For instance, students with dyslexia and struggling readers benefit from the direct/explicit approach
in phonological processing, phonics instructions, and spelling rules. Because of their reading and spelling
difficulties, learning through mere visual approach will not be effective. They may remember the words now,
as they are processed in their short-term memory, but forget them by tomorrow, because the words were not
stored in their long-term memory, along with other accompanying difficulties. Gough (1993 in Magpuri-Lavell
et al. 2014) demonstrated that explicit instruction in phonemic awareness and phonics was essential to
develop a firm understanding of the alphabetic principles. Another meta-analysis conducted by Galuschka et
al. (2014) found that phonics instruction is the most intensively investigated treatment approach and the only
one that has been found to be effective and statistically confirmed in improving the reading and spelling
performance of children and adolescents with reading disabilities.
Moreover, planning the classroom environment and how routines are implemented is equally
important in an inclusive classroom. Because students with LD and ADHD show a tendency to be restless,
become hyperactive, and have short attention spans, providing a classroom that is highly structured and with
clear expectations is essential. Class rules and norms, agreements, routines as well as schedules need to
be written and accompanied by clear and simple images. These need to be explained, displayed, and
implemented consistently to make the classroom environment structured and safe for all children.
One intervention that has been reported to be effective in helping students with ADHD is the use of
the Daily Report Card (DRC), which is an individualized intervention to manage target behaviors of a child
(Moore et al.2016). It begins with an assessment through observation and teacher/ parent interviews to
determine specific behaviors that need to be managed and/or developed in a student (see Figure 6.2). Once
identified, the target behaviors are framed positively, and teachers monitor the student's progress on the
DRC throughout the day by recording whether the targets have been met. A system of reinforcements and
consequences is developed with the child. Reinforcements can be in the form of tangible rewards such as
stickers, stamps, puzzles, etc. but they can also be opportunities to do certain activities in school, such as
having extra time in the classroom or library, having an extra book to borrow, being the leader for the day,
being the teacher's lunch buddy, and other activities. Parents are also included in the planning and
implementation to promote home-school communication and collaboration. In this manner, generalization of
behaviors is targeted to the home setting or vice-versa. A meta-analysis of DRC literature from 2007-2017
yielded results that ranged from weak to strong impact on the academic and social behavior of elementary
students who were noted to have disruptive behaviors as well as the ones diagnosed with disabilities (Riden
et al. 2018). The study found important components that the DRC should have to make it effective: (1) clear
and operationalized target behaviors, (2) provide feedback to the student about his/her behavior, and (3)
providing home-school communication.
And finally, the provision of different types of accommodations in terms of presentation, response,
setting, and scheduling is beneficial for students with difficulty remembering and focusing (see Table 6.12).
Name of Student________________________
Date________________
In the classroom:
Target Behavior
1. I stay in my seat during desk
work.
2. I raise my hand to answer.
3. I finish my work.
4. I ask permission when I need
to borrow things.
5. I clean up and pack away my
things.
Period 1
Period 2
Period 3
Period 4
Period 5
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Out of the classroom:
Target Behavior
1. I play with others at break time.
2. I finish my food before playing.
Break 1
Break 2
Today's total is = ______
Teacher's Comments:
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Teacher's signature ____________________
Parent's Comments
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Figure 6.2. Sample daily report card for students with ADHD.
Table 6.12. Types of accommodations to provide support for students with difficulty remembering and
focusing
Type of Accommodation
Accommodations/Supports
Provide the following:
•
•
•
•
Presentation
•
•
•
•
•
•
Audio files to supplement a slide presentation
Bigger font sizes in reading materials and
worksheets
Leveled books that match student's reading level
Audio books and/or have a peer read aloud the
selection
Digital text that provides word meanings
Advance organizers to serve as guide during
lectures
Preview of vocabulary or key points to provide
the big picture
Active involvement in class
Use graphic organizers and mind mapping
techniques for note-taking during class
Explain and write directions step-by-step while
making sure student is attentive and listening
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Response
Setting
Scheduling
Behavior management
Allow students to use the following:
• Use text-to-speech software to facilitate
writing
• Use word processor with spelling and
grammar check
• Waive incorrect spelling in
• specific subjects (do not mark misspellings
as incorrect provided content is accurate)
• Graphic organizers as a pre- writing task
• Math supports:
- calculation devices (calculator)
- concrete material and manipulatives
- chart of math facts and formula
- special paper with grids for
computation
• Preferential seating (away from sources of
distraction)
• Play appropriate background music through
individual earphones while studying
• Allow students to move or run around a few
times before class or in between classes
• Provide extended time
• Break tasks into sections
• Time limits for assignment and countdown
• Allow for quick brain breaks to move around
and stretch in between activities
• Teach self-talk skills
• Teach physical relaxation techniques such
as mindful breathing
• Use squeeze balls to release tensions
• Allow students to doodle while listening to
lecture (Andrade 2010 in Armstrong 2012)
VII. LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTY WITH SELF-CARE
This section presents another set of learners with specific difficulties in self-care, or caring for oneself.
A. Definition
Self-care often refers to a person's capacity to perform daily living activities or specific to body care
such as the following skills: washing oneself, brushing teeth, combing, trimming nails, toileting, dressing,
eating, drinking, and looking after one's health. Self-care skills are gradually learned by very young typically
developing children through adult modeling and direct instruction within developmental expectations. On the
other hand, children with additional needs may struggle with the basic activities of daily living. Oftentimes,
such students are those with moderate to severe cognitive deficits, including individuals with Intellectual
Disability or Intellectual Developmental Disorder (ID or IDD).
Intellectual disability is a developmental disorder that includes deficits in intellectual and adaptive
functioning across domains of conceptual, social, and practical that occur during the developmental period.
To be diagnosed with ID/IDD, a student must have deficits in both the cognitive and adaptive domains (Kirk
2015). Children with Down's syndrome with moderate to severe disability may also have problems with selfcare.
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B. Identification
Young children suspected to have cognitive deficits which manifest as difficulties with self-care can be
identified at a very young age. The traditional approach to measuring levels of severity of ID was determined
through the use of intellectual tests:
•
•
•
•
Mild level
Moderate
Severe
Profound
IQ 50-70
IQ 35-50
IQ 20-35
IQ below 20
However, based on the definition provided by the American Psychiatric Association (2013), using
measures of intelligence is only one aspect as adaptive functioning also needs to be assessed to identify if
a child has an intellectual disability. In place of IQ levels, the support needed by a person with ID is used to
determine the level or degree of severity of the disability.
The presence of ID or IDD is measured by direct observation, structured interviews, and standardized
scales such as the AAMR Adaptive Behavior Scale (Lambert et al.1993 in Heward 2013) and Vineland
Adaptive Behavior Scales (Sparrow et al. 2016). Some of the domains measured by the AAMR Adaptive
Behavior Scale include personal self-sufficiency, community self- sufficiency, and social adjustment. On the
other hand, the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales cover communication, daily living skills, socialization, and
motor skills.
C. Learning Characteristics
Students who have difficulty with self-care oftentimes reach developmental milestones at a later age
compared to typically developing peers. They learn to sit up, crawl, walk, and talk later than other children
and may have trouble remembering and understanding consequences of actions. Due to cognitive difficulties,
children with ID may also have deficits in the areas of reasoning, planning, judgment, and abstract thinking.
On the other hand, depending on the level of support needed, a student with ID learns adaptive skills
at a slower pace, resulting in delay, compared to same aged typically developing students. They benefit from
modeling and can imitate well. Moreover, adults with mild intellectual disability eventually learn to be
functional and independent in society.
Youths with intellectual disabilities are known to be friendly, sociable, and are reported to have positive
coping skills. A study conducted by Carter et al. (2015) investigated the strengths and positive traits of
transition- age youth with intellectual disability and/or autism, as reported by their parents. Using quantitative
and qualitative measures, the study yielded the following positive traits of the youths: (1) they have a positive
outlook in life, (2) shows positive relations with others, (3) have active coping skills, and (4) have acceptance
coping skills. In this study, they found that the youths were rated highest in items pertaining to the positive
outlook factor.
These results suggest the importance of having to find the strengths in children with additional needs,
make them aware of these strengths, and use them to their advantage.
D. General Educational Adaptations
Specific approaches have been found to be effective in teaching students with difficulty with self-care,
namely the use of direct/explicit instruction, task analysis, forward and backward chaining, as well as the use
of video modeling. It is essential that the instructions given are simple and straight forward and that handson, experiential activities are used.
Task analysis is a behavioral approach that breaks down a complex behavior or task into step-by-step
procedures, thereby providing modeling and ample practice for the student with difficulties. Gargiulo (2012)
provided working guidelines on how to do task analysis.
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•
•
•
•
•
Define the target behavior or task.
Identify the required skills needed to successfully complete the task.
Identify the necessary materials to perform the task.
Observe an able and competent person perform the task.
List the needed steps in sequential order to complete the task.
In an inclusive classroom, self-care skills such as washing hands and brushing teeth can be tasks
analyzed into the simplest steps and presented in a poster accompanied by pictures (see Figure 6.3). Using
direct instructions, the teacher models how each step is done then allows the student to try the steps with
guidance and prompts until he/she is able to do the task independently. Hence, direct instruction and support
from the environment in the form of prompts and as well as routines that are simplified are essential for
students to eventually become independent in using self-care skills (Heward, 2013).
Figure 6.3. Task analysis for brushing teeth and washing hands.
Forward and backward chaining is used alongside task analysis. In forward chaining, the program
begins with the first step in the sequence, such as getting the toothbrush and toothpaste, then providing the
needed hand-over-hand assistance, and then gradually fading verbal and then gestural prompts. The goal is
to allow the student to master the first step first and then followed by the next step in the sequence until the
entire task has been performed. On the other hand, in backward chaining, the teacher models all the steps
from the beginning and then allows the child to do the last step of the behavior chain with assistance and
prompts.
The use of video-based intervention including video modeling and video prompting for teaching
daily living skills, such as brushing teeth, setting a table, washing dishes, etc. has been found effective for
learners with intellectual and learning difficulties (Rayner 2011, Bellini & Akullian 20017 cited in Heward
2013). With video modeling, a student watches a brief video of an able person performing a target skill or
task and then imitates the behavior. In video self-modeling, the student watches a video of himself/herself
performing a task. In video prompting, each step is shown in a video, which the student imitates before the
next step is shown. This is helpful as the student can access the video anytime, replay it as often as needed
to develop independence.
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In summary, this chapter has presented important definitions, identification and assessment, learning
characteristics, and general educational adaptations for learners with additional needs namely: (1) the gifted
and talented students with difficulties in (2) seeing, (3) hearing, (4) communicating, (5) walking and moving,
(6) remembering and focusing, and (7) self-care. You have learned the different disability labels that are
associated with the difficulties, their challenges in learning, their strengths, and educational adaptations in
the form of accommodation. While awareness and understanding of their disability and needs are essential,
as educators supportive of inclusive education, it is of utmost importance that we see learners with additional
needs beyond their difficulties, to enable them to explore and use their range of strengths and abilities as
well as provide opportunities for them to succeed and flourish in their own positive niches.
CHAPTER 7 LEARNERS IN OTHER MARGINALIZED
Introduction
In this section, you will understand what marginalization means, specifically in the area of education.
You will learn about the different groups that are marginalized in society and in education. You will explore a
process that could be used to identify issues of marginalization in class or school. There might be situations
that you are not aware of that have marginalization issues and it is important for you and the adults in the
school community to be aware of this so that an appropriate response can be given.
I.
MARGINALIZATION IN EDUCATION
Ica, an 8-year-old girl, belongs to an indigenous group in Luzon, Philippines. Her ancestors were
driven out of their land and forced to live in the mountains and forested area. They lost their lands to people
who talked about progress and development. This indigenous group live by planting root crops, hunting, and
trading their produce with people in the barrios. They have their own language, culture, and beliefs. Ica walks
two hours to get to a barrio school together with four other children. When they get to school, the children
from the barrio make fun of how they look and speak. The teacher starts the class with' the letters of the
alphabet and says that A is for apple, B is for bus, C is for cat. Except for cat, Ica and her friends have never
seen an apple or a bus in their short lives. They have difficulty understanding the lessons and are unable to
do homework because their parents are uneducated and thus are unable to teach them. They lack school
supplies because there is not enough money to buy them. They go through a curriculum that never
considered the context the indigenous group live in, their way of life, their culture, and belief system. At the
end of the school year, Ica and her friends have low grades. They have difficulty learning the skills and
concepts that had been taught. They are a marginalized group who have been treated unfairly just because
they are different from the rest of the children in the area. They are treated as second class citizens and have
been pushed out of mainstream society. They attend a school where they are made fun of. They are
challenged cognitively by a curriculum that never considered them in the first place. In a few years, they will
be lucky to have graduated from elementary school. More often than not, they just drop out of school. This is
a fictional story but it depicts the plight of majority of our indigenous children.
The theory of marginalization can trace its roots to the 'theory of the marginal man' which, at first,
pointed to the peculiar personality traits that arise when a person is situated in a marginal position among
two social environments that are not completely matched (Dickie-Clark, 1966 as cited in Messiou 2012).
Robert Park and Everett B. Stonequist's analysis of the 'marginal man' focuses on an individual who is born
and raised in one culture and is immersed in a different prevailing culture. This transition situates the
individual in an enduring interaction and connection with a different culture, religion, language, race, and
political belief brought about by schooling, inter-cultural marriage, emigration, or other reasons (Goldberg
1941). Park aptly identifies this individual as "person who becomes a 'cultural hybrid' living and sharing
intimately in the life of two distinct peoples unwilling to break with his past and not accepted by the outside
world". A crisis experience' becomes a personal concern when the individual is rejected (Green 1947).
Marginalization naturally starts even before children get into school and persists until they become adults.
"Marginalization basically arises from culturally deeply-embedded values, beliefs, standards, norms, and
other factors which determine acceptability within a certain social frame" (Petkovsca 2015).
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The United Nations Development Programme of 1996 (as cited in Messiou 2012) defines
marginalization as "the state of being considered unimportant, undesirable, unworthy, insignificant, and
different, resulting in inequity, unfairness, deprivation, and enforced lack of access to mainstream power"
(p.1). In its 2010 global monitoring report, UNESCO stated that education plays a vital and decisive role in
neutralizing the inequality and persisting illiteracy that encompass generations. However, education can also
support prejudice and continue marginalization. Marginalization in education originates from culturally intense
beliefs, values, and typical norms that regulate recognition or acknowledgment of other people within a
specific social standard. It is a "form of acute and persistent disadvantage rooted in underlying social
inequalities." Its existence is a result of policies and processes that sustain this prejudice to a group or to
some individuals. The report also states that those who are marginalized usually exhibit lower levels of
educational attainment (UN Global Monitoring Report 2010). The highest form of marginalization, therefore,
is an insufficiency in the availability of education.
Going further, Messiou (2012) discussed the issue about labeling, wherein a learner is categorized
as belonging to a certain group depending on the learner's needs or challenges. This refers to learners with
special needs. He emphasized, however, that is not identical to marginalization. In some countries, labelling
meant supplemental resources specially in education-certain teaching-learning strategies, techniques,
physical and emotional requirements, and services are provided for the learner. In other countries, labelling
would only have detrimental effects to learners being shamed and ridiculed. From a different perspective,
learners not having a label or not belonging to a group is also counter-productive because they will not be
given attention or importance. Marginalization, therefore, has distinct interpretations to people in divergent
situations. It is better thought of as a progressive concept that changes between situations and times. In an
earlier research, Messiou (2003) explored how marginalization is experienced by primary school students.
He proposed that marginalization can be conceptualized in four general ways:
1. The child experiences some kind of marginalization that is recognized by almost everybody, including
himself/herself
2. The child feels that he/she is experiencing marginalization whereas most of the others do not
recognize this
3. When a child is found in what appears to be marginalized situations but does not feel it, or does not
view it as marginalization
4. When a child is experiencing marginalization but does not admit it
Messiou (2012) suggests that these perspectives of the students can provide a way of examining
processes, systems, and occurrences in schools and may assist in the awareness of and response to
marginalization. It is important for adults in education to be conscious of this issue and put a stop to it.
II.
MARGINALIZATION AND INCLUSION
Messiou (2012) manifests how young people's "voice" can intensify systems, processes, and
experiences in congruence with inclusive education. "Voice" is clearly identified as one of the student's rights.
It means "having a say, as well as referring to language, and emotional components as well as non-verbal
means that are used to express opinions" (Thomson 2008 as cited in Messiou 2012). Simply put, it is listening
and paying attention to what the young people say and do not say. It means attending to the words, emotions,
and behavior of young people and providing them with various opportunities to fully participate and
collaborate with adults in education.
In the book "Confronting Marginalisation in Education" Messiou (2012) posits a framework that
focuses on the collaborative activity between young people and adults in education that promotes inclusion.
It also takes into consideration other factors that contextualize marginalization like the curriculum, systems
within the society, or the effects of administration and management on the everyday lives of teachers and
young people in schools. The framework demonstrates a four-step cyclical process that is quite flexible.
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Figure 7.1. Messiou's revised framework for promoting inclusion (2012).
Step 1: Opening Doors: Enabling voices to be Heard
Situating the students in the center of the process, various methods are used to allow them to express
how various concerns and experiences lead to the marginalization of students in school. The students are
respected as active participants. Different methods suggested to be used are appropriate to the age of the
learners. They are drawing, role-playing, doing interviews, engaging in group discussions, analyzing visual
images, and other quantitative ways to measure social relationships. The question that is asked is: What do
you think are practices, behavior, policies, and systems in class or in school that cause marginalization?
Step 2: Looking Closely: Bringing Concerns to the Surface
In this stage of the process, data gathered from Step 1 is meticulously examined to identify students
who may be experiencing some kind of marginalization or any concerns that might lead to marginalization. It
is the practitioners who study the data, unless there were students who acted as co- researchers. Staff and
members should gather and discuss the data gathered and the basic information that is surfacing from
specific students and about distinct concerns. Data to accomplish the next step is chosen, taking great care
of ethical aspects that need to be considered. The question asked is: Are there persons/students in class
who experience being marginalized? How? (Cite specific examples).
Step 3: Making Sense of the Evidence: Sharing Data with Learners
It is during this time that there is an explicit focus on the concerns about marginalization that were
gathered from the previous step. Only concerns or issues are discussed and no names are mentioned.
Students are asked to think about their own experiences as well as about what their classmates feel and
experience. This involves a discussion between the adults and the students, and everybody learns from each
other.
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Step 4: Dealing with Marginalization: Encouraging Inclusive Thinking and Practice
Collaboration between the adults and students in this phase is very significant. It spells out the response
of the group and the concrete actions that will be taken to confront the issues and concerns about
marginalization that were shared in the previous step.
The process does not end in Step 4. It goes on and makes adults mindful of what the young people
have to say. It also assures both the young people and the adults that marginalization is given due attention
and concerns are addressed. The actions that are taken are the results of a shared goal of inclusion (Messiou
2012).
III.
DIFFERENT LEARNERS IN MARGINALIZED GROUPS
A. Child Laborers/Domestic Workers
The International Labor Organization (ILO) describes child labor as "work that deprives children of their
childhood, their potential, and their dignity, and that is harmful to physical and mental development." Child
labor is caused by poverty, the lack of education, and the lack of schools.
By law, a child is a human being who is below the age of 18 (The World Counts 2014). The ILO on child
labor that was presented in Geneva in 2017 noted a big decline in child labor over the years but still presents
the following statistics:
"A total of 152 million children-64 million girls and 88 million boys- are in child labor globally, accounting
for almost one in ten of all children worldwide. Nearly half of all those in child labor-73 million children in
absolute terms-are in hazardous work that directly endangers their health, safety, and moral development.
Children in employment, a broader measure comprising both child labor and permitted forms of employment
involving children of legal working age, number 218 million."
One of the key results noted in the report is "Child Labor is frequently associated with educational
marginalization." This report was the first to acknowledge the connection between education and child labor.
It clearly stated that a large number of child laborers are unable to get an education because of poverty,
situations of armed conflict, and calamities. Those children who are able to study are emotionally and
physically tired from work and are incapable of gaining much from studying in school more so doing selfstudy. They also tend to perform below par compared to their classmates in terms of learning achievement
(ILO 2016).
In June 2015, the theme of World Day Against Child Labor was "No to Child Labor-Yes to Quality
Education." The challenge was to grant free, mandatory, and quality education for all children at least to the
minimum age for admission to employment covering those currently in child labor. There are more dynamic
attempts to make sure that national policies on child labor are strong and persistent. This is to ensure that
quality child education is available and teacher education is excellent.
We are still quite far from the Sustainable Development Goals 8.7 that aims to eradicate child labor by
2025. This means there is still so much work to be done, policies to put in place, and cooperation among
nations to put an end to this.
B. Indigenous People
There is no commonly acknowledged meaning of the term indigenous people. José R. Martínez Cobo's
Study on the Problem of Discrimination against Indigenous Populations presented a "working definition of
indigenous communities, peoples, and nations" (as cited in State of the World's Indigenous People 2010):
"Indigenous communities, peoples, and nations are those which, having a historical continuity with preinvasion and pre-colonial societies that developed on their territories, consider themselves distinct from other
sectors of the societies now prevailing on those territories, or parts of them. They form at present nondominant sectors of society and are determined to preserve, develop, and transmit to future generations their
ancestral territories and their ethnic identity, as the basis of their continued existence as peoples, in
accordance with their own cultural patterns, social institutions and legal system. This historical continuity may
consist of the continuation, for an extended period reaching into the present of one or more of the following
factors:
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a. Occupation of ancestral lands, or at least of part of them;
b. Common ancestry with the original occupants of these lands;
c. Culture in general, or in specific manifestations (such as religion, living under a tribal system, membership
of an indigenous community, dress, means of livelihood, lifestyle, etc.);
d. Language (whether used as the only language, as mother-tongue, as the habitual means of communication
at home or in the family, or as the main, preferred, habitual, general or normal language);
e. Residence in certain parts of the country, or in certain regions of the world; and
f. Other relevant factors.
On an individual basis, an indigenous person is one who belongs to these indigenous populations
through self-identification as indigenous (group consciousness) and is recognized and accepted by these
populations. as one of its members (acceptance by the group). This preserves for these communities the
sovereign right and power to decide who belongs to them, without external interference."
Based on several sources including the work of the Working Group on Indigenous Populations, the
provisions of convention No. 169 of the ILO, and the contents of the United Nations Declaration on the Rights
of Indigenous Peoples, indigenous peoples possess one or all of the following characteristics: "they are
descendants of the peoples who inhabited the land or territory prior to colonization or the establishment of
state borders; they possess distinct social, economic, and political systems, languages, cultures, and beliefs,
and are determined to maintain and develop this distinct identity; they exhibit strong attachment to their
ancestral lands and the natural resources contained therein; and/or they belong to the non-dominant groups
of a society and identify themselves as indigenous peoples" (Minority Rights: International Standards and
Guidance for Implementation, UN and Geneva 2010).
In the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (2007), indigenous people are
acknowledged to have suffered from "historic justices as a result of their colonization and dispossession of
their lands, territories, and resources, thus preventing them from exercising, in particular, their right to
development in accordance with their own needs and interests." The very first State of the World's Indigenous
Peoples (SOWIP) (2010) prepared by the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (DESA)
highlighted very disturbing statistics on indigenous people's sufferings both in developing and developed
countries: human rights abuses committed against them, marginalization, excessive poverty, absence or lack
of quality education, poor health, unsanitary and poor living conditions, malnutrition, unemployment and
unequal opportunities for employment, and expulsion from their lands. Mr. Sha Zukang, Under-SecretaryGeneral for Economic and Social Affairs, in his foreword for the SOWIP (2010) said that even their languages,
their value systems, culture, traditions, and their way of life is being continuously vulnerable to threats of
destruction.
Focusing on education, indigenous people generally lack access to education because they usually
stay in places that are quite far from schools and also because of their marginalized status in the community.
The curriculum of the schools they get into, if there is a school available for their children to go to, is not
adapted to their culture and language. They are not included or even consulted in decision-making processes
that identify the kind of education they need, the curriculum that will be implemented, and the teachers who
will teach them. Teachers are not trained to teach indigenous people-they do not speak their language and,
more often than not, are unable to provide materials and activities that are relevant to the uniqueness of their
culture. Even the materials that they use are problematic because these feature stereotypical and inaccurate
views on indigenous people. A consequence of all these is an "education gap"-in the same countries, there
are less indigenous students who enroll, more indigenous students who dropout, and lower achievement
outcomes than non-indigenous people. Another consequence is the destruction of their culture and the loss
of their identity. This is brought about by an educational system that is foreign and that did not consider their
culture in the first place. It is also good to note that a number of indigenous people who have gone through
formal schooling have become progressive and helpful in uplifting the plight of their indigenous community.
The status of indigenous women who have gone to formal schooling has also empowered them (SOWIP
2010).
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Education is a right and a means for self-improvement. Its terminal goal is a better life for the individual
and his/her family. Quality education will (s) eventually equate to better lives for indigenous people. The
Declaration of Rights of Indigenous People (2007) notes that quality education is significant for indigenous
people. It declares that indigenous people have the right to build and manage their own system of education
using their own language, considering their very own cultural diversity. It declares that indigenous people
have the right to use, pass on, and invigorate their languages, traditions, beliefs, value systems, literature,
culture, ceremonies, practices, and way of writing to the next generations of children through education.
UNESCO has international frameworks, guides, guidelines, tools, and tool kits for ensuring inclusion and
equity for indigenous people in education. For inclusion to take root in education, awareness, respect, and
tolerance for cultural diversity are significant components.
C. Abused Children
The World Health Organization (WHO) defines child maltreatment as "the abuse and neglect that
occurs to children under 18 years of age. It includes all types of physical and/or emotional ill-treatment, sexual
abuse, neglect, negligence, and commercial or other exploitation, which results in actual or potential harm to
the child's health, survival, development, or dignity in the context of a relationship of responsibility, trust, or
power. Exposure to intimate partner violence is also sometimes included as a form of child maltreatment."
(WHO 2016) Child maltreatment is identified globally as a valid "social, public health, and human rights issue."
Child maltreatment or child abuse is a serious matter that has direct, extensive, and life-time effects
on children. It may lead to physical harm or impairments, negatively affect cognitive functioning and socioemotional adjustment, weaken the nervous and immune systems, and lead to death. A global systematic
review and meta-analysis of the relationships between violence in childhood and educational outcomes (Fry
et al. 2018), showed that all kinds of abuse and cruelty in childhood have an effect on 'educational outcomes'
which included "school dropout/graduation, school absence, academic achievement, and other educational
outcomes such as grade retention, learning outcomes, and remedial classes."
D. Refugees or Displaced Children
The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) defines refugee as "someone who
has been forced to flee his or her country because of persecution, war, or violence. A refugee has a wellfounded fear of persecution for reasons of race, religion, nationality, political opinion, or membership in a
particular social group. Most likely, they cannot return home or are afraid to do so. War and ethnic, tribal, and
religious violence are leading causes of refugees fleeing their countries." (UNHCR)
An internally displaced person, or IDP, is "someone who has been forced to flee their home but never
cross an international border. These individuals seek safety anywhere they can find it-in nearby towns,
schools, settlements, internal camps, even forests and fields. IDPs, which include people displaced by
internal strife and natural disasters, are the largest group that UNHCR assists. Unlike refugees, IDPs are not
protected by international law or eligible to receive many types of aid because they are legally under the
protection of their own government." (UNHCR)
According to the most recent statistics from the UN, there are 21.3 million refugees and 51% are below
18 years of age. This is the highest record so far since WWII. The refugees and the internally displaced
children have something in common-they are not in their homes, they are not secure. There is also a big
possibility that they could be or are separated from their family, friends, and community. They are lonely and
feel they are treated unfairly. They are in a situation that does not allow them to enjoy freedom of movement
and also freedom to go to school. They are often mixed with people from different cultures and beliefs. They
live in tents or desolate housing facilities that are boxed in by barbed wires or fences. They are in distress,
scared, and uncertain about what is going to happen to them, for how long and what their future is going to
be like. The present situation of these children is complicated and there are no answers to this problem yet.
However, other questions are arising-who or what will they be in the future? Will they grow up to be good
citizens of their country or will they be the next group of terrorists who will be a burden and a threat to the
world? Concerns over what will become of these children should be enough to make us take a serious look
at how we can make education work for them (Cardarelli 2018).
The Declaration of Human Rights and the Convention of Child's Rights emphasize that education is
the right of every person, every child. This means that education policies are in place. The 2030 United
Nations Agenda for Sustainable Development considers education as essential to the advancement of
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humankind. It is clearly stated that "UN Sustainable Development Goal #4, which calls for ensuring inclusive
and quality education for all and promoting lifelong learning. Its specific objectives include: ensuring that all
girls and boys have access to quality early childhood development, care, and pre-primary education so that
they are ready for primary education, eliminating gender disparities in education, and ensuring equal access
to all levels of education and vocational training for the vulnerable, including persons with disabilities,
indigenous peoples, and children in vulnerable situations by 2030." (UN SDG 2015) Despite all these, in the
resettlement areas or places these children are confined to, food and shelter are given priority over education.
Aside from the lack of resources, there are other complications that are hindrances to the quality of education
given to these children:
1. Countries that host them are unable to protect refugee rights to education simply because they
themselves have a distended system of education and vulnerable government and economic
institutions.
2. Because of the length of time refugees and displaced children are in resettlement and refugee areas,
educational resources given to them do not allow for quality education-shifts to accommodate
children, over tire the teachers, and shorten learning time.
3. Language and the lack of materials is also a concern.
4. The children who have been exposed to war and violence demonstrate signs of psycho-social
problems that are not addressed (Cardarelli 2018).
E. Children in Conflict Zones
"All wars, whether just or unjust, disastrous or victorious, are waged against the child."
Eglantyne Jebb
In December 2018, Manuel Fontaine, UNICEF Director for Emergency Programs, said, "Children living
in conflict zones around the world have continued to suffer through extreme levels of violence over the past
12 months, and the world has continued to fail them. For too long, parties to conflict have been committing
atrocities with near-total impunity, and it is only getting worse. Much more can and must be done to protect
and assist children." It is said that children in counties that are at war are being used as "human shields,
killed, maimed, or recruited to fight. Rape, forced marriage, and abduction have become standard tactics in
conflicts from Syria to Yemen, and from the Democratic Republic of the Congo to Nigeria, South Sudan, and
Myanmar (UNICEF Press Release 2018). The children have rights accorded to them by law, by the
Convention on Child's Rights, but it is the utter disrespect and disregard for these rights that is brought about
by the unresponsiveness of governments and even, at times, connivance with the perpetrators that is causing
the children harm. It is also sad to note that other countries are not helpful in solving this problem (Save The
Children Report 2019).
"The UN has identified 6 categories of human rights violations against children, known as the 6 grave
violations. These violations include the killing and maiming of children, the abduction of children, the
recruitment or use of children as soldiers, sexual violence against children, attacks against schools or
hospitals, and the denial of humanitarian access. The first 4 are direct acts of violence against children, and
the last 2 are indirect actions that cause harm to children and directly relate to health care and health workers.
The commission of any of these violations constitutes a breach of international humanitarian law." (UN
Working Paper 1, 2013 as cited in Kadir et al. 2018).
Despite the laws, the number of children caught in conflict zones is still increasing and many are being
deliberately targeted. The way wars are being fought, in this present day, demonstrates a total disregard for
children and schools. Children are constantly getting killed and/or hurt lost their parents/ family, have very
poor health, and mental states are under "toxic stress." This causes both physical and "psychological trauma"
that will have enduring effects. When they are raped, they are condemned and if they get pregnant, their
unborn children are unwanted and stigmatized. Being a child soldier makes them lose their identity and
exposes them to conditions that will have a long-lasting effect on their mental health. There are countless
effects of armed conflict on children who are very vulnerable and unable to protect themselves. The effect on
the children's education: enrolment is going down, a lot of children are dropping out of school, school
conditions are bad, there are low levels of educational attainment, and abuse is committed. (Kadir et al. 2018)
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Is there something that can be done for the children caught in armed conflict? There have been
governments and countries that have upheld children's rights. They are firm with their laws and values and
look out for the children's welfare and safety. Leaders and governments have an important role to play to put
a stop to this injustice and violence against children in armed conflicts. The responsibility does not stop with
them, every person has the responsibility to look out for these children and make a stand for them.
This chapter has presented information on learners from marginalized groups, specifically the child
laborers, indigenous people, abused children, refugees, and children in conflict zones.
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