INTRODUCTION
Most modern states today are, at least to some degree, culturally diverse. Trade,
tourism, international dialogue among scholars, scientists and artists, and the movement
of skilled labour – as well as migration – have ensured that few countries do not contain
within them significant numbers of people from alien cultures. The one cultural minority
found almost everywhere is the international frequent-flyer. Many societies today are
multicultural because they are open to a diversity of peoples who come and go and,
sometimes, stay.
Multiculturalism is the way in which a society deals with cultural diversity, both
at the national and at the community level. Sociologically, multiculturalism assumes
that society as a whole benefits from increased diversity through the harmonious
coexistence of different cultures.
Multiculturalism refers to (1) the state of a society or the world in which there
exists numerous distinct ethnic and cultural groups seen to be politically relevant; and
(2) a program or policy promoting such a society. For example, in a multicultural
neighborhood people may frequent ethnic grocery stores and restaurants without really
interacting with their neighbors from other countries. Cross-cultural deals with the
comparison of different cultures.
Multicultural means consisting of or relating to people of many different
nationalities and cultures.
Actuality of the theme of the course paper that encourages the integration of
various cultures and the mutual exchange of ideas and viewpoints.
The object of the course paper is some effective methods of developing
students’ multicultural competences .
The subject of the course paper is the complex of information on the topic
“Multiculturalism and intercultural communication”.
The aim of this course paper is to give verified information about
multiculturalism and intercultural communication. They will be exposed to gain a
better understanding of both their own culture and the cultures of others. Through this
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deeper knowledge, relationships can be strengthened, bridging the gap between
students from diverse cultural backgrounds.
The task of the course paper. We put the following tasks forward:
 To give information for multiculturalism and intercultural communication;
 To classify types of multicultural communication;

To analyze some effective methods of developing students’ multicultural
competence;
 To describe the Multiculturalism Policy In Europe.
The structure of the course paper consists of Introduction, Main body, Conclusion
and the list of used literatures.
Introduction constitutes information about view of the theme, actuality, object and
subject, the aim and tasks of the course paper.
Main body consists of two parts which can explain the main aim and tasks of the
theme.
Conclusion combines the main and significant results of our course paper.
Bibliography shows the list of literatures used in work about the course paper.
Multiculturalism encourages the integration of various cultures and the mutual
exchange of ideas and viewpoints. Sharing ideas can lead to new opportunities,
innovations and more productive working relationships.
Multiculturalism is the way in which a society deals with cultural diversity, both
at the national and at the community level. Sociologically, multiculturalism assumes
that society as a whole benefits from increased diversity through the harmonious
coexistence of different cultures.
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I.
THE CONCEPT OF MULTICULTURALISM
1.1.
Definition and meaning of multiculturalism
Multiculturalism is the subject of multiple geographical interpretations. It is
first identified as a way of describing the very condition of diversity evident
through various spatial formations. In particular, multiculturalism refers to the
existence of difference and uneven power relations among populations in terms of
racial, ethnic, religious, geographical distinctions and other cultural markers that
deviate from dominant, often racialized, “norms.”
Based upon an acknowledgment of diversity, multiculturalism also refers to
formal recognition and incorporation of those defined by such differences through
policies and discourses that acknowledge the rights and needs of minoritized
groups within the public realm, but which also control the terms of such
integration. While the picture is complex and uneven based upon distinctive
histories, many nation-states, particularly in the Global North have recently
witnessed a discursive and policy shift from multiculturalism to forms of cultural
assimilation. This shift has called into question the limits of multicultural
acceptance in the context of neoliberal globalization and postcolonialism; the
manner in which certain kinds of diversity should be, or can be, managed; how this
management may relate to antiracism and social justice; and the relationship
between individual and group-based rights. With this in mind, geographers have
also more recently begun to think about multiculturalism as a phenomena beyond
formal efforts to define and incorporate difference, drawing attention to the manner
in which the boundaries of intersectional identities are encountered, reinforced, but
also renegotiated through everyday life.
Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia explains:
The term multiculturalism has a range of meanings within the contexts
of sociology, political philosophy, and colloquial use. In sociology and in everyday
usage, it is a synonym for "ethnic pluralism", with the two terms often used
interchangeably, and for cultural pluralism[1] in which various ethnic groups
collaborate and enter into a dialogue with one another without having to sacrifice
5
their particular identities. It can describe a mixed ethnic community area where
multiple cultural traditions exist (such as New York City or London) or a single
country within which they do (such as Switzerland, Belgium or Russia). Groups
associated with an indigenous, aboriginal or autochthonous ethnic group and
settler-descended ethnic groups are often the focus.[2]
In reference to sociology, multiculturalism is the end-state of either a natural
or artificial process (for example: legally-controlled immigration) and occurs on
either a large national scale or on a smaller scale within a nation's communities. On
a smaller scale this can occur artificially when a jurisdiction is established or
expanded by amalgamating areas with two or more different cultures (e.g. French
Canada and English Canada). On a large scale, it can occur as a result of either
legal or illegal migration to and from different jurisdictions around the world.
In reference to political science, multiculturalism can be defined as a state's
capacity to effectively and efficiently deal with cultural plurality within its
sovereign
borders.
Multiculturalism
as
a
political
philosophy
involves ideologies and policies which vary widely.[3] It has been described as a
"salad bowl" and as a "cultural mosaic",[4] in contrast to a "melting pot".[5]
Encyclopedia Britannica explains:
Multiculturalism, the view that cultures, races, and ethnicities, particularly those
of minority groups, deserve special acknowledgment of their differences within a
dominant political culture.
That acknowledgment can take the forms of recognition of contributions to
the cultural life of the political community as a whole, a demand for special
protection under the law for certain cultural groups, or autonomous rights
of governance for certain cultures. Multiculturalism is both a response to the fact
of cultural pluralism in modern democracies and a way of compensating cultural
groups for past exclusion, discrimination, and oppression. Most modern
democracies comprise members with diverse cultural viewpoints, practices, and
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contributions. Many minority cultural groups have experienced exclusion or the
denigration of their contributions and identities in the past.
Multiculturalism seeks the inclusion of the views and contributions of
diverse members of society while maintaining respect for their differences and
withholding the demand for their assimilation into the dominant culture.
Definition of multiculturalism from the Collins English Dictionary
(mʌltikʌltʃərəlɪzəm) uncountable noun
Multiculturalism is
or racial groups
in
a situation in
which
a society have
equal
all
the
different
rights
cultural
and opportunities,
and none is ignored or regarded as unimportant.(ˌmʌltɪˈkʌltʃərəˌlɪzəm ) noun
1. the state or condition of being multicultural
2. the policy of maintaining a diversity of ethnic cultures within a community
Derived forms
multiculturalist (ˌmultiˈculturalist) adjective, noun
multiculturalism in American English(ˌmʌltiˈkʌltʃərəlˌɪzəm) noun
The policy or practice of giving equal attention or representation to the
cultural needs and contributions of all the groups in asociety: special emphasis may
be
given
to minority groups
underrepresented
in
the past,
as
through bilingual education.
in American English
(ˌmʌltiˈkʌltʃərəˌlɪzəm, ˌmʌltai-) noun
1. the state or condition of being multicultural
2. the preservation of different cultures or cultural identities within
a unified society, as a state or nation
Multicultural means consisting of or relating to people of many different
nationalities and cultures.
1.2.
Types of multiculturalism theory
The two primary theories or models of multiculturalism as the manner in
which different cultures are integrated into a single society are best defined by the
7
metaphors commonly used to describe them—the “melting pot” and the “salad
bowl” theories.
 The Melting Pot Theory
The melting pot theory of multiculturalism assumes that various immigrant
groups will tend to “melt together,” abandoning their individual cultures and
eventually becoming fully assimilated into the predominant society. Typically used
to describe the assimilation of immigrants into the United States, the melting pot
theory is often illustrated by the metaphor of a foundry’s smelting pots in which
the elements iron and carbon are melted together to create a single, stronger
metal—steel. In 1782, French-American immigrant J. Hector St. John de
Crevecoeur wrote that in America, “individuals of all nations are melted into a new
race of men, whose labors and posterity will one day cause great changes in the
world.”
The melting pot model has been criticized for reducing diversity, causing
people to lose their traditions, and for having to be enforced through governmental
policy. For example, the U.S. Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 forced the
assimilation of nearly 350,000 Indigenous peoples into American society without
any regard for the diversity of their heritages and lifestyles.
 The Salad Bowl Theory
A more liberal theory of multiculturalism than the melting pot, the salad
bowl theory describes a heterogeneous society in which people coexist but retain at
least some of the unique characteristics of their traditional culture. Like a salad’s
ingredients, different cultures are brought together, but rather than coalescing into
a single homogeneous culture, retain their own distinct flavors. In the United
States, New York City, with its many unique ethnic communities like “Little
India,” “Little Odessa,” and “Chinatown” is considered an example of a salad bowl
society.
The salad bowl theory asserts that it is not necessary for people to give up
their cultural heritage in order to be considered members of the dominant society.
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For example, African Americans do not need to stop observing Kwanzaa rather
than Christmas in order to be considered “Americans.”
On the negative side, the cultural differences encouraged by the salad bowl
model can divide a society resulting in prejudice and discrimination. In addition,
critics point to a 2007 study conducted by American political scientist Robert
Putnam showing that people living in salad bowl multicultural communities were
less likely to vote or volunteer for community improvement projects.
According to multiculturalism there are many types of multiculturalism.
Let’s explore some of them, the theory around them, and their differences.
 Liberal multiculturalism
Liberal multiculturalism champions individualism and freedom. This reflects
the ideals of liberalism in which rationalism and freedom of choice are
championed. In multiculturalism, liberalism is the right of the individual to retain,
practice, and celebrate their culture and cultural identity.
Liberal multiculturalism champions the tolerance of cultural differences. However,
it is important to note that this tolerance is extended so far as the cultures are in
line with ‘liberal ideologies’.
The classical liberal position, as it is understood in this essay, is
characterized by a far more significant degree of tolerance insofar as it is willing to
put up with illiberalism within its midst. Classical liberal multiculturalism is thus
willing to accept that, in a multicultural society, there may be groups or
communities of people whose basic traditions or beliefs or practices are not only
disapproved of by the majority but are even hostile to liberal values. Modern
liberals reject this position because it is too tolerant of illiberal values. Some
radical critics of liberalism reject it because it offers nonliberal communities no
more than toleration. And conservative critics reject it because it fails to embrace
particular nonliberal values. But from a classical liberal point of view, these other
perspectives should be rejected because they demand too much of a political
regime, for they demand that the regime conform to particular substantive moral
9
commitments. In the face of cultural diversity, this can only be a demand that a
political society conform to the moral and cultural values of a particular –
dominant – political group. The strength of the classical liberal view is that it
resists such calls because, in the end, they can only amount to a demand that
dissenting traditions be suppressed. If anything is characteristic of the liberal
tradition it is its wariness of the concentration of power and of the efforts of the
powerful to suppress dissent. Liberal regimes have been notable for their
commitment to the dispersal of power, and to the toleration of dissenting ideas – be
they conservative, socialist, fascist, theocratic, or simply anti-liberal. If the liberal
tradition accepts.
 Conservative multiculturalism
Conservative multiculturalism embraces the idea that for unity to occur there
can be no diversity and therefore cultural homogeneity is required. This cultural
homogeneity and unity can be achieved through assimilation.
Examples of conservative multiculturalism can be seen when those speaking a
language other than English in public are told ‘You’re in England now, speak
English!’. Conservative multiculturalism opposes the idea of hotel-like societies in
which people may come and go with no connections to one another or a shared
cultural history.
Cultural conservatism is described as the protection of the cultural
heritage of a nation state, or of a culture not defined by state boundaries.[1] It is
usually associated with criticism of multiculturalism, and opposition to illegal
immigration. Cultural conservatism is sometimes concerned with the preservation
of a language, such as French in Quebec, and other times with the preservation of
an ethnic group's culture such as Native Americans.
In the United States, cultural conservatism may imply a conservative
position in the culture wars. Because cultural conservatism (according to
the compass theory) expresses the social dimension of conservatism, it is
sometimes
referred
to
as
social
10
conservatism.
However, social
conservatism describes conservative moral and social values or stances on sociocultural issues such as abortion and same-sex marriage in opposition to cultural
liberalism (in USA, social liberalism).[2] Nationalism, meanwhile, also differs from
cultural conservatism as it does not always develop in a particular culture.
 Pluralist multiculturalism
Cultural pluralism is a term used when smaller groups within a
larger society maintain their unique cultural identities, whereby their values and
practices are accepted by the dominant culture, provided such are consistent with
the laws and values of the wider society. As a sociological term, the definition and
description of cultural pluralism has evolved. It has been described as not only a
fact but a societal goal.
Pluralist multiculturalism is similar to liberal multiculturalism but it extends
further than the acceptance and tolerance of cultures that align with liberal
ideologies. Whilst liberal ideologies are tainted with notions of racism and
colonialism when it comes to which cultures can be tolerated, pluralism is devoid
of these cultural biases.
An example of a pluralistic society is the United States. In the United States,
there are interest groups with common values and ideologies that aim to influence
government policy in favor of its' members.
Pluralist multiculturalism is accepting of competing political ideologies,
moral values, and cultural practices or beliefs. Under this form of multiculturalism,
complete civic cohesion is unattainable as there is the question of to what extent
can certain beliefs be tolerated.
 Cosmopolitan multiculturalism
Cosmopolitanism and multiculturalism are at their core, conflicting ideas.
Multiculturalism embraces cultural diversity and the distant and separate nature of
cultures. Cosmopolitan multiculturalism, however, values cultural diversity but
only to the extent where components of cultures can be shared and adopted as part
of a wider goal to establish a unified and international identity.
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It then explores four distinct cosmopolitan position — that is, legal
cosmopolitanism, social-justice cosmopolitanism, monistic cosmopolitanism, and
ethical cosmopolitanism.
This ‘pick and mix’ of cultures in cosmopolitan multiculturalism often results in
the hybridity of many different cultures which can weaken and blur distinctive
cultures.
Сosmopolitanism, in political theory, the belief that all people are entitled to
equal respect and consideration, no matter what their citizenship status or other
affiliations happen to be.
Three kinds of multiculturalism can be identified as coexisting in the same
society: ethnic, linguistic, and national multiculturalism.
1.3.
Models of Multicultural Society
Important benefits can be reaped from cultural diversity; for example
enhanced gastronomy, increased cross-cultural competencies, mental flexibility
and tolerance in the population, artistic blossoming, social and political
innovations, economic growth factors and much more. However, it may also
present important challenges, such as discrimination, conflicts and a feeling of
alienation.
Multicultural societies have existed for a long time, and have usually taken one of
the three following forms: -segregation, assimilation or integration.
A) Segregation
In a segregated society the different populations are kept separate, or stay
apart, either geographically or by having very few relations, even though they may
live in the same area.
In extreme cases (for instance in South Africa during the Apartheid regime, which
existed until the beginning of the 1990s, and during Segregation in the southern
states of the United States until the 1960s) certain groups will not have access to
the same professions, civil rights and public services as the rest of the population.
In such cases there is usually one group - the one in power - that assumes a
privileged and advantaged position.
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In other situations, where segregation also seems to be involved, although in
a less radical and institutionalised manner, people tend to choose to live separately.
Their social networks consist mainly of people from their own minority culture,
and they do not have much contact with the majority culture or language in the
country where they live. They could find themselves choosing from a reduced
number of professions that are mostly occupied by people from the same culture as
themselves.
In such cases, there may not be any laws preventing people from moving to
other areas, choosing other jobs or becoming members of the greater society, but
highly efficient boundaries nevertheless exist in people’s minds. This may be
equally true for people who are part of the majority culture, and who don’t
necessarily invite people in from the outside, and for people from minority cultures
that don’t feel welcome or don’t feel comfortable outside the cultural group that
they identify as their own.
B) Assimilation
Assimilation means that people from minority cultures adopt the majority
culture. In turn, the majority culture may adopt certain elements from the minority
cultures it has absorbed (vocabulary, food preferences, certain beliefs and values
etc.), making them part of a unified whole.
The assimilation model has traditionally been influential in the United
States, at least up until the 1960s, when the intellectual landscape changed
radically under the influence of countercultures and liberal political philosophy.
Successive waves of immigrants were absorbed and became part of their new
country. To a large extent they were welcome, but they were expected to conform
to the American way of life. Sometimes, parts of their original cultures became
part of the common culture.
The melting pot is a common metaphor for the assimilation model: the
imagery has its origin in containers used for heating up and mixing different
metals, with a new metal as the result. Some find it more useful to compare
American culture to a pizza. The crust is a set of values shared by all Americans,
13
whereas the toppings represent the diversity of the various cultures. Thus the pizza
becomes a metaphor of diversity based on core values. In other words they are
unified as Americans, but still diverse.
Critics have claimed that assimilation as a model may lead to cultural
minorities feeling discriminated against, as a result of what may be seen as a lack
of tolerance and respect. Moreover, one may wonder whether a society based on
strict assimilation does not risk experiencing cultural stagnation if it does not
conserve a certain openness towards contributions from other cultures. However,
others have claimed that cultural homogeneity and a strong national identity
contribute to social harmony, with everything this entails.
C) Integration
The integration model is sometimes simply referred to as multiculturalism.
In this model cultural minorities are allowed, and to some extent expected and
encouraged, to keep their distinctive traits (values, worldview, habits…), as long as
they adapt to a common and more or less minimal framework of norms and values
that guarantee a well-functioning society (e.g. democracy, respect for human
dignity through the observance of human rights, tolerance…). In other words,
integration as a model for multicultural societies generates respect for cultural
differences.
The integration model has had a lot of influence in the UK, where cultural
diversity is far from being a new phenomenon and where it has been seen as a way
of promoting social peace through respect for the different populations’ cultural
differences. Since the 1960s, integration has also been an influential model in the
US and Canada. Australia and New Zealand also seem to have adopted it to some
extent, at least as far as their native populations are concerned.
A salad bowl is often used as a metaphor for an integrated society. Like a
salad, society is composed of a large variety of elements that are all the more
delicious because they keep their distinctive qualities. In Canada, the phrase
cultural mosaic is often used: a whole composed of distinct parts.
14
The Three Cultures Model, developed by Gardenswartz et al., was based on
the premise that people often find it difficult to distinguish between cultural norms
and personality differences. Two individuals might exhibit similar behaviors but
those behaviors might spring from different values possessed by the two
individuals. Attempting to discourage cultural stereotypes, the Three Cultures
Model illustrates the existence and inter-relationship of three cultural dimensions,
namely national culture, organizational culture, and personal culture. National
culture was defined by Gardenswartz et al., as “the shared understanding that
comes from the integration of beliefs, values, attitudes, and known behaviors that
have formed the heritage of a nation state;” organizational culture as “the
integration of an institution’s widely shared beliefs and values and its guiding
philosophy as frequently espoused in its vision, mission and value statements;”
and, personal culture as “the integration of an individual’s traits, skills and
personality formed within the context of his or her ethnic, racial, familial and
educational environments” . The Three Cultures Model is primarily based on
Adler’s cultural synergy model and Casmir’s third culture model. The
aforementioned models come together to provide the theoretical frame for this
study.
In an integrated society people from a majority culture sometimes
experience a feeling of alienation, as if they were foreigners in their own country.
However, considering that it is highly unlikely that cultural diversity will disappear
anytime soon, the most potent criticism towards the integration model seems to be
that it may too easily develop into some sort of spontaneous segregation; different
communities living side by side without communicating in any productive manner
at all. This may lead to tensions: if cultures don’t communicate, they cease to
understand each other, let alone give each other anything of value.
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II. THE MULTICULTURALISM POLICY IN EUROPE
2.1. Tolerance and cultural diversity in Europe
The culture of Europe is rooted in its art, architecture, film, different types of
music, economics, literature, and philosophy. European culture is largely rooted in
what is often referred to as its "common cultural heritage.
Tolerance has special significance as people from different religions,creeds,
cultures and following different customs live here. That is why , it is necessary for
every one to be tolerant or broadminded. Diversity can be preserved. Diversity
enriches our social life. When respect towards others in the community is
encouraged and demonstrated, mutual understanding exists between people of
differing cultures. They are more likely to resolve issues through dialogue. When
people are accepting and tolerant of others' views and cultures, there is trust and
respect between them.
The key to respect, acceptance and appreciation of our forms of expression,
our ways of being human and of our rich diversity within cultures, is tolerance. To
foster a spirit of tolerance, it is important to engage in a diverse outlook of
knowledge, openness, communication, freedom of thought, conscience and belief.
Any society without ethnic, social, and cultural homogeneity needs tolerance.
Consequently, a tolerant attitude towards social and cultural differences, towards
the opinions, beliefs, and behaviours of others is one of the fundamental principles
of world civilization.
Tolerance is not about valuing diversity but rather about recognizing other
people's right to have different beliefs and practices, as long as these do not violate
general moral values. Cultural diversity was found to be the cause of richer ideas,
heuristics, perspectives, and skills, suggesting the potential sustainability of
economic prosperity with creativity-oriented policies in the region. It demands an
active choice to reach out on the basis of mutual understanding and respect,
especially where disagreement exists. Tolerance means recognizing that our
diversity is a strength — a wellspring of creativity and renewal for all societies.
Tolerance can, and must, be learned.
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Being culturally tolerant means not discriminating against people of other
cultures. In reality, however, not all people practice cultural tolerance. Some
people are culturally intolerant, perhaps because they suffer from a sense of
cultural superiority. There are many things in life where people vary, and our
acceptance of this diversity in life is vital to living together on a globalized planet.
For example, understanding and accepting the varying opinions in society about
religion or politics (even when you disagree) is tolerance.
Tolerance can be unilateral or bilateral. A unilateral tolerance varies in only
one direction, while a bilateral tolerance varies in both directions basic size. If the
variation is equal in both directions, then the variation is preceded by a + symbol.
Cultural heritage enriches the individual lives of citizens, is a driving force for the
cultural and creative sectors, and plays a role in creating and enhancing Europe's
social capital.
European identity is defined by two key layers: Europe as a cultural community of
shared values (cultural identity); Europe as a political community of shared
democratic practices (political identity). EU values are such as human dignity,
freedom of movement, democracy, equality, rule of law, human rights.
Most people would assume that toleration is one of the enduring values of
European liberalism and few would openly reject it. Indeed, while some forms of
intolerance may be growing, as reflected in the rise of certain far right parties, it
would be generally acknowledged that with the ethnic, cultural and religious
diversity that is now a feature of many European cities, the need for tolerance is
great. Yet the current predicament of toleration is evident in relation to two
concurrent developments across European states and societies. The first articulates
the idea that contemporary expressions of cultural difference go ‘beyond’
toleration. They go ‘beyond’ because the concerns and desires that underpin the
social and political claims of minority groups are insufficiently addressed with
tolerance. It is not just non-interference, but respect for and public recognition of
ethno-religious diversity that is sought. Toleration contains an element of
disapproval and objection that, though balanced out and overridden by reasons for
17
forbearance and acceptance, may be seen to perpetuate a smear on minority
groups. If the desire is for the removal of social stigma and for equal
accommodation in the public sphere, then toleration may not do the trick.
As a second development, we see a reversal in the opposite direction,
towards intolerance. In many European countries the contention is now that, in the
past, there has been too much leniency, too much accommodation and too little
insistence on shared values. Fuelled by anxieties over terrorism, over a lack of
‘cohesion’ and ‘political unity’, social disorder and fragmentation along ethnic and
religious lines, it is argued that too much tolerance has been afforded to minority
groups. That which is tolerated must be consistent with the legitimate rights of
others, especially in relation to women and children or freedom of sexual
orientation. Toleration comes to be seen as the cause of pertinent social problems,
a sign of weakness or confusion. A new principled intolerance is seen,
paradoxically, as necessary to protect the rights of individuals, and the rights,
values and the identity of the majority.
Toleration then appears to be at risk of being fragmented between various
concerns: the demanding claims of identity politics, a concern with the moral and
legal limits of toleration, and a new anxiety about socio-cultural cohesion or
political unity. In the current situation, it seems to be a compromise with few
defenders and many detractors.
This overview paper interrogates toleration as a contested concept that is
subject to disputes and challenges. It first introduces some elements of a
conceptual definition of toleration, its models and paradoxes. It then considers
some aspects of the history of toleration, beginning with the settlement of religious
strife in 16th and 17th century Europe. In view of the European post-war situation
of increasing cultural diversity, we then lay out and discuss challenges to ideas and
theories of toleration: this is, firstly, how toleration may account for the new
claims of cultural difference and, secondly, how toleration works as a device of
social regulation, boundary drawing and the demarcation of what is tolerable and
what is not. We conclude with a suggestion on how to study three modalities of the
18
concept, intolerance, toleration and the spaces ‘beyond toleration’, including
normality, respect, recognition and substantive equality.
Cultural respect benefits consumers, stakeholders, and communities and
supports positive health outcomes. Because several elements can influence health
communication—including behaviors, language, customs and perspectives—
cultural respect is also critical for achieving accuracy in medical research.
Various factors such as work, education, religion, and social settings play a
crucial role in bringing people together from different cultures. Therefore, in
modern society, cultural diversity plays various roles, such as promoting respect
for other people's cultures and their way of life.
Tolerance, according to UNESCO, is the respect for, acceptance of, and
admiration of the great diversity of the world's cultures, as well as our means of
expression and ways of being human. Knowledge, transparency, openness, and the
freedom to think, conscience, and believe are all supportive factors
Working across cultures can be a truly enriching experiencing, allowing others to
learn about perspectives and traditions from around the world. Bonding over
similarities and differences can help you to become a global citizen, abandoning
prejudices or an ethnocentric world view—something that is increasingly valuable.
Cultural diversity is about appreciating that society is made up of many
different groups with different interests, skills, talents and. needs. It also means
that you recognise that people in society can have differing religious beliefs and
sexual orientations to you.
Culture refers to the beliefs, values, behaviour and norms of a society.
Whereas diversity refers to the quality which makes a class unique inclusive of
colour, language, ethnicity, socio-economic status or cultural background but just
not limited to these.
2.2. The Crisis of Multiculturalism in Europe
Sensitivity to racism and ethnocentrism. Cultural values and the ways in
which culture shapes family relationships, ethics, core beliefs, and communication
19
styles. Culturally sensitive communication, including the avoidance of potentially
triggering terms and figures of speech.
The European Union is facing unprecedented demographic changes (an
aging population, low birth rates, changing family structures and migration).
According to the European Commission, it is important, both at EU and national
level, to review and adapt existing policies. Following a public debate, a 2006 EU
policy paper identified five key policy responses to manage demographic change,
among them receiving and integrating migrants into Europe.
Historically, Europe has always been a mixture of Latin, Slavic, Germanic,
Uralic, Celtic, Hellenic, Illyrian, Thracian and other cultures influenced by the
importation of Jewish, Christian, Muslim and other belief systems; although the
continent was supposedly unified by the super-position of Imperial Roman
Christianity, it is accepted that geographic and cultural differences continued from
antiquity into the modern age.
In the nineteenth century, the ideology of nationalism transformed the way
Europeans thought about the state.Existing states were broken up and new ones
created; the new nation-states were founded on the principle that each nation is
entitled to its own sovereignty and to engender, protect, and preserve its own
unique culture and history. Unity, under this ideology, is seen as an essential
feature of the nation and the nation-state; unity of descent, unity of culture, unity of
language, and often unity of religion. The nation-state constitutes a
culturally homogeneous society, although some national movements recognised
regional differences.
Where cultural unity was insufficient, it was encouraged and enforced by the
state.The nineteenth century nation-states developed an array of policies – the most
important was compulsory primary education in the national language.The
language itself was often standardised by a linguistic academy, and regional
languages were ignored or suppressed. Some nation-states pursued violent policies
of cultural assimilation and even ethnic cleansing.
20
Some countries in the European Union have introduced policies for "social
cohesion", "integration", and (sometimes) "assimilation". The policies include:
Compulsory courses and/or tests on national history, on the constitution and
the legal
system (e.g.,
the
computer-based
test
for
individuals
seeking
naturalisation in the UK named Life in the United Kingdom test)
Introduction of an official national history, such as the national canon defined for
the Netherlands by the van Oostrom Commission, and promotion of that history
(e.g., by exhibitions about national heroes)
Tests designed to elicit "unacceptable" values. In Baden-Württemberg, immigrants
are asked what they would do if their son says he is a homosexual (the desired
answer is that they would accept it.
Other countries have instituted policies which encourage cultural separation.
The concept of "Cultural exception" proposed by France in the General Agreement
on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) negotiations in 1993 was an example of a measure
aimed at protecting local cultures.
Multiculturalism is a situation in which all the different cultural or racial
groups in a society have equal rights and opportunities, and none is ignored or
considered unimportant. Multiculturalism is usually formed on a national scale or
in the community of a nation and state.
National unity could become impossible if people see themselves as
members of ethnic or racial groups rather than as citizens of a common country.
The second is that multiculturalism undermines the notion of equal individual
rights, thereby weakening the political value of equal treatment.
Specifically, there are three problems that commonly occur. I refer to these
problems as the Barriers to Effective Multicultural Communication and they
include stereotyping, a lack of understanding and judgmental attitudes
Language
may
be
a
barrier
in
the
cross-cultural
counseling
process. Language differences in counseling can lead to miscommunications,
misdiagnoses, and misinterpretations. A lack of language or communication skills
often emerges as a major stressor for clients who are bilingual, immigrant, or both.
21
Situating racialized subjects as products of cultures that are at odds with
liberal individualism has a further, laundering, effect; it allows the failure of
marginalised minorities to attain full equality to be attributed to indoctrination or
unwillingness. Under what David Goldberg calls ‘racial neoliberalism’, the state’s
insistence on flexible individuals responsible for their own integration is conflated
with the fully-liberal individual demanded by post-multicultural rhetoric. Both
visions, in the discourse of multicultural breakdown, hold immigrants and their
descendants culpable for a lack of social cohesion.
The Crises of Multiculturalism does not provide prescriptions to these
problems, but argues that anti-racist politics needs to come to terms with the uses
of multicultural crisis and the power of legitimate aversions for our political age.
In 2010, the leaders of Germany, Britain, and France each declared that
multiculturalism had failed in their countries. Over the past decade, a growing
consensus in Europe has voiced similar decrees. But what do these ominous
proclamations, from across the political spectrum, mean? From the influx of
immigrants in the 1950s to contemporary worries about refugees and terrorism,
The Crisis of Multiculturalism in Europe examines the historical development of
multiculturalism on the Continent. Rita Chin argues that there were few efforts to
institute state-sponsored policies of multiculturalism, and those that emerged were
pronounced failures virtually from their inception. She shows that today's crisis of
support for cultural pluralism isn't new but actually has its roots in the 1980s.
Chin looks at the touchstones of European multiculturalism, from the urgent
need for laborers after World War II to the public furor over the publication of The
Satanic Verses and the question of French girls wearing headscarves to school.
While many Muslim immigrants had lived in Europe for decades, in the 1980s they
came to be defined by their religion and the public's preoccupation with gender
relations. Acceptance of sexual equality became the critical gauge of Muslims'
compatibility with Western values. The convergence of left and right around the
defense of such personal freedoms against a putatively illiberal Islam has
threatened to undermine commitment to pluralism as a core ideal. Chin contends
22
that renouncing the principles of diversity brings social costs, particularly for the
left, and she considers how Europe might construct an effective political
engagement with its varied population.
The ‘crisis’ of multiculturalism provides a convenient means through which
the unutterable subject of race is kept alive. While liberal politicians and
commentators regard far-right parties as beyond the pale, post 9-11, there has been
a curious cross-pollination of ideas and arguments. Terrorism, and the subsequent
intensification of an ongoing crack-down on asylum and immigration, has enabled
this to some extent. The failure of integration is never related to racism at home or
abroad, but to the unwillingness of the racialized to seamlessly integrate into the
dominant culture.
The idea that too much relativism has allowed culturally regressive
minorities to endanger the fight against sexism and homophobia suggests that these
are purely struggles between the West – the birthplace of democracy, human
rights, and singular achievements in gender equality and sexual freedom – and the
rest, most problematically those illiberal subjects who have been allowed to live
among us. Multiculturalism - not the institutionalised sexism, patriarchal structures
or homophobia that affects all societies - can be blamed for the persistence of
domestic violence, or the violation of gay rights.
Proven multicultural excess permits, according to this vision, a new
‘honesty’ about race, and this taboo-breaking is deemed necessary to undo years
misspent pandering to illiberal particularism, and to guide us back to virtuous
universalism. What this in fact permits is not only a re-shaping of racism and
resultant inequalities, but a foreclosure of potential dialogue and solidarity between
marginalised and oppressed groups who are common targets of institutionalised
and banal discrimination.Challenging the mounting opposition to a diverse
society, The Crisis of Multiculturalism in Europe presents a historical investigation
into one continent's troubled relationship with cultural difference.
CONCLUSION
23
In the context of this elaboration on the topic multiculturalism as an
important feature of contemporary education, I assume that the following opinions
might be summed up:
- Great number of countries in the world have become multicultural, and in future
their number is about to rise. - Every culture has its own specific characteristics
which should be respected as such - Multiculturalism is potential treasure for every
society
- Multiculturalism is not manifested only as a feature of a community, but also at
individual level - In the center of multicultural education must be a person whose
basic personal characteristics are: broad intellectual views developed and realized
potentials, autonomy, tolerance, liberty, ability to criticize, and democratic
orientation.
- Multiculturalism is not achieved only in schools, but also in family upbringing,
by powerful and influential means, mass-media, books, movies and a complete
social environment.
- The purpose of multicultural education should be a person with broad views and
broad multicultural orientation, someone who can give meaning to individual
national and cultural identity, and someone who will appreciate other peoples’
cultural varieties and their achievements. –
- Multiculturalism, linguistic and cultural pluralism, and multicultural education
are important features of the new millennium everywhere in the world. They
represent humanity’s perspective for future life. This reality and civilizational
progress have many followers among the civilized, educated, and humane people.
In summary, it is clear that multiculturalism in Europe is driven by the
arrival of foreign labourers and their families as well as conferring of citizenship to
colonial subjects. Often, these two processes overlapped and the formation of new
multicultural societies inevitably caused social conflict and tensions between the
newcomers and the nationals of host countries. How did Europe deal with the
newly formed multicultural societies as a result of postwar immigration? The
answer lies in the widespread acknowledgment that overall civil and political rights
24
had to begranted to the new settlers; thus, the central focus of debate in many
countries shifted from controlling immigration to integration.
Multiculturalism encourages the integration of various cultures and the
mutual exchange of ideas and viewpoints. Sharing ideas can lead to new
opportunities, innovations and more productive working relationships.
Multiculturalism also helps to respect each other's culture instead of making fun of
that culture and also students can compare their culture with the other culture and
understand the values and norms of that culture.
It means the recognition and acceptance of the cultural practices of different
groups. In political philosophy, it refers to the ways in which a society
accommodates its cultural diversity, say creating special provisions for
marginalized sections.
In our globalized world, most societies are a mosaic of cultures and must
inevitably find ways to accommodate differences. While there are concerns about
divisions, the right form of multiculturalism can promote social cohesion and still
celebrate cultural diversity.
The list of used literatures:
25
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