Developmental- Psychology- Reviewer Developmental Psychology (PSY 103) 0 0 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY REVIEWER PART I: FOUNDATIONS Chapter 1: Human Development and Research Methodology Human Development the scientific study of age-related changes in behavior, thinking, emotion, and personality. Augustine of Hippo 4th-century philosopher who proposed the original sin Original Sin taught that all humans are born with a selfish nature. To reduce the influence of this inborn tendency toward sel seek spiritual rebirth and submit themselves to religious training. John Locke 17th-century English philosopher who drew upon a broad philosophical approach known as empiricism (tabula mind of a child is a blank slate. Blank Slate View suggests that adults can mold children into whatever they want them to be. Jean Jacques Rousseau 18th century swish philosopher who proposed the innate goodness view. Innate goodness view proposed by Jean Rousseau which claims that all human beings are naturally good and seek out experiences tha Charles Darwin - fathered 10 children and initiated the scientific study of childhood. became well known for his suggestion that the wide variety of life-forms that exist on the Earth evolved the interplay between environmental factors and genetic processes NOTE: The innate-goodness and original-sin approaches share the view that development involves a struggle between forces. In contrast to both, the blank-slate view sees the child as a passive recipient of environmental influence Baby Biographies - detailed records of their (Darwin and other like-minded scientists) own children’s early development these were the first organized studies of human development. G. Stanley Hall - used questionnaires and interviews to study large numbers of children. He thought that developmentalists should identify norms, or average ages at which developmental mile Arnold Gesell - suggested the existence of a genetically programmed sequential pattern of change He pioneered the use of movie cameras and one-way observation devices to study children’s behavior. 0 Norms (by Hall) 0 - average ages at which developmental milestones are reached. - could be used to learn about the evolution of the species as well as to track the development of individu Maturation (by Gesell) 0 0 Interdisciplinary Research - Research from different kinds of disciplinary perspectives (e.g., anthropolo psychology) is needed to fully understand lifespan development Multi-contextual nature of development - Individual development occurs within several interrelated con neighborhood, culture) Paul Baltes - a leader in the development of a comprehensive theory of lifespan human development emphasized the positive aspects of advanced age. He pointed out that, as human beings age, they adopt them maximize gains and compensate for losses THE DOMAINS: Physical Domain - changes in the size, shape, and characteristics of the body changes in how individuals sense and perceive the physical world, such as the gradual development of the first year of life. Cognitive Domain changes in thinking, memory, problem solving, and other intellectual skills are included in Social Domain includes changes in variables associated with the relationship of an individual to others. NOTE: the three domains do not function independently. For instance, when a girl goes through puberty — a change in — her ability to think abstractly (cognitive domain) and her feelings about potential romantic partners (social d PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT: Prenatal Period is the only one that has clearly defined biological boundaries at its beginning and end: It begins at conception a Infancy begins at birth and ends when children begin to use language to communicate Early Childhood when children begin to use language to communicate NOTE: while infancy begins at birth for all children, its end point can vary from one child to another. A social event—t school or some other kind of formal training—marks the transition from early to middle childhood. Middle Childhood a social event — the child’s entrance into school or some other kind of formal training. Adolescence starts when puberty hits. It is a biological milestone. NOTE: The timing of these stages varies across different individuals and culture as per the book, this is the ide - infancy. The first two years after birth Early childhood 0 0 - The years between ages 2 and 6. Middle childhood Discuss development between the ages of 6 and 12. Adolescence 0 0 Nature refers to all of the genes and hereditary factors that influence who we are—from our physical appearance to o characteristics. Nurture refers to all the environmental variables that impact who we are, including our early childhood experiences our social relationships, and our surrounding culture. Continuity–Discontinuity debate - Another key issue in the study of human development The question whether age-related change is primarily a matter of amount or degree (the continuity side changes in type or kind (the discontinuity side). EX: the continuous aspect of friendship is that people of all ages have peer relationships, and the discontin friendship is that the characteristics of friendship itself vary by age. Quantitative change is a change in amount. Qualitative change is a change in characteristic, kind, or type Stages qualitatively distinct periods of development Normative age-graded changes changes that are common to every member of a species Social clock or age norms defines a sequence of “normal” life experiences, such as the right time to go out on a first date, the appropriate childbearing, and the expected time of retirement. Ageism prejudicial attitudes about older adults, analogous to sexism or racism Normative history-graded changes changes that occur in most members of a cohort as a result of factors at work during a specific, well-defined hi Non-normative changes changes that result from unique, unshared events. Critical period a specific period in development when an organism is especially sensitive to the presence (or absence) of some experience Sensitive period a span of months or years during which a 0 child may be 0 particularly responsive to specific forms of experience o influenced by their absence Atypical development development that deviates from the typical developmental pathway in a direction that is harmful to the individu Culture 0 0 Survey - a study in which researchers use interviews and/or questionnaires to collect data about attitudes, interes kinds of behaviors. allow researchers to quickly gather information. They can also be used to track changes over time. Population the entire group that is of interest to a researcher Sample a subset of a group that is of interest to a researcher who participates in a study Representative sample a sample that has the same characteristics as the population to which a study’s findings apply Correlation a relationship between two variables that can be expressed as a number ranging from −1.00 to +1.00 Experiment a study that tests a causal hypothesis Experimental group the group in an experiment that receives the treatment the experimenter thinks will produce a particular effect Control group the group in an experiment that receives either no special treatment or a neutral treatment Independent variable the presumed causal element in an experiment Dependent variable the characteristic or behavior that is expected to be affected by the independent variable Cross-sectional design a research design in which groups of people of different ages are compared Longitudinal design a research design in which people in a single group are studied at different times in their lives Sequential design a research design that combines cross-sectional and longitudinal examinations of development Cohort effects findings that result from historical factors to which one age group in a cross-sectional study has been exposed Ethnography a detailed description of a single culture or context Research ethics 0 0 the guidelines researchers follow to protect the rights of animals used in research and humans who participate i Chapter 2: Theories of Development 0 0 - a school of thought that originated with Viennese physician Sigmund Freud (1856–1939). - Psychoanalytic theorists believe that developmental change happens because internal drives and emotio Psychosexual stages Freud’s five stages of personality development through which children move in a fixed sequence determined by is centered in a different body part in each stage. Psychosocial stages Erikson’s eight stages, or crises, of personality development in which inner instincts interact with outer cultura shape personality 0 0 John Watson (1878–1958) - Offered ideas about human development that were very different from those of Freud. 0 0 Reinforcement anything that follows a behavior and causes it to be repeated Positive reinforcement is a consequence (usually involving something pleasant) that follows a behavior and increases the chances that again. Negative reinforcement occurs when an individual learns to perform a specific behavior in order to cause something unpleasant to stop Punishment anything that follows a behavior and causes it to stop Extinction the gradual elimination of a behavior through repeated nonreinforcement. Partial reinforcement reinforcement of a behavior on some occasions but not others—is more common Observational learning, or modeling (by ALBERT BANDURA) learning results from seeing a model reinforced or punished for a behavior Jean Piaget - most influential theories in the history of developmental psychology Swiss developmentalist based many of his ideas on naturalistic observations of children of different ages on playgrounds and in Cognitive Theories theories that emphasize mental processes in development, such as logic and memory Scheme an internal cognitive structure that provides 0 an individual 0 with a procedure to use in a specific circumstance Assimilation the process of using a scheme to make sense of an event or experience Accommodation changing a scheme as a result of some new information 0 0 Lev Vygotsky - Developmental Psychologist known for his Sociocultural Theory - hypothesized that social interactions among children, such as the 2-year-old boy and girl playing here, a cognitive and social development. Sociocultural theory Vygotsky’s view that complex forms of thinking have their origins in social interactions rather than in an indivi explorations Information-processing theory a theoretical perspective that uses the computer as a model to explain how the mind manages information Scaffolding a process where children’s learning of new cognitive skills is guided by an adult (or a more skilled child, such who structures the child’s learning experience Short-term memory - the component of the memory system where all information is processed. short-term memory is often called working memory. Long-term memory the component of the system where information is permanently stored neo-Piagetian theory an approach that uses information-processing principles to explain the developmental stages identified by Piage Behavior genetics focuses on the effect of heredity on individual differences. Ecological theories perspectives that view development as resulting from the degree to which genes help or hinder individuals’ effo environments Ethology a perspective on development that emphasizes genetically determined survival behaviors presumed to have evo selection Sociobiology the study of society using the methods and concepts of biology; when used by developmentalists, an approach that aid group survival Imprinting newborns of some species learn to recognize the characteristics of a protective organism within the first hours o Bioecological theory (by Urie Bronfenbrenner) 0 between individuals and their environments, or inter theory that explains development in terms0of relationships Eclecticism the use of multiple theoretical perspectives to explain and study human development Ch 0 3 D 0 l f C i Bi h pieces of genetic material that control or influence traits NOTE: The human body contains 23 pairs of chromosomes. The 22 pairs are called autosomes, the 23rd pair becomes t X-chromosome is one of the largest chromosomes in the body and carries a large number of genes. Y-chromosome is quite small and contains only a few genes. XX - Female XY - Male Androgens These hormones cause male genitals to develop. If androgens are not present, female genitals develop no matte chromosomal status is. NOTE: female embryos that are exposed to androgens, either via medications that the mother is taking or a genetic diso adrenal hyperplasia, can develop male-appearing genitalia. Gonads sex glands (ovaries in females; testes in males) Fraternal twins dizygotic twins or they originate from two zygotes Identical twins monozygotic or arising from one zygote Genotype the unique genetic blueprint of each individual Phenotype an individual’s particular set of observed characteristics Dominant–recessive pattern a pattern of inheritance in which a single dominant gene influences a person’s phenotype but two recessive gen produce an associated trait. Homozygous People whose chromosomes carry either two dominant or two recessive genes Heterozygous Those with one dominant and one recessive gene. Polygenic inheritance a pattern of inheritance in which many genes 0 influence 0 a trait Multifactorial inheritance inheritance affected by both genes and the environment Genomic imprinting is a chemical label that identifies each gene in a person’s body as having come from his father or mother 0 0 - a recessive disorder that causes red blood cell deformities the blood can’t carry enough oxygen to keep the body’s tissues healthy Tay-Sachs disease a Tay-Sachs baby is likely to have severe intellectual disability and be blind. Very few survive past the age of 3 Huntington’s disease (caused by dominant genes) This disorder causes the brain to deteriorate and affects both psychological and motor functions. Until recently, Huntington’s disease had to wait until they became ill themselves to know for sure that they carried the gene NOTE: Most sex-linked disorders are caused by recessive genes. SOME SEX-LINKED DISORDERS: Red-green color blindness People with this disorder have difficulty distinguishing between the colors red and green when these colors are Hemophilia The blood of people with hemophilia lacks the chemical components that cause blood to clot. Thus, when a per bleeds, the bleeding doesn’t stop naturally NOTE: Approximately 1 in 5,000 baby boys is born with this disorder, which is almost unknown in girls. Fragile-X syndrome A person with this disorder has an X chromosome with a “fragile,” or damaged, spot. Fragile-X syndrome can disability that becomes progressively worse as a child gets older NOTE: About 1 in every 4,000 males and 1 in every 8,000 females have this sex-linked disorder. Chromosomal error or chromosomal anomaly when a child has too many or too few chromosomes Trisomy a condition in which a child has three copies of a specific autosome. The most common is trisomy 21, or Down the child has three copies of chromosome 21. 0 0 Klinefelter’s syndrome (The most common is an XXY pattern) Affected boys usually look no different than their peers but have underdeveloped testes and, as adults, very low Many have language and learning disabilities. At puberty, these boys experience both male and female changes penises enlarge, and their breasts develop. Turner’s syndrome (A single-X pattern (XO)) 0 0 Ectopic pregnancy a small number of zygotes implant in one of the fallopian tubes instead of in the uterus Gestational diabetes a kind of diabetes that happens only during pregnancy Colostrum substance that is secreted by the woman’s breasts Cephalocaudal pattern growth that proceeds from the head downward Proximodistal pattern growth that proceeds from the middle of the body outward Germinal stage the first stage of prenatal development, beginning at conception and ending at implantation (approximately 2 w Implantation attachment of the blastocyst to the uterine wall Placenta a specialized organ that allows substances0to be transferred 0 from mother to embryo and from embryo to mother mixing Umbilical cord an organ that connects the embryo to the placenta Amnion 0 0 Fetal stage the third stage of prenatal development, from week 9 to birth, during which growth and organ refinement take p Viability the ability of the fetus to survive outside the womb Cell body the part of a neuron that contains the nucleus and is the site of vital cell functions Neuronal proliferation the pace of neural formation picks up dramatically Synapses tiny spaces across which neural impulses flow from one neuron to the next Axons taillike extensions of neurons Dendrites branchlike protrusions from the cell bodies of neurons Glial cells the “glue” that holds neurons together to give form to the structures of the nervous system Cesarean section (c-section) delivery of an infant through incisions in the abdominal and uterine walls Breech presentation an infant’s feet or bottom is delivered first, represents one of the most compelling reasons for a c-section becau collapse of the umbilical cord Anoxia oxygen deprivation experienced by a fetus during labor and/or delivery Neonate term for babies between birth and 1 month of age PART II: INFANCY Chapter 4: Infancy–The Process of Skills Development Synapses connections between neurons Synaptogenesis the process of synapse development Pruning the process of eliminating unused synapses 0 0 NOTE: - At birth, the midbrain and the medulla are the most fully developed. - The least-developed part of the brain at birth is the cortex Cortex 0 0 Primitive reflexes reflexes, controlled by “primitive” parts of the brain, that disappear during the first year of life Moro reflex Also known as startle reflex (frighten a baby) Babinski reflex Stroking of the bottom of a baby’s foot results to curling them in Colic an infant behavior pattern involving intense daily bouts of crying totaling 3 or more hours a day Gross motor skills include abilities such as crawling that enable the infant to get around in the environment Fine motor skills involve use of the hands, as when a 1-year-old stacks one block on top of another NOTE: - girls are ahead of boys in some aspects of physical maturity female infants may have a slight advantage in the development of fine motor skills, such as self-feeding more physically active and acquire gross motor skills faster than girls do. Esther Thelen suggested that the inborn timetable for motor skills development interacts with other aspects of physical develo the disappearance of the stepping reflex Stepping reflex the tendency for very young infants to attempt to take steps when they are placed in an upright position with th surface Dynamic systems theory the view that several factors interact to influence development Ossification The process of bone hardening Macronutrient malnutrition results from a diet that contains too few calories. Macronutrient malnutrition is the world’s leading cause of dea under the age of 5 Marasmus Sever calorie deficit Kwashiorkor almost enough calories but not enough protein Micronutrient malnutrition a deficiency of certain vitamins and/or minerals. Infant mortality death within the first year of life 0 0 Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) in which an apparently healthy infant die suddenly and unexpectedly 0 0
