Book Title: Human Learning
Author: Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
Fourth Edition
I. Chapter 1: Definitions and Perspectives of Learning
A. Importance of Learning
The learning process allows the human race a greater degree of flexibility and
adaptability than is true for any other species on the planet. Because so little of
our behavior is instinctive and so much of it is learned, we are able to benefit
from our experiences. Knowing what actions are more likely to lead to successful
outcomes.
B. Defining Learning
Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior as a result of
experience. Learning is a relatively permanent change in mental representations
or associations as a result of experience.
Other changes, such as those caused by maturational changes in the body,
organic damage, or temporary body states, are not attributable to experience and
so do not reflect learning.
C. Determining when learning has occurred
We know that learning has occurred only when we actually see it reflected
in a person’s behavior
D. Nature of Principles and Theories
Principles of learning identify specific factors that consistently influence
learning and describe the specific effects that these factors have.
Principles are most often used when they can be applied to a variety of
situations.
Theories of learning provide explanations about the underlying
mechanisms involved in the learning process.
Whereas principles tell us what factors are improtant for learning, theories
tell us why these factors are important.
1. Advantages of Theories
Principles of learning tend to be fairly stable over time, not
theories.
1. Parsimony–summarize research studies and integrate principles
2. Questions for new research
3. Help us make sense of research findings. Ex. Learned
Helplessnes: People who learn that they have no control over unpleasant
or painful events in one situation are unlikely, in later situations, to try to
escape or avoid those aversive events even when it is possible for them to
do so.
4. Can ultimately help to design learning environments that
facilitate human learning to the greatest possible degree.
2. Disadvantages of Theories
1. No single theory explains everything that researchers have
discovered about learning.
2. Theories affect what new information is published, therefore
biasing the knowledge that we have about
learning. Theories may sometimes impede
progress toward a truly accurate
understanding of the learning process.
3. A Perspective on Theories and Principles
Theories changing; principles enduring.
E. Applying Principles and Theories to Instructional Practice
Promote the kinds of learning that will facilitate students’ long-term
success. Different theories are applicable in different situations. More helpful to
think of theories in terms of their usefulness than in terms of their correctness.
II. Chapter 2: Learning and the Brain
A. Basic Building Blocks of the Human Nervous System
1. Neurons: Sensory neurons carry incoming information from receptor cells.
Interneurons integrate and interpret input from multiple locations.
Motor neurons send messages about how to behave and respond to
appropriate parts of the body.
Soma is the cell body.
Dendrites are branchlike structures that receive messages.
Axon is a long armlike structure that transmits information.
Terminal buttons contain certain chemical substances at end of
axon.
Myelin sheath covers in axon like a white, fatty substance. Helps
messages to travel more quickly.
Threshold of excitation for messages to be sent and interpreted.
2. Synapses
Transmition of information within a neuron is electrical,
transmission of information from one neuron to another is chemical.
Neurotransmitters are chemicals: dopamine, epinephrine,
norepinephrin, serotonon, amino acids, or peptides.
3. Glial Cells
Serve in supportive roles that enable neurons to do their work:
stable structure, chemicals, myelin sheaths, clean-up crew, etc.
4. Neurons, synapses, and gliagl cells are the basic building blocks that
make it possible for us to survive, to identify the stimuli we encounter, to feel
emotion, and to engage in may conscious thought processes that are distinctly
human.
B. Brain Structures and Functions: Thinking–even a single “piece of
knowledge–is rarely, if ever, located in a single spot.
1. Methods in Brain Research
A. Animals–chemical injections and consequential changes
B. People with brain injuries and other pathological conditions–
areas of abnormality
C. Electrical recording– Different patterns of brain waves.
Electrocephalograph (EEG)
D. Neuroimaging: Presumably, areas of greater blood flow or
metaolic rate reflect areas of the brain that contribute in significant ways
to the task in question.
2. Parts of the Brain
A. Hindbrain–physiological processes that keep us alive
(breathing, swallowing, sleeping, etc.)
B. Midbrain–supporting roles in vision and hearing; reticular
formation (attention and consciousness)
C. Forebrain–
Frontal Lobes–conscious thinking
Parietal Lobes– Somatosensory information
Occipital Lobes–Interpreting and remembering visual
information
Temporal Lobes–Complex auditory information; long-term
memory
Association areas–appear to integrate information from
various parts of the brain and cortex; essential for complex
thinking and behavior.
Limbic System–hippocampus (attention and learning)
Amygdala (emotions)
Thalamus–“switchboard operator”
Hypothalamus–survival skills
3. The Left and Right Hemispheres
A. Left Hemisphere–controlling the right side of the body, speech
and language comprehension, reading and mathematical calculation skills,
handle details
B. Right Hemisphere–visual and spatial processing, looking at and
synthesizing an overall whole
C. Rarely think exclusively in one hemisphere–joined together by
collection of neurons: Corpus Callosum
4. Interconnectedness of Brain Structures
Information is distributed across many parts of the brain–(rats).
C. Development of the Brain
1. Prenatal Development: Neurons quickly form
2. Development in Infancy and Early Childhood:
A. Synaptogenesis: increase rate of synapse formation
B. Synaptic Pruning: Cutting back of unused synapses
C. Myelination:coating of neural axons over time to speed up
processing
3. Development in Middle Childhood, Adolescence, and Beyond
4. Factors Influencing Brain Development
5. To What Extent Are There Critical Periods in Brain Development?
6. To what extent is the brain “prewired” to know or learn things?
D. The Physiological Basis of Learning
E. Educational Implications of Brain Research