List of Important pH values Definition of pH scale: The unit for measuring the level of acid or alkali in a substance is called PH. And the one by which it is measured is called PH scale. Hydrogen molecules determine the acidic and basic nature of a substance. If a liquid or object has a pH of 1 or 2, it is acidic, and if it has a pH of 13 or 14 , it is alkaline. If the PH is 7 then it is neutral . 1. PH is a type of unit that shows the acidity or alkalinity of any solution . 2. The acidity, basicity or neutrality of a solution can be seen from the pH value. 3. It can be easily measured as the positive, negative property of the number of hydrogen ions present in a solution . PH Full Form: “ Potential of Hydrogen” or “Power of Hydrogen” The strength of hydrogen in any solution is called pH. List of pH of some substances and their values: List of substances Pure water Hydrochloric Acid (HCL ) Values It is neither acidic nor alkaline. 0 Human blood 7.4 Milk 6.4 Vinegar Lemon juice NaCL 3 2-3 7 Acidic solution less than 7 Alkaline solution more than 7 Neutral solution 7 Alcohol Human urine Sea water 2.8 4.8-8.4 8.5 Rain 2 - 5.6 Tea 5.5 Black Coffee Tears 5 7.4 Human saliva 6.5 - 7.5 Common salt 7 Battery Acid (H2SO4 ) 1 Apple, soda 3 Pickle 3.9 Tomato 4.5 Banana 4.5 - 5.2 Acid rain Bread Red meat Cheddar cheese around 5.0 5.3-5.8 5.4 to 6.2 5.9 Butter 6.1 to 6.4 Fish 6.6 to 6.8 Shampoo 7.0 to 10 Toothpaste about 9 Milk of magnesia 10.5 Ammonia 11.0 Hair Stroking Chemicals 11.5 to 14 Lime ( calcium hydroxide ) 12.4 Potassium hydroxide 13.0 Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH ) 14.0 Baking Soda ( Sodium Bicarbonate ) 8.3 ___________________________O________________________________ Concave and Convex Mirrors What are Mirrors? A mirror is a reflective surface that reflects light and creates a real or imaginary image. When an object is placed in front of a mirror, the mirror reflects the image of the same object. The incident rays are coming from the object, and the reflected rays are what produce the image. The classification of the images as real or virtual depends on where the light rays intersect. The two types of mirrors that are most commonly used are: ❖ Spherical Mirrors, and ❖ Plane Mirrors Plane Mirrors The most typical mirrors are flat and are referred to as “plane mirrors.” A fine layer of silver nitrate or aluminum is deposited behind a flat piece of glass to construct plane mirrors. When a light beam strikes a plane mirror, the light ray is reflected in such a way that it makes an equal angle with the incident ray that is, the angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence. Spherical Mirrors The curved surface we see of a shining spoon can be considered a curved mirror. The most widely used type of curved mirror is the spherical mirror. Important Terms used in Spherical Mirrors : ● Pole: The midpoint or the center point of the spherical mirror. It is represented by capital P. All the measurements are made from it only. ● Aperture: An aperture of a mirror is a point from which the reflection of light actually takes place or happens. It also gives an idea about the size of the mirror. ● Principal axis: An imaginary line that passes through the optical center and from the center of curvature of a spherical mirror. All the measurements are based on this line. ● Centre of Curvature: The point in the center of the mirror surface that passes through the curve of the mirror and has the same tangent and curvature at that point. It is represented by the capital letter C. ● Radius of Curvature: It is considered as the linear distance between the pole and the center of curvature. It is represented by the capital letter R, ● Principal Focus: Principal Focus can be called the Focal Point also. It is present on the axis of a mirror where the rays of light parallel to the principal axis converge or appear to converge or diverge after reflection. ● Focus: It is any given point on the principal axis where light rays parallel to the principal axis will converge or appear to converge after getting reflected from the mirror. Types of Spherical Mirrors Spherical Mirrors are categorized into two types: ● Concave Mirrors ● Convex Mirrors Concave Mirror If a hollow sphere is cut into some parts and the outer surface of the cut part is painted, then it turns out to be a mirror with its inner surface as the reflecting surface. This makes a concave mirror. Applications of Concave Mirrors: ● ● ● ● ● Used in shaving mirrors The concave mirror used in the ophthalmoscope Uses of the concave mirrors in astronomical telescopes: Concave mirrors used in the headlights of vehicles Used in solar furnaces Image Formation by Concave Lens: Object location Image location Image nature Image size Infinity At F2 Virtual and Erect Highly Diminished Beyond infinity and O Between F1 and Optical centre Virtual and Erect Diminished F1= primary focus F2= secondary focus F= principal focal length 2F= double of focal length O= optical Center Convex Mirror: If the cut part of the hollow sphere is painted from the inside, then its outer surface becomes the reflecting surface. This mirror is known as a convex mirror. A spherical mirror having its reflecting surface curved outwards is known to be a convex mirror. Application of Convex Mirror: ● ● ● ● Convex mirrors used inside buildings The convex mirrors used in vehicles Uses of the convex mirror in a magnifying glass: Convex mirrors used for security purposes Image Formation by Convex Lens: Object location Image location Image nature Image size Infinity At F2 Real and Inverted Diminished Beyond 2F1 Between 2F2 and F2 Real and Inverted Diminished Between 2F1 and F1 Beyond 2F2 Real and Inverted Enlarged At F1 At infinity Real and Inverted Enlarged At 2F1 At 2F2 Real and Inverted Same size Between F1 and 0 On the same side as object Virtual and Erect Enlarged Important Units and Measurements System of units Below stated are some of the internationally accepted systems of units CGS System - centimetre gram second system MKS Sysytem- Meter-Kilogram-Second System FPS System- Foot-Pound System SI Units- International System of Units SI Units of seven fundamental quantities Physical quantity Unit Abbreviation Mass kilogram kg Length meter m Time second s Temperature Kelvin K Amount of substance mole mol Electric current ampere A Luminous intensity candela cd SI Units of two supplementary units Physical quantity SI Unit Symbol Angle Radian rad Solid angle Steradian sr Table of important physical quantities and their SI Units Quantity Units (S.I.) Radioactivity Becquerel Luminous flux Lumen Magnetic flux density Tesla Magnetic flux Weber Length Metre Time Second Mass Kilogram Area Square metre Volume Cubic metre Velocity Metre/second Acceleration Metre/second square Density Kilogram/metre Cube Work Joule Energy Joule Force Newton Pressure Pascal or Newton/sq. metre Charge Frequency Hertz Power Watt Weight Newton or Kilogram Impulse Newton-second Angular velocity Radian /second Viscosity Pascal Surface tension Newton/square metre Heat Joule Temperature Kelvin Absolute temperature Kelvin Resistance Ohm Electric current Ampere Electromotive force Volt Electrical conductivity Ohm/metre Electric energy Kilo watt-hour Electric power Kilowatt or watt Magnetic intensity Oersted Charge Coulomb Magnetic induction Gauss Luminous flux Candela Intensity of sound Decibel Power of lens Dioptre Depth of sea Fathom Inductance Henry Electrical conductance Siemens Important Quantities and Their CGS Units Quantity CGS unit name Unit symbol length, position centimetre cm mass gram g time second s velocity centimetre per second cm/s acceleration galileo Gal force dyne dyne energy erg erg power erg per second erg/s pressure barye Ba dynamic viscosity poise P electric charge franklin Fr kinematic viscosity stokes St electric current biot Bi wavenumber kayser (K) cm− 1 Elements: Symbol & Latin Name Element Symbol Latin Name Antimony Sb Stibium Copper Cu Cuprum Gold Au Aurum Iron Fe Ferrum Lead Pb Plumbum Mercury Hg Hydrargyrum Potassium K Kalium Silver Ag Argentum Sodium Na Natrium Tin Sn Stannum Tungsten W Wolfram List of Deficiency Diseases Types of Vitamins Deficiency Diseases A (Retinol) Night blindness B1 (Thiamine) Beri-beri B2 (Riboflavin) Retarded growth, bad skin B12 (Cyanocobalamin) Anaemia C (Ascorbic acid) Scurvy D (Calciferol) Rickets K (Phylloquinone) Excessive bleeding due to injury Types of Minerals Deficiency Diseases Calcium Brittle bones, excessive bleeding Phosphorus Bad teeth and bones Iron Anaemia Iodine Goitre, enlarged thyroid gland Copper Low appetite, retarded growth List of Diseases Spread through Viruses Name of disease Description ● Common cold ● ● Smallpox Caused by: Large variety of viruses, commonly rhino-virus (RNA Virus) Parts of body affected: Respiratory passages Caused by: Variola virus (DNA virus) ● Parts of body affected: Respiratory passages, then skin ● Caused by: A myxovirus (RNA virus) ● Influenza Parts of body affected: Respiratory passages: epithelial lining of trachea and bronchi. ● Caused by: A paramyxovirus (RNA virus) Measles ● Parts of body affected: Respiratory passages, spreading to skin and intestines. Chickenpox ● Caused by: Varicella- zoster ● Parts of body affected: Blistering Skin rash ● Caused by: A paramyxovirus (RNA virus) Mumps ● Parts of body affected: Respiratory passages, infection via blood, salivary glands, testes in adult males German measles (Rubella) ● Caused by: Rubella virus ● Parts of body affected: Respiratory passages, lymph nodes in neck, eyes and skin. ● Caused by: Poliovirus (RNA Virus) ● Parts of body affected: Pharynx Poliomyelitis (polio) and intestines, then blood; occasionally motor neurons in spinal cord, paralysis may occur. ● Caused by: An arbovirus i.e Yellow fever arthropod-borne virus (RNA Virus) ● Parts of body affected: Lining of blood vessels and liver ● Caused by: Zika Virus (mosquito borne disease) Zika disease ● Parts of body affected: Causes mild illness in the people like dengue, yellow fever AIDS ● Caused by: Retrovirus (RNA virus) ● Parts of body affected: Skin Cancer ● Ebola haemorrhagic fever Caused by: Ebola Virus disease (EVD) ● Parts of body affected: Fatal Illness in Humans, Fever List of Diseases Caused by Bacteria Name of disease Description ● Caused by: Bordetella pertussis ● Parts of body affected: Upper respiratory tract, inducing Whooping cough (Pertussis) violent coughing ● Medium of spread: Droplet infection ● Caused by: Corynebacterium diphtheria ● Parts of body affected: Upper Diphtheria respiratory tract, mainly throat also toxin affects heart. ● Medium of spread: Droplet infection ● Caused by: Mycobacterium tuberculosis ● Tuberculosis (TB) Parts of body affected: Mainly lungs ● Medium of spread: Droplet infection, Drinking milk from infected cattle ● Caused by: Neisseria gonorrhoeae Gonorrhoea ● Parts of body affected: Reproductive organs ● Medium of spread: Contagion by sexual contact Tetanus ● Caused by: Clostridium tetani ● Parts of body affected: Blood ● Medium of spread: Wound infection ● Caused by: Treponema pallidum ● Parts of body affected: Reproductive organs, then eyes, Syphilis bones, joints, central nervous system, heart and skin. ● Medium of spread: Contagion by sexual contact ● Caused by: Vibrio cholera ● Parts of body affected: Alimentary canal: mainly small Cholera intestine ● Medium of spread: Faecal contamination ● Caused by: Salmonella spp. ● Parts of body affected: Bacterial food poisoning (gastro enteritis or salmonellosis) Alimentary canal ● Medium of spread: Mainly foodborne meat from infected animals from poultry and pigs. Also via faecal contamination ● Caused by: Salmonella typhi ● Parts of body affected: Alimentary canal, then spreading Typhoid fever to lymph and blood, lungs, bone marrow, spleen ● Medium of spread: Faecal contamination ● Caused by: Shigella dysenteriae ● Parts of body affected: Alimentary canal, mainly ileum Bacterial dysentery and colon ● Medium of spread: Faecal contamination Scientific Names of Animals Names Scientific Names Ant Formicidae Arabian camel Camelus dromedarius African elephant Loxodonta Albatross Diomedeidae Alpaca Vicugna pacos Asian Elephant Elephas maximus Bat Chiroptera Bird Aves Brown Tree Snake Boiga irregularis Gaur Bos gaurus Goat Capra aegagrus hircus Bear Ursidae Polar bear Ursus maritimus Sun bear Helarctos malayanus Blackbuck Antilope cervicapra Black rat Rattus rattus Buffalo Bubalus bubalis Bulbul Pycnonotidae Butterfly Rhopalocera Cat Felis catus Cheetah Acinonyx jubatus Chinkara Gazella bennettii Cobra Naja Cockroach Blattodea Common Myna Acridotheres tristis Cow Bos taurus Crocodile Crocodylus palustris Deer Cervidae Dog Canis lupus familiaris Dolphin Cetacea Eagle Accipitridae Elephant Elephantidae fish Vertebrata Red fox Vulpes vulpes Gavial or Gharial Gavialis gangeticus Giraffe Giraffa camelopardalis Great horned owl Bubo virginianus Hen Gallus gallus domesticus Hippopotamus Hippopotamus amphibius Horse Equus caballus House crow Corvus splendens Housefly Musca domestica House mouse Mus musculus House sparrow Passer domesticus House wall Lizard Hemidactylus flaviviridis Indian Cobra Naja naja parrot Psittaciformes Indian Python Python molurus Kashmir stag or hangul Cervus canadensis hanglu King cobra Ophiophagus hannah Koel Eudynamys scolopaceus Leopard or panther Panthera pardus Monkey Simiiformes (infraorder) Mosquito Culicidae Lion Panthera leo Lizard Squamata Nilgai Boselaphus tragocamelus Peacock Pavo cristatus Pig Sus Prawn Dendrobranchiata Rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus Rat Rodentia Rat snake Ptyas mucosa Rattle snake Crotalinae Rhesus monkey Macaca mulatta Rhinoceros Rhinoceros unicornis Sea snake Hydrophiinae Sheep Ovis aries Siberian crane Grus leucogeranus Snakehead Channidae Sparrow Passer domesticus Spider Araneae Starfish Asteroidea Tiger Panthera tigris Tiger Snake Notechis scutatus Wild Ass Equus africanus asinus Wild boar Sus scrofa Wolf Canis lupus Zebra Equus quagga Earthworm Lumbricus Grasshopper Caelifera Honey Bee Apis Pigeon Columba livia snake Serpentes Scientific Names of Plants Names Scientific Names Apple Malus domestica Bamboo Bamboosa aridinarifolia Banana Musa paradisiaca Banyan Ficus benghalensis Black Gram Plasoes mungo Black Pepper Piper nigrum Brinjal Solanum melongena Capsicum Capsicum frutescens Carrot Daucas carota Clove Syzygium aromaticum Coriander Coriandrum sativum Cotton Gossypium herbaceum Cucumber Cucumis sativus Curry plant Murraya koenigii Drumstick Moringa oleifera Garlic Allium sativum Ginger Zingiber officinale Green Gram Phaseolies aulicus Guava Psidium guajava Henna Lawsonia inermis Horse Gram Dolichos biffoeus Jowar Sorghum vulgare Lemon Citrus limonium Lettuce Lactuca sativa Maize Zea mays Mango Mangifera indica Mint Mentha arvensis Money Plant Epipremnum aureum Neem Azadirachta indica Onion Allium cepa Orange Citrus aurantium Pineapple Ananas comosus Potato Solanum tuberosum Radish Raphanus sativus Red Gram Cajanus cajan Sandalwood Santalum album Spinach Spinacia oleracea Tobacco Nicotina tobaccum Tomato Solanum lycopersicum Tulsi Ocimum sanctum Turmeric Curcuma longa Watermelon Citrullus vulgaris Wheat Triticum aestivum Scientific Names of Extinct Organisms Names Scientific Names Passenger pigeon Ectopistes migratorius Tasmanian tiger Thylacinus cynocephalus Moa Dinornithiformes T-Rex Tyrannosaurus rex Great auk Pinguinus impennis Megalodon Carcharocles megalodon BLOOD Blood Facts: • Blood is a fluid connective tissue. • The quantity of blood in the human body is 7% of the total weight. • pH value of blood is 7.4. • There is an average of 5-6 liters of blood in the human body. • Female contains half a liter of bloodless in comparison to male. • It also fights infection and regulates temperature. Blood cells are produced in BONE MARROW Components of Blood 1. Plasma 2. Red blood cells 3. White blood cells 4. Platelets PLASMA It contains 92 percent water, constitutes 55 percent of blood volume. FUNCTION: • maintaining a satisfactory blood pressure • volume to supplying critical proteins for blood clotting and immunity. • medium for the exchange of vital minerals such as sodium and potassium • helps to maintain a proper pH (acid-base) balance in the body, which is critical to cell function. RED BLOOD CELLS •Red blood cells are disc-shaped cells containing hemoglobin, • hemoglobin (haem=iron-containing) •Haemoglobin enables the cells to pick up and deliver oxygen to all parts of the body, then pick up carbon dioxide and remove it from tissues. •Its life span is from 20 days to 120 days and is then broken down into pigments called bilirubin and biliverdin in the liver. •Its destruction takes place in the liver & spleen. Therefore, the liver is called the grave of RBC. •they are made in the bone marrow, •they have no nucleus, •N.B. oxyhemoglobin =oxygen rich hemoglobin, •deoxyhaemoglobin=low oxygen hemoglobin WHITE BLOOD CELLS •White blood cells also called leukocytes •White cells are the body’s primary defense against infection. •They can move out of the bloodstream and reach tissues to fight infection. •They are essential for good health. •Its life span is from 1 to 2 days. •White blood cells have nuclei and are also made in the bone marrow. PLATELETS Platelets are the cells that circulate within our blood and bind together when they recognize damaged blood vessels. Blood Group Group A Group B Group AB Group O Antibodies in Plasma Anti-B Anti-A None Anti-A and Anti-B Antibodies in RBC A Antigen B Antigen A and B Antigens None Blood Group Can donate to Can receive from A A, AB A, O B B, AB B, O AB AB A, B, AB, O O A, B, AB, O O Disease of Blood: Disease About Hematoma A collection of blood inside the body tissues. Internal bleeding often causes a hematoma. Leukemia A form of blood cancer, in which white blood cells multiply abnormally and circulate through the blood. The excessive large numbers of white cells deposit in the body’s tissues, causing damage Multiple myeloma A form of blood cancer of plasma cells similar to leukemia. Anemia, kidney failure, and high blood calcium levels are common in multiple myeloma. Lymphoma A form of blood cancer, in which white blood cells multiply abnormally inside lymph nodes and other tissues. The enlarging tissues, and disruption of blood’s functions, can eventually cause organ failure. Anemia An abnormally low number of red blood cells in the blood. Fatigue and breathlessness can result, although anemia often causes no noticeable symptoms. Hemochrom A disorder causing excessive levels of iron in the blood. The atosis iron deposits in the liver, pancreas, and other organs, causing liver problems and diabetes. Sickle cell disease A genetic condition in which red blood cells periodically lose their proper shape (appearing like sickles, rather than discs). The deformed blood cells deposit in tissues, causing pain and organ damage. Bacteremia Bacterial infection of the blood. Blood infections are serious, and often require hospitalization and continuous antibiotic infusion into the veins. Malaria Infection of red blood cells by Plasmodium, a parasite transmitted by mosquitos. Malaria causes episodic fevers, chills, and potentially organ damage. Thrombocyt Abnormally low numbers of platelets in the blood. Severe openia thrombocytopenia may lead to bleeding. Leukopenia Abnormally low numbers of white blood cells in the blood. Leukopenia can result in difficulty fighting infections. Hormones Important Hormones and their Functions: Endocrine Glands Hormone Function Pituitary (The master gland) Growth Hormone Regulates tissue and bone growth. ACTH (AdrenoCorticotrophi c Hormone) Controls structure and functioning of the adrenal cortex, especially secretions of gluco-corticoids and sexcorticoids. FSH (Follicle Stimulating Hormone) or Gametokineti c Factor Stimulates spermatogenesis in testes of male, maturation of Graafian or ovarian follicles in ovaries and secretion of estrogen in females. TSH (Thyroid Stimulating Hormone) Stimulates thyroid to make thyroxine. Oxytocin (Pitocin) Helps the uterus to contract during the childbirth. Thyroid Adrenal Pancreas (islets of Langerhans) Ovary Testis ADH (Anti Diuretic Hormone) or Vasopressin or Pitressin Controls the amount of water reabsorbed by the kidney (Osmoregulation). Thyroxine Regulates the rate of growth and metabolism. Production of too little of this hormone causes overweight and sluggishness. Too much of it leads to thinness and overactivity. Cortisone Produced by cortex of this gland. Aids in the conversion of proteins to sugar. The adrenal cortex itself is stimulated by the pituitary. Insulin Regulates sugar metabolism. Too little insulin leads to a high sugar level in blood and weakness- a condition called diabetes. Estrogen Development of secondary sexual characters such as the development of breasts in females. Testosterone Development of many masculine features such as the growth of moustaches and beard. Diseases caused by hypersecretion of hormones: Sl. No. 1. Disease Gigantism Hormones Hormone secreting gland Major impact STH adenohypo physis Overdischarge in childhood makes the body terrible. 2. Acromegaly STH adenohypo physis In adulthood, the bones of the face become elongated. It is also called Reversal to Gorilla. 3. Exopthalmi c goitre thyroxine thyroid gland In this the eyeballs emerge outwards. 4. plumer's disease thyroxine thyroid gland There are knots in the gland at various places. 5. Grave's disease thyroxine thyroid gland The whole gland swells. parathyroid gland Bones become weak and brittle. Ca ++ is released from the bones and increases in the serum. This is called hypercalcemia. parathyroid gland hypercalcemia adrenal cortex Due to accumulation of fat in the thoracic region, the body becomes bulky. 6. osteoporosi s Parathyrox ine hormone (PTH) 7. Osteitis fibrosa Cystica Parathyrox ine hormone (PTH) 8. cushing's disease adrenaline 9. Diabetes 10. adrenoge nital syndrome and hirsutism adrenaline dehydroen dosterone adrenal cortex In this disease, the amount of glucose in the blood increases, this condition is called hyperglycemia . adrenal cortex Females have male symptoms like beard and moustache, heaviness in voice, enlargement of clitoris etc. Diseases caused by deficiency of hormones: Sl.No. 1 2 3 Disease Dwarfism symond's disease Cretinism Hormones Hormone secreting gland Major impact STH adenohypop hysis Growth arrest occurs in childhood. adenohypop hysis Due to low secretion in the adult stage, the person appears prematurely old. thyroxine The body remains dwarf. Physical and mental growth slows down. STH thyroid gland 4 5 6 7 8 Myxodema Hashimoto' s disease hypocalcem ia Titany addison's disease thyroid gland thyroid gland parathyroi d gland parathyroi d gland adrenal cortex thyroxine The heart rate slows down. The patient is always lethargic. Skin, eyelids and lips become thick. There is swelling in the body. thyroxine In this, the cells of the thyroid gland start eating their own cells. This is called thyroid suicide. Parathyroxin e hormone (PTH) The amount of Ca++ in the blood decreases and the amount of phosphate increases. Parathyroxin e hormone (PTH) The amount of Ca++ in the blood decreases and there are cramps in the muscles. mineralocorti coids Na+ deficiency, blood pressure decreases. This condition is called hyponatremia. 9 10 diabetes mellitus Diabetes insipidus islets of langerhan s (beta cells) neurohyp ophysis insulin The amount of sugar in the blood increases and excretion starts through urine. antidiuretic hormone (ADH) In this, more urine is excreted than normal, this condition is called polyuria. Important Chemistry molecular Formulas Sl No Compound name Molecular formula 1 Acetaldehyde C2H4O 2 Acetamide C2H5NO 3 Acetate CH3COO– 4 Acetic acid CH3COOH 5 Acetone C3H6O 6 Acetonitrile C2H3N 7 Acetylene C2H2 8 Aluminum hydroxide Al(OH)3 9 Aluminum sulfate Al2(SO4)3 10 Aluminum Al 11 Aluminum bromide AlBr3 12 Aluminum fluoride AlF3 13 Aluminum oxide Al2O3 14 Aluminum phosphate AlPO4 15 Aluminum sulfide Al2S3 16 Ammonia NH3 17 Ammonium acetate C2H3O2NH4 18 Ammonium bicarbonate NH4HCO3 19 Ammonium bromide NH4Br 20 Ammonium carbonate (NH4)2CO3 21 Ammonium chloride NH4Cl 22 Ammonium hydroxide NH4OH 23 Ammonium iodide NH4I 24 Ammonium nitrate NH4NO3 25 Ammonium nitrite NH4NO2 26 Ammonium oxide (NH4)2O 27 Ammonium persulfate (NH4)2S2O8 28 Ammonium phosphate (NH4)3PO4 29 Ammonium sulfate (NH4)2SO4 30 Argon gas Ar 31 Ascorbic acid C6H8O6 32 Barium bromide BaBr2 33 Barium carbonate BaCO3 34 Barium chloride BaCl2 35 Barium fluoride BaF2 36 Barium hydroxide Ba(OH)2 37 Barium iodide BaI2 38 Barium nitrate Ba(NO3)2 39 Barium oxide BaO 40 Barium sulfate BaSO4 41 Benzene C6H6 42 Benzoic acid C7H6O2 43 Bicarbonate CHO3– 44 Bleach NaClO 45 Boric acid H3BO3 46 Bromate BrO3– 47 Bromine Br 48 Bromothymol Blue C27H28Br2O5S 49 Butane C4H10 50 Butanoic acid C4H8O2 51 Calcium acetate C4H6O4Ca 52 Calcium Carbide CaC2 53 Calcium carbonate CaCO3 54 Calcium Chloride CaCl2 55 Calcium hydride CaH2 56 Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 57 Calcium iodide CaI2 58 Calcium nitrate Ca(NO3)2 59 Calcium oxide CaO 60 Calcium phosphate Ca3(PO4)2 61 Carbon Disulfide CS2 62 Carbon monoxide CO 63 Carbon tetrachloride CCl4 64 Carbonic acid H2CO3 65 Cellulose (C6H10O5)n 66 Chlorine Cl2 67 Chlorine gas Cl2 68 Chlorine Trifluoride ClF3 69 Chloroacetic acid C2H3O2Cl 70 Chromate CrO42– 71 Chromic acid H2CrO4 72 Chromic Oxide Cr2O3 73 Citric acid C6H8O7 74 Copper (II) chloride CuCl2 75 Copper Hydroxide Cu(OH)2 76 Copper ii carbonate CuCO3 77 Copper sulfate CuSO4 78 Copper(I) Oxide Cu2O 79 Cyanide CN− 80 Diatomic Bromine Br2 81 Dichloromethane CH2Cl2 82 Dichromate K2Cr2O7 83 Dihydrogen monoxide OH2 84 Dimethyl sulfoxide C2H6OS 85 Dimethylglyoxime C4H8N2O2 86 Dinitrogen monoxide N2O 87 Dinitrogen Pentoxide N2O5 88 Dinitrogen trioxide N2O3 89 Dipotassium Phosphate K2HPO4 90 Ethane C2H6 91 Ethanol C2H5OH 92 Ethylene C2H4 93 Ethylene glycol C2H6O2 94 Eugenol C10H12O2 95 Fluorine F 96 Formaldehyde CH2O 97 Formic Acid HCOOH 98 Fructose / Glucose C6H12O6 99 Glycerin C3H8O3 100 Glycerol C3H8O3 101 Helium He 102 Hexamine C6H12N4 103 Hexane C6H14 104 Hydrazine N2H4 105 Hydrobromic acid HBr 106 Hydrochloric acid HCl 107 Hydrocyanic acid HCN 108 Hydrogen peroxide H2O2 109 Hydrogen sulfate HSO4– 110 Hydroiodic acid HI 111 Hydroquinone C6H6O2 112 Hydroxide OH– 113 Hypobromous acid HBrO 114 Hypochlorite ClO– 115 Hypochlorous acid HClO 116 Hypoiodous acid HIO 117 Iodide I– 118 Iodine I 119 Iron iii oxide Fe2O3 120 Iron oxide Fe2O3 121 Lactic acid C3H6O3 122 Lead (IV) oxide PbO2 123 Lead Acetate Pb(C2H3O2)2 124 Lead ii acetate Pb(C2H3O2)2 125 Lead iodide PbI2 126 Lithium bromide LiBr 127 Lithium chloride LiCl 128 Lithium hydroxide LiOH 129 Lithium iodide LiI 130 Lithium oxide Li2O 131 Lithium phosphate Li3PO4 132 Magnesium carbonate MgCO3 133 Magnesium chloride MgCl2 134 Magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH)2 135 Magnesium iodide MgI2 136 Magnesium nitrate Mg(NO3)2 137 Magnesium oxide MgO 138 Magnesium phosphate Mg3(PO4)2 139 Magnesium sulfate MgSO4 140 Magnesium sulfide MgS 141 Maleic acid C4H4O4 142 Maltose /Sugar C12H22O11 143 Manganese dioxide MnO2 144 Mannitol C6H14O6 145 Mercuric chloride HgCl2 146 Methane CH4 147 Methanol CH3OH 148 Methyl acetate C3H6O2 149 Methyl Ethyl Ketone C4H8O 150 Methylene blue C16H18ClN3S 151 Monopotassium phosphate KH2PO4 152 Monosodium Glutamate C5H8NO4Na 153 Nickel acetate C4H6O4Ni 154 Nickel nitrate Ni(NO3)2 155 Nickel sulfate NiSO4 156 Nitric acid HNO3 157 Nitrite NO2− 158 Nitrogen dioxide NO2 159 Nitrogen monoxide NO 160 Nitrous acid HNO2 161 Oxalate C2O42− 162 Oxalic acid H2C2O4 163 Oxygen O 164 Ozone O3 165 Para dichlorobenzene C6H4Cl2 166 Perchloric acid HClO4 167 Peroxydisulfuric Acid H2S2O8 168 Phenol C6H6O 169 Phenolphthalein C20H14O4 170 Phenyl C6H5 171 Phosphate PO43– 172 Phosphate ion PO43– 173 Phosphoric acid H3PO4 174 Phosphorous Acid H3PO3 175 Phosphorus pentachloride PCl5 176 Phosphorus Trichloride PCl3 177 Phosphorus Triiodide PI3 178 Polystyrene (C8H8)n 179 Polyurethane Foam C27H36N2O10 180 Potassium acetate CH3CO2K 181 Potassium bicarbonate KHCO3 182 Potassium Bromide KBr 183 Potassium carbonate K2CO3 184 Potassium chlorate KClO3 185 Potassium chloride KCl 186 Potassium chromate CrK2O4 187 Potassium cyanide KCN 188 Potassium dichromate K2Cr2O7 189 Potassium Ferrocyanide K4Fe(CN)6 190 Potassium fluoride KF 191 Potassium hydroxide KOH 192 Potassium hypochlorite KClO 193 Potassium Iodate KIO3 194 Potassium iodide KI 195 Potassium nitrate KNO3 196 Potassium nitrite KNO2 197 Potassium oxide K2O 198 Potassium Permanganate KMnO4 199 Potassium sulfite K2SO3 200 Potassium Thiocyanate KSCN 201 Propane C3H8 202 Pyridine C5H5N 203 Resorcinol C6H6O2 204 Salicylic Acid C7H6O3 205 Silicon dioxide SiO2 206 Silver acetate AgC2H3O2 207 Silver carbonate Ag2CO3 208 Silver chloride AgCl 209 Silver nitrate AgNO3 210 Silver oxide Ag2O 211 Silver phosphate Ag3PO4 212 Sodium acetate C2H3NaO2 213 Sodium bicarbonate NaHCO3 214 Sodium bisulfate NaHSO4 215 Sodium borate Na2[B4O5(OH)4].8H2O 216 Sodium bromide NaBr 217 Sodium carbonate Na2CO3 218 Sodium Chlorate NaClO3 219 Sodium chloride NaCl 220 Sodium chromate Na2CrO4 221 Sodium citrate Na3C6H5O7 222 Sodium cyanide NaCN 223 Sodium dichromate Na2Cr2O7 224 Sodium fluoride NaF 225 Sodium hydroxide NaOH 226 Sodium hypochlorite NaClO 227 Sodium iodide NaI 228 Sodium metabisulfite Na2S2O5 229 Sodium nitrate NaNO3 230 Sodium nitride Na3N 231 Sodium nitrite NaNO2 232 Sodium oxide Na2O 233 Sodium Percarbonate C2H6Na4O12 234 Sodium peroxide Na2O2 235 Sodium phosphate Na3PO4 236 Sodium potassium tartrate KNaC4H4O6·4H2O 237 Sodium silicate (Na2O)x·SiO2 238 Sodium sulfate Na2SO4 239 Sodium sulfide Na2S 240 Sodium sulfite Na2SO3 241 Sodium Thiosulfate Na2S2O3 242 Stearic acid C18H36O2 243 Strontium chloride SrCl2 244 Strontium nitrate Sr(NO3)2 245 Sucrose C12H22O11 246 Sulfate ion SO42− 247 Sulfur dioxide SO2 248 Sulfur Hexafluoride SF6 249 Sulfur trioxide SO3 250 Sulfuric acid H2SO4 251 Sulfurous acid H2SO3 252 Tannic acid C76H52O46 253 Tartaric acid C4H6O6 254 Tetrachloroethylene C2Cl4 255 Tin (II) chloride SnCl2 256 Tin Oxide SnO2 257 Titanium dioxide TiO2 258 Toluene C7H8 259 Trichloroacetic acid C2HCl3O2 260 Urea CH4N2O 261 Urethane C3H7NO2 262 Xenon Difluoride XeF2 263 Xylene C8H10 264 Zinc acetate Zn(CH3COO)2(H2O)2 265 Zinc carbonate ZnCO3 266 Zinc chloride ZnCl2 267 Zinc hydroxide Zn(OH)2 268 Zinc iodide ZnI2 269 Zinc nitrate Zn(NO3)2 270 Zinc phosphate Zn3(PO4)2 271 Zinc sulfate ZnSO4 272 Zinc sulfide ZnS Digestive System Digestive System Parts The main organs of the digestive system are: 1. Mouth 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Oesophagus or Food Pipe Stomach Small Intestine Large Intestine Liver Gallbladder Mouth ● Food is ingested through the mouth. ● The buccal cavity or mouth consists of the tongue, teeth, and salivary glands. ● For Example:- Digestion of carbohydrate or starch begins in the mouth itself. ● But the digestion of food remains incomplete in the mouth. ● The dental formula of milk teeth is 2120/2120=10. ● It means 4 incisors, 2 canines, 4 premolars and 0 molars on each side of each jaw. ● The dental formula of milk teeth is 2123/2123=16. ● It means 4 incisors, 2 canines, 4 premolars and 6 molars on each side of each jaw. Oesophagus (Food Pipe) ● The slightly digested food goes to the stomach through the oesophagus. ● With the help of peristaltic movement, food is pushed inside the stomach. ● The epiglottis prevents the food from entering the windpipe. It is a small flap that covers the windpipe. Stomach ● In the stomach, food pieces further break into smaller pieces and form a semi-solid paste. ● Glands that are present in the walls of the stomach secrete gastric juice and contain three substances hydrochloric acid, enzyme pepsin and mucus. ● The protein digestion begins in the stomach only with the help of the pepsin enzyme. Small Intestine ● The small intestine is a long, thin tube, about 1 inch in diameter and about 20 feet long. ● With the help of ‘sphincter muscle’ food from the stomach releases in small amounts into the small intestine. ● Small intestine is the organ of the human body where complete digestion of food like carbohydrates, proteins, and fats takes place. Large Intestine ● The large intestine is a long, thick tube about 2.5 inches in diameter and about 5 feet long. ● A part of the food that cannot be digested by our body or cannot be absorbed by the small intestine passes into the large intestine. ● The wall of the intestine absorbs most of the water from the food and makes it solid. ● The rectum is the last part of the large intestine where this solid food for some time is stored and egested from our body through the anus as faeces or stool. Pancreas, Liver and Gallbladder Pancreas ● It is known for blood sugar regulatory function with the production of insulin ● Digestive enzymes are secreted by the pancreas, released into the small intestine and help in the digestion of fats, proteins and carbohydrates. Beta Cells ● Beta Cells are a type of cell found in the pancreatic islets of the pancreas. ● The primary function of a beta cell is to store and release insulin. ● Insulin is a hormone that brings about effects that decrease blood glucose concentration. ● Beta cells can respond quickly to spikes in blood glucose concentrations by secreting some of their stored insulin while simultaneously producing more insulin. Liver ● The liver produces bile juice which secretes enzymes and helps in the digestion of fat. ● A human liver normally weighs 1.44–1.66 kg (3.2–3.7 lb), and a width of about 15 cm. ● The liver is both the heaviest internal organ and the largest gland in the human body. ● Its other roles in metabolism include the regulation of glycogen storage, decomposition of red blood cells and the production of hormones. Gallbladder ● When fatty food enters the small intestine, the gallbladder contracts and releases bile which is stored in it. Bile Juice ● There are no enzymes present in bile juice. ● Bile tends to be alkali on average. ● The pH of the common duct bile (7.50 to 8.05) is higher than that of the corresponding gallbladder bile (6.80 to 7.65). ● The composition of gallbladder bile is 97% water,0.2% bilirubin, 0.51% fats (cholesterol, fatty acids, and lecithin), 0.7% bile salts, and 200 meq/l inorganic salts. Digestive Enzymes Organ Enzymes Effect on nutrients Mouth Salivary Enzyme Breaks down starch into maltose Stomach Pesin Breaks down proteins into dipeptides Pancreas 1. Lipase 2. Trypsin 3. Amylase Small Intestine 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Maltose Sucrase Peptidase Lactase Lipase 1. Breaks down lipids 2. Breaks down proteins into dipeptides 3. Breaks down starch 6. Breaks down maltose into glucose. 7. Breaks down sucrose into glucose. 8. Breaks down dipeptides into amino acids. 9. Breaks down lactose into glucose 10. Breaks down lipids ______________________________o______________________________ Human Brain ● ● ● ● ● Brain is the central organ of the human nervous system. It is located in the head and protected within the skull. It plays a role in every major body system. It is the most complex organ in a vertebrate’s body. It consists of the Cerebrum (Fore Brain), the Brain-stem and the Cerebellum. Layers of meninges: There are three layers of meninges: 1. Dura mater (closest to the bone), 2. Arachnoid loosely around the brain, 3. Pia mater is closely attached to the brain and spinal cord surface. Parts of Human Brain: Brain is divided in main three parts: 1. Fore Brain 2. Mid Brain 3. Hind Brain 1. Fore Brain: The forebrain is the largest brain division. It includes the Thalamus, Hypothalamus and Cerebrum. The olfactory and optic cranial nerves are found in the forebrain. Three main part of Fore Brain are: 1) Thalamus, 2) Hypothalamus, 3) Cerebrum A) Thalamus: Out of 5 sense organs, three – Nose, Tongue and Skin sensory organs are controlled by the Thalamus of the fore Brain. ● Nose: Sense of smelling is controlled by — Olfactory Nerve. ● Tongue: To detect taste — Gustatory Receptor Nerve. ● Skin: Largest Sensory Organ of human body. B) Hypothalamus: Following Works are done by the Hypothalamus of Human Brain: ● ● ● ● ● Sleep Hunger ThirstBehaviour Emotions & Feelings – Anger, Love etc. Control of Body Temperature: That’s why it is called Thermometer of the Human body. C) Cerebrum: It is the largest part of the Human Brain. Approximate 2/3 part of Human Brain mass covered by it. It is also called Intelligence mind. Working of Cerebrum: ● Thinking, ● Reasoning & Verbal, ● Calculations & Mathematics, ● Imagination. 2. MidBrain: Out of 5 sense organs, functions of Two Organs à Ear (कान) and Eye (आ ँ ख) sensory organs are controlled by this. The midbrain helps control eye movement and processes visual and auditory information. 3. HindBrain: It is the lower part of the brainstem that bridges the brain with the spinal cord. It comprise mainly three parts: 1) Pons/Pons Varolii, 2) Medulla-Oblongata, 3) Cerebellum. A) Pons-Varolii/Pons : It controls the respiratory System of Human Body. Amount of Oxygen required in the human body is decided by Pons-Varolii. B) Medulla- Oblongata: Following reactions of human body are controlled by Medulla-oblongata of hind brain: Vital Reaction : Blood Circulation, Breathing (Respiration), Heartbeat , Digestion , Excretion. Accessory Reaction : Hiccups , Sneezing , Brap , Salivation , Vomiting , Snoring), Yawn , Blinking of eyes. C) Cerebellum: The cerebellum is also called Little Brain &Tree of Life (जीवन का पे ड़), because it provides balance to body. It receives information from the sensory systems, the spinal cord, and other parts of the brain and then regulates motor movements. Working of Cerebellum: The cerebellum coordinates voluntary movements such as: Body posture, Body Balancing , Walking, Speaking), Learning and Muscular Movement. After Drinking of Alcohol, this part of brain is effected, Hence Drinking and Driving is Prohibited. Other Important Facts about Human Brain: ● Highest developed brain in the animal kingdom is of ● Study of the Brain ⇒ ● Doctor for Brain is called ⇒ Human Brain. Neurology. ⇒ Neurologist. ● The Human Brain is protected with a membrane layer, known as ⇒ Meninges Layer. ● ● ● ● After Accidental death of a Person, His brain remains active for ⇒ 7 Minutes. Mineral: maximum Sodium is consumed by the Brain. Water: 75 % of water in Human Body is consumed by Brain. Oxygen: Our brains consume approx. 20 percent of the body’s oxygen supply. ● Weight of Human Brain: Child ⇒ 300 – 400 Gram. ● Average Weight of Adult Human Brain ⇒ 1400 gm ● (Female = 1350 gram, Male = 1450 gram. It is according to their body Weight. ● Weight of Brain is Approx. 2% of Human Body) Due to infection in it, Inflammation in the Human Brain is called ⇒ Meningitis. Unit of Brain Cell is called ⇒ Neurons / Nerve Cell. _________________________________O________________________________ _ Newton's Laws of Motion First Law of Motion ● The first law of motion is stated as “An object remains in a state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line unless compelled to change that state by an applied force.” ● All objects resist a change in their state of motion. In a qualitative way, the tendency of undisturbed objects to stay at rest or to keep moving with the same velocity is called inertia.This is why, the first law of motion is also known as the law of inertia. ● Inertia is the natural tendency of an object to resist a change in its state of motion or of rest. The mass of an object is a measure of its inertia. Its SI unit is kilogram. Inertia: The inherent property of a body to resist any change in its state of rest or the state of uniform motion, unless it is influenced upon by an external unbalanced force, is known as inertia. Types of Inertia 1. Inertia of rest ● The resistance of a body to change its state of rest is called inertia of rest. ● Example: When you vigorously shake the branches of a tree, some of the leaves and fruits are detached and they fall down. 2. Inertia of direction ● The resistance of a body to change its direction of motion is called inertia of direction. ● Example: When you make a sharp turn while driving a car, you tend to lean sideways. 3. Inertia of motion ● The resistance of a body to change its state of motion is called inertia of motion. ● Example: An athlete runs some distance before jumping. Because, this will help him jump longer and higher. Second Law of Motion ● The second law of motion states that the rate of change of momentum of an object is proportional to the applied unbalanced force in the direction of force. ● The second law of motion gives a method to measure the force acting on an object as a product of its mass and accelerations. F = ma ● The momentum, p of an object is defined as the product of its mass, m and velocity, v. That is p=mv Third Law of Motion ● The third law of motion states: “To every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction and they act on two different bodies.” Examples ● Real time example is when a gun is fired it exerts a forward force on the bullet. The bullet exerts an equal and opposite force on the gun. This results in the recoil of the gun. Since the gun has a much greater mass than the bullet, the acceleration of the gun is much less than the acceleration of the bullet. ● Third law of motion is another example is when a sailor jumps out of a rowing boat. As the sailor jumps forward, the force on the boat moves it backwards. ● When birds fly, they push the air downwards with their wings (Action) and the air pushes the bird upwards (Reaction). ● Motion of rocket. ______________________________O__________________________________ Waves Types & Properties Definition: Waves can be defined as the disturbance or oscillation in a medium or a field (electric or magnetic field used in Electromagnetic waves) from its mean position, which carries energy from one point to another without displacing it from its original position. Sl. No. Types of Waves Definition 1. Mechanical Waves Propagate only in the material medium. Can’t travel into the vacuum. 2. Electromagnetic Waves EM waves are caused by an oscillating electric and magnetic field. Unlike mechanical, they can propagate without a medium 3. Matter Waves They are caused by the motion of matter and subatomic particles like electrons and photons. Types of Waves Based on Motion: Sl. No. Types of Waves Definition 1. Standing Wave This wave does not propagate but oscillates in a particular space with time 2. Progressive Wave The waves which propagate in a media are called Progressive waves. The crest and trough of a progressive wave does move in space. The progressive waves can be classified into two types: 1. Longitudinal Waves 2. Transverse Waves Types of Progressive Waves: Sl. No. Types of Waves Definition 1. Longitudinal Waves The waves in which the particle of the medium vibrates parallel to the direction of its propagation. Sound waves are the best example of longitudinal waves 2. Transverse Waves The waves in which particle of the medium vibrates perpendicular to the direction of its propagation. Water ripple is an example of a transverse wave in which water molecules vibrate perpendicular to the surface of the water while the wave propagates along the surface. Properties of Waves Sl. No. Types of Waves Definition 1. Amplitude (A) The maximum displacement of a particle of the medium from its mean position is called Amplitude. Its S.I unit is meter. 2. Time period (T) The time required to complete one complete oscillation to and fro about its mean position by a particle of the medium is the time period T of the wave. It is measured in seconds. 3. Wavelength (λ) The distance between two successive crests or trough for a wave is termed wavelength. Its S.I unit is meter. 4. Frequency (n) The number of oscillations performed by a particle in one sec is termed as the frequency of waves. Its S.I unit is Hertz (Hz). ________________________________O_________________________________ Animal Kingdom Phylum Phylum Porifera Phylum Coelenterata Characteristics Examples ● These are the simplest Spongilla, Sycon multicellular animals, found etc. mainly in marine habitats. ● These organisms have pores all over the body. ● They have a canal system that helps in circulating water and food particles and oxygen. ● The body design shows minimal differentiation and division of tissues. ● These organisms show more body differentiation. ● They live in water. ● The body has a sac-like cavity, with a single opening for ingestion an egestion. ● These animals have two germ layers and hence are called diploblastic. ● You can see these animals living solitarily or n colonies. Jellyfish, Sea Anemone, and Hydra. Phylum Platyhelminthes Phylum Nematoda ● These are commonly called Planaria, Liver flatworms. Fluke, and ● Their bodies are flattened Tapeworm. dorsoventrally. ● They are the first triploblastic animals, with three germ layers. ● The body is also bilaterally symmetrical, with both the left and right halves of the body having the same design. ● Flatworms can be either parasitic or free living. ● The bilateral symmetry and Ascaris, triploblastic nature continue Wucheria. in these animals. ● The body, however, is more cylindrical and not flattened. ● The body cavity is not a true coelom. And hence it is called a pseudo coelom. ● Tissues are present, but organs are absent. These organisms show a complete alimentary canal which is straight. ● Most of these organisms belonging to this phylum are parasitic worms, which cause diseases. Phylum Annelida Phylum Arthropoda Phylum Mollusca ● Annelids are found in different Earthworms, habitats, such as land, fresh Leeches. water, and even marine mater. ● They have a bilaterally symmetrical body with three germ layers (Triploblastic). ● A distinguishing feature here is that they have a true body cavity. ● The body is also segmented with some organ differentiation seen. ● They make up the largest group in the animal kingdom. ● Most of the insects are included in this phylum. ● “Arthropoda” means jointed legs. ● The bodies of these animals are divided into head, thorax, and abdomen. ● Apart from the jointed legs, they also have a pair of compound eyes. ● Another distinguishing feature of these animals is the presence of an open circulatory system. butterfly housefly, spiders, mosquitoes, crabs etc. ● The bilateral symmetry and Snails, Mussels, the triploblastic nature of the and Octopus. body layers are seen here too. ● Molluscans form a very diverse group and form an important part of the ecosystem. ● These animals can be seen aquatic habitats. ● They can be either marine or freshwater species. ● The body does not show much segmentation and the coelomic cavity is also reduced. ● The body is typically divided into anterior head, ventral muscular foot, and a dorsal visceral mass. ● The foot helps in the locomotion of the animals. Phylum Echinodermata ● Moving on with the Starfish, Sea classification of animals we cucumber, Sea come to Phylum Urchin. Echinodermata. ● Echinoderms are animals with spiny skin. ● They live exclusively in a marine habitat. ● They are free-living animals. ● The larvae show bilateral symmetry whereas the adults show radial symmetry. ● These animals are triploblastic and have a coelomic cavity. ● They have a peculiar water driven tube system that helps them in moving around. ● They also have a hard exoskeleton that is made up of calcium carbonate. Phylum Protochordata ● The protochordate animals are bilaterally symmetrical and triploblastic. ● They have a coelom. ● A new body feature that is seen in these animals is the presence of notochord at some stage in their life cycle. Herdmania, Balanoglossus. ● Due to this very presence of a notochord, they are called as chordates. ● However, it is sometimes rudimentary. ● They are exclusively marine animals. Phylum Vertebrata ● These are the advanced group of animals, showing some really advanced features of a proper digestive system, circulatory system etc. ● There is a complex differentiation of body tissues and organs. ● These animals have a true vertebral column with an internal skeleton. All chordates have the following features: ● Notochord ● Dorsal Nerve Cord ● Post-anal tail ● Pharyngeal slits Phylum Vertebrata is classified into five classes: They are: ● ● ● ● ● Pisces Amphibia Reptilia Aves Mammalia Classes Characteristics Examples Class Pisces Class Amphibia Class Reptilia Class Aves ● These are exclusively Tuna, Rohu, aquatic animals, Anglerfish, and commonly called as Fish. Electric ray ● Their skin is covered by scaly plates. ● The body is streamlined. ● A muscular tail helps in the movement. ● Respiration occurs through gills. ● The heart is present with two chambers. ● Amphibians can live both Frogs, Toads, on land and in water. and Salamander. ● They have mucus glands in the skin. ● The heart is three chambered, with respiration occurring through gills or lungs. ● They are egg-laying animals, with a distinctive head and trunk. ● Reptilians are coldblooded animals, which have scales on their body. ● They breathe through lungs. ● In most of these animals, the heart is three chambered, with the exception of crocodiles, which have a fourchambered heart. Snakes, turtles, Crocodiles etc. ● They are warm-blooded Parrot, Crow, and ● ● ● ● ● Class Mammalia animals with the body being covered by feathers. The forelimbs are modified into wings. They have a fourchambered heart. They breathe through lungs. And they lay eggs. All birds are classified under this class. ● Mammals are warmblooded with a fourchambered heart. ● They have mammary glands. ● Their skin has sweat and oil glands. ● They give birth to young ones. ● Respiration occurs through lungs. Ptant Structure Ostrich. Human beings, gorilla, and cow. Types of Plant Tissues Tissue type Structure Meristematic Tissue ● Merismatic tissues consist of a group of cells that have the ability to divide. ● These tissues are small, cuboidal, densely packed cells which keep dividing to form new cells. ● These tissues are capable of stretching, enlarging and differentiating into other types of tissues as they mature. ● Meristematic tissues give rise to permanent tissues. Merismatic tissues can be of three types depending on the region where they are present: ● Apical meristems ● lateral meristems ● intercalary meristems Permanent Tissue ● Permanent tissues are derived from the merismatic tissues and have lost their ability to divide. ● They have attained their mature form. ● They are further classified into two types: ● Simple permanent tissues ● complex permanent tissues Difference Between Meristematic Tissue and Permanent Tissue: Meristematic Tissue Permanent Tissue Cells divide repeatedly Do not divide Cells are undifferentiated Cells are fully differentiated Cells are small and Isodiametric Cells are variable in shape and size Intercellular spaces are absent Intercellular spaces are present Vacuoles are absent Vacuoles are present Cell walls are thin Cell walls maybe thick or thin Inorganic inclusions are absent Inorganic inclusions are present Types of Simple Permanent tissues: Types Parenchyma Collenchyma Sclerenchyma About it ● These tissues are found in the soft parts of a plant such as the roots, stems, leaves, and flowers. ● The cells of this tissue are loosely packed and contain large intercellular spaces between them. ● Each cell has a vacuole at the center. ● The functions of parenchyma tissues are storage, photosynthesis, and to help the plant float on water. ● Collenchyma are similar to parenchyma cells with thicker cell walls. ● They are meant to provide mechanical support to the plant structure in parts such as petiole of the leaf. ● The cells of this tissue are dead. ● They are rigid, contain thick and lignified secondary walls. ● Their main function is to provide strength and support to parts of the plant. Complex Permanent Tissue: ● Unlike simple permanent cells which look the same and are made up of one type of cells, complex permanent tissues are made up of more than one type of cells. ● These different types of cells coordinate to perform a function. ● Xylem and Phloem are complex permanent tissues and are found in the vascular bundles in the plants. Parts Of Plants: The main parts of a plant include: ● ● ● ● ● Stem Leaves Seeds Flowers Root Root: ● The growing root tip is protected by a root cap. ● Within the root tip, cells differentiate, actively divide, and increase in length, depending on in which zone the cells are located. ● Dividing cells make up the zone of cell division in a germinating plant. ● The newly-forming root increases in size in the zone of elongation. ● Differentiating cells make up the zone of cell maturation. Types of Root: Root tips ultimately develop into two main types of root systems: ● tap roots ● fibrous roots Root type Definition Tap roots A taproot is a single, large primary root that grows straight down from the stem of a plant. Fibrous roots Fibrous roots are smaller, secondary roots that spread out in all directions from the stem. Plant Structure & Functions: Plant Part Structure Leaves ● Thin with a large surface area. Function ● Short distances for gases to diffuse. Large area for ● Cells contain chlorophyll in chloroplasts. absorption of light. ● Leaves are a plant's food factory. They are the main site of photosynthesis, where sugars are made from water and carbon dioxide, using sunlight energy that has been absorbed by chlorophyll. Stems ● Long and cylindrical. Woody tissues - xylem and fibres (sclerenchyma) - add strength. ● Contain xylem and phloem (in 'veins'). ● Support the leaves, flowers and fruit. Can bend or resist the wind. ● Transport water, minerals to leaves and sugars to roots, flowers, fruit and roots. Roots ● Branch extensively through the soil. ● Root hairs - provide huge surface area. ● Contain xylem and phloem (in 'veins'). ● Root tip - area of cell division. ● Root cap covers the root tip. ● Provide anchorage in the soil. ● Enable absorption of water and nutrients. ● Enable transport of water and nutrients. ● Grow into the soil. ● Protects and lubricates the growing root. Distinguish Characteristics of Monera, Protista and Fungi: Kingdom Cell Type Nuclear Envelop Cell Wall Mode of Nutrition MultiCellularity Monera Prokaryotic Absent Noncellulose Autotrophs or heterotroph Absent Protista Eukaryotic Present Present in Photosyntheti Absent in some forms most forms c❘or heterotroph Fungi Eukaryotic Present Chitin Asorptive heterotroph Present in most forms
