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Political Collaboration during the Japanese Occupation of
Dumaguete: The Case of Mariano Perdices, Wartime Mayor (19421945)
Article in Prism · December 2015
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Political Collaboration during the Japanese Occupation of
Dumaguete: The Case of Mariano Perdices, Wartime Mayor
(1942-1945)
*1
Justin Bulado
ABSTRACT
The study is about Mayor Mariano Perdices' political collaboration with the Japanese
during World War II. It traces back his entry into politics and his roles as wartime mayor.
Apropos of his political collaboration, the study aims to answer whether Perdices was
an effective protector of the Dumagueteños or merely a puppet of the Japanese. Also,
the study makes Henrik Dethlefsen's definition of collaboration: "to exercise power
under the pressure produced by an occupying power", as a basis for finding out if the
Mayor indeed collaborated. This study is a work on local history; thus, the researcher
inveterately relied on documentary sources and interviews from the family of Perdices
and his contemporaries. Based on the corroborating pieces of evidence, it is clear that
Perdices worked with the Guerrilla Forces through his connections with Juan Dominado
and Lorenzo Cimafranca; he also did not exercise power as wartime mayor, and he was
instrumental in saving lives and mitigating the suffering of the Dumagueteños.
Keywords: Mariano Perdices, Japanese occupation of Dumaguete, World War II,
political collaboration, collaborators, local history.
INTRODUCTION
Filipino reaction to Japanese rule can clearly
be categorized into two. On the one hand were the
Filipinos who joined the Resistance Movement,
remained loyal to the Americans, fought side-byside with them, and refused to surrender to the
Japanese; on the other hand, were the Japanese
collaborators — most of whom belonged to
the elite class, were known to have a history of
collaborating with their colonial counterparts and
purportedly acquiesced to Japanese rule in order
to protect their properties, status, and vested
interests. The former need not detain us here,
as most of them are already remembered today
in history as heroes who risked, if not sacrificed,
their lives to defend, and later on regained, the
Philippines from the Japanese. What concerns us,
however, is the latter -- the unpopular government
1
College of Arts and Sciences, Social Science Department Negros Oriental State University
Main Campus I, Kagawasan Avenue, Dumaguete City, 6200, Philippines
*jjabulado@gmail.com
officials who collaborated with the Japanese.
In his book, Collaboration: Japanese Agents
and Local Elites in Wartime China, Timothy Brook
(2005: 1-2) stated that collaboration is putatively
defined as the “word which denigrates political
cooperation with an occupying force.” However,
he does not fully agree with this definition.
Following Henrik Dethlefsen’s (1990) view
on collaboration — that it is, “the continuing
exercise of power under the pressure produced
by the presence of an occupying power”— Brook
inferred that “those who collaborate must exercise
power to be said to have collaborated.” The said
definition is used or applied in this study. Using
Brook’s (2005) inference, political collaboration
can, therefore, be defined as acts of a government
official, who is still exercising power, and is
voluntarily working together with – or providing
aid to – an occupying force.
Prism Volume 20 Issue 2, (July- Dec. 2015)
52
Political Collaboration during the Japanese Occupation of Dumaguete
Among the local works on collaboration
in the Philippines, Philippine Collaboration in
World War II is one of the seminal sources on
the issue of collaboration during the Japanese
occupation of the Philippines from 1942 to 1945.
The book is written by Prof. David Steinberg
(1967: vii) of the University of Michigan, and is, to
use the author’s words, “an attempt to delineate
how this one society on the verge of gaining its
independence struggled to determine its standard
of values and its identity.” Furthermore, it
examines the question whether collaboration had
a negative connotation – which was, in the eyes
of the Americans and loyal Filipinos, oft-times in
consonance with treason – by revisiting or tracing
back the actions of Filipino collaborators in the
Japanese puppet government.
However, aside from narrating what the
collaborators did, Steinberg (1967) also included
the ramifications of their actions, which he
recounted in chapter seven, called The Trials. In
the said chapter, Steinberg narrated the challenges
of finding impartial judges who can administer
justice, not to mention the reticence of President
Manuel Roxas to run after, through the People’s
Court, the purported collaborators. As a result,
the political collaborators, most of whom belong
to the elite oligarchy, were exculpated from their
supposed crimes.
Again, being one of the seminal works about
Philippine Collaboration with the Japanese in
World War II, this book indeed serves as a guide
or major reference to the researcher in his study.
On one hand, irrespective if Perdices (or any
political collaborator from Negros Oriental) were
not included in the narrative of Steinberg, the
documented experiences of some local political
collaborators can most certainly be used as a
comparison with regard to their motivation for
collaborating. It is not to say, however, that all
political collaborators had the same motivation.
Nonetheless, there will invariably be unavoidable
parallelisms with some cases. On the other hand,
the content of Steinberg’s (1967) book, which
primarily deals with political collaborators at
the national level, will be of significant use in
the researcher’s study as it is also the aim of the
latter to juxtapose the local and national political
collaborators.
Another
source
about
Philippine
Collaboration is Augusto De Viana’s Master’s
Thesis at the University of Santo Tomas entitled
The Collaboration Issue during World War II in
the Philippines.1 In his work, De Viana (1995)
discussed that Filipino collaboration with
the Japanese took different forms – political,
economic, cultural, and military. He further
inferred that the Filipino political leaders were
clearly unprepared for Japanese occupation.
Moreover, since Quezon did not leave any clear
instructions before he left for Australia, the
Filipino leaders were faced with the conundrum
of choosing sides - whether they stand by the
Americans and the already established Philippine
Commonwealth Government, or shift sides and
choose the Japanese forces, or even perhaps
choose the Filipinos. De Viana then concluded
that “the collaboration issue was caused by a
conflict of the orientation of three allegiances” (as
hitherto mentioned) and that “the problem was
never given a final solution” (Conclusion section,
para. 1).
The thesis of De Viana (1995) is indeed
useful for this present study since it provides an
answer as to why many, if not all, of the surviving
Filipino political collaborators, believed that their
actions can be justified as acts of patriotism. More
importantly, De Viana also asked some questions
similar to those being posed in this present study:
“what caused the ruling elite to collaborate with
the Japanese when their original decision was to
oppose them?”, and “how did the political leaders
collaborate with the Japanese authorities during
their occupation of the country? “. De Viana’s
Bulado
thesis, together with Steinberg’s (1967) book,
so far are the primary sources that explicitly
explain the causes, nature, and effects of Filipino
Collaboration with the Japanese during World
War II.
In relation to the complex issue of
determining the motives for collaboration,
Renato Constantino delineated and categorized
the reasons why most of the Filipino elites
collaborated with the Japanese. Firstly, based
on the experiences of General ArtemioRicarte
and Leon Villafuerte who both fought during the
Philippine Revolution, Constantino reckons that
one of the motivations of some collaborators was
to continue with the previous struggle against the
Americans. Secondly, some of the collaborators
were driven by political ambition, as was the
case with Jorge Vargas and most of the elite
oligarchy. 2 (Constantino & Constantino, 1978,
108-109, 119). Thirdly, there were those who
collaborated because of Quezon’s instructions,
which was for those who would be left to protect
the people by all means and “perform neutral
functions pertaining to municipal administration
and the administration of justice” (Laurel, 1962:
4-5). These collaborators considered themselves
pro-Americans and were just waiting patiently
for their return. Fourthly, and on the contrary,
some collaborators inexorably worked with the
Japanese because they felt that “they had been
abandoned by the Americans” (Constantino,
1978: 116). Lastly, according to Constantino, fear
seems to have been a cogent reason to a plethora
of collaborators during the Japanese occupation.
Fear of Japanese brutalities heard from the
ubiquitous stories that spread like wildfire, and
the concomitant desire for safety not only for
themselves but also for their respective families
drove some of the ruling elite to collaborate.
More often than not, Filipinos who opted to
collaborate with the Japanese get a bad reputation
not just in the annals of history but generally
53
among those civilians who experienced World War
II. They are frequently branded as unpatriotic,
opportunistic, and treacherous. In this paper,
the researcher tries to argue on the contrary, just
like how Teodoro Agoncillo, the notable scholar
in Philippine History, averred that President
Laurel — who is oft-times, if wrongly considered
as a traitor — did nothing wrong when he
collaborated with the Japanese. For Agoncillo, the
collaborators in their actions had a “heroic touch”
as it was the only way to “cushion the shock of
the Japanese occupation” (Hila, 2001: 110). But
were they really “cushions”? If so, what were the
pieces of evidence that would support this claim?
How, then, did they mitigate the suffering of the
Filipinos? For the nonce, there are still other cases
apropos of the Japanese collaborators that are left
unanswered or unwritten. Thus, it is the aim of
this study to shed some light – and give a clearer
perspective – on Perdices’ political collaboration
with the Japanese in Dumaguete. Was he effective
as a protector of the Dumagueteños, or was he
merely a puppet?
The challenge for historians, however,
concerning the sensitive issue of collaboration
is that it is difficult to make inferences based on
morality. As Brook (2005: 5) professed:
For the historian rather than the polemicist, collaboration is a difficult word to
use. Its almost inarguable moral force
sensationalizes the acts of those who fall
under its label and lends the topic an energy that only wartime occupation can
excite. The capacity of the word to judge,
even before we know upon what basis
those judgments are being made interfere with analysis, however. As soon as
the word is uttered, it superimposes a
moral map over the political landscape
it ventures to describe and thus prevents
the one from being surveyed except
54
Political Collaboration during the Japanese Occupation of Dumaguete
through the other. Historians must legitimately ask how the moral subject
that collaboration presupposes was
fashioned, not retrospectively judge the
subject’s acts. We cannot accept the superimposed landscape as historical reality but nor can we pretend it does not
exist. Our task is rather to look through
the moral landscape towards the political one underneath and figure out
what goes on. [italics are mine]
Brook’s (2005) conundrum, with the
national stigma of Japanese occupation still fresh
among the Chinese, was on how to “go about
telling the story in a way that takes account of
suppressed memories?” How do you get rid of
the widespread stigma and tendentious views
against collaborators? Quite eruditely, though,
he was able to find an answer, and that was to
focus on the local history of small towns in the
Yangtze River Delta. Studying local elites in these
areas will change the perspective, thus perhaps
also the judgments and societal stigma, as it will
“help turn collaboration into a problem to be
investigated, not a moral failure to be tagged and
condemned”.
Most of the writings on Filipino collaboration
are based primarily on the national level. There
are a plethora of studies about the experiences of
Pres. Jose P. Laurel, Sen. Claro M. Recto, and other
national figures but only a few sources about the
local politicians who, to varying degrees, played
their part in history. There is a lacuna that needs
to be filled as far as the issue of collaborationism
at the local level is concerned. Moreover, looking
specifically at the local history of Dumaguete, the
researcher sees the need to fill the gap - political
or military - during the Japanese occupation. It
is the intent of this study to fill that gap, albeit
only a stepping-stone to further studies about the
complex issue of collaboration in Negros Oriental.
Methodolog y
This study is historical by nature —
thus, the historical method was used. The
historical method, as defined by Dr. Florentino
H. Hornedo, is an “attempt to account for the
past by showing what causes produced what
effects or results.” He further postulated that in
this method, the researcher discovers the past by
“discovering shreds of evidence”, while he “aims
to produce a narrative or story of how things or
conditions came about” (Hornedo, 1995: 1). The
researcher inveterately relied on archival work
(e.g. government documents, personal diaries,
and books); but interviews were also done.
Admittedly, this historical study focused more on
the local level, which is equally as significant as
that of the national level — because an assessment
of these local experiences is imperative before one
can even start writing about national experiences.
The readers can better understand the bigger
picture or, metaphorically speaking, the plant
(national history), if they first know about the
roots (local history).
This paper, therefore, deals with history at the
local level, and will trace back the experiences and
roles of Mariano Perdices as wartime mayor. Much
emphasis is given to his political collaboration
with the Japanese. What were his roles as wartime
mayor? Why did he perforced collaborate with the
Japanese? Or did he really collaborate -- that is,
to use Dethlefsen’s definition, “exercise power
under the pressure produced by an occupying
power” (Dethlefsen, 1990: 198-199) – with the
Japanese? The answers to these questions are
discussed in this study.
BACKGROUND
The Early Years of Tsila
Mariano Francisco Perdices was a
55
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quintessential politician – indeed, a product
– of his times. He had all the qualities of an
ideal politician – honest, ebullient, dedicated,
sagacious, and loyal to the public and his
party, the PartidoNacionalista. His colleagues/
contemporaries often admired his brute honesty
and delicadeza, while others detested it since it
made him inflexible to anyone, whether it was
his friends or even relatives, who wanted to take
advantage of his political position. The people
who had the chance to know and work with/for,
Mariano Perdices – or Tsila, as he was fondly and
endearingly called – always thought that he was
more “Filipino” than “Katsila”. In other words,
they look at him as someone that they can easily
relate with – even if, in reality, he looked more
“Katsila” than “Filipino”. This affection towards
Tsilahad something to do with his character, which
of course stemmed from his early upbringing.
Born on December 3, 1907, Mariano was the
second eldest out of six siblings and the only son
of Don Agustin Perdices and Doña Maria Bernad.
He was enrolled at St. Paul College during his
elementary years; however, after Grade 5, he
was transferred to San Carlos College in Cebu
City because boys, in St. Paul College, were
not allowed to continue and enroll in Grade
6. Nevertheless, Mariano graduated from high
school at San Carlos College in 1926 – graduating
as the valedictorian of his class. After high school,
Mariano then sought for a college degree and
enrolled in a two-year commerce course at UP
Junior College in Cebu City. Later, he enrolled in
UP Manila and earned a Bachelor of Science in
Business Administration (BSBA) degree in 1938.
Six years before he received his BSBA degree
in UP Manila, on December 11, 1932, Mariano
Perdices, at the age of 25, married Julia Miciano.
It seems that they got to know each other when
Perdices worked as a manager of Lux Theatre (a
movie house, owned by the Pastor family). They
were blessed with seven children, six of them
were boys and one girl. Their eldest, Eduardo
Judas (Bolone), was the secretary to his father
during his last years as Governor. He was also a
former barangay captain of the Rizal Boulevard
area, formally known as Barangay 5. Their second
eldest son, Agustin Ramon (Tuting), was the one
who followed his father’s footsteps, as he was
the former (undefeated) Mayor of Dumaguete
City from 1988-1998, 2001-2010, and Governor
of Negros Oriental from July 2010-January 2011.
Tuting was married to Maria Eugenia Araneta. The
rest of the Perdices brothers are Mariano Guillermo
(married to Maricar Gonzales), who worked as a
manager of Warner Barnes in Cebu; Luis Crispin
(married to MaripazGallaga), who used to work
for the foreign service in Manila; Augusto Manuel
(married to MarianelaNeriVamenta), who worked
with the local DBP office and is now a barangay
councilor; and Victor Douglas (married to Purita
Gala), who worked as manager of a private bank
in Manila. Their youngest, and the only girl, Maria
Antonia (married to Commodore George Templo)
who is a medical doctor.
Tsila’s Political Beginnings
The initial entry of Mariano Perdices into
politics was not planned; it was rather fortuitous.
He became Municipal Councilor of Dumaguete
because of the unexpected death of his fatherin-law, and incumbent councilor at that time, Dr.
Eduardo Miciano – who died on 21 April 1932
(Minutes of Dumaguete City Council, 1932).
However, Perdices still had to undergo a selection
process before he could assume the position that
was left vacant by his father-in-law in the municipal
council. The Provincial Board of Negros Oriental
was tasked by the Municipal Board to select
the replacement. Of course, the task of initially
selecting the nominees was given to the President
of the locally merged PartidoDemocrataNacionalistaIndependiente (Democratic Party-
56
Political Collaboration during the Japanese Occupation of Dumaguete
Nationalist Independence) – the political party of
Dr. Miciano. They were Mr. Jose Pastor, Luciano
Imbo, HospicioFortich, and Mariano Perdices
(Minutes of Dumaguete City Council, 1932). On
13 May 1932, two weeks after the names were sent
to the provincial board, the members, headed by
acting Governor Hon. Alberto V. Furbeyre, passed
Resolution No. 52 officially putting Mariano
Perdices as the replacement to his father-in-law,
Dr. Eduardo Miciano (Negros Oriental Provincial
Board Minutes, Resolution No. 52, 1932). On 14
May 1932, a day after the provincial board passed
Resolution No. 52, the Perdices formally joined
his first session as Councilor of Dumaguete. The
Mayor (or Municipal President, as he was formally
called) at that time was Hon. Jose P. Martinez. The
rest of the officials were:
Vice Mayor: H. Noble Amigo
Councilors:
Pedro Larena
Benito Alcancia
Macario Valencia
FulgencioMagbanua
Manuel Gonzales
Hugo Merto
Maximo Orbeta
Mariano Perdices
Thereafter, Perdices served the municipal
council in intervals, from 1932-1934, and 19391941. It is possible that he took a break from
1935-1938, to finish his studies in UP Manila.
Though not his full-time job, Perdices worked as
a councilor. Along with the other councilors who
met a few times in a month, he was only paid a
relatively small amount. A degree in business
from UP Manila also proved Perdices suitable to
his managerial position at the Lux Theatre. As a
politician, it is imperative for him to have ample
experience in the private sector so that he can
easily relate to the sentiments of the business
community, which indubitably plays a vital role
in politics.
Perdices took a liking to his job as a municipal
councilor, but he thought that he could do more.
He had already served as municipal councilor for
around six years, so he believed that he was ready
for a higher position. Interestingly, considering
that he was still a relatively young councilor,
the ever confident and determined Perdices
decided to skip the position of Vice Mayor. Albeit
ambitiously, he decided to run in the 1940
Dumaguete mayoralty race against incumbent
Mayor Pedro Teves 3, a seasoned politician who
started as mayor of Dumaguete in 1903, and later
on from 1934-1940. The fact that Perdices’ foe
was a formidable veteran to be reckoned with is
already a manifestation that Perdices was a risktaker, an attribute that he continued to practice
as he gradually climbed the political ladder even
after the war. His gumption to take on a veteran
politician is indeed admirable; back then, he had
nothing to lose. It was all or nothing for him in
the 1940 local elections.
The 1940 Dumaguete Mayoralty election
was a tight race. The candidates, Don Pedro Teves
and Don Mariano Perdices, both belonged to
well-to-do families and were, in their own right,
prominent individuals in Dumaguete. The former
was considered as an “old guard”- a seasoned
veteran who had the upper hand since he was
the incumbent mayor; the latter was a young,
dedicated, ambitious municipal councilor who
thought that he could do more for his constituents
if he were elected as municipal mayor. The feat
was Perdices’ first challenge – albeit not the most
difficult – in his prosperous political career; but
he was not at the receiving end, rather he was the
one challenging the incumbent mayor and he had
nothing to lose in that race.
On the other hand, being the incumbent
mayor, Teves had everything to lose. Perdices
emerged as the winner by a slim margin of 78 votes
57
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– receiving 1,393 votes, while Teves got 1,315.
The rest of the results for the other positions were
as follows4 (Minutes of Dumaguete City Council
Meeting, 1940):
Vice Mayor: NarcisoInfante
Felipe Pastor
Councilors:
Lorenzo G. Teves
Deogracias T. Pinili
Dr. Eduvigio G. Ruperto
Dr. Genovevo G. Absin
Sr. Calixto C. Degamo
Sra. Magdalena F. Garcia
Sra. Hermenegilda F. Gloria
Sr. Buenaventura Zamora
1,518 votes
1,025 votes
1,465 votes
1,398 votes
1,261 votes
1,061 votes
947 votes
865 votes
858 votes
770 votes
Ineluctability of Japanese Invasion
In retrospect, Japan’s military expansionism,
or aggression, was clearly evident in Asia even
before they attacked Pearl Harbor. For one, Japan
had a bitter rivalry with China, which eventually
resulted in violent clashes throughout the history
of both countries. Both nations fought intermittent
wars, famously called as the Sino-Japanese Wars.
The first Sino-Japanese War was fought in the
latter years of the 19th century, from 1894-1895,
while the second one from 1931 up until 1945.
These wars, especially the Second Sino-Japanese
War, were very violent and also very conspicuous
to the international community, and these made
the foreign colonizers (U.S., Britain, France, and
Netherlands) in Southeast Asia apprehensive.
Moreover, their anxiety was further exacerbated
when Japan joined a tripartite alliance with
Germany and Italy, which was, later on, was called
the Axis Powers. It was clear that the Americans
were cognizant of the possibility that Japan might
continue to expand to the other neighboring
countries including the Philippines and fulfill their
dream of hegemony in Asia. That being said, the
Allies felt that it was imperative to obviate Japan’s
expansion by cutting the flow of scrap irons and
oil shipments (Reischauer, 1981). Consequently,
the ramifications of the embargo to Japan proved
to have been undeniably distressing, as it became
an encumbrance to its economy. However,
America and its allies would soon feel its effects,
which turned out, albeit unexpectedly, if not
calamitously, to be a full-blown Japanese military
aggression and expansion to their colonies.
As the eminent historian Teodoro Agoncillo
has described, the early months of 1941 in the
Philippines was a period full of tension - especially
within the Commonwealth Government - as the
possibilities of war with Japan seemed likely to
happen (Agoncillo, 1965). With America and its
allies imposing economic embargos on Japan, it
then seemed to the Filipinos that war was indeed
ineluctable. In effect, Manuel L. Quezon, the
President of the Commonwealth Government,
ordered the creation of the Civilian Emergency
Administration (CEA), which was tasked to
help prepare the Filipino people for a possible
invasion. After Quezon appointed the members
of the said emergency administration, he then
“issued an executive order providing for the
organization of provincial, municipal, and city
chapters of the CEA whose purpose was to take
charge of civilian defense work in their respective
jurisdictions” (Agoncillo, 1965: 32). Undoubtedly,
the government officials of Dumaguete, headed
by the newly elected Mayor Mariano Perdices,
learned about the tension that the national leaders
of the Commonwealth Government felt. Thus, it
was the task of Perdices to coordinate with the
national government, in particular with the newly
established Civilian Emergency Administration.
Pre-War Preparations in Dumaguete
Looking back, we can interestingly note
that Perdices was immediately confronted with
58
Political Collaboration during the Japanese Occupation of Dumaguete
a herculean task after he was elected Mayor
of Dumaguete. Nevertheless, he accepted the
challenge and indefatigably performed his duty
as the chief executive amidst perilous times.
According to Prof. Caridad Rodriguez (2001:32),
since Dumaguete “became the center of the
administration and operation of the CEA” in
Negros Oriental, it was then the immediate task
of Perdices to coordinate with the administration.
Subsequently, the people of Dumaguete took
part in “air raid drills” and “practice blackouts”
(Rodriguez, 2001: 32). As a sign of his willful
coordination with the CEA, Perdices ordered
the creation and appointment of “different
committees to be headed by members of the
municipal council and to compose of civilians,
to study problems of food supplies, shelter,
excavation and relief ” (Minutes of Dumaguete
City Council, 1 March 1914). As agreed upon by
the municipal council, Perdices was also delegated
to “encourage the public to raise more vegetables
and root crops through the utilization of vacant
spaces in between their homes; and that all the
families should be encouraged to store up food
supplies to last for at least two weeks” (Minutes of
Dumaguete City Council, 1 March 1914).
By and large, however, all these preparations
did not necessarily typify the sort of general
feeling among the Dumagueteños. For instance,
on June 19, 1941, Perdices and the members of
the municipal council, still called for a parade to
celebrate Jose Rizal’s 80th birthday. The event
was joined by the different schools in Dumaguete
and the Volunteer Guard Units (Minutes of
Dumaguete City Council, Resolution No. 93, 2
June 1941). This birthday celebration for Rizal
was a tradition of Dumaguete dating back from
1939. Furthermore, the municipal government
was fortunate to be assisted by the Negros
Oriental Writers Guild, which willingly sponsored
the birthday celebration.
The mirthful mood of the Dumagueteños,
however, was only ephemeral. After almost a year,
the Japanese arrived and Perdices was faced with
the daunting task of maintaining peace, if not
normalcy.
Japanese Invasion of Dumaguete
On December 8, 1941, the day after the
bombing of Pearl Harbor, the dreaded invasion
of the Philippines had finally commenced. And
since it took them about five months to arrive
in Dumaguete, the Dumagueteños also had
ample time to continue with their preparations.
Nonetheless, this meant that all the preparations
conducted by the CEA – air raid drills, practice
blackouts, etc. – would now be put to the test. It
was only a matter of time.
The reaction of the Dumagueteños to the
start of the war varied. Rodriguez (2001: 33) stated
that they had “mixed feelings of fear, anxiety,
excitement and uncertainty for the future.” Some
people were in panic buying essential supplies
which eventually depleted the stocks from the
various stores in Dumaguete. Nevertheless, the
people were always advised to continue with
their daily lives, as if there was no invasion. They
were encouraged not just to buy food from the
stores, but also to plant personally and cultivate.
The Silliman community also played a vital role
in the wartime preparations, as some professors
like Frances Rodgers (Home Economics Teacher)
and Alice Fullerton (Head Nurse of the Mission
Hospital) helped train the Dumagueteños in
camp cookery and first aid (Rodriguez, 2001: 3637).
After hearing the news about Pearl
Harbor, the Mayor immediately went straight to
his office to meet the Philippine Constabulary
(PC) about the situation. In this briefing, he
advised the 50 members of the PC to “remain
calm, to have courage, and to keep faith with
the United States” (Cleope, nd: 131). Fear and
59
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distress, however, were unequivocally felt by the
Dumagueteños, with some of them deciding to
leave Dumaguete and settling in the outskirts or
the hinterlands, which to them, was safer than
the town. Being the Mayor of Dumaguete and
as the person who spearheaded and oversaw
the wartime preparations, Perdices had already
anticipated the coming of the Japanese to his
town, with its accompanying inimical effects.
Thus, he sought to secure and gather food
supplies for his constituents by sending a truck to
northern Negros Oriental to get cereals. Similarly,
he was able to acquire some foodstuffs from
Mindanao. And because it was important to share
the provisions equally, he then called for proper
rationing. Lastly, he was able to organize or create
“warning, first aid, reserve and fire prevention
systems” (Cleope, nd: 131).
Before the Japanese arrived in Dumaguete,
some Dumagueteños pondered on the notion that
the town should be burned, perhaps following the
example of Russia during the Napoleonic epoch.
After hearing these purported plans, Perdices,
who was completely opposed to the idea, met with
Silliman President Arthur L. Carson and voiced out
his disagreement with the said plan. He requested
Carson for a possible postponement of the plan
to give time for him and perhaps other municipal
officials to warn the people and to bring them to
safety, which was his primary concern. He found
it futile, if not devastating, to burn the town as
he thought: “the only people to suffer from a
burning policy would be the Filipinos” (Carson,
1965, p. 134). In the end, Perdices’ request was
granted and it proved to have been beneficial to
the Dumagueteños, as some of them – those who
escaped to the hinterlands – gradually returned
to their houses during the Japanese occupation.
In a way, Perdices – through his request to
Carson – practically saved the town from being
impractically burned down.
The Japanese finally arrived in Dumaguete
in the early morning of 26 May 1942. They were
met unopposed, as Dumaguete at that time was
“practically deserted” (Rodriguez, 2001: 38). As
his house was relatively nearer to the sea port,
Perdices saw the Japanese ships coming. Being of
Castilian descent (a white man, possibly mistaken
for an American), he also thought that maybe
the Japanese might shoot him first before asking
a question, so he immediately decided to leave
the town and return to Ogajong where his family
temporarily resided for safety reasons (Cleope,
nd: 133). However, on the following day, Perdices
returned to Dumaguete and was peremptorily
ordered by the Japanese to report to Park Hotel
(the Japanese headquarters in Dumaguete at
the onset) and was told to continue his duties
as municipal mayor; this proved to have been a
good thing for the Dumagueteños.
The first action of Perdices was then to ask
his constituents who fled to the hinterlands to
return to their homes. He was successful in doing
so. The Dumagueteños gradually returned to
their houses when they knew that he still acted as
town mayor. The people’s decision to return was
not in vain; in fact, it was the mission of Perdices
to help the people of Dumaguete in whatever way
he could. It was his responsibility as town mayor
to safeguard his people amidst perilous times.
Life in the Occupied Area
At the onset, the Japanese forces acted
benevolently in Dumaguete, because they wanted
the Dumagueteños, who fled to the hinterlands
to return to the town and live normally, just like
before. The Japanese also wanted to assure or
show the Dumagueteños that they came as friends
– not as enemies; and that the enemies were the
Americans. By and large, this strategy was part
of a large-scale Japanese propaganda in Asia,
which branded the Americans, and other Western
colonizers, as the enemies, while proclaiming
60
Political Collaboration during the Japanese Occupation of Dumaguete
themselves (the Japanese) as the ally – primarily
because they were Asians. In brief, they wanted
to evince that “Asia should be for the Asians.”
Nevertheless, the Japanese, to some degree,
were successful in Dumaguete, as people started
to return to their homes. Henceforth, according
to Rodriguez, the conditions in Dumaguete
became fairly good, as the Japanese were able
"to maintain order and discipline among the
people"; although, it is necessary to note that the
number of individuals had relatively decreased by
then, which perhaps made it an easier task for the
Japanese (Rodriguez, 2001). The benevolence of
the Japanese, however, was only short-lived.
Everything changed after the Kempeitai
(Secret Police) arrived. As Perdices lamented
in his personal war diary, they were “ruthless
and feared by the civilians”, and were entirely
different from the Keibitani (Regular Army) who
consisted of well-behaved soldiers (Cleope,
nd: 133). The Kempeitai brought anguish to
the Dumagueteños and, just like their Western
counterpart – the Gestapo (Nazi Secret Police),
were also responsible for conducting pernicious
methods of torture. Therefore, one had to be very
careful especially if he/she resided in the occupied
area, as the Kempeitaiwere always on the lookout
for guerrilla informants or even sympathizers.
Indeed, Lorenzo Cimafranca, an intelligence
operative in Dumaguete during the war, was
right when he said that “anything can happen” to
anybody in the occupied area, especially when the
Kempeitaiwere around (Interview with Lorenzo
Cimafranca, 19 January 2012).
Throughout the whole duration of Japanese
occupation in Dumaguete, Perdices – being the
wartime mayor – was able to know, and somehow
casually befriend, the five Japanese commanders,
who were stationed in Dumaguete and were in
charge of the military forces in the province. They
were the following: Captain Tsuda, Lieutenant
Shirai (who was the strictest of them all, according
to Perdices), Lieutenant Tanaka, Captain
Sakamoto, and the last one Colonel Oie. Among
these officers was Captain Sakamoto – a Christian
– who used to play basketball with Perdices and
his team called the Eight O’Clockers. During the
war, playing basketball was one of the means of
amusement of the Dumagueteños, especially for
the mayor who was a sports enthusiast.
Life in the occupied area – that is,
Dumaguete – during the Japanese occupation
was rather mundane. Most of the people who
returned and decided to stay in the occupied area
lived normally, although with a few restrictions.
According to Julia Perdices, wife of Mariano
Perdices, the old routines of the Dumagueteños
included stopping over, talking, and mingling
with close friends; playing sports like basketball,
soccer, baseball; and indulging in leisurely pasttimes like mah-jong (Cleope, nd). To Mayor
Perdices, he thought “life was boring.” He
further observed that a majority of the business
establishments in the town were either closed
or ransacked by the Japanese who supposedly
confiscated “refrigerators, cars, and jewelry”
which they later on shipped to Japan (Cleope, nd:
134). The Mayor's typical daily routine was to “go
to his office in the morning, see to the distribution
of cereals, have lunch, siesta, chat with friends,
and probably play basketball” (Cleope, nd: 134).
Apparently, apropos of the collaboration
issue, Perdices did not exercise power. As town
mayor, his position was merely symbolic. “All
final decisions”, as Robert B. Silliman (1980: 52)
recalled, “were to rest in the hands of the Japanese
commander...” The Japanese merely placed him
there to make the Dumagueteños believe in their
purported benevolence or good intentions.
As time passed, the Japanese forces in
Dumaguete gradually started to be vigilant.
Civilians were gratuitously thrown into prison just
out of mere suspicion. The Japanese also started
to confiscate a lot of things especially those that
Bulado
they thought can be used against them. One of
these is the radio, which the Japanese feared
could supply or broadcast information, if not
anti-Japanese propagandas, from the Americans.
Matter-of-factly, the Mayor's personal radio was
not an exception, as the Japanese also confiscated
it (Cleope, nd). Furthermore, the Japanese also
organized the Bureau of Constabulary (BoC),
which consisted of Filipino volunteers whose
responsibility was to maintain peace in the
municipality. According to Perdices, the BoC’s
had a “reputation for cruelty and collaboration”.
He added, “They were generally young men
who were veterans of Bataan and Corregidor”
(Cleope, nd: 134). This was indeed an effective
strategy of the Japanese because it further divided
the Filipinos. The guerrilla forces abhorred those
who worked for the BoC which was headed
by Col. Salvador Abcede; on the other hand,
although not entirely, the members of the BoC
also despised the guerrillas who persecuted some
of their colleagues as traitors.
Lastly, the Japanese were also busy in
improving their airpower by “concentrating their
warplanes in the Dumaguete airport” (Rodriguez,
2001: 42). Their preparations, however, were
very conspicuous, since they even tried to make
dummy planes, so as to hoodwink any possible
American air raid. In the end, the multitude of
warplanes stationed in Dumaguete airport would
soon attract the attention of the guerrilla forces
in Negros Oriental and would ultimately result in
the grand intelligence plan of making a blueprint.
The said plan, which would then be sent to the
Americans in Australia, was fittingly tasked to
the District Engineer, Eduardo J. Blanco, and his
assistant Jovenal Somoza. These individuals (i.e.
Engr. Blanco, Engr. Somoza, etc.) who played
a significant role in this remarkable military
intelligence feat are already commemorated and
revered (by those who remember) in Dumaguete.
However, there are details behind the story that
61
are perhaps treated only as a historical minutia
and are not so familiar to the people. An example
of such detail is how intelligence operative
Lorenzo Cimafranca was able to meet with Engr.
Blanco.
Briefly, the person who was responsible
for bridging, or introducing, Cimafranca to
Blanco was Mayor Mariano Perdices. Trifling as
it may sound, this detail proved to have had a
significant effect on the story. Without Perdices’
assistance, the plan would not have succeeded,
as Cimafranca would not have been introduced
to Blanco. Hence, this participation of Perdices
in the guerrilla movement is one of the most
significant acts that he did throughout his term as
wartime mayor. It is thus appropriate to discuss
the story behind this and analyze the impact of
this supposedly minor, if noteworthy, detail.
Roles of the Wartime Mayor: Traitor or Savior?
The guerrillas in Negros Oriental were
incessantly on the move especially in the occupied
area of Dumaguete and were looking for any
possible loopholes in the Japanese’ defense.
However, they lacked in number and military
equipment if compared with the Japanese.
Nevertheless, their only means of achieving victory
was to coordinate with the Americans through the
conveyance of military intelligence information.
Gathering information that could be used against
the Japanese thus became their primary mission
in the occupied area – although, at the same time,
they still fought the Japanese in the hinterlands.
Intelligence gathering was thus delegated
to some intelligence operatives stationed or
assigned in Dumaguete. One of those intelligence
operatives was Lorenzo Cimafranca – a young but
audacious boy during the war who volunteered
to join the guerrilla movement. His story vividly
reveals the heroism of some Dumagueteños,
and their temerity to help their country in times
62
Political Collaboration during the Japanese Occupation of Dumaguete
of need. His story needs to be retold for one
important reason: Mayor Perdices played a vital
role in it. Secondly, the operation proved to
have had a significant effect on the subsequent
American arrival in Dumaguete. It was indeed a
remarkable achievement that was brought about
by men – Perdices, the government officials, and
the guerrilla fighters – who meticulously and
surreptitiously coordinated with each other as
they believed that they were bound to serve their
country in many ways as they can.
The young Cimafranca was still studying
at Silliman University when the war broke out.
During the Japanese occupation of Dumaguete,
he was able to learn about the guerrilla movement
that was particularly active in the hinterlands
and was being headed by a certain Maj. Juan
Dominado. It was in fact, Maj. Dominado, who
convinced Cimafranca to join the guerrilla
movement and appointed him as a part of the
Intelligence Section stationed in the occupied
area (Cleope, nd).
One of the missions of Cimafranca was
to send a letter, from Maj. Dominado, to Engr.
Eduardo J. Blanco, who was the district engineer
of Negros Oriental at that time. This letter was
later on known as a form of a request to Engr.
Blanco; it was one that would possibly put his
life and that of his family, at risk. It was a request
to make a blueprint or a map of the Dumaguete
Airport, where the Japanese warplanes were
conspicuously located. This map was direly
needed to help the Americans pinpoint the exact
locations of the Japanese military aircraft since
the Japanese purposely made dummy planes
to deceive the American bombers. Cimafranca,
however, had a predicament in hand. He did not
know Blanco personally and was quite shy to
approach him. As a result, he asked for the help
of Mayor Perdices, who was a close friend of Engr.
Blanco and whom he (Cimafranca) knew quite
well as they were neighbors in San Jose Street
(Lorenzo Cimafranca, personal communication,
January 19, 2012). As Cimafranca recalled,
Mayor Perdices was very willing to help him in
his mission and even volunteered to visit Blanco
initially to check if he was keen to accept the
letter (Cleope, nd). Subsequently, after knowing
that Blanco was interested to know the content
of the letter, Perdices accompanied Cimafranca
to the Blanco household. As the latter recalled,
Perdices and Blanco conversed in Spanish; a
language he could not understand since he did
not speak Spanish nor was he of Spanish descent.
After Blanco received the letter, Perdices and
Cimafranca then left the household with their
mission completed. However, curious of what
Perdices and Blanco talked about, Cimafranca
then innocuously asked about the topic of their
conversation. Perdices then told him that, for
Blanco, “this was an opportunity for him to do
something for our country as many people do not
have the chance to do so” (Cleope, nd: 20).
After that, Blanco and his assistant Engr.
Somoza started to make the blueprints of the
Dumaguete Airport. He finished the map in time
(in a week’s time) and accurately pinpointed
the locations of “the armory, the oil storage, the
ammunition dump, the barracks, as well as, where
the airplanes were located” (Cleope, nd: 20).
He then gave it to Cimafranca, who was tasked
to transport the map that was adroitly hidden
in clandestine inside the bar of the handle of a
bicycle, back to the hinterlands, and ultimately
to the hands of the American military in Australia
(Lorenzo Cimafranca, personal communication,
January 19, 2012).
Sometime in September of 1944, the
Americans were able to hit those positions
indicated by the map with pinpoint precision,
making the Kempeitai suspicious about the
possibility that some Filipino officials in the
occupied area might have collaborated with the
resistance movement. Consequently, many were
Bulado
arrested. The Kempeitai specifically targeted
government officials including Perdices, Blanco,
Somoza, etc. They were interrogated and most
probably tortured at the Silliman University’s
Davao Cottage. Nevertheless, none of them
squealed or revealed some information about
the other guerrilla members who took part in
the mission. In the end, Perdices was fortunately
released by the Kempeitai on the 12th of October
1944, but Blanco, Somoza, and two others were
executed5 (Cleope, nd). According to Cimafranca
(2012), had at least one of them squealed, he
would have also been imprisoned and possibly
executed. The efforts done by Perdices and
Blanco and the risks that they made just to help
oust the Japanese in Negros Oriental are stories
that should be remembered.
Another example of Perdices' connection
with the guerrilla movement was his regular
meet-ups with Major Juan Dominado, who was
an officer of the guerrilla movement. Dominado
would go back and forth to Perdices’ house in
San Jose Street to confer and coordinate with the
Mayor. Also, Perdices would also send medicines
to Dominado to give to his compatriots in the
hinterlands. Indeed, it was a difficult task; Perdices
had to tread the line and be extra careful with his
actions. He was playing a double game.
One way of showing his support for
the guerrilla movement was by sharing vital
information about the Japanese in the occupied
area and, of course as hitherto discussed, assist the
intelligence operatives stationed in Dumaguete.
As Cimafranca (2012) tersely said, “It was through
him that I got all the information [about the
Japanese in the occupied area]” (Interview
with Cimafranca). On another note, Maj. Juan
Dominado also recalled that after hearing his
plan of a “blacklist” mission, which encouraged
violence against Japanese “collaborators” in
Dumaguete, Perdices did not even want the
supposed “collaborators” (e.g. informants,
63
members of the BoC, etc.) to be harmed or killed.
The Mayor reprobated the so-called plan because
insofar as he was concerned, they were still his
constituents. Furthermore, although Perdices
understood the sentiments of the guerrilla rebels,
he still believed that it was not the right way, nor
was it the right time, to attain justice. This plea of
Perdices indeed saved a lot of lives6 (Cleope, nd).
There is no doubt that Perdices tried his best
to save as many lives as he could. Perdices even
succored the wife of Major Juan Dominado whose
life was in danger after the Japanese learned
that he [Dominado] helped plan the escape of
USAFFE officer Lt. Vail and his wife. As the story
goes, after Lt. Vail and his wife had escaped, the
Japanese looked for Dominado and went to his
house. However, they could not find anyone there
because Dominado was out in the hinterlands.
Perdices helped Dominado's wife by hiding her
“in the closet of another house which belonged
to her relatives”7 (Silliman, 1980: 102; Mills,
2009: 57-58). Mentioned in the case of Fausto
Avila, a sergeant of the Provincial Guard Service
under the command of Governor Guillermo
“Memong” Villanueva and who also worked in
the Public Opinion Office8, was another instance
of Perdices’ efforts to save lives: it was when the
Mayor helped free Socorro Cariño, who was
arrested by the Kempeitai on March 17, 1943.
For the second time, Cariño was arrested because
the Japanese thought he had contacts with the
guerrilla movement. Suffice it to say that he was
fortunate that Perdices was there to help him
after eleven days of captivity (The People of the
Philippines vs. Fausto Avila, G.R. No. L-944, May
26, 1949).
Some of the people living in Dumaguete
during the war saw the magnanimity of Perdices
and the risk that he took just to ameliorate the
situation in his town. One of these individuals was
Arthur Carson, President of Silliman University. In
his book, Sa Kabukiran, he recalled that of all the
64
Political Collaboration during the Japanese Occupation of Dumaguete
collaborators, it was Mariano Perdices who “tried
to make the best out of the bad situation.” As
Carson (nd: 126-127) described the Mayor:
No doubt he tried honestly to carry out reasonable instructions of the conquering power, but his loyalty was to his own people. He
resolutely refrained from any unnecessary
activities that might have pleased the conquerors. When he was asked, for example,
to help round up the Americans, his reply is
reported to have been something like this,
“Where the Americans went I do not know.
Some disappeared in this direction, some
in that. Undoubtedly they are somewhere
in the mountains, but I am a man of the
lowlands. I know nothing about the mountains. You must go there yourselves.” There
was no time that we did not respect Mayor
Perdices, and we came to have deep admiration for him when he later was found to
be risking his life daily to act as a link in
the resistance chain of intelligence. At each
step he remained true to the people who
had elected him and to the duties of the office which he had been chosen to fill.[Italics
are mine]
Reoccupation of the Americans
The return of the Americans was inexorable.
Feelings were mixed among the Japanese and the
Filipinos. On the one hand, the Japanese were
somehow perturbed and were becoming too preoccupied with their preparations for the possible
re-occupation of the Americans. Unfortunately,
this proved to have been detrimental to the
Dumagueteños. As a sign of desperation, the
Japanese frenetically arrested Filipinos whom
they thought collaborated with the guerrilla
movement. They became “more indifferent to the
people” (Rodriguez, (2001:47). More and more
prominent individuals were arrested for mere
suspicion of collaboration with the Americans. On
the other hand, the Dumagueteños were hopeful,
optimistic, and anticipative for the promised
return of the Americans.
The Americans arrived in Dumaguete at
dawn on April 26, 1945. At that time, Perdices
was still hiding from the Japanese who were
always hunting him down; this was part of their
last desperate attempt to punish those who
belonged to or helped the guerrilla movement.
According to his son, Luis, his father was just
hiding in an “air raid” shelter that was located on
the ground floor of their house at San Jose Street
(Luis Perdices, personal communication, January
14, 2012). He was never caught by the Japanese
because the Americans were able to come just in
time to save his life. In fact, the Japanese were
planning to execute him (if ever he was captured)
on the birthday of Emperor Hirohito on April 29,
1945, just three days after the Americans arrived.
Subsequently, after the arrival of the Americans,
the Japanese then fled to the hinterlands and
established their last stronghold there. However,
they were not able to last, and it was most likely
because of the diminishing supplies (food, water,
and ammunitions). In the end, the Japanese
soldiers, headed by Col. SatosiOie, officially
surrendered with his samurai formally handed
over on September 22, 1945, at Guinsoan,
Zamboanguita (Rodriguez, 1989).
Conclusion
Basing on Henrik Dethlefsen’s (1990:198199) definition of collaboration, that is, to
“exercise power under the pressure produced
by an occupying power”, it is indubitably clear
that Mayor Mariano Perdices did not really
collaborate with the Japanese. He did not have
the political power that he used to have as Mayor
of Dumaguete (before the Japanese occupation)
65
Bulado
nor did he adhere to their beliefs and sentiments.
He simply took advantage of his position and
used the modicum of influence that he had to
safeguard the people.
The role of Perdices, too, as wartime mayor
was not only to maintain the health and sanitation,
and to keep the people calm but he was also
active, if clandestinely, in the guerrilla movement.
His bits of advice to Major Juan Dominado saved
the town from being burned down to ashes and
the lives of some “collaborators” who would have
been unjustly executed by the guerrilla forces.
His role in serving as the bridge between Lorenzo
Cimafranca and Engr. Eduardo J. Blanco proved
to have had a significant effect in weakening the
Japanese military strength, which helped pave the
way for an easier re-occupation of the Americans
in Dumaguete. These stories, as hitherto and
exhaustively discussed in the content, would
clearly point out that Mayor Perdices took a great
risk in collaborating or playing a “double-game”
with the Japanese for the sake of shielding the
Dumagueteños from harm.
His situation was similar to that of President
Jose P. Laurel, as both of them used their
positions to help save more lives and to mitigate
the suffering of their constituents. It is possible
and indeed probable that his benevolence during
the war was not forgotten by the Dumagueteños
and Oriental Negrenses as a whole. Perdices had
a long and prosperous political career afterward,
serving again as Mayor of Dumaguete from 19541959, and Governor of Negros Oriental from
1959 to 1972. Without a doubt, Mayor Perdices
was a blessing to the Dumagueteños during the
Japanese occupation. His collaboration was of
a different kind and is one of the many untold
stories left out in the annals of our national
history.
Notes:
1. De Viana later on developed his thesis into a
book entitled Kulaboretor!: The Issue of Political
Collaboration during World War II, which the University of Santo Tomas Press published in 2003.
2. According to Constantino, Vargas, at one point,
aspired to become the President of the Puppet
Government.
3. In addition, the current City Hall of Dumaguete
City was made during Don Pedro Teves’ term as
Mayor in 1937.
4. NarcisoInfante, who was also a municipal councilor before the elections, defeated the incumbent
Vice-Mayor, Felipe Pastor by a relatively large margin. The local election of 1940 also produced
very promising winners in the council. They conspicuously held the top two spots in the council
– Lorenzo G. Teves, who would later reach the
pinnacle of his political career as a Senator, and
Deogracias T. Pinili, who would replace Perdices
as Mayor after the Japanese occupation. Among
the two, it was Lorenzo Teves who turned out to
become a close friend and ally of Perdices, as they
also belonged to the same party. It is possible that
their harmonious political relationship started
here. It was a relationship that lasted until Perdices became Governor of Negros Oriental.
5. There are varied stories about how Engr. Eduardo J. Blanco, Engr. Jovenal Somoza, Jesus Chi,
and a certain Portuguese by the name of Silva
were executed. But according to Cimafranca, it
has been said that the aforementioned individuals were placed in a sack and thrown into the sea,
a few kilometers off the wharf of Dumaguete.
6. Dominado’s encounter with Perdices happened in December 1942, which was two months
66
Political Collaboration during the Japanese Occupation of Dumaguete
after the putative “blacklist” operations – which,
according to TimoteoOracion, led to the deaths
of Ompoy Flores (considered as a lackey of
TeodoricoLajato, from the Public Opinion Office), a certain Cabaron (police officer), Miguel
Patero(Ajong, Sibulan), Jesus Villanueva (Luzurriaga, now Valencia), and Jose Pepe Martinez (an
executive of the Provincial Board) – during the
last week of October and first week of November.
However, these blacklist missions were put on
hold after Perdices’ advise.
7. Perdices’ effort to help the wife of Dominado
is corroborated by Prof. Roy Bell of Silliman University.
perusing my paper just to fit the necessary format
required for Prism (NORSU Journal). In addition,
I would like to thank my colleagues from the
Social Science Department for the discussions
and useful information on the subject matter.
Above all, I would like to thank my other half, Ms.
Tasha Maxine Flores, faculty of the English and
Literature Department, NORSU, for encouraging
me to finish this paper, for accompanying me
wherever I go to find the needed sources, and
for being the first one to copy-edit this paper.
Without a doubt, her patience and belief in the
significance of this study are the reasons why it
was not so difficult to finish this paper.
REFERENCES:
8.The Public Opinion Office was tasked to seek
information about the guerrilla forces and report
it to the Kempei Tai ( Japanese Secret Police). It
was otherwise known as theJapanese Spy Corps.
The head of this office was TeodoricoLajato.
Agoncillo, T. (1965). The fateful years: Japanese
adventure in the Philippines, 1941-45.
Quezon City: RP Garcia Publishing Company.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Brook, T. (2005). Collaboration: Japanese agents
and local elites in wartime China. Harvard
University Press.
This study would not have come to its
present form if not for the assistance and advice
of some important individuals. First of all, I would
like to thank God for his omniscient presence as
I laboriously went through making this paper
possible. Secondly, I would like to thank my family
for their wholehearted support in most of my
endeavors. To Dr. Earl Jude Cleope, Dean of the
College of Arts and Sciences, Silliman University,
for providing me with some valuable sources
and advice apropos of the Japanese occupation
of Dumaguete during World War II. I would also
like to thank the research coordinators of REXIL
(Research Extension and International Linkages):
Dr. Pedrina Patron, Prof. Rhodora Cleope, Prof.
Maridol Paculanang, and Prof. Dan Jerome
Barrera for encouraging me to submit this paper
for publication, and for doing the tedious task of
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1901-1959. Taiwan: University Board for
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Carson, A. (n.d.). SaKabukiran.
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De Viana, A. (1995). The Collaboration Issue
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Dethlefsen, H. (1990). Denmark and the German
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Agoncillo. Manila, Philippines: UST
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Laurel, J.P. (1962). War Memoirs.Manila: Jose P.
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Professor Bell’s Private War against the
Japanese.Annapolis: Naval Institute Press.
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(1932, May 13). Dumaguete City, Negros
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