Courage: its nature and development
Author: Nelson H. Goud
Date: Spring 2005
From: Journal of Humanistic Counseling, Education and Development(Vol. 44, Issue 1)
Publisher: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Document Type: Article
Length: 5,837 words
Full Text:
Courage is presented as the energizing catalyst for choosing growth over safety needs. A content
analysis of the literature reveals 3 dimensions of courage: fear, appropriate action, and a higher
purpose. Guidelines and strategies for developing courage are described.
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Several schools of psychology point to a basic tendency underlying all growth. Maslow (1968,
1971) called it the self-actualizing tendency; Jung (1968) called it individuation; Homey (1950)
called it a drive toward self-realization. Carl Rogers (1961, 1980) described this force accordingly,
Whether one calls it a growth tendency, a drive toward
self-actualization, or a forward-moving directional tendency, it is
the mainspring of life ... it is the urge which is evident in all
organic and human life--to expand, extend, become autonomous,
develop, mature--the tendency to express and activate all the
capacities of the organism. (1961, p. 35)
The actualizing tendency can be thwarted or warped, but it cannot be
destroyed without destroying the organism. (1980, p. 118)
According to these theorists, there is an inherent force directing growth. Why, then, is there so
much difficulty in achieving full growth, wholeness, or self-realization? Rogers (1961) contended
that the growth tendency will not flourish without unconditional positive regard, empathy, and
authenticity from significant others. Maslow (1970, 1971) proposed that there are prerequisites to
self-actualization in the form of basic need gratification and a firm values framework. In addition,
Maslow (1968) maintained that the growth tendency is counteracted by the safety impulse:
Every human being has both sets of forces within him. One set clings
to safety and defensiveness out of fear, tending to regress
backward, hanging on to the past ... afraid to take chances, afraid
to jeopardize what he already has, afraid of independence, freedom
and separateness. The other set of forces impels him forward toward
wholeness of Self and uniqueness of Self, toward full functioning of
all his capacities, toward confidence in the face of the external
world. (p. 46)
A gap is created whenever growth forces encounter equally powerful safety forces (fears). If growth
is to proceed, then this gap must be leaped.
The energizing catalyst for choosing growth over safety is courage. Courage allows one to
effectively act under conditions of danger, fear, and risk. Without courage, the individual or group
remains stuck in existing patterns or immobilized in fear. Rogers (see Rogers & Stevens, 1971)
stated it in this manner,
It is the quality of courage which enables a person to step into the
uncertainty of the unknown as he chooses himself.... It is not an
easy thing to have the courage to be, and clients shrink from it at
the same time as they move toward it. (pp. 42, 46)
Maslow (1991) said,
The difference between the diminished individual, wistfully yearning
toward full humanness but never quite daring to make it, versus the
unleashed individual, growing well toward his or her destiny, is
simply the difference between fear and courage. (p. 120)
Because courage is given a pivotal role in growth, it is of great significance to understand its
nature. The purpose of this investigation is twofold: (a) to present a conceptual model of the
dimensions of courage and (b) to describe guidelines for developing courage. A variety of
disciplines were examined for their views on courage: military history and research (W. Miller, 2000;
Rachman, 1978), schools of psychology (Ellis, 1995, 1998; Frankl, 1984; Maslow 1968, 1970,
1971, 1991; Rogers, 1961, 1980; Rogers & Stevens, 1971), literature (Hemingway, 1932/1960,
1939/1969; Tolstoy, 1999), and philosophy (Aristotle, trans. 1987; MacIntyre, 1984; May, 1976;
Thomson & Missner, 2000; Tillich, 1952/2000).
One of the most extensive analyses of courage is in The Nicomachean Ethics by Aristotle (trans.
1987). He believed that courage was between the extremes of cowardice and foolhardiness.
Aristotle's overall definition of courage is "He who faces and fears the right things for the right
motive and in the right way and at the right time, and whose confidence is similarly right, is
courageous" (p. 63). In addition to examining Aristotle, a content analysis was conducted on the
divergent sources noted above. It yielded three primary dimensions of courage: fear (danger, risk),
appropriate action, and purpose. All three dimensions must be present for an act or person to be
called courageous (see Figure 1). In actual acts of courage, all three dimensions interact
simultaneously and with varying degrees of intensity. For purposes of discussion, however, it is
necessary to examine each dimension separately.
FEAR
It is difficult to imagine courage being called on when one is happy and joyful. Courage, if it
appears, always makes its presence known under conditions of threat, risk, or danger. Some
thinkers, like Keen (1999), contend that fear is part of the human condition and that the "real
question is not 'Are you afraid?' but what are you fearful of and what do you do with fear" (p. 41).
Fears vary in their intensity and may have a tangible or intangible source (the latter usually called
anxiety). Examples of physical fear-inducing dangers include combat, severe injury or illness,
aggressive animals, and standing in an arena with nothing more than a cape and sword while
awaiting the charge of a 1,700-pound fighting bull. Selected fear-inducing threats with
psychological origins include phobias, fears of isolation or abandonment, chronic anxiety, loss (e.g.,
relationship, job, aging), shame and disgrace, erosion of identity and spiritual foundations, and fear
of failure in the pursuit of major goals and life dreams.
Existential writers point to nonbeing, one's eventual nonexistence, as the core fear. Tillich
(1952/2000) proposed that basic anxiety results from realizing one's finitude, and among the
possible consequences of this fact are alienation, meaninglessness, and despair. To affirm oneself
in spite of these obstacles, Tillich termed "the courage to be." Tillich also believed that fear and
anxiety function as guardians, as warning signals to one's being. According to Tillich, "Courage is
the readiness to take upon oneself negatives, anticipated by fear, for the sake of a fuller positivity"
(p. 78).
Paradoxically, there is the fear of growth itself. Maslow (1971) called it the Jonah complex and
described it accordingly,
I had first labeled this defense the "fear of one's own greatness"
or the "evasion of one's destiny" or the "running away from one's
own best talents."... We fear our highest possibilities (as well as
our lowest ones).... We are generally afraid to become that which we
can glimpse in our most perfect moments, under the most perfect
conditions, under conditions of greatest courage. We enjoy and even
thrill to the godlike possibilities we see in ourselves on such peak
moments. And yet we simultaneously shiver with weakness, awe, and
fear before these very same possibilities. (pp. 35-37)
The fears triggered in a Jonah complex cluster around these themes: experiencing separateness
and being too different, encountering overwhelming expectations and responsibilities, venturing into
new and unknown paths, and engendering unwanted jealousy and hostility from others because of
attaining a form of excellence (Goud, 1994; Lacocque & Lacocque, 1981; Maslow, 1968).
Probably the most common reactions to intense fears are to avoid or free from them. Fears and
anxiety, however, can also have life-enhancing qualities. Sugarman and Freeman (2003), Keen
(1999), and W. Miller (2000) pointed out that fears can mobilize resources to counter threats, focus
one's consciousness, and create a sense of aliveness.
Some writers place strict limits on the kinds of risks involving courage. Aristotle (trans. 1987)
believed that the truest courage involved facing a noble death and "all such sudden emergencies
as bring death near, and therefore especially in facing the chances of war" (p. 88). W. Miller (2000)
questioned whether self-realization qualifies to be called a courageous quest:
Courage is too valuable to grant it to everyone who succeeds at a
task that it took some marshaling of will to do. There must be
danger and hardship to overcome, real danger and hardship, publicly
discernible, properly appreciated. We should not declare every
achievement that demanded great commitments of labor, energy, and
devotion a matter of courage. Most self-realization is not about
courage, nor do all the obstacles that stand in our way require
courage in their overcoming. (p. 282)
Growth psychologists (Homey, 1950; Jung, 1968; Maslow, 1971; Rogers, 1961) would have strong
disagreement with W. Miller on the role of courage and self-realization.
In summary, there are wide variations among students of courage as to the kinds of fears that
involve courage. All agree, though, that facing fears is essential in a courageous act. The nature of
courageous and noncourageous behaviors is the focus of the next exploration.
ACTION
At first glance it would appear rather easy to determine if one acts bravely or not. One either jumps
into the ocean to save a drowning child or one remains imprisoned in fear. Aristotle (trans. 1987)
explained that there are three choices when facing fears: courage or one of its extremes, cowardice
or foolhardiness. A foolhardy person is likely to be impulsive and to take unnecessary risks when
other options may be available. This person may charge into the ocean knowing that he cannot
swim well or not notice that there is a nearby lifeguard. There is an extreme degree of impulsivity in
the foolhardy that does not permit a quick but reasonable survey of the resources needed in a risky
situation. A person dominated by cowardice has an excessive degree of fearfulness and is deficient
in confidence. Flight and avoidance are the key responses of the cowardly. This person will see the
drowning child and, even if he or she has the swimming skills, is immobilized by negative
possibilities or walks away. Courageous persons "are able to assess the danger, their own
resources, and then take the proper action" (Thomson & Missner, 2000, p. 78). This person may
quickly glance around to see if there is a lifeguard and, if not, judge whether he or she will need a
flotation device to help in the rescue and then rush into action. The courageous person is facile in
using two other classic virtues: wisdom and judgment. Finally, not taking action may be the
courageous option, for example, refusing to engage in illegal or immoral acts under great pressure
to do so.
Masks of Courage
An action may reveal or conceal courage. Some behaviors resemble courage but are only masks.
True courage requires that one is aware of the dangers and has legitimate fears. Below are some
impersonators of courageous acts.
Bravado, recklessness, and rashness. Here there is an eagerness to show bravery, but when the
real peril presents itself, the bravery diminishes.
Ignorance. Here one performs actions in the face of jeopardy but does not truly realize the dangers
and has no felt fear, a necessary condition of courage.
Forced bravery. Aristotle (trans. 1987) mentioned the case of army commanders who flog soldiers
who retreat in the combat and force them back into battle. He dismissed this as true courage
because "we ought to be courageous not because it is compulsory, but because it is noble" (p. 82).
Fearlessness
It is possible to be aware of great risks and danger and still take appropriate action with little or no
fear. Rachman (1978) provided an example:
Novice parachute jumpers display courage when they persevere with
their jumps despite subjective fear. Veteran jumpers, having
successfully habituated to the situation, no longer experience fear
when jumping; they have moved from courage to fearlessness. (p. 249)
This movement from courage to fearlessness is based on mastery, experience, and competence.
One has the earned confidence and knowledge on what to do in situations of risk. Lack of proper
skills and experience may move a person into the opposite direction: cowardice. Hemingway
(1932/1960) described brave but inexperienced bullfighters "who are made cowardly by having to
face difficult bulls without the knowledge, experience or training to handle them" (p. 160).
Fearlessness may also appear as a transitory state when instant action is required to confront a
dangerous situation. It is only afterward that the fear is felt. Many instances of saving others' lives
are of this kind of blend of courage and fearlessness.
Two of the dimensions of courage have now been observed: facing physical or psychological fears
and responding with appropriate actions that lie somewhere between rashness and cowardice. The
remaining dimension, purpose, is one of mystery and complexity. It is also the focus of most of the
writings on courage.
PURPOSE
Again, it is Aristotle (trans. 1987) who set the tone: "[T]he character of everything is determined by
its end. It is for the sake of what is noble then that the courageous faces and does all that courage
demands" (p. 89). Acting in the face of fear is not enough, one must have a higher purpose for a
courageous act. A higher purpose refers to affirming or securing a value beyond one's selfinterests. The presence and absence, respectively, of a higher purpose are demonstrated in these
real-life incidents: (a) A young boy is attacked by a shark in Florida coastal waters, his uncle rushes
in and battles the shark until the shark leaves and the boy is saved versus (b) a surfer intentionally
surfs in the same waters after sharks are seen nearby.
Emotion
Certain daring acts fueled by emotion alone are usually not designated as courageous ones.
Tolstoy (1999) said, "A brave man is one who conducts himself as he ought ... it is impossible to call
a man brave who risks his life out of vanity or curiosity or greediness" (p. 22). Aristotle (trans. 1987)
would also disqualify acts that are driven only by revenge, fear, or to gain pleasure or avoid pain.
Strong emotional states, however, are often enablers of courageous acts. Effectively facing fears
often means to rouse emotion and passion to gain confidence. W. Miller (2000) pointed out that
anger is a common ally called on to battle fear. Arousing helpful emotions to confront fears is
sometimes ritualized, for example, singing, chanting, dancing, listening to motivational speakers,
and watching inspirational movies.
Thrill Seeking
Another category of daring actions not prompted by high purpose is those actions characterized as
thrill seeking, for example, bungee jumping, rock climbing, skydiving, extreme sports, tough-man
contests, and reality TV adventures. The purpose of these actions resides in the sensations derived
from the activity itself (the high of an adrenaline rush, exhilaration), the admiration of nonrisk takers,
and, sometimes, cash.
Role of Valued Goals
"The more valued and worthy the goal, the greater the willingness to incur the risk to bring it about"
(W. Miller, 2000, p. 53). Having an ultimate end calls forth the resolve and behaviors to challenge
fears and threats. Normally one would avoid a vicious dog, but if one's child is attacked by this
same dog, then in all probability the dog would have a ferocious opponent. Deeply held values,
then, can evoke courage. Robert Coles (1998), author of award-winning books on children in crisis,
defined courage "as a determination, no matter the obstacles or dangers, to live up to one's values"
(p. 121). Expressing and protecting these values may involve additional kinds of courage in
addition to physical courage. History is rife with accounts of great moral courage: for example, the
human rights efforts of Mahatma Gandhi, Martin Luther King Jr., Nelson Mandela, and Aleksander
Solzhenitsyn. W. Miller (2000) stated that "most nonviolent resistance to oppression is about
courage pure and simple. Beating, imprisonment, pain, even death are part of the risk" (p. 256). He
also observed that moral courage is a lonely stance--one must take a stand and call attention to
oneself.
Moral courage can be expressed on a smaller scale. I know of a teacher who was directed by her
principal to flunk two first graders to meet some district standard. The teacher, under threat of
sanctions and possible job dismissal, refused to do so because the two students had met all of the
requirements to pass first grade (the teacher's stand eventually prevailed and she kept her
position).
The Gray Virtue
If an act is executed in the face of great danger for an ultimate end, then we have a courageous
act. This does not mean that everyone will agree or even like the act or purpose. As W. Miller
(2000) put it, "courage is a gray virtue, equally serviceable for both good and bad causes" (p. 8).
Enemy soldiers, too, may be brave. There are great individual variations in what one believes to
constitute an ultimate value, such as beauty and art. Hemingway (1932/ 1960) believed that
bullfighting met the criteria:
It is impossible to believe the emotional and spiritual intensity
and pure, classic beauty that can be produced by a man, an animal
and piece of scarlet serge draped over a stick.... There will be
valor, art, understanding, and, above all, beauty and great
emotion ... as profound as any religious ecstasy. (pp. 207-208)
An Attitude of Bravery
Tillich's (1952/2000) "courage to be oneself" is, in a way, an attitude taken in the face of despair
and meaninglessness. He sees life as a balance of courage and fear. One strengthens courage by
asserting one's sense of vitality, of realizing one's being. The opposite attitude is adopting
submissive cowardice to avoid pain, hurt, and anxiety.
Frankl (1984), founder of logotherapy and survivor of Auschwitz concentration camps in World War
II, proposed that one can find meaning in life in three different ways: (a) by creating a work or doing
a deed, (b) by experiencing something or encountering someone one values, and (c) by the attitude
one takes toward unavoidable suffering (e.g., illness, loss, impending death).
On the last point, Frankl said that we have a choice to "suffer bravely." By this he means one can
search for a meaning that makes the suffering worthwhile, for example, during an illness or injury
one acts in a manner that may be a model for one's children. LaTour (1996) described the inner
courage required by recovering cancer patients.
Related Issues
Several questions remain unanswered or call forth divergent views from theorists of courage.
Below is a selection of remaining issues:
1. What degree of fear, level of action, and worthiness of purpose qualifies an act to be called
courageous? The sources offer a wide variety of conclusions on this question. It appears that
courage is a continuum, and the judgment of where a particular act falls on the continuum is made
individually or by social consensus.
2. Tim O'Brien (1975), author and Vietnam combat veteran, asked what if a person acts like a
coward one time and a hero the next? Is this person cowardly or courageous? He concluded that
those who "do well on the average, perhaps with one moment of glory, those are brave" (p. 147).
3. Several theorists pose that courage is in the upper echelon of a virtues hierarchy. The early
Greek philosophers, for instance, named courage as one of the four cardinal virtues (the others
being wisdom, justice, and discipline). May (1976) stated,
Courage is not a virtue or value among other personal values like
love or fidelity. It is the foundation that underlies and gives
reality to all other virtues and personal values. Without courage
our love pales into mere dependency.... Courage is necessary
to make being and becoming possible. (p. 4)
4. MacIntyre (1984) argued that courage is essential in authentic caring:
We hold courage to be a virtue because the care and concern for
individuals, communities and causes ... requires the existence of
such a virtue. If someone says that he cares for some individual,
community or cause, but is unwilling to risk harm or danger on
his, her or its own behalf, he puts in question the genuineness
of his care and concern. (p. 192)
5. In discussing psychological implications of the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, G. Miller
(2002) noted that a cultural redefinition of courage now includes works of caring and compassion.
6. Because of the universal respect for courage, it may become the rationale for conducting
questionable acts of war, injustice, plunder, and aggression (W. Miller, 2000). Additionally, some
persons may seek or create situations that show off their courage. Courage demands integrity.
7. Is courage an exhaustible resource or one that can be replenished? Studies on physical courage
in combat point to a fixed-amount model. Rachman (1978) cited research on World War II bomber
crews that showed there was an erosion of courage as the number of missions progressed. Tracing
accounts from ancient wars to modern times, W. Miller (2000) concluded that "physical courage
decays under the intense and relentless demands of combat" (p. 65). He conjectured that moral
courage does not follow this same tendency but tends to increase with its use. Whether moral
courage increases under relentless opposition, such as negative sanctions, is debatable. Without
support and success on the sidelines, few will continue to withstand the barrage of both formal and
informal penalties. If courage is an exhaustible resource, however, then one must use great
judgment on how often and how much it should be summoned.
DEVELOPMENTAL APPLICATIONS
Some hints for developing courage were mentioned in the above sections. Here I turn to specific
strategies that are recommended for developing and maintaining courage. These guidelines
parallel the three-dimensional model and focus on three themes: (a) instilling confidence and trust
in one's capabilities, (b) perceiving a purpose, and (c) managing fears.
Confidence
Belief and trust in one's capabilities (i.e., confidence) is a primary force in countering fears, risks,
and the safety impulse. A specific form of self-confidence, self-efficacy (Bandura, 1977, 1986,
1993), is of special import. Self-efficacy is an estimate of one's capabilities to handle specific
challenges and tasks. Self-efficacy is "an important determinant of how much effort people will
exert and how long they will persevere in the face of significant challenges" (Rice, 1998, p. 540).
Ideas for enhancing confidence are discussed below.
Success and strengths. One's actual performance in past similar situations creates a frame of
reference for estimating success in current or future challenges. If one was anxious before a math
test in the past but performed well, then one would most likely have confidence about preforming
well on an upcoming math test (and the reverse if one had failed earlier).
It is common for a person to not recognize his or her past successes. If one is potentially facing a
fearful situation, it will help to engage in a discussion of how one handled similar situations in the
past, paying particular attention to any successful outcomes. Another suggestion is to construct a
"strengths inventory." Here the strengths of a person are listed (some categories to consider are
career, interpersonal, intellectual/academic, physical, emotional, special abilities [such as art,
music, athletic, hobby], and so forth). Without a conscious reminder of strengths, they tend to slip
from one's awareness (therefore not available under conditions of challenge). In short, it is possible
to increase one's confidence level by making more conscious one's genuine, existing strengths
(see Johnson, 2000, for additional ideas). Finally, recognizing strengths is only the start; they must
be exercised: "Not only is it fun to use our capacities, but it is necessary for growth. The unused
skill or capacity can ... atrophy or disappear, thus diminishing the person" (Maslow, 1968, p. 201).
Risk taking and comfort zone expansion. Regarding the development of courage, Aristotle (trans.
1987) said "it is by acting in the fear of danger and by habituating ourselves that we become either
cowardly or courageous" (p. 44). Situations requiring great courage do not occur frequently in most
lives. Gaining experience is often limited and unpredictable. It is possible, on a smaller scale, to
have consistent "courage practice." The idea is to engage in gradual risk taking. Here one attempts
tasks just beyond a comfort zone (much in the same manner that a parent coaxes a toddler to take
a few steps). Frequent and gradual risk taking enables a person to develop ways to effectively act
while experiencing fears and anxieties. Earlier, it was mentioned that thrill-seeking activities were
not exemplars of courage because of the absence of a higher purpose. These same activities,
however, do provide good practice in confronting fears and making them manageable. Keen (1999)
regularly tried trapeze flying and found that "each time I triumph over a minor fear, I get a shot of
pure vitality straight into the center of my being" (p. 43). Other adventure activities include rock/wall
climbing, Outward Bound expeditions, ropes courses, skydiving, martial arts, and so on.
Taking a stand for what one deeply values is the focus of moral courage. Fears of disapproval,
being different, displeasing authority, and penalties rear their heads during actions of moral
courage. Not taking a stand, though, results in feelings of a failure of integrity and of inadequacy
and guilt. The key is going just beyond one's comfort zone in situations requiring moral courage.
Work, home, and everyday life offer many opportunities to practice making stands on what one
believes. Assertiveness training (Alberti & Emmons, 1995; Johnson, 2000) is an excellent approach
for building skills in expressing one's views.
Coles (1998) contended that children "are more interested in matters of right and wrong, virtue, and
vice, than we sometimes might acknowledge, either as parents or as teachers" (p. 122). He pointed
out that moral situations occur everywhere--the living room or kitchen, the playground, the
classroom--situations that call for someone to take a stance.
Practicing for courage is a process of moral and physical "toughening." Doing the right thing in the
face of fear demands a good amount of confidence, fortitude, and discipline. Risk fitness means
accepting fear and anxiety as part of this process, not as something to be avoided. One must come
to believe that fear will be getting as much or more as it gives. Rachman's (1978) summary of
studies of fear and courage supports this guideline. He said that training in dangerous jobs, such as
fire fighting, emphasizes gradual and graduated practice of the dangerous tasks. He concluded,
"Courageous behavior is determined predominantly by the combination of competence and
confidence, and both of these qualities are strengthened by repeated and successful practice" (p.
248).
Commenting on young bullfighters, Hemingway (1932/1960) said, "If you gore him too early, too
often and too young he will never be the bullfighter he might have been" (p. 199). For children (and
any inexperienced person), the magnitude and pacing of risks are crucial. Attempting tasks too far
beyond one's capabilities usually results in overwhelming failure and fears. The fearful person will
then, quite reasonably, retreat to safety and be extremely hesitant to risk any new behaviors.
Modeling
Direct experience with courage-building activities is one path for developing a courageous
disposition. Observational learning, or modeling (Bandura, 1986), is another powerful modality.
Observing how others respond to situations one may encounter has considerable influence on
one's actions. A child, for example, can vicariously become fearful of dogs because a parent acts
fearful in the presence of dogs. Rachman (1978) described how fear and courage are contagious
through the actions of models. Combat soldiers had an increased susceptibility to fear if a fellow
soldier showed extreme fear reactions; courageous behavior, however, boosted their selfconfidence and was often imitated. W. Miller (2000) believed both fear and courage are contagious,
but the effects are more lasting and intense for the case of catching fear.
One's perception of having the capabilities to handle situations, self-efficacy, is affected by models
(Bandura, 1986). Watching someone similar to oneself succeed in a task tends to increase one'
confidence in performing the same task (the reverse also holds true). Although direct models are
the most influential, vicarious modeling can also occur (e.g., reading biographies and stories,
hearing about courageous acts, and so forth). Whether direct or indirect, the more exposure to
persons who demonstrate courageous behaviors, the more the likelihood it will encourage the
same behaviors in the observer.
Encouragement and Hope
A person learning to face fears and to show fortitude often needs some help in maintaining or
increasing a willingness to continue. This comes in the form of encouragement. Self-efficacy and
confidence have been found to be influenced by verbal persuasion (Bandura, 1986). This can take
the form of genuine praise of efforts, or coaxing one to try harder because one is progressing, or
urging one to attempt a difficult task because one truly has the potential for doing it. Adler (as cited
in Mosak, 1989) placed courage and encouragement at the core of one's growth. In Adler's
scheme, people may hold deep feelings of inferiority and discouragement. In describing Adler's
therapeutic approach, Corey (2001) said that "clients are both encouraged and challenged to
develop the courage to take risks and make change in their lives" (p. 124). Encouragement in the
Adlerian approach includes recognizing strengths, creating a sense of belonging and contributing to
a greater community, being willing to be imperfect, and committing to behavioral changes.
In addition to its motivational power, genuine encouragement shows another person that one is not
alone in a challenging or risky endeavor. It is always nice to have someone, and sometimes it only
requires one, cheering on the sidelines or helping to lick the wounds. When asked if giving too
much encouragement was potentially harmful, Adler remarked,
Life will correct it if children get too big-headed.
do the reverse if they get discouraged. There was an
the Viennese circus: "It's not terribly difficult to
but is there anyone who has learned to make the lamb
(as cited in Hoffman, 1994, pp. 243-244).
But it doesn't
old saying in
tame a lion,
roar?"
Higher Purpose
The level of commitment to a courageous act is directly related to a felt sense of purpose. "If we
have our own why ... we shall get along with almost any how" (Nietzsche, as cited in Kaufmann,
1983, p. 468). Situations requiring short-term courageous responses usually have highly visible
purposes (e.g., rescues). It is the longer term situations (e.g., illness, loss, moral courage stands)
where the sense of a higher purpose often fades or wanes. One may be aware of one's actions and
the fears, but why these things are significant becomes indistinct. A reminder of this purpose is
essential at these points. One example: A student of mine was severely injured in an auto accident,
his wife killed, and his child survived with minor injuries. During a lengthy rehabilitation, he became
depressed over his loss. The reason "to continue" was getting dimmer. Then one day his daughter
was giggling and playing with her toys and the father became sharply aware that his now-too-long
self-absorption was not going to help him raise his child. He had a worthy purpose chattering right
in front of him. Additional reminder strategies include inspirational reading, a small retreat, sharing
the purpose of an endeavor with like-involved colleagues, and so on.
Tillich (1952/2000) also advocated becoming a participant with a greater whole. In addition to the
courage to be a separate self, he said that one must have "the courage to affirm himself as a part
of the community in which he participates" (p. 91). Meaningful participation in the cultural creations,
either as the originator or in one's reactions to creations, is essential. By doing these things, one
affirms life and negates emptiness and alienation.
Coles (1998) conducted a classroom discussion on courage with fourth-grade students. One 9year-old provided an explanation of the role of a higher purpose as well as anyone:
Courage is when you believe in something, you really do, so you go
ahead and try to do what your beliefs tell you to do, and if you're
in danger, that way--well, you're not thinking "I'm in danger."
You're thinking, this is right, this is important, and I'm going to
go ahead, and that is that. (pp. 118-119)
Fear Management
The key factor in fear management is controllability. Rachman (1978) stated that "the absence of
perceived control in a potentially aversive condition generates fear, whereas the acquisition of a
perceived sense of mastery reduces fear" (p. 9). Developing confidence and self-efficacy,
observing models, and bolstering a sense of purpose are potent forces for counteracting fears.
Additionally, there are numerous approaches that aim directly at reducing fears: systematic
desensitization (Morris, 1986), flooding (Frankl, 1984), and rational emotive behavior therapy
(Corey, 2004; Ellis, 1995, 1998; Meichenbaum, 1985; Seligman, 1998).
If It Works
In the midst of experienced fear, sometimes a small action will be enough to keep you from
becoming a trembler. W. Miller (2000), for example, stated that among combat soldiers, proximity of
others stimulates courage "just by being there ... their presence is a solace" (p. 180). He also found
that courage is more easily summoned when observed, and more during the day than night.
During intense moments of a baseball game, you will usually see a pitcher fuss and twitch, rub the
baseball, and paw the mound. Little does he know that he is engaging in a fear-reducing technique.
Rachman (1978) quoted a study that concluded "People who face danger tend to feel less fearful if
they are able to engage in some form of useful overt activity" (p. 43). These diversions, while not
necessarily reducing the actual risks of dangers, enhance one's feelings of control in the situation.
Hemingway (1932/1960) said that when a fighting bull enters the ring, he will find a querencia, a
preferred locality. It is the place where the bull feels the safest; it is his temporary home and once
there he is very dangerous. Perhaps one can learn from the fighting bull. When frightened it makes
sense to find a location where you feel more in control. It may be a particular room or a place within
a room, or a certain distance from a person or group, or possibly in your favorite jacket or other
piece of clothing. The point is to find or create a place that feels the safest when confronting fears.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
Courage has been presented as a necessary force for enhancing and maintaining growth. It is
courage that bridges the gap between the opposite pulls of safety and new growth. A content
analysis from a variety of disciplines revealed three dimensions of courage: fear appropriate action,
and sense of purpose. Descriptions and examples of these dimensions were discussed.
Guidelines, techniques, and strategies for developing courage were offered. These developmental
applications were based on three themes: building confidence and self-trust, perceiving a worthy
purpose, and managing fear.
Among evergreen trees, the coastal redwood has a novel means of reproduction--the burl. A burl is
a compact mass of dormant buds that may grow on the redwood's roots, base, or trunk. The burl's
buds sprout only when the redwood experiences intense stress, such as fire, lightning, and extreme
climatic conditions. The burl then comes to life and forms a new branch, root, or even a whole tree.
Peril to the redwood is a stimulus to growth. Similarly, Ralph Waldo Emerson (as cited in Whelan,
1991) believed that each of us has a deep remedial force that is stirred by cruel disappointments
and adversity: "[S]ecret forces do not awaken until we are pricked and stung and sorely assailed"
(p. 95). Among these aroused secret forces is courage, one of our most valued capacities.
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Nelson H. Goud, School of Education, Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Nelson H. Goud, School of
Education, Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis, 902 W. New York Street,
Indianapolis, IN 46202 (e-mail: ngoud@iupui.odu).