Hard revised translation
The Stoics provided a unified account of the world, constructed from ideals
of logic, monistic physics, and naturalistic ethics. Of these, they emphasized ethics as the main
focus of human knowledge, though their logical theories were of more interest for later
philosophers.
Stoicism teaches the development of self-control and fortitude as a means of overcoming
destructive emotions; the philosophy holds that becoming a clear and unbiased thinker allows
one to understand the universal reason (logos). Stoicism's primary aspect involves improving the
individual's ethical and moral well-being: "Virtue consists in a will that is in agreement with
Nature".[10] This principle also applies to the realm of interpersonal relationships; "to be free from
anger, envy, and jealousy",[11] and to accept even slaves as "equals of other men, because all
men alike are products of nature".[12]
The Stoic ethic espouses a deterministic perspective; in regard to those who lack Stoic
virtue, Cleanthes once opined that the wicked man is "like a dog tied to a cart, and compelled to
go wherever it goes".[10] A Stoic of virtue, by contrast, would amend his will to suit the world and
remain, in the words of Epictetus, "sick and yet happy, in peril and yet happy, dying and yet
happy, in exile and happy, in disgrace and happy",[11] thus positing a "completely autonomous"
individual will and at the same time a universe that is "a rigidly deterministic single whole". This
viewpoint was later described as "Classical Pantheism" (and was adopted by Dutch
philosopher Baruch Spinoza).[13]
Chrysippus, the third leader of the Stoic school, wrote over 300 books on logic. His works were lost, but an
outline of his logical system can be reconstructed from fragments and testimony.
Logic[edit]
Main article: Stoic logic
Diodorus Cronus, who was one of Zeno's teachers, is considered the philosopher who first
introduced and developed an approach to logic now known as propositional logic, which is based
on statements or propositions, rather than terms, differing greatly from Aristotle's term logic.
Later, Chrysippus developed a system that became known as Stoic logic and included a
deductive system, Stoic Syllogistic, which was considered a rival to Aristotle's Syllogistic
(see Syllogism). New interest in Stoic logic came in the 20th century, when important
developments in logic were based on propositional logic. Susanne Bobzien wrote, "The many
close similarities between Chrysippus's philosophical logic and that of Gottlob Frege are
especially striking".[14]
Bobzien also notes that, "Chrysippus wrote over 300 books on logic, on virtually any topic logic
today concerns itself with, including speech act theory, sentence analysis, singular and plural
expressions, types of predicates, indexicals, existential propositions, sentential
connectives, negations, disjunctions, conditionals, logical consequence, valid
argument forms, theory of deduction, propositional logic, modal logic, tense logic, epistemic
logic, logic of suppositions, logic of imperatives, ambiguity and logical paradoxes".[14]
Categories[edit]
The Stoics held that all beings (ὄντα)—though not all things (τινά)—are material.[15] Besides the
existing beings they admitted four incorporeals (asomata): time, place, void, and sayable.[16] They
were held to be just 'subsisting' while such a status was denied to universals.[17] Thus, they
accepted Anaxagoras's idea (as did Aristotle) that if an object is hot, it is because some part of a
universal heat body had entered the object. But, unlike Aristotle, they extended the idea to cover
all accidents. Thus, if an object is red, it would be because some part of a universal red body had
entered the object.
They held that there were four categories.
1. Substance (ὑποκείμενον): The primary matter, formless substance, (ousia) that
things are made of
2. Quality (ποιόν): The way matter is organized to form an individual object; in
Stoic physics, a physical ingredient (pneuma: air or breath), which informs the
matter
3. Somehow disposed (πως ἔχον): Particular characteristics, not present within
the object, such as size, shape, action, and posture
4. Somehow disposed in relation to something (πρός τί πως
ἔχον): Characteristics related to other phenomena, such as the position of an
object within time and space relative to other objects
Stoics outlined what we have our own actions, thoughts and reaction are up to us. The opening
paragraph of the Enchiridion states the categories as: "Some things in the world are up to us,
while others are not. Up to us are our faculties of judgment, motivation, desire, and aversion. In
short, whatever is our own doing."[18] These suggest a space that is up to us or within our power.
A simple example of the Stoic categories in use is provided by Jacques Brunschwig:
I am a certain lump of matter, and thereby a substance, an existent something (and thus far that
is all); I am a man, and this individual man that I am, and thereby qualified by a common quality
and a peculiar one; I am sitting or standing, disposed in a certain way; I am the father of my
children, the fellow citizen of my fellow citizens, disposed in a certain way in relation to something
else.[19]
Epistemology[edit]
The Stoics propounded that knowledge can be attained through the use of reason. Truth can be
distinguished from fallacy—even if, in practice, only an approximation can be made. According to
the Stoics, the senses constantly receive sensations: pulsations that pass from objects through
the senses to the mind, where they leave an impression in the imagination (phantasiai) (an
impression arising from the mind was called a phantasma).[20]
The mind has the ability to judge (συγκατάθεσις, synkatathesis)—approve or reject—an
impression, enabling it to distinguish a true representation of reality from one that is false. Some
impressions can be assented to immediately, but others can achieve only varying degrees of
hesitant approval, which can be labeled belief or opinion (doxa). It is only through reason that we
gain clear comprehension and conviction (katalepsis). Certain and true knowledge (episteme),
achievable by the Stoic sage, can be attained only by verifying the conviction with the expertise
of one's peers and the collective judgment of humankind.
Physics[edit]
Main article: Stoic physics
According to the Stoics, the Universe is a material reasoning substance (logos), which was
divided into two classes: the active and the passive.[21] The passive substance is matter, which
"lies sluggish, a substance ready for any use, but sure to remain unemployed if no one sets it in
motion".[22] The active substance is an intelligent aether or primordial fire, which acts on the
passive matter:
The universe itself is God and the universal outpouring of its soul; it is this same world's guiding
principle, operating in mind and reason, together with the common nature of things and the
totality that embraces all existence; then the foreordained might and necessity of the future; then
fire and the principle of aether; then those elements whose natural state is one of flux and
transition, such as water, earth, and air; then the sun, the moon, the stars; and the universal
existence in which all things are contained.
— Chrysippus, in Cicero, De Natura Deorum, i. 39
Marcus Aurelius, the Stoic Roman emperor.
Everything is subject to the laws of Fate, for the Universe acts according to its own nature, and
the nature of the passive matter it governs. The souls of humans and animals are emanations
from this primordial Fire, and are, likewise, subject to Fate:
Constantly regard the universe as one living being, having one substance and one soul; and
observe how all things have reference to one perception, the perception of this one living being;
and how all things act with one movement; and how all things are the cooperating causes of all
things that exist; observe too the continuous spinning of the thread and the structure of the web.
— Marcus Aurelius, Meditations, iv. 40
Individual souls are perishable by nature, and can be "transmuted and diffused, assuming a fiery
nature by being received into the seminal reason ("logos spermatikos") of the Universe".[23] Since
right Reason is the foundation of both humanity and the universe.
Stoic theology is a fatalistic and naturalistic pantheism: God is never fully transcendent but
always immanent, and identified with Nature. Abrahamic religions personalize God as a worldcreating entity, but Stoicism equates God with the totality of the universe; according to
Stoic cosmology, which is very similar to the Hindu conception of existence, there is no absolute
start to time, as it is considered infinite and cyclic. Similarly, space and the Universe have neither
start nor end, rather they are cyclical. The current Universe is a phase in the present cycle,
preceded by an infinite number of Universes, doomed to be destroyed
("ekpyrōsis", conflagration) and re-created again,[24] and to be followed by another infinite number
of Universes. Stoicism considers all existence as cyclical, the cosmos as eternally self-creating
and self-destroying (see also Eternal return).
Stoicism does not posit a beginning or end to the Universe.[25] According to the Stoics,
the logos was the active reason or anima mundi pervading and animating the entire Universe. It
was conceived as material and is usually identified with God or Nature. The Stoics also referred
to the seminal reason ("logos spermatikos"), or the law of generation in the Universe, which was
the principle of the active reason working in inanimate matter. Humans, too, each possess a
portion of the divine logos, which is the primordial Fire and reason that controls and sustains the
Universe.[26]
A bust of Seneca, a Stoic philosopher from the Roman empire who served as an adviser to Nero.
Ethics[edit]
The foundation of Stoic ethics is that good lies in the state of the soul itself; in wisdom and selfcontrol. One must therefore strive to be free of the passions. For the Stoics, reason meant using
logic and understanding the processes of nature—the logos or universal reason, inherent in all
things.[27] The Greek word pathos was a wide-ranging term indicating an infliction one
suffers.[28] The Stoics used the word to discuss many common emotions such as anger, fear and
excessive joy.[29] A passion is a disturbing and misleading force in the mind which occurs
because of a failure to reason correctly.[28]
For the Stoic Chrysippus, the passions are evaluative judgements.[30] A person experiencing such
an emotion has incorrectly valued an indifferent thing.[31] A fault of judgement, some false notion
of good or evil, lies at the root of each passion.[32] Incorrect judgement as to a present good gives
rise to delight, while lust is a wrong estimate about the future.[32] Unreal imaginings of evil cause
distress about the present, or fear for the future.[32] The ideal Stoic would instead measure things
at their real value,[32] and see that the passions are not natural.[33] To be free of the passions is to
have a happiness which is self-contained.[33] There would be nothing to fear—for unreason is the
only evil; no cause for anger—for others cannot harm you.[33]
Passions[edit]
The Stoics arranged the passions under four headings: distress, pleasure, fear and lust.[34] One
report of the Stoic definitions of these passions appears in the treatise On Passions by PseudoAndronicus (trans. Long & Sedley, pg. 411, modified):




Distress (lupē): Distress is an irrational contraction, or a fresh opinion that
something bad is present, at which people think it right to be depressed.
Fear (phobos): Fear is an irrational aversion, or avoidance of an expected danger.
Lust (epithumia): Lust is an irrational desire, or pursuit of an expected good but in
reality bad.
Delight (hēdonē): Delight is an irrational swelling, or a fresh opinion that something
good is present, at which people think it right to be elated.
Present Future
Good Delight
Evil
Lust
Distress Fear
Two of these passions (distress and delight) refer to emotions currently present, and two of these
(fear and lust) refer to emotions directed at the future.[34] Thus there are just two states directed at
the prospect of good and evil, but subdivided as to whether they are present or
future:[35] Numerous subdivisions of the same class were brought under the head of the separate
passions:[36]




Distress: Envy, Rivalry, Jealousy, Compassion, Anxiety, Mourning, Sadness,
Troubling, Grief, Lamenting, Depression, Vexation, Despondency.
Fear: Sluggishness, Shame, Fright, Timidity, Consternation, Pusillanimity,
Bewilderment, and Faintheartedness.
Lust: Anger, Rage, Hatred, Enmity, Wrath, Greed, and Longing.
Delight: Malice, Rapture, and Ostentation.
The wise person (sophos) is someone who is free from the passions (apatheia). Instead the sage
experiences good-feelings (eupatheia) which are clear-headed.[37] These emotional impulses are
not excessive, but nor are they diminished emotions.[38][39] Instead they are the correct rational
emotions.[39] The Stoics listed the good-feelings under the headings of joy (chara), wish
(boulesis), and caution (eulabeia).[31] Thus if something is present which is a genuine good, then
the wise person experiences an uplift in the soul—joy (chara).[40] The Stoics also subdivided the
good-feelings:[41]



Joy: Enjoyment, Cheerfulness Good spirits
Wish: Good intent, Goodwill, Welcoming, Cherishing, Love
Caution: Moral shame, Reverence
Suicide[edit]
The Stoics accepted that suicide was permissible for the wise person in circumstances that might
prevent them from living a virtuous life,[42] such as if they fell victim to severe pain or
disease,[42] but otherwise suicide would usually be seen as a rejection of one's social duty.[43] For
example, Plutarch reports that accepting life under tyranny would have compromised Cato's selfconsistency (constantia) as a Stoic and impaired his freedom to make the honorable moral
choices.[44]
Love and sexuality[edit]
Early Stoics differed significantly from late Stoics in their views of sexuality, romantic
love and sexual relationships.[45] Zeno first advocated for a republic ruled by love and not by law,
where marriage would be abolished, wives would be held in common, and eroticism would be
practiced with both boys and girls with educative purposes, to develop virtue in the loved
ones.[45][46] However, he did not condemn marriage per se, considering it equally a natural
occurrence.[45] He regarded same sex relationships positively, and maintained that wise men
should "have carnal knowledge no less and no more of a favorite than of a non-favorite, nor of a
female than of a male."[46][47]
Zeno favored love over desire, clarifying that the ultimate goal of sexuality should be virtue and
friendship.[46] Among later stoics, Epictetus maintained homosexual and heterosexual sex as
equivalent in this field,[47] and condemned only the kind of desire that led one to act against
judgement. However, contemporaneous positions generally advanced towards equating sexuality
with passion, and although they were still not hostile to sexual relationships by themselves, they
nonetheless believed those should be limited in order to retain self-control.[45][47] Musonius
espoused the only natural kind of sex was that meant for procreation, defending a companionate
form of marriage between man and woman,[45] and considered relationships solely undergone for
pleasure or affection as unnatural.[47]
Legacy[edit]
Neoplatonism[edit]
Plotinus criticized both Aristotle's Categories and those of the Stoics. His student Porphyry,
however, defended Aristotle's scheme. He justified this by arguing that they be interpreted strictly
as expressions, rather than as metaphysical realities. The approach can be justified, at least in
part, by Aristotle's own words in The Categories. Boethius' acceptance of Porphyry's
interpretation led to their being accepted by Scholastic philosophy.[citation needed]
Christianity[edit]
The Fathers of the Church regarded Stoicism as a "pagan philosophy";[48][49] nonetheless, early
Christian writers employed some of the central philosophical concepts of Stoicism. Examples
include the terms "logos", "virtue", "Spirit", and "conscience".[25] But the parallels go well beyond
the sharing and borrowing of terminology. Both Stoicism and Christianity assert an inner freedom
in the face of the external world, a belief in human kinship with Nature or God, a sense of the
innate depravity—or "persistent evil"—of humankind,[25] and the futility and temporary nature of
worldly possessions and attachments. Both encourage Ascesis with respect to the passions and
inferior emotions, such as lust, and envy, so that the higher possibilities of one's humanity can be
awakened and developed. Stoic influence can also be seen in the works of Ambrose of
Milan, Marcus Minucius Felix, and Tertullian.[50]
Modern[edit]
The modern usage as a "person who represses feelings or endures patiently"[51] The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy's entry on Stoicism notes, "the sense of the English adjective 'stoical'
is not utterly misleading with regard to its philosophical origins".[52]
The revival of Stoicism in the 20th century can be traced to the publication of Problems in
Stoicism[53][54] by A. A. Long in 1971, and also as part of the late 20th century surge of interest
in virtue ethics. Contemporary Stoicism draws from the late 20th and early 21st century spike in
publications of scholarly works on ancient Stoicism. Beyond that, the current Stoicist movement
traces its roots to the work of Albert Ellis, who developed rational emotive behavior therapy,[55] as
well as Aaron T. Beck, who is regarded by many as the father to early versions of cognitive
behavioral therapy (CBT).
Psychology and psychotherapy[edit]
Stoic philosophy was the original philosophical inspiration for modern cognitive psychotherapy,
particularly as mediated by Albert Ellis' Rational-Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT), the major
precursor of CBT. The original cognitive therapy treatment manual for depression by Aaron T.
Beck et al. states, "The philosophical origins of cognitive therapy can be traced back to the Stoic
philosophers".[56] A well-known quotation from Enchiridion of Epictetus was taught to most clients
during the initial session of traditional REBT by Ellis and his followers: "It's not the events that
upset us, but our judgments about the events."[57]
This subsequently became a common element in the socialization phase of many other
approaches to CBT. The question of Stoicism's influence on modern psychotherapy, particularly
REBT and CBT, was described in detail in The Philosophy of Cognitive–Behavioural Therapy by
Donald Robertson.[57] Several early 20th century psychotherapists were influenced by Stoicism,
most notably the "rational persuasion" school founded by the Swiss neurologist and
psychotherapist Paul DuBois, who drew heavily on Stoicism in his clinical work and encouraged
his clients to study passages from Seneca the Younger as homework assignments.
Similarities of modern Stoicism and Third Wave CBT have been suggested as well, and
individual reports of its potency in treating depression have been published.[58] There has also
been interest in applying the tenets of ancient Stoicism to the human origin
story,[59] environmental education,[60] vegetarianism[61] and the modern challenges of sustainable
development, material consumption and consumerism.[62][63][64]
Seamus Mac Suibhne has described the practices of spiritual exercises as influencing those
of reflective practice.[65] Many parallels between Stoic spiritual exercises and modern cognitive
behavioral therapy have been identified.[57] According to philosopher Pierre Hadot, philosophy for
a Stoic is not just a set of beliefs or ethical claims; it is a way of life involving constant practice
and training (or "askēsis"), an active process of constant practice and self-reminder. Epictetus in
his Discourses, distinguished between three types of act: judgment, desire, and
inclination.[66] which Hadot identifies these three acts with logic, physics and ethics
respectively.[67] Hadot writes that in the Meditations, "Each maxim develops either one of these
very characteristic topoi [i.e., acts], or two of them or three of them."[68]
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Further reading[edit]
Primary sources[edit]
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Cicero, Marcus Tullius (1945 c. 1927). Cicero : Tusculan Disputations (Loeb Classical Library,
No. 141) 2nd ed. trans. by J. E. King. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard UP.
Long, A. A., Sedley, D. N. (1987). The Hellenistic Philosophers: vol. 1. translations of the
principal sources with philosophical commentary. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University
Press.
Inwood, Brad & Gerson Lloyd P. (eds.) The Stoics Reader: Selected Writings and
Testimonia Indianapolis: Hackett 2008.
Seneca[edit]
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Lucius Annaeus Seneca the Younger (transl. Robin Campbell), Letters from a Stoic: Epistulae
Morales Ad Lucilium (1969, reprint 2004) ISBN 0140442103
Epictetus[edit]
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Long, George Enchiridion by Epictetus, Prometheus Books, Reprint ed., January 1955.
Gill C. Epictetus, The Discourses, Everyman 1995.
Harvard University Press Epictetus Discourses Books 1 and 2, Loeb Classical Library Nr. 131,
June 1925.
Harvard University Press Epictetus Discourses Books 3 and 4, Loeb Classical Library Nr. 218,
June 1928.
Marcus Aurelius[edit]
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Marcus Aurelius, Meditations, translated by Maxwell Staniforth; ISBN 0140441409, or
translated by Gregory Hays; ISBN 0679642609. Also Available on wikisource translated by
various translators
Fragment collections[edit]
Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta is a collection by Hans von Arnim of fragments and testimonia of the earlier
Stoics, published in 1903–1905 as part of the Bibliotheca Teubneriana. It includes the fragments and
testimonia of Zeno of Citium, Chrysippus and their immediate followers. At first the work consisted of three
volumes, to which Maximilian Adler in 1924 added a fourth, containing general indices. Teubner reprinted
the whole work in 1964.
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Volume 1 – Fragments of Zeno and his followers
Volume 2 – Logical and physical fragments of Chrysippus
Volume 3 – Ethical fragments of Chrysippus and some fragments of his pupils
Volume 4 – Indices of words, proper names and sources
Studies[edit]
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Annas, Julia (1994), Hellenistic Philosophy of Mind, University of California Press, ISBN 9780520076594
Bakalis, Nikolaos, Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics. Analysis and
Fragments, Trafford Publishing, 2005, ISBN 1412048435
Becker, Lawrence C., A New Stoicism (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press,
1998) ISBN 0691016607
Brennan, Tad, The Stoic Life (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005; paperback 2006)
Brooke, Christopher. Philosophic Pride: Stoicism and Political Thought from Lipsius to
Rousseau (Princeton UP, 2012) excerpts Archived 29 April 2014 at the Wayback Machine
Capes, William Wolfe (1880), Stoicism, Pott, Young, & Co.
de Harven, Vanessa (2010). Everything is Something: Why the Stoic ontology is principled,
coherent and comprehensive Archived 26 March 2023 at the Wayback Machine. Paper
presented to Department of Philosophy, Berkeley University.
de Harven, Vanessa (2012). The Coherence of Stoic Ontology Archived 22 May 2023 at
the Wayback Machine. PhD dissertation, Department of Philosophy, Berkeley University.
Graver, Margaret (2007), Stoicism and Emotion, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 9780226305578
Hall, Ron, Secundum Naturam (According to Nature) Archived 8 July 2023 at the Wayback
Machine. Stoic Therapy, LLC, 2021.
Inwood, Brad (1999), "Stoic Ethics", in Algra, Keimpe; Barnes, Johnathan; Mansfield, Jaap;
Schofield, Malcolm (eds.), The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy, Cambridge
University Press, ISBN 978-0521250283
Inwood, Brad (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to The Stoics (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 2003)
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Lachs, John, Stoic Pragmatism (Indiana University Press, 2012) ISBN 0253223768
Long, A. A., Stoic Studies (Cambridge University Press, 1996; repr. University of California
Press, 2001) ISBN 0520229746
Menn, Stephen (1999). 'The Stoic Theory of Categories', in Oxford Studies in Ancient
Philosophy, Volume XVII. Oxford University Press ISBN 0198250193, pp. 215–247.
Robertson, Donald, The Philosophy of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy: Stoicism as Rational
and Cognitive Psychotherapy (London: Karnac, 2010) ISBN 978-1855757561
Robertson, Donald, How to Think Like a Roman Emperor: The Stoic Philosophy of Marcus
Aurelius Archived 4 August 2019 at the Wayback Machine. 'New York: St. Martin's Press,
2019.
Sellars, John, Stoicism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006) ISBN 1844650537
Sorabji, Richard (2000), Emotion and Peace of Mind: From Stoic Agitation to Christian
Temptation, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0198250050
Stephens, William O., Stoic Ethics: Epictetus and Happiness as Freedom (London:
Continuum, 2007) ISBN 0826496083
Strange, Steven (ed.), Stoicism: Traditions and Transformations (Cambridge: Cambridge
Univ. Press, 2004) ISBN 0521827094
Zeller, Eduard; Reichel, Oswald J., The Stoics, Epicureans and Sceptics, Longmans, Green,
and Co., 1892
External links[edit]
Library resources about
Stoicism
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Online books
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Resources in your library
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Resources in other libraries
Wikiquote has quotations related to Stoicism.
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Baltzly, Dirk. "Stoicism". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy.
"Stoicism". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
"Stoic Ethics". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
"Stoic Philosophy of Mind". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Hicks, Robert Drew (1911). "Stoics" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.).
The Stoic Therapy eLibrary
The Stoic Library Archived 25 December 2014 at the Wayback Machine
Stoic Logic: The Dialectic from Zeno to Chrysippus
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Annotated Bibliography on Ancient Stoic Dialectic
"A bibliography on Stoicism by the Stoic Foundation". Archived from the original on 1
November 2012. Retrieved 14 September 2012.
BBC Radio 4's In Our Time programme on Stoicism (requires Flash)
The Stoic Registry (formerly New Stoa) :Online Stoic Community
Modern Stoicism (Stoic Week and Stoicon)
show
Stoicism
Stoicism. (2023, July 8). In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoicism