Cognition: Thinking, Intelligence and Language. Unit 1. Cognition: Thinking, Intelligence and Language. a) How People think. b) Intelligence. c) Language d) Applying Psychology to Everyday life. I. How People Think What is Thinking or Cognition? • Mental activity that goes on in the brain when a person is processing information – organizing it, understanding it and communicating it to others. - uses memory - uses information - takes decisions - solves problems Both effortful and effortless Types of Thinking • 2 types – System I and System II System I – How we think and process information – involves quick decisions, uses cognitive shortcuts, guided by innate abilities and personal experiences System II – relatively slow, rule based, dependent more on formal educational experiences Interplay between both seen Thinking uses words as well as images A. Mental Imagery • Mental images- a mental representation that stand in for objects or events and have picture - like quality • How many windows in your house? Most give the answer by looking at the house mentally, walked through and counted the windows Bigger the house, more the windows – more is the time taken to answer Research by Kosslyn Study by Kosslyn, 1983 Do frogs have lips and stubby tail? Ps bring in front of minds eye a frog, look for lips (answer No), rotate the frog to look for tail (answer Yes) Thus we mentally rotate or turn images – it is just like we engage in or interact with physical objects. The time taken to rotate mentally or in real situation is similar Mental Imagery research • Results • More the distance between between two locations, longer it took to scan the image for the second location • Scanning done as if it was a real map Brain function in imagery Actual image formation – information goes from eyes to visual cortex in occipital lobe , is processed, interpreted by other areas of brain and compares it with information already present Creating mental image – areas of cortex associated with stored knowledge send information to visual cortex, image is perceived in minds eye PET scans show areas of visual cortex being activated during the process forming an image Functional Magnetic resonance imagery - fMRI Brain functioning studied during tasks using imagery and tasks using visual perception Overlap observed Activity was seen in Frontal lobe (Cognitive control), temporal lobe (memory), Parietal lobe (attention and spatial memory), occipital lobe (visual processing) Amount of activity differed – activity in visual cortex was more for visual perception – sensory input more activation than memory input Functional Magnetic resonance imagery - fMRI Areas activated during imagery were a subset of areas activated during actual perception, with greatest similarity in Frontal & Parietal regions Thus, processes in both are common, yet the overlap is not complete Also overlap is not in temporal and occipital regions, as might be assumed B. Concepts & Prototypes • Concepts: ideas that represent a class or category of objects, events, or activities – used to group objects and events – Used to think about objects and events e.g. Fruit – knows what it is, does not have to think of all the fruits – Helps in communication e.g. bird – people understand what is being talked about – Allow in identification of new objects & events e.g. see an animal, can classify as Dog, even if not seen before Concepts • Prototypes – Good examples of a category of concept • Exemplars – Positive and Negative instances • Overextension Concepts Formal concepts: concepts that are defined by specific rules or features. They are quite rigid. e.g. Square. Subject such as mathematics, full of formal concepts. Natural concepts: concepts people form as a result of their experiences in the real world. Definitions not very clear. Help in understanding surroundings in less structured manner. e.g. Vehicle Car, truck? Elevator? Raft? Bobsled? Bobsled Prototypes – Good examples of a category of concept • Name the first member that comes to your mind: • A bird______ • An animal______ • A Motor Vehicle_______ • Prototype: a concept that closely matches the defining characteristics of that concept Apple – prototypical fruit, Dog – prototypical animal • • - - Prototype Prototype may differ according to exposure or culture, surroundings etc. People in Mumbai – prototypical fruit – apple, but from Kerala may say Coconut How do prototypes influence thinking? People look at potential examples of a concept, compare them to a prototype & see how well they match Apple, Orange as fruits – easy to identify Tomato as fruit – difficult as it is not sweet • • • • How do we identify objects? Use variety of cognitive processes – concepts, prototypes and mental images Concepts used to deal with information, organize world around us Organization is in terms of ‘schemas’ (mental generalizations about objects, places, events and people), or ‘scripts’(familiar sequence of events) Concepts – important tool in problem solving C. Problem Solving & Decision making Strategies Put a coin in a bottle, cork the opening of the bottle Get the coin out, without pulling the cork or breaking the bottle Problem solving: occurs when a goal must be reached by thinking and behaving in certain ways. It is one aspect of decision making Decision making: identifying, evaluating, and choosing between alternatives Methods of Problem Solving • Trial and error (mechanical solution): problem-solving method in which one possible solution after another is tried until a successful one is found. Try various passwords till you get the correct one. Also involves solving by ‘rote’, i.e. learned set of rules. • one type of rote solution is algorithms • Algorithms: very specific, step-by-step procedures for solving certain types of problems. e.g., mathematical formulas – will always result in a correct solution if person gives time. May not be practical enough. Methods of Problem Solving • Heuristic: educated guess based on prior experiences that helps narrow down the possible solutions for a problem; also known as a “rule of thumb” • May not lead to correct solution – representative heuristic: assumption that any object (or person) sharing characteristics with the members of a particular category is also a member of that category, all blacks are Africans, all cat eyed people are cunning…. Heuristics (cont’d) – availability heuristic: estimating the frequency or likelihood of an event based on how easy it is to recall relevant information from memory or how easy it is to think of related examples Which is more dangerous? Walking on road – traveling by airplane – Are there more words with letter ‘k’ (or N, L, R, V) in the beginning or letter ‘k’ in 3rd place – Easy to recall the words with these letters in the 1st place, but correct answer is 3rd place – working backward: from the goal is a useful heuristic. College to house, calculate time, you will know exactly at what time you need to wake up Methods of Problem Solving • Subgoals: break a goal down into subgoals, so that as each subgoal is achieved, the final solution is much closer. Writing an assignment • Insight: sudden perception of a solution to a problem. e.g. Kohler’s work with Sultan – “aha!” moment – problem may be recognized as similar to another previously solved, for example – Coin problem – Push the cork inside the bottle… Methods of Problem Solving – Insight is not a magical process, although it may appear like one – Marsha and Marjorie – born on same day, same year, same parents, same time …. Yet they are not twins. Is that possible? D. Problems with Problem Solving & Decision making • • Solution to problem appears out of reach sometimes Problems not arranged properly People stuck in certain ways 3 Barriers – work automatically, without conscious awareness - Functional Fixedness - Mental Sets - Confirmation Bias Functional Fixedness The String Problem How do you tie the two strings together if you cannot reach them both at the same time? Functional fixedness (continued) Solution to the String Problem The solution to the string problem is to use the pliers as a pendulum to swing the second string closer to you. Functional fixedness Problems with Problem Solving & Decision making • 3 Barriers • Functional fixedness: a block to problem solving that comes from thinking about objects only in terms of their typical functions. Screwdriver to tighten the screw • Mental set: the tendency for people to persist in using problem-solving patterns that have worked for them in the past The Dot Problem Can you draw four straight lines so that they pass through all nine dots without lifting your pencil from the page and without touching any dot more than once? Solution to the Dot Problem When people try to solve this problem, a mental set causes them to think of the dots as representing a box, and they try to draw the line while staying in the box. The only way to connect all nine dots without lifting the pencil from the paper is to draw the lines so they extend out of the box of dots—literally “thinking outside the box.” Problem-Solving Barriers • Confirmation bias: the tendency to search for evidence that fits one’s beliefs while ignoring any evidence that does not fit those beliefs Confirmation bias • People believe, they can multitask – can text and talk on cell phone while driving. Typically these people will not remember any accidents or near – misses • 27% of crashes while talking/texting • Multiple sources of sensory information, overloaded under high demand situations – temporary blindness or deafness due to inattention Consequences of multitasking • People tested on driving simulators – had to perform two attention – demanding tasks, significant impact on performance for 97 % of people. • Dual task condition – only 2.5% could do it • People who talk and drive are actually worst at multitasking E. Creativity • Creativity: the process of solving problems by combining ideas or behavior in new ways. • Most problem solving methods use convergent thinking • Convergent Thinking: a problem is seen as having only one answer, and all lines of thinking will eventually lead to (converge on) that single answer, using previous knowledge and logic. Works well for routine problems Divergent thinking • Creativity -requires a pattern of divergent thinking. – divergent thinking: a person starts from one point and comes up with many different ideas or possibilities based on that point (a kind of creativity) – reverse of convergent thinking – Use of pencil? – convergent thinking – for writing – divergent thinking – writing, poking wholes, weight for kite, as weapon Divergent thinking has been attributed to creativity as well as intelligence Characteristics of a divergent thinker • Most productive periods occur when the person is doing activity, which is routine – walking, swimming etc. • Automatic tasks take up some attention processes, leaving the remainder to devote to creative thinking. • All of one's attention is not focused on the problem is actually a benefit, because divergent thinkers often make links and connections at a level of consciousness just below alert awareness, so that ideas can flow freely without being censored by the higher mental •. Routine task - walking, allows the rest of the mind to "sneak up on" more creative solutions and ideas • Are less prone to some of the barriers to problem solving, such as functional fixedness. • Creative, divergent thinking is often a neglected topic in the education of young people. Can creativity be developed? Yes, but results mixed some people are naturally more creative, it is possible to develop one's creative ability. Cross-cultural research - Japanese or Omaha Native American cultures - divergent thinking and problem-solving skills cannot be easily taught Reason - creativity -not normally prized, also preference to hold to well-established cultural traditions, such as traditional dances that have not varied for centuries. idea that creative people -little different from other people. There are artists and musicians, for example, who actually encourage to see them as eccentric. But the fact is that creative people are actually pretty normal. 1 Characteristics of creative people 1. have a broad range of knowledge 2. good at using mental imagery 3. aren't afraid to be different 4. more open to experiences 5. have more vivid dreams and day dreams 6. value independence 7. often unconventional in their work II. Intelligence Intelligence Definition: the ability to learn from one’s experiences, acquire knowledge, and use resources effectively in adapting to new situations or solving problems Several theories A. Theories of Intelligence 1. Spearman’s two factor Theory 2. Gardner’s multiple intelligences 3. Triarchic theory of intelligence 4. Cattell – Horn – Carrol (CHC) theory 5. Neuroscience Theories 6. Pass Model of Intelligence 7. Intelligence in the Indian Cultural Context 8. The Cultural View Spearman’s two factor Theory – g factor: the ability to reason and solve problems; general intelligence – s factor: the ability to excel in certain areas; specific intelligence Traditional IQ tests measure g factor - According to Spearman, superiority in one type of intelligence predicts superiority overall - this view of Intelligence considered oversimplified by many - Intelligence considered to be composed of several factors - Guilford proposed 120 types of Intelligence Theories of Multiple Intelligences Gardner’s Multiple intelligences - Proposed by Howard Gardner in 1983, revolutionized how we understand intelligence. Proposed 7, then 8 and the 9……. verbal mathematical spatial bodily-kinesthetic interpersonal intrapersonal naturalist existentialist musical Gardner’s multiple intelligences 9 types Gardner’s Theory what kind of intelligence is being shown here? Movement / Kinesthetic Gardner’s Theory what kind of intelligence is being shown here? Albert Einstein Logical/Mathematical Gardner’s Theory what kind of intelligence is being shown here? Visual/Spatial Gardner’s Theory what kind of intelligence is being shown here? Musical Theories of Intelligence • Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence: three kinds of intelligences 1. analytical, 2. creative 3. practical Triarchic theory of intelligence – analytical intelligence: the ability to break problems down into component parts, or analysis, for problem solving. Measured by intelligence & academic achievement tests – creative intelligence: the ability to deal with new and different concepts and to come up with new ways of solving problems. Also, automatically process certain information, so cognitive recourses can deal with novelty – practical intelligence: the ability to use information to get along in life and become successful; “street smarts”. People are tactful, know how to manipulate situation for their advantage, use inside information…. Triarchic Theory of Intelligence • Robert Sternberg – Analytical • Academic ability – Creative • Ability to cope with novel situations and generate multiple solutions to problems – Practical • “Street smarts” Some texts: componential, experiential, & naturalistic Triarchic theory of intelligence – High practical intelligence – success in life, but has low correlation with analytical intelligence. Interplay between all three abilities … For example, Planning research…… – Analytical intelligence: use appropriate analysis – creative intelligence: search for a problem, design the experiment well – practical intelligence: get funding, get people as participants Cattell – Horn – Carrol (CHC) theory Influential theory of intelligence According to Cattell, intelligence was composed of - Crystalized intelligence - which represents acquired knowledge and skills - Fluid intelligence - or problem solving and adaptability in unfamiliar situations. - John Horn expanded on Cattell's work and added other abilities - based on visual and auditory processing, memory, speed of processing, reaction of pro ve skills, and reading-writing skills . - extensive factor analysis of data from more than 460 studies, John Carroll developed a three-tier hierarchical model of cognitive abilities - fits well with the Cattell-Horn crystalized and fluid intelligence models, so a new theory suggested, the Cattell – Horn -Carroll (CHC) Theory of Intelligence Cattell – Horn – Carrol (CHC) theory One component of the CHC framework is general intelligence or g. - Composed of 16 broad abilities - general brain-based factors comprising fluid reasoning, short-term memory, long-term storage and retrieval, processing speed, reaction and decision speed, psychomotor speed. - Four abilities based on Cattell's description of crystalized intelligence: comprehension-knowledge, domain specific knowledge, reading and writing, and quantitative knowledge. - Other abilities tied to sensory systems and their respective primary and association areas of the cortex: visual processing, auditory processing, olfactory abilities, tactile abilities, kinesthetic abilities and psychomotor abilities - most researched, empirically supported, comprehensive theory. - Recent tests of intelligence driven by CHC Neuroscience Theories Brain closely linked to intelligence - brain areas and brain functions tied to differences in intellectual ability, - differing levels of cognitive abilities studied - frontal and parietal brain areas play the most important roles, these areas are actually components of one of the leading neuroscience theoy - the Parieto-Frontal Integration Theory, or P-FIT - Researchers have expanded on P-FIT and included other areas such as the posterior cingulate cortex, insular cortex, and specific subcortical areas Neuroscience Theories - For specific cognitive abilities, working memory has been tied to fluid intelligence, or the ability to adapt and deal with new problems or the first time you encounter them, without having to depend on knowledge you already possess. - Working memory contributes to variety of higher functions. - When examined in relation to fluid intelligence, individual differences in working memory components such as capacity, attention control, and ability to retrieve items from long-term memory appear to be most influential, - the ability to reliably preserve relevant information successful cognitive processing appears to be vital Pass Model of Intelligence - The Planning, Attention-Arousal, Simultaneous, and Successive (PASS) cognitive processing model developed by J.P. Das and his associates - is a theory of ability within the information processing framework. - three functional units are proposed, perform the following functions: 1. Cortical arousal and attention – located in the brainstem and the reticular activating system - provides appropriate level of arousal or cortical tone – Person can suitably focus and utilize cognitive processes in the other units only when adequately aroused and the attention is focused. 2. Coding information using simultaneous and successive processes - related to simultaneous and successive processing of information - determines how information is received, analyzed, and stored. Simultaneous processing associated with the occipital-parietal lobe - reflected in survey ability (the ability to view things present in one's visual field holistically and simultaneously) Successive processing related to frontotemporal areas of the brain - involves integration of stimuli in a specific order where each component is related to the next. Pass Model of Intelligence 3. Planning, self monitoring, and structuring of cognitive activities- deals with planning, decision making - located in the prefrontal area of the brain. Planning helps in programming, regulation & verification of behavior - also responsible for problem & self monitoring, regulation of voluntary activity, and linguistic skills. Major Features of PASS theory - blends neuropsychological, cognitive, and psychometric approaches to intelligence. - Knowledge base is basic to this model. - derived from the cultural and social background of the individual - Acknowledges that planning as a functional system offers an important link of personality with motivation & cognitive processes Pass Model of Intelligence According to the Author Das (2001) - Individuals show gap between what they know & what they can do – i.e. between knowledge & performance - Output or performance has to be programmed properly before we can express what we can know The Das-Naglieri cognitive assessment system (CAS) offers tools to assess the component processes through various scales The Four subscales consist of three tests each: 1. Planning - matching numbers, planned code, planned connection 2. Attention - expressive attention, number detection, receptive attention Pass Model of Intelligence 3. Simultaneous processing - non-verbal matrices, verbal spatial relations, figure memory 4. Successive processing - word series, sentence repetition, speech rate or senate questioning. The CAS has high reliability and is useful for cognitive training and assessing the cognitive processes in several cultural groups The Notion of Intelligence in the Indian Cultural Context Alfred Binet, in 1905, developed Intelligence tests as a mechanism to distinguish mentally retarded children from those who were doing well in the school academics, in France. All theoretical conceptualizations, assume intelligence as a decontextualized cognitive process involving mental operations such as abstraction reasoning, logic, and calculation which is located inside the individual. This resulted in quantification of intelligence in terms of Intelligence Quotient (IQ), calculated as a ratio of mental age to chronological age and multiplied by 100. The Notion of Intelligence in the Indian Cultural Context A large number studies give information about IQ and - performance in school, - social status and income, - job performance - gender differences in intelligence. - cross-cultural differences – found to be more pronounced in Asian children than British and American children. In several studies, James Flynn (1994) has shown that with every passing decade, IQ has been rising in many countries (Flynn Effect). The Notion of Intelligence in the Indian Cultural Context Researchers not satisfied with the IQ notion for several reasons including, - equivocality - possibility of several different meanings, - non-linearity - it does not progress or develop smoothly from one stage to the next in a logical way. Instead, it makes sudden changes, or seems to develop in different directions at the same time. - unidimensionality - having only one dimension The work on concepts like wisdom, multiple intelligence, social intelligence, and emotional intelligence shows diversity in intelligence. B. The Notion of Intelligence in the Indian Cultural Context Cross-cultural research has clearly shown the relational or the contextualized nature of intelligence. - Franz Boas (1911) - intelligence may well be the same among all people, but its manifestations vary with the individual's experience. - Nadel (1937) showed differences in the higher mental processes of two African tribes-Yoruba and Nupe - Serpell (1979) asked Zambian and English children to reproduce patterns by of wire, paper and pencil, and clay. The Zambians were more adept in patterns using wire (the medium with which they were more familiar), English children with paper and pencil, and both groups performed equally well with clay - Study of Brazilian children (1985), - knowledge of mathematics required to run street business has little relationship with school mathematics. The Notion of Intelligence in the Indian Cultural Context These evidences clearly indicated that such intelligence tests measure in terms of a unidimensional and globalized nature of intelligence. Hence, it is essential that intelligence tests measure earlier learning experiences; so that communities which are not at ease with paper and pencil do not fare well on the available to of intelligence THE CULTURAL VIEW Social Representations Model used – studies conducted in different parts of the world Methods used are, 1. collecting people's description of an intelligent person, 2. analyzing attributes in local proverbs 3. Rating behaviors ascribed to intelligent person View of Intelligence varies from culture to culture. In western culture, focus is on Context-free notion of intelligence. They consider factors such as, 1. Generalization (or going beyond the information given) 2. Speed of performance 3. Doing the task in minimum steps/minimum moves 4. Mental rather than physical manipulations 5. Originality or creativity Silence is seen as lack of knowledge, and verbal expression highly valued. The Western view is rooted in its modes of socialization, characterized by urbanization, high technology, and formal schooling. The intelligence tests in the West try to look at what is known as "technological intelligence". The Cultural View Notion of intelligence in the non-Western cultures, focus on 1. responsibility and obligations in social contexts. 2. deference for and compliance with society's agreed ways as well as deliberation 3. capability in specific situations and social responsibility 4. participation in family and and social life responsibly 5. social behaviors such as willingness to do chores for the family, respect elders, and wisdom, social competence The Indian Conception of Intelligence Studied by, 1. analyzing Sanskrit Suktis & Hindi proverbs 2. laymen's understanding and use of intelligence. Analysis of sanskrit suktis and proverbs – viewed differently by different schools of thought: 1. Pratibha (Nyaya Vaisesika) - means a flash of light & a revelation - characterized by immediacy, intense clarity, and transcendence, i.e. freedom from time and space limitations 2. The term used for intelligence in the Indian system is buddhi, which refers to determination, mental effort, knowledge, discrimination and decision-making. The Indian Conception of Intelligence An intelligent person is capable of discriminating 1. good intelligence (dharmabuddhi) and bad intelligence (papabuddhi) 2. Nitya (permanent ) and anitya (temporary) At some places, three types of intelligence identified: 1. subuddhi (good wit), 2. kubuddhi (ill wit) 3. abuddhi (no wit). The Indian Conception of Intelligence • Indian Wisdom, written in Sanskrit is in the form of suktis or subhasitas (good words). They are short in length – 1 or 2 sentences – they are weighty, astounding, authentic, use unseen connotations and proverbs, which reflect truths, social norms, and moral actions, and summarize the essence of folk wisdom. • The analysis of suktis revealed four dimensions of intelligence: 1. cognitive competence 2. social competence 3. entrepreneurial competence 4. emotional competence. Most suktis have viewed intelligence in terms of control of emotions control of anger emphasized. Anger is the result of ajnana (ignorance) – 1. it destroys all qualities of man including intelligence 2. is a type of wine under the influence of which people lose control over their senses 3. not able to discriminate between right and wrong to achieve The Indian Conception of Intelligence • Other characteristics of an intelligent person under A. emotional competence - Control of ego, speaking the truth (in context), expression of kindness, stability, B. cognitive competence - sensitivity to context (behaving according to desh (ecology), kala (time), and patra (person), reflection (prior thinking about the pros and con of an action, based upon one's strengths and weaknesses as well as advantages and disadvantages), communication (speaks only when necessary, makes his mind clear using minimum words, his/ her speech is loaded with hidden meanings, and remains focused on the problem under consideration) comprehension, discrimination and planning. C. social competence - following social norms, respecting parents, elders, and guests, helping the needy, and remaining in the company of good people. D. entrepreneurial characteristics are hard work, patience, vigilance, practical approach, commitment to work, maintenance of secrecy till the completion of a task, and remaining unaffected by criticisms. The Indian Conception of Intelligence 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Few additional characteristics of intelligent persons – speaking truth (but restraining from doing it, if harmful to the person or the society), showing moderation in behavior (excess in modesty, politeness, simplicity, arrogance, wealth, etc., is not good), living in the present, having realistic self-appraisal, being economically independent The Indian Conception of Intelligence The analysis of proverbs indicates, 1. Intelligence gets manifested right from the beginning of life. 2. intellective capacity degenerates after the age of sixty, 3. One is judged intelligent on the basis of the outcome of one's actions 4. Two aspects of intelligence – 1. knowledge-related (principles, generalizations) 2. pragmatic or procedural. Practical intelligence is in the social context and only a few persons are fortunate enough to be endowed with both types of intelligence. Both suktis and proverbs indicate that intelligence is multifaceted, has an adaptive potentiality across different domains of life. It includes cognitive domain, as well as, skills that equips one to overcome the problems of life and to grow and become what one wants to achieve in personal and social domains. Commoner's Notion of Intelligence A large number of persons of different age, from Gorakhpur, Mysore, Ajmer, Raipur and Delhi – described the characteristics of an intelligent person (Srivastava & 2001). A thematic analysis revealed the four competencies mentioned earlier. Comparison between the Indian and Western views - many similarities few additional characteristics were endorsed the lay people in Indian context – 1. carrying of family responsibilities, 2. being non-extravagant, 3. Being health conscious, 4. maintaining economic independence. These are requirements of the present day, which have been stressed upon by the commoners. Commoner's Notion of Intelligence Western concept is related to a contextualized abstract structure of cognitive abilities, the Indian concept is all inclusve and integrated one. The Indian view thus, - recognizes the importance of cognitive competence, - adds value to social, emotional, and task performance - Application of cognitive abilities in daily life is emphasized. - intelligent behavior is performative and demonstrative - is also tied to the socio-cultural practices and realities, - places a high premium on performance as well as control over emotions. - concepts of sthitaprajna (seadiness of mind), jitendriya (having mastery over own sense faculties), nishkama karma (desire-less action) emphasized in control of emotions. Commoner's Notion of Intelligence Intelligence in the Indian context stands for a broad-based effective functioning of persons in to their multiple contexts. This perspective has been termed as "integral“ as it is characterized by 1. interconnectedness, 2. interdependence, 3. complementarity, 4. cosmocentricity. Integration and adaptation, rather than change and innovation, are the modes of action normally associated with this tradition. B. Measuring Intelligence Binet’s Mental Ability Test – French Govt. – education compulsory – identify children who were unable to learn quickly – Binet with Simon, developed test that distinguished between fast & slow learners, also between children of different age groups Key element was Mental Age Stanford – Binet & IQ Terman from Stanford University revised the test developed by Binet, used the formula adapted by German Psychologist Stern to compare Mental Age & Chronological Age to give IQ – Intelligence Quotient IQ Tests Intelligence quotient (IQ): a number representing a measure of intelligence, resulting from the division of one’s mental age by one’s chronological age and then multiplying that quotient by 100 (ratio IQ) allows testers to compare intelligence levels of people from different age groups IQ testing IQ Testing – useful for children, meaningless after the age of 16. Stanford – Binet intelligence Scale – Fifth Edition (SB5) – generally used on children of age 7 to 8. Gives estimate of Intelligence,, Verbal & non-verbal domain scores – all based on 5 primary areas of cognitive functioning Fluid reasoning, Knowledge, Quantitative processing, Visual-spatial processing, Working memory IQ Tests Wechsler Tests • Developed IQ test, specifically for adults • Wechsler Intelligence Tests yield a verbal score and a performance score, as well as an overall score of intelligence • Three tests developed 1. Wechsler Adult Intelligence Test – WAIS 2. Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children WSIC 3. Wechsler Preschool & Primary Scale of intelligence - WPPSI IQ Tests C.Test Construction: Good Test, Bad Test? Development of IQ Tests • Reliability: the tendency of a test to produce the same scores again and again each time it is given to the same people • Validity: the degree to which a test actually measures what it’s supposed to measure Ecological Validity • Ecological Validity – Important aspect of validity. • Obtained score should reflect the intended skill or outcome in real life situation. • Get a driving license – should be able to actually drive.. Development of IQ Tests • Standardization: the process of giving the test to a large group of people that represents the kind of people for whom the test is designed. • All Test P’s should take the test under same conditions • The group should be chosen randomly • There should be a comparison group, whose scores will be used to compare individual test results Development of IQ Tests Norms: scores from the standardization group are called norms, they are the standards against which all others who take the test will be compared. – most intelligence tests follow a normal curve, here the scores are frequently around the mean, and become less & less frequent farther away from mean Normal distributions are symmetrical with a single central peak at the mean (average) of the data. The shape of the curve is described as bell-shaped with the graph falling off evenly on either side of the mean. Fifty percent of the distribution lies to the left of the mean and fifty percent lies to the right of the mean. The mean and the median are the same in a normal distribution. The Normal Curve The percentages under each section of the normal curve represent the percentage of scores falling within that section for each standard deviation (SD) from the mean. Scores on intelligence tests are typically represented by the normal curve. The dotted vertical lines each represent one standard deviation from the mean, which is always set at 100. For example, an IQ of 115 on the Wechsler represents one standard deviation above the mean, and the area under the curve indicates that 34.13 percent of the population falls between 100 and 115 on this test. Note: The figure shows the mean and standard deviation for the Stanford-Binet Fourth Edition (Stanford-Binet 4). The Stanford-Binet Fifth Edition was published in 2003 and now has a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15 for composite scores. Development of IQ Tests • Deviation IQ scores: a measure of intelligence that assumes that IQ is normally distributed around a mean of 100 with a standard deviation of about 15 – IQ of 130 would be two standard deviations above the mean – IQ of 70 would be two standard deviations below the mean – the deviation IQ replaced the ratio IQ. Cultural bias • • • • Resources not same for everyone Cultural, social, economic differences extremely difficult to develop a free of cultural bias. Cultural bias is a tendency of IQ test to reflect, in language, dialect and content, the culture of the person/s who designed the test. • Advantage to a person who belongs to the culture of the test designer Cultural bias • Which one of the five is least like others? Dog Car Cat Bird Fish Ans: Car (Western Children) Ans: Fish (Japanese Children) - live in culture which relies on sea this answer will be marked wrong Sociologist Dove created a test of Intelligence based on African – American Culture. Low score by those who did not know about the culture. Cultural bias & Cultural free tests • Attempt to develop culture-free tests • But, realization that culture-free tests are not possible • Attempt to develop culture-fair tests – eliminate language and design tests with demonstrations and pictures. • Raven’s Progressive matrices Raven’s Progressive matrices Usefulness of IQ tests Valid for – predicting academic success – job performance Prediction useful when IQ score high or low, for average IQ score, prediction unclear Used in Neuropsychology - Cognitive & behavioral impairments due to brain injury/brain malfunction - Study of individuals with Traumatic Brain Injuries TBI – cognitive, intellectual, personality & emotional impairments D. Individual differences in Intelligence - Large number of individuals ‘average’ - Extreme high score ‘genius’ - Extreme low score ‘intellectually disabled’ Intellectual Disability • Intellectual disability (intellectual developmental disorder): a person exhibits deficits in mental ability (IQ below 70) and adaptive behavior appropriate to chronological age (live independently, groom oneself, communication skills, work-job) – formerly known as mental retardation or developmentally delayed. Terms are no longer politically correct! – About 1% people affected – Intellectual disability - mild to profound Mild Intellectual Disability – identified when children reach school age - Concrete thinkers - Social judgments and interactions immature - Can live independently, require assistance in complex life skills - Majority belong to this category Profound Intellectual Disability - very limited ability to learn - totally dependent on others for care - Multiple physical & sensory impairments Intellectual Disability - Causes - Unhealthy living conditions – exposure to paints (lead poisoning, PCBs), malnutrition, lack of health care, unstimulating environments - Biological causes – Fetal alcohol syndrome (exposing unborn baby to alcohol), Fragile X syndrome (X chromosome of 23rd pair defective) Intellectual Disability - Causes • Other causes - Oxygen deprivation - Damage to womb due to disease - Drug use by mother - Accidents, diseases after birth Intelligence just one characteristic Warmth, love, acceptance, caring, compassion should not be denied Giftedness • Gifted: the 2 percent of the population falling on the upper end of the normal curve and typically possessing an IQ of 130 or above • Does giftedness guarantee success? Terman’s “Termites”, • • - Terman conducted a longitudinal study on 1528 children Results Socially well adjusted & skilled workers Above average physically & in attractiveness More resistant to mental illness Grow up to be successful adults – more academic degrees, higher occupational and financial success Terman’s “Termites”, • 100 most successful & 100 least successful men compared – IQ was similar • successful men differed in 3 ways – more goal oriented, more persistent, more self confident - Terman’s study criticized - Sample not random - lack of objectivity, because he became too involved in the lives of his “Termites”, even to the point of interfering on their behalf. • Yet important - Broke the myth that genius prone to mental illness - Realized that something more than IQ needed Results – other studies • -gifted children if pushed to achieve at younger age grow up to be disappointed, unhappy adults • Life conditions important in success, adjustment & well being • Liking one’s work, sense of purpose in life • High energy level, persistence important Emotional intelligence awareness of and ability to manage one’s own emotions to facilitate thinking and attaining specific goals, and the ability to understand what others feel, and to be socially skilled – viewed as a powerful influence on success in life – Concept introduced by Salovey & Mayer, popularized by Goleman Emotional intelligence Study results • EI individuals have self control over anger, impulsiveness, anxiety • Have empathy, are sensitive • More smarter • Better social relationships, perceived positively by others • More successful at work, better psychological well being • In medical setup, EI physicians more competent, empathetic and compassionate E. Nature/Nurture issue regarding Intelligence Twin & adoption studies Difficult to separate role of genes from the environment Natural experiment – twin studies Identical Twins – (same genetic inheritance) & Fraternal twins studied – (similar environments) • Stronger correlations are found between IQ scores as genetic relatedness increases • Identical Twins – correlation of 0.86 (not 1.00), indicating role of environment • Heritability – proportion of change in IQ within a population that is caused by hereditary factors - of IQ is estimated at 0.50 19. Genetic Influences on Intelligence – IQ scores of identical twins (MZ) are more alike than for any other pairs – Moderate correlations between fraternal twins, siblings and parents and their children – Weak correlations between children and their foster parents and between cousins Correlations Between IQ Scores of Persons With Various Relationships In the graph, the degree of genetic relatedness seems to determine the agreement (correlation) between IQ scores of the various comparisons. For example, identical twins, who share 100 percent of their genes, are more similar in IQ than fraternal twins, who share only about 50 percent of their genes, even when raised in the same environment. Correlations Between IQ Scores of Persons With Various Relationships In the graph, identical twins are still more similar to each other in IQ than are other types of comparisons, but being raised in the same environment increases the similarity considerably. Twin Studies IQ scores – MZ twins reared together - higher correlation – MZ twins reared apart – comparatively lower correlation - if twins reared apart have similar environments, IQ’s are similar - reared together - IQ similarities Flynn effect IQ scores - steadily increasing over time - from generation to generation - in modernized countries • This phenomenon is known as Flynn effect III. Language A. Levels of Language Analysis • Language: a system for combining symbols (such as words) so that an unlimited number of meaningful statements can be made for the purpose of communicating with others Elements and Structure of Language Common characteristics of language, • Grammar: the system of rules governing the structure and use of a language • According to Noam Chomsky, humanns have an innate ability to understand & produce language through a device called ‘ Language acquisition device –LAD’ • Language learned through imitation, reinforcement & shaping, complexities of grammar of a language are ‘wired’ in developing brain Elements and Structure of Language • Phonemes: the basic units of sound in a language • ‘a’ in car different from ‘a’ in day – letter same • ‘th’, ‘sh’ are phonemes • Different languages – different phonemes • Infant has ability to recognize all phonemes, this ability deteriorates by the age of 9 months & recognizes phonemes of the language infant is exposed to. Elements and Structure of Language • Morphemes: the smallest units of meaning within a language • Playing = play & ing • Syntax: the system of rules for combining words and phrases to form grammatically correct sentences • How the words get combined important for meaning John Kidnapped the boy John, the kidnapped boy रोको मत, जाने दो! रोको, मत जाने दो! Elements and Structure of Language • Semantics: rules for determining the meaning of words and sentences Jonny hit the ball The ball was hit by Jonny Semantics same – syntax different • Pragmatics: aspects of language involving the practical ways of communicating with others, or the social niceties of language How to take turns in conversation, use of gestures, how conversation ends, how we speak with people of different age groups etc Elements and Structure of Language Intonation rhythm & emphasis on certain parts important aspect of pragmatics. Japanese language intonation very important B. Development of Language Very important – allows the child to think in words rather than images, to communicate, ask questions, to form concepts Influenced by style of speaking – ‘child –directed speech’ – high pitched, repetitive, sing –song speech – infants and toddles attend to this kind of speech more Also understand more than they can speak – ‘receptive – productive lag’ – speak 1-2 words, understand sentences Stages of Language Development 1. Cooing – 2 months of age – vowel – like sounds 2. Babbling - 6-8 months – vowel + consonant sounds 3. One-word stage -holophrastic stage - 9-18 months – one word represents whole phrase – milk means – I want milk 4. Telegraphic stage or early multiword stage (better multi-morpheme) – 18 – 20 – simple sentences using nouns, verbs – baby eat 5. Whole sentences – by the age of 6 – fluent as adults Language and thought Does language influence thought or thinking influences language? • Piaget – concepts preceded & aided development of language. Concepts become ‘pegs’ to which words are ‘hung’ • Concept of ‘mother’ present before word ‘mama’ learnt • Piaget also noticed that children spend great deal of time talking to oneself – even while playing with others – totally unrelated to others-‘collective monologue’ – egocentric speech – reduces when child becomes more socially involved Language and thought Vygotsky –opposite view • Language develops concepts, helps child to control behavior • ‘mama’ learnt, various elements of ‘mama-ness’ – warm, soft, safety, food come together • Egocentric speech is a way to form thoughts & control actions • This ‘private’ speech – way for child to plan behavior & organize actions to obtain goals – so it will increase when child becomes more socially oriented • Evidence appears to favour Vygotsky Linguistic relativity hypothesis • the hypothesis that language shapes & influences thoughts • Accepted by many • One version is Sapir-Whorf hypothesis – assumed that thought processes & concepts within any culture determined by words in that culture – now known as Linguistic relativity hypothesis • Studies by many researchers Linguistic relativity hypothesis Research • 1st Study • Language’s color names would influence the ability of the people to distinguish among & perceive colors • But no difference was found between English speakers (several color names) and Dani tribe (only 2 color names) to perceive colors • Recent studies support the idea of ‘cognitive universalism’ (concepts are universal and influence the development of language) Linguistic relativity hypothesis - Research The hypothesis may explain higher level processes Study - pictures flamingo and a bat shown to preschool children. The children were told that flamingo feeds baby mashed-up food bat feeds its baby milk. Research - Procedure Then they were shown a picture of a blackbird (which looked more like the bat than the flamingo). Half of the children we told that the blackbird was a bird, while the other children were not. asked how the blackbird fed its baby, the children who had been given the bird label were more likely to say that it fed its baby mashed-up food than were the children who were not given the label indicated that the preschoolers were making inferences about feeding on category membership rather than perceptual similarity - the word bird helped the them to place the blackbird in its proper higher-level category Research continues……. - support for linguistic relativity hypothesis, shows - how language can shape thoughts about space, time, colors, and objects - reasoning can be impacted, including making important decisions on such topics as how manage crime - influence of language on problem solving and memory trying to determine whether language influences thoughts or thoughts influence language may be like trying to determine which came first, the chicken or the egg. C. Bilingualism and Multilingualism In India, number of languages are spoken (about 454) bilingualism or multilingualism have serious implications on education social policy. - bilingualism seems to facilitate cognitive development, improves metacognitive and metalinguistic skills - learners mother tongue provides strong base for basic education and transfer of skills children studying in school where the mother tongue is the medium of instruction perform better than those English medium schools. strong recommendation that mother tongue alone should be Medium of instruction up to the primary level and then regional, national, and English should be introduced at appropriate stages. Use of medium of instruction in multilingual society determined by non- academic considerations such as identity, emotive factors and goals & needs of the society It is complex situation Home language…… Unfortunate situation - Half of the ‘out of school’ children – language at home & language at school different - English seems to be making inroads everywhere - Urbane (sophisticated) India - moving more in the direction of subtractive bilingualism - English dominating the local language - which may even lead to semi – lingualism a condition of not having high proficiency in any of the languages used. - Lower middle-class more vulnerable, more likely to be adversely affected by this situation. Home language…… - need for adapting the school language(s) of instruction to - - - - the home language(s) of the learner. important that the language(s) of instruction permits the learner to access initial and continuing literacy as well as other content of the school important that the learner is taught and assessed in the language understood by him/her so that the he/she is able to use earlier experiences and resources to new knowledge. teachers should also be permitted to use languages in which they express themselves and provide instruction to the learners the best. there is usually a huge degree of disparity between home and school languages in India. Disadvantages of not using Home language…… - - results in inequality and marginalization of a large number - of languages also results in educational failure, deprivation, and poverty. In Indian context, English continues to dominate different domains of life (e.g. health, law, education) carries prestige. Disadvantages of not using Home language…… studies indicate that exclusive use of dominant languages for instruction, - adverse effect on the performance of students, quality of teaching, and possibilities upward social mobility - negatively impacts the learners' access to knowledge, the quality of classroom teaching, assessment of learning and future prospects of education or work. - use of a foreign language does not guarantee that the language would be learned effectively Solutions…… - the language mismatch between and school needs to be reduced - Pedagogically, a sound approach would be a mother tongue-based multilingual education (MLE). This approach has been implemented on an experimental basis in some schools of Odisha and Andhra Pradesh – results are promising Children in MLE schools showed higher performance levels than those in non – MLE schools D. Animal Studies in Language • two questions about animals and language. • "Can animals communicate?" - definite "Yes." rattle of a rattlesnake or the warning growl of an angry dog, physical behaviors, such as the "dance" of honeybees that tells the other bees when source of pollen is • "Can animals use language?” answer complicated, because language is defined as the use of symbols, and symbols are the that stand for something else. Words are symbols, and gestures can be symbols.. Animal Studies in Language • Words are symbols, and gestures can be symbols. Bu gestures used by animals are instinctual, meaning they are controlled by the animal genetic makeup. The honeybee doing the "dance" is controlled completely by instinct • In human language, symbols are used quite deliberately voluntarily, not by instinct, and abstract symbols have no meaning until people add meaning to them. Animal Studies in Language • Can animals be taught to use symbols that are abstract? There have been attempts to teach animals (primates and dolphins) how to use sign language gauge (as animals lack vocal structure to form spoken words), but many of these attempts were simply a good science. The most successful of these experiments has been with Kanzi, a chimpanzee trained to press abstract symbols on computer keyboard Animal Studies in Language • Kanzi - not the original subject of the study - his mother, Matata, was the chimp being trained. • Kanzi watched his mother use the keyboard learn how to use the symbols - through that observation, could understand about 150 spoken English words. Trainers who speak to him were not in his view, so he was not responding to verbal/physical cues • - managed to follow correctly complex instructions up to the level of a 2 year old child. A later report suggested Kanzi and his half-sister Pan-Banisha event acquired a working vocabulary of 480 symbols and understood about 2,000 English words • little to no data have been offered in published studies. • Nearly 100 videotaped hours of Kanzi engaged in day-to-day activities were analyzed for these sounds. The researchers were able to identify four sounds that seemed to represent banana, grapes, juice, and the word yes. (four sounds do not come close to making an entire language.-) Animal Studies in Language • Other studies, with dolphins and with parrots have also met with some success. • Is it real language? The answer seems be a qualified "yes." This success so far can be compared to the level of language development of a 3-year human child • However, linguists still debate on whether these animals are truly learning language, as they are not learning how to use syntax – combination of words into grammatically correct sentences and differences between sentences such as "The girl kissed the boy" and "The boy kissed the girl.” Conclusion - Animal Studies in Language • Studies have been somewhat successful in demonstrating that animals can develop a basic kind of language, including some abstract ideas. • Controversy exists over the lack of evidence that animals can learn syntax, which some feel means that animals are not truly learning and using language. IV. Applying Psychology to Everyday Life • proper mental exercises improve higher level cognitive skills • Study - individuals with schizophrenia, computerized cognitive exercises daily training for 10 weeks -that placed increasing demands on auditory perception were beneficial • Significant progress in verbal working memory and global cognition tasks shown (higher-level Skills). • studied 6 months later - some gains were still evident and that gains overall were positively correlated with improved quality of life at the 6-month assessment point • Studies indicate that computerized attention, memory, and executive training for individuals with schizophrenia may improve performance on training tasks, but these improvements do not transfer to other measures or real-life situations Applying Psychology to Everyday Life • Clinical populations aside, some research suggests, - challenging, adaptive training in working memory may improve cognitive skills and fluid intelligence in both young and older adults - training in working memory may improve working memory capacity on related tasks, but on measures of fluid intelligence, these improvements do not generalize - findings suggest working memory training is not effective, and little evidence exists that any such training improves intelligence what else can benefit brain and mental health? Exercise! And this time, we are referring to physical exercise. Physical activity and specifically aerobic fitness has repeatedly been demonstrated to be associated with improved cognitive across the life span. Applying Psychology to Everyday Life • A physically active lifestyle and greater aerobic fitness results in, - better executive control and memory processes in preadolescent children - better educational outcomes later in life & - improved affect and visuospatial memory in young adults - increased hippocampal volume (associated with better memory) in elderly adults - useful intervention in a group of at high risk of cognitive decline or impairment, especially for females in the group Applying Psychology to Everyday Life - At least one possible benefit of regular aerobic activity is - promoting or maintaining functional activity among key brain areas of the frontal, temporal, and parietal lobes - The increases in oxygen and blood flow beneficial - increased levels of mood-related neurotransmitters, including serotonin, nor - epinephrine, and dopamine, along with neurogenesis in specific brain areas including the hippocampus useful - Increased myelination of neurons has been found to occur in a group of middle-aged adults - Benefits only when person exercised. Stop exercise – go back to pre-exercise condition - So Keep Moving What is good for heart, also good for mind Thank You
