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THE BOOK
As most other team sports, rugby is a sport of technical finesse,
tactical boldness, and refined and complex physical development. In
this book, only one, but the crucial element of this sport will be
addressed, namely the physical conditioning. This topic represents the
foundation of all the other elements of the game.
To keep this book as practical as possible, it not only deals with the
general periodization of rugby biomotor abilities such as strength,
power, speed or endurance, but it also addresses its specific
application to the positions played within a team.
The fundamentals of rugby are also discussed to better suggest a
periodized plan for the training development, which in turn will
optimize players' and teams' potential for peak performance.
The book also reviews practical applications of the periodization
process and suggests short and long term plans and drills samples for
training leading to the actual performance optimization for the
competition. The nutrition and recovery strategies are studied in the
last segment of the book to provide players and coaches with a
blueprint for achieving the best recovery during and between training
sessions, as well as between the games during the competition phase
of the plan.
THE AUTHORS
Tudor O. Bompa, PhD, Professor Emeritus, York University, Toronto,
Ontario, and founder of the Tudor Bompa Institute (TBI) is considered
by many as the father of modern sport periodization and is regarded
worldwide as the leading specialist in the areas of training, coaching
and fitness theory, to which he has contributed several new concepts.
Frederick Claro is a member of the Tudor Bompa Institute (TBI) and
one of its international training directors. He is also a rugby High
Performance Coach trained in New Zealand and a former university,
club and provincial representative French rugby player. Frederick has
an extensive experience in sport coaching and management.
ISBN 978-1-84126-253-6
$ 24.95 US/£ 14.95/e 19.95
www.m-m-sports.com
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Periodization in Rugby
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Tudor Bompa & Frederick Claro
Periodization in Rugby
Meyer & Meyer Sport
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British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Bompa/Claro: Periodization in Rugby
Maidenhead: Meyer & Meyer Sport (UK) Ltd., 2009
ISBN: 978-1-84126-253-6
All rights reserved, especially the right to copy and distribute,
including the translation rights. No part of this work may be reproduced—
including by photocopy, microfilm or any other means—
processed, stored electronically, copied or distributed in any form whatsoever
without the written permission of the publisher.
© 2009 by Meyer & Meyer Sport (UK) Ltd.
Aachen, Adelaide, Auckland, Budapest, Cape Town, Graz, Indianapolis,
Maidenhead, Olten (CH), Singapore, Toronto
Member of the World
Sports Publishers' Association (WSPA)
www.w-s-p-a.org
Printed and bound by: FINIDR, s. r. o., C̆eský Tĕs̆ín
ISBN: 978-1-84126-253-6
E-Mail: verlag@m-m-sports.com
www.m-m-sports.com
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5
Content
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Rugby . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Technical training
Tactical and psychological training
Dominant biomotor abilities for rugby
Chapter 2: Physiological Demand of the Game . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Training the energy systems
Time-motion analysis of the game of rugby
Ergogenesis and the dominant motor abilities for rugby
Limiting factors for performance
Specificity: Position-specific training
Chapter 3: Testing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Rugby-specific tests
Player’s profile and position review
Utilization of player’s profile for program development
Chapter 4: Planning Periodization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
General concepts
Short-term planning
The annual plan
Periodization of biomotor abilities
Chapter 5: Strength and Power Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
General considerations
Periodization of strength and power
Rugby-specific strength and power training
Position-specific programs for MxS and power
Chapter 6: Agility and Quickness Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
General consideration
Periodization of agility and quickness
Rugby-specific agility and quickness training
Specific drills for agility and quickness
Chapter 7: Speed Training and Reaction Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
General considerations
Periodization of speed
Rugby-specific speed training
Suggested drills for rugby
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Chapter 8: Endurance Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Aerobic and anaerobic endurance
Periodization of endurance
Methodology of endurance training: The intensity zones
Position-specific endurance training
Chapter 9: Recovery, Fatigue, Overtraining,
Detraining, Injuries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Training and game recovery
Fatigue and overtraining
Strategies for better recovery and preventing staleness
Immediate care for injuries
Chapter 10: Nutrition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
General considerations, food for sports
A periodized nutrition plan
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Photo & Illustration Credits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to take this opportunity to thank the persons who have been of
tremendous help in the realization of this book. We would like to express our gratitude to
our Canadian editor Sarah Green and the editing team of Meyer & Meyer for their valued
advices to help us writing the most understandable book there is on the subject.
Special thank you goes to the New Zealand Manawatu Rugby Football Union, its CEO
Hadyn Smith and fellow coach and friend Kelvin Tantrum for their help in providing the
action pictures illustrating this book.
Thank you to fitness instructor Rob Frederick of Fitness Together in Bedford, Nova Scotia
and Strength Training Specialist Matt Goreski in Ontario, for their graphic contribution
with the strength and power segment of the book.
Last but not least, a huge thank to both our wives, children (and grandchild) who always
are a tremendous source of inspiration and allow us to keep going on the path we chose.
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Introduction
Introduction
“Clock’s ticking, clock’s ticking…one minute to go…we must score now to win this game
and get in the final…I’m tired, legs and lungs burning…10 meters from their line, clock’s
ticking…lungs burning…7th frame of play…legs burning…been tired all week…pick
and go…YES!.. Legs burning…our prop is through, off-load…lungs burning, time’s
ticking…scrum half through…legs burning…I’m inside, I must get the pass…slow, too
slow, can’t make it in support. I’m late…lungs burning, clock’s ticking…knock on!
Referee whistles…scrum…opposition clears, it’s all over…”
We simply hope this doesn’t sound too familiar to you as a player or a coach, but it has
honestly happened to all of us. “What went wrong?” The answer can be simple or quite
complex, and one of the purposes of this book is to help players and coaches identify and
develop the step-by-step methodology needed to optimize overcoming fatigue, and
produce individually and collectively, the best rugby performance possible according to
the level and objectives of the team.
As most other team sports, rugby is a sport of technical finesse, tactical boldness, and
refined and complex physical development. From the 1990’s, the game of rugby has
evolved so abundantly that the comprehension of all aspects of the game, from technical/
tactical and psychological to the science and methodology of training, is undeniably
more challenging for the coach and players than ever. And yet, the higher your
knowledge of the complexity of the game, the higher the chance is to produce top players
and elite level teams.
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Periodization in Rugby
8
Over the years, many rugby coaches and players have followed a different school of
thought. To increase the chances of winning, some coaches have relied on technical/tactical
refinement with exciting offensive play or more recently, with hermetic defense systems.
Other coaches, however, have stressed physical training to overcome eventual
technical/tactical shortcomings, with the belief that stronger conditioning will give them
a chance to rollover the opposition, particularly in the last part of the game, and increase
the probability of winning.
If, however, you are looking for perfection and winning the championship in your league,
none of the above models will satisfy your coaching ideals. Perfection is an abstract
term, very difficult to achieve. However, to improve the probability of winning you must
look for perfection in every aspect of the game: technical, tactical, physical, and
psychological. Furthermore, there are other elements of athleticism of equal importance
for the final outcome of the game, such as an athletic lifestyle, rest and recovery, social
environment and nutrition and supplements. To strive for perfection in your game you
need to take each of these elements separately and try to perfect them. Game perfection
can be accomplished only when every component can be chiseled into the ideal form.
This is the only way to elite athleticism!
There are several books on the market discussing either a specific topic, or all the
elements of the game. In our case, however, we’ll address only one, but a crucial element
of the game: physical conditioning. Why only physical conditioning? Because it is very
complex in nature and a large body of information needed to be discussed in detail.
Physical training represents the foundation of all other elements of the game. To improve
your chances of winning you must be properly trained; winning comes naturally only
to well-trained teams! Therefore, we’ll discuss in detail all the elements of conditioning
and show you the road you need to travel in order to train your players to reach the
highest level of physical competency ever.
Why conditioning? Why is it so important for rugby?
The main scope of conditioning training is to overcome fatigue! You’ll do well if you’ll
consider fatigue as Enemy #1. Let’s try to analyze how fatigue affects the ability of a
player to play effectively:
•
Fatigue affects technical and tactical proficiency. Most technical mistakes are made
when a player’s concentration is affected by fatigue, which is more acute during the
last part of the game. Consequently, considering a training program that enhances
player ability to tolerate fatigue would be of most importance. This is why we like to
say that “The winner of a game is often the team who fatigues last!” Expose the team
to a better strength and conditioning program and you’ll see a different group of
players, a team where skill proficiency and consistency is extensive not only at the
beginning, but more importantly, at the end of the game.
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•
Fatigue affects the accuracy of passing and kicking. Passing and kicking (i.e.
tactical kicking or penalty kicking) inaccuracy is the result of a high level of fatigue,
which is the outcome of a poorly conditioned team. A player with a fatigued central
nervous system (CNS) cannot concentrate on performing accurate, well-directed and
precise passes. Consistent skill performance increases only when a player’s
conditioning potential increases. Don’t expect miracles! Miracles in rugby happen
only to the best trained team!
•
Fatigue affects tactical judgment. As players fatigue they will have a tough time
“reading” the game in order to quickly and correctly react to specific game situations.
This is also true in offensive play when players are attempting to create scoring
opportunities.
•
A highly fatigued player is more prone to injuries. Exhausted players tend to have
diminished body control, lower concentration and inability to control and coordinate
the body’s actions, especially the lower limbs. As such, this peculiar scenario of poor
body and limb coordination may result in injury.
•
A player’s motivation is higher when he/she is well-trained physically. The vast
majority of players are highly motivated for a game. Traditionally, rugby players are
fighters, a highly determined type of athlete. Therefore, an ineffective play in the
second part of the game should not give you grounds to conclude that the players have
demonstrated a lack of motivation! The contrary is true. Players are well-motivated
but have been exposed to substandard physical training. Poorly developed motor
abilities can never represent a strong physical support for an effective technical and
tactical game. Some players cannot cope with the fatigue of a highly disputed game,
especially near the finish when the rate of technical and tactical errors increases.
Furthermore, the deterioration of power, speed, agility, and quickness will consistently
negate a good performance.
How is this book organized?
The entire discussion regarding physical training begins by defining the fundamentals
of rugby (chapter 1) followed by attempting to define the physiological demands of
the game (chapter 2). This chapter is essential because within it we will define timemotion analysis of the game, specify the dominant energy systems and motor abilities
used in rugby (also called ergogenesis), and introduce the concept of the demand for
position-specific training. To better serve your needs, game-specific testing will be
presented in chapter 3, where a player profile will be suggested and used for specific
training program development.
We strongly believe training effectiveness is quite impossible to achieve without being
organized. So for your convenience, we have included a comprehensive discussion about
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planning periodization in chapter 4. In this chapter we’ll present short term and annual
plans, and the methodology used to create them.
In your attempt to peak for league games or some important international tournaments,
you will need to be versed in the area of periodization of the motor ability specific to
rugby. This actually refers to how to structure your training programs to achieve and
maintain optimal performance prior to and during these very important games.
A considerable amount of this book will be used to discuss the dominant motor abilities
needed for an effective game such as strength and power (chapter 5), agility and quickness
(chapter 6), speed (chapter 7), and endurance (chapter 8). All our discussions about the
methodology of developing the motor abilities specific to rugby are as practical as
possible, constantly providing rugby-specific examples and drills.
Unlike other books, we uniquely understand that a rugby team is made out of different
players, each of them playing a specific position, which requires a position-specific
physical demand and a position-specific motor ability to be developed if that player is
expected to excel during the game.
To make this book very practical and easy to apply we are also making specific suggestions
how to develop the abilities needed for each position with practical examples and drills.
Finally, this book reveals the ever important, and often neglected method used for recovery
following the game and training (chapter 9), and how to avoid fatigue and over-training.
Since you cannot play or train without having the necessary energy, we are also discussing
optimal nutrition and how to periodize nutrition.
Selected thoughts before you turn this page
Do what’s important! New training ideas are springing up almost daily. Some are recycled
ideas, others are plain lies. The stores, on the other hand, are full of all kinds of novel
training equipment and gadgets. Some are good but others are more than questionable.
Salesmen will sell you anything to make a profit while others will tell you “This really
works!” Let’s assume all ideas are good and the equipment works well, the questions you
need to ask yourself are: “Do I have the time to use all these gadgets?” and “Do they have
a real impact on training methodology?” This is why you have to be very selective and
manage your time very carefully and above everything: Do what is important!
Learning and skill correction. Training is very complex. Players need to learn technical
and tactical skills and train for rugby-specific motor abilities. Players learn skills during
training and then apply them during the game, whereas technical retention is most effective
under conditions of mental and physical freshness. However, the corrections of technical
mistakes must be done under the conditions of fatigue. In other words, you need to correct
technical mistakes under game conditions, when the players experience high levels of
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Introduction
fatigue. By applying this method you are in fact achieving two important goals: training
your players to cope with fatigue and correcting mistakes in an environment that causes
the mistakes in the first place.
Train hard but smart. The planning chapter is designed specifically to demonstrate that
working hard is not good enough anymore. On the contrary, working smart is as important,
or even more important, than working hard. To increase your training effectiveness, and
as such to work smart, you have to consider the following training principle: Alternate
energy systems. During the game, energy is supplied by all three energy systems: alactic,
lactic acid and aerobic. High intensity training, on the other hand, is taxing to the first
two systems. Most training methods using alactic and lactic acid systems are very taxing
both physically and mentally. To tax these two energy systems every day of the week will
clearly lead to high levels of fatigue, staleness and will eventually result in overtraining.
Therefore, the best method you can use to avoid critical levels of fatigue and staleness is
to plan days of high training demands with days of lower training demands. This actually
means to alternate the energy systems during the week so that you’ll allow time to restore
the energy stores of each energy system and facilitate recovery and regenerate between
days of hard work (for more information please refer to chapter 4). Please remember, that
the game will always reward the team who not only trains hard but smart!
Some final food for thought:
• Training is both an art and a science. Improve your science to refine your artistry.
• Training is nothing else but a manipulation of methods intended to induce superior
adaptation.
• When adaptation increases, so does the quality of your game.
• Players charge their batteries during the preparatory phase.
• Good conditioning improves the rate of recovery.
• When you are well-trained, winning comes naturally.
• What you don’t train will detrain.
• In training nothing happens by accident.
• Do you want to be successful? Plan for it!
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Chapter 1 – Fundamentals of Rugby
Chapter 1
Fundamentals of Rugby
Like all other team sports, rugby has fundamental components ultimately influencing and
regulating the way the game is played. These components are namely technical, tactical,
physical and psychological skills, and knowledge. The game, as it is played, is a mixture
of all these elements, and must be well understood by players and coaches alike to optimize
performance. The best players and the best teams are the ones who can maximize
development in all aspects of the game, with the ultimate goal of harmonizing the team
as a whole, and therefore unifying individual and collective skills, concepts and mental
resources in one entity thriving for a common objective.
We shall look into fundamental concepts of technical, tactical, and psychological
development for rugby players, and determine the dominant biomotor abilities of the sport
further in this chapter. The main focus of this book understands the physical component
of the game, but we shall not enter the detailed schemes of technical and tactical training,
which have been discussed by numerous books and would also deservedly be the major
topic of an alternate study.
Technical training
We can confidently say that the technical part of any team sport, including rugby has two
major components:
• The individual technique: Where players develop step-by-step motor skill abilities
from the initiation to high performance stages.
• The team technique: Which usually is the sum of all individual techniques, put
together at the service of a collective goal, and where players are each responsible
for a portion of the work to be done. A new dimension of the game is created when
the peak technical performance of a team is beyond the sum of all individual
techniques. This happens when the best teams reach a certain fluidity and superior
coherence in all aspects of their technical/tactical field performances.
Basically, a technical skill or motor skill is the specific manner in which a player performs
a physical exercise, be it passing, kicking, tackling, rucking, or simply sprinting with the
ball in their hands. It is using a set of movements to achieve a specific purpose. A perfect
technique saves energy and adds fluidity to the motion by biomechanical adaptation.
The goal of each individual player should be to develop a perfect technique in order
to achieve high efficiency. It is reasonable to say that each function which has a role
in the game has an inherent technical aspect including standing still waiting for the
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next action to develop. Therefore all of it must be trained for optimal performance,
individually and collectively.
Motor skill development is segmented through the stages of the players’ growth and should
also follow some basic learning rules for later optimal performances, such as:
• Law of primacy: Learn the right technique first, no trial and errors allowed.
• Law of exercise: A motor skill will be learnt until automation only after a
tremendous amount of repetition.
Multiple researches have shown that depending on the complexity of the skill to be
learnt, between 5,000 and 15,000 correct repetitions of the skill are necessary to
achieve automation and technical literacy. How many general basic skills must a rugby
player master for proficiency? How many more skills are position-induced? This is
why motor skill development is an ongoing process from the initiation stage up to the
high performance level.
Motor skills are mastered through individual biomechanical adaptation of a technical
model used as a reference for every technique to be performed. This model is an accepted
standard of perfect technique, which players and coaches will follow, and biomechanically
adapt for optimal performance. It is important to note that as the game evolves in time,
technique also evolves, and what was good yesterday is not as efficient today. This is also
why players and coaches must stay tuned-in to rugby’s evolution and incessantly search
to develop new techniques or perfect older ones. It is the core of the process in achieving
an edge over the opposition.
It is generally admitted that motor skill acquisition occurs in four phases:
• Phase 1: Neuromuscular adaptation to the new skill. It is the phase where the players
are uncoordinated.
• Phase 2: The phase of tensed and sloppy execution.
• Phase 3: The motor skill “makes sense” and there is good coordination in the
neuromuscular process.
• Phase 4: The stage of mastery. Movements are highly efficient, fluid, and the
player has developed the ability to adapt skill performance to situations or
environmental changes.
Collectively, a rugby team is functioning as a unit whose work is interdependant on one
another. Each unit has individual and collective skills coherently interrelated to optimize the
performance of the team. Forwards are divided into the tight five and the loose forwards,
the backs into the inside backs and outside backs. All players must develop the fundamental
skills of a rugby player, enhanced in the early stages of formation, where passing, kicking,
tackling, running with and without the ball, rucking and mauling for example, are taught
and put into practical application session after session. Moreover, at the stage of
specialization, players will learn more specific skills inherent to their position of play. All
these skills will also have an impact of the physical and tactical development of the players.
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Chapter 1 – Fundamentals of Rugby
As we will see later on, the involvement of tactical aptitude will occur once a player
reaches phase 3 and 4 of motor skill development, and it will become extremely
important for players to be able to adapt their technical skills to set or game-induced
tactical orientations.
Tactical training
There will always be some debate concerning the definitions of “strategy” and “tactic,”
which are both originating from military terminology. Strategy refers to the general plan
of motion, and utilization of the army’s forces made by the general officer in command.
Tactic refers to the actual actions taking place on the battlefield. Adapted to rugby
terminology, a game often referred to as a “collective combat sport” (Pierre Conquet,
1996), strategy will refer to the general game plan of the team, or how the team will play
the game according to its’ own philosophy, strengths, and weaknesses. Tactics will refer
to a lesser game plan, functioning according to the general strategic framework and
adapting it to the strength and weaknesses of the opposition to be faced.
Tactical development, like its technical counterpart, is developed step-by-step and is based
on three major elements:
• Sound motor skill abilities
• Sound understanding of the game
• Optimal physical development
Each player should have a clear and thorough understanding of the game. Tactical training
is designed from the early stages of development to high performance, to allow players
to master the principle of rugby strategy, and to correlatively develop their physical and
technical abilities in order to play the game at their best.
Developing tactical skills of rugby will include:
• Knowledge of fundamental strategies for the game (like penetrating a stretched
defense and outrun a compact defense).
• Analysis of the strategy of opposition teams, and the level of physical and technical
development of these teams.
• Develop with players a sound awareness of the laws and regulations of the game.
This will lead to a tactical edge on the field for the team.
• Develop individual and unit tactics for the games to be played, and rehearse any
of these in training until complete assimilation and automation has been achieved.
Tactical development will follow the same path as motor skill development. It is based
on multiple repetitions of theoretical concepts, following a general game plan. An
important factor for successful implementation is that all specific tactics elaborated
from the general game plan and the opposition strategy analysis must be agreed upon
by all players. All players must agree to follow the plan because only then will the chance
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for success be optimum and practice will become motivational allowing the players to
focus on a common goal. Tactical training is directly dependant on the quality of the
technical and physical abilities of the players. It is unrealistic to follow tactical options
knowing that the level of fitness and the technical abilities of the majority of players
will not be up to the task.
How can a team decide to exert a constant physical pressure on the opposition if half
of the players are unable to sustain the pace dictated by the plan? It is extremely obvious
in the modern game of rugby, which is increasingly faster and more intense than ever,
that the physical abilities of the players at any level could be a limiting factor of the
technical and tactical development of the team. The structure and elements of a tactical
plan involves both attack and defense situations. Each time, there will be an implication
for the individual player, who is part of a unit, which is working with the other units
for the benefit of the whole team.
Let’s see what is happening in the offensive tactical structure of a team: The individual
player will interact either as a ball carrier, or as a support player and will be involved in
running, passing, kicking, rucking, mauling or all of the mentioned actions. This player,
by position-specificity, is a part of the team’s units and will act according to the model
expected from that position as well as what has been collectively decided for each unit to
perform. The unit of the player is pursuing the goal of the team in symbiosis with the
other units of the team. The same concept arises for the defensive tactical structure of the
team, where a player will be involved individually, and as a unit member, part of the team
in regular defense patterns such as: pressuring the opposition, marking an opponent and
channel, guarding fringes of rucks, cover runs, line defense (man on, man out, drift, etc.),
cooperate with unit members, tackling, recover the ball, etc.
In each of these game situations, the player will individually contribute to the team’s
success in developing awareness of game situations anticipating expected moves from
the opposition or planned moves from the team. The player will be asked to develop game
understanding and vision, creativity, communication, technical and physical abilities, and
selfless fighting spirit. These individual qualities will meld into the player’s unit work
rate to realize the team’s goals. The key to success in this instance will be mastering skills
and achieving the highest possible physical development to ensure that all tactical and
decision making processes on the field will follow the overall strategy of the team with
maximum efficiency. This, combined with a smarter way of training by periodizing all
physical, technical, tactical and psychological aspects of the game, will ensure a definite
competitive edge for the team.
Rugby is undoubtedly one of the most dynamic team sports in which technical and tactical
development of players and coaches are constantly evolving. Rugby players and coaches
are always discovering new ways to improve different aspects of the game to ensure a
technical and tactical edge for their team. Tactical improvement is not carved in stone,
although the best teams have a general game plan established in accordance to the strengths
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Chapter 1 – Fundamentals of Rugby
and weaknesses of the team, and it is of paramount importance to keep players through
training, focused on solving problems occurring on the field. The best teams in the world
often make the final result favor them through outstanding decision making of all players.
How many times do we see teams realize that the tactical decisions being made are not
working and accordingly would like to switch to plan B only to find out that plan B is
almost nonexistent? Teams adapting to multiple technical, tactical and environmental
situations will always be more successful.
We will see, as we further unfold this book, that if a plan must exist for the best possibility
of improving all aspects of the game, this plan must allow for flexibility to implement
necessary changes in the wake of knowledge and further skill development. Moreover,
competent implementation of any tactical plan is based on sound skill ability and physical
capacities. Rugby has evolved into a faster game, with more intense contact and less time
for recovery between action bouts, as we will see later on, and therefore tactical
development cannot succeed without a high level of fitness and stamina to cope with the
increased fatigue level associated with thoroughly managing energy stores throughout the
game. To manage these elements, a periodization model is adequate to ensure the
functionality of all elements of training. A physical, technical, tactical and energy sources
periodized plan is the ultimate tool for rugby development management.
Psychological development
As players get involved in the more technical and tactical aspects of team development,
they will also cope with an increased psychological demand associated with training and
playing rugby. To name just a few, players may be excited, anxious, emotional, sometimes
scared of losing against reputedly stronger opposition, overconfident, shy, in state of denial
once injured, and/or stressed by external factors that are occurring in their lives. In most
instances, the coach will handle all emotions on a day-by-day basis, and will become the
privileged listener of the emotional state of the player.
Beyond showing compassion and helping their players, coaches will need to develop
coping skills for players to overcome the negative effects of training. A very important
skill to develop with the players is to help them stay focused even when they are in high
level of fatigue, and expose the players to simple and then more complex technical and/or
tactical situations in training followed by exhibition games. Coaches can provide players
with a mental plan to fulfill and teach them to visualize tactical development before fatigue
sets in. This will allow players to visualize the game under fatigue conditions. Once a
player is able to function beyond a high level of fatigue they tend to experiment, boosting
the individual and collective confidence, as well as positively increasing the teams overall
chance of success. This doesn’t mean, of course, to train to exhaustion, but to introduce
psychological elements, to perfect technical and tactical automation with the players, their
units, and the team as a whole, that help players solve technical and tactical problems
occurring during a game, specifically under the condition of fatigue.
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Two major negative psychological effects to overcome for players are:
• Low self-esteem after a loss: This can lead to individual and collective doubt,
frustration, apathy, lack of motivation, fear of losing again, guilt, anxiety, loss of
sleep and appetite, mental staleness and even depression.
• Overconfidence after a win. This can lead to individual and collective exaltation,
exhilaration, “top of the world” feeling, condescendence, and a feeling of
invincibility.
Of course, feelings are natural in human nature and make us what we are, but it’s the role
of every player and coach to avoid succumbing to the influences of the “tricks of the
mind”. There’s nothing wrong with being disappointed after a loss or being happy after a
win, it is the excess of either we need to be wary of. Certainly one of the best ways to
overcome any excessive reaction is to constructively analyze the game played, offer
positive reinforcement without complacency to what went right and go through what went
wrong step-by-step to ensure all parties understand and ensure it is a priority for remedial
coaching in the training sessions before the next game.
It is essential to understand that there is always a “why?” for what happened in rugby or any
sport. By being clinical in the aftermath of a game, we erase the “I” and replace it with a
“we,” smoothing therefore emotional reactions and defusing the negative effects of sometimes
dealing with the “after.”Laurie Mains (All Blacks coach 1992-1995, and Super 12 coach
2000-2003), one of the most proficient coaches in modern day rugby puts it like this: “Strip
the action back to the bare bone to know why it didn’t work, there is always an answer, look
at it technically and fix it with remedial coaching.” This way, for example, the center doesn’t
have to feel specifically guilty after knocking on the ball, if the lift in the lineout would have
been more efficient, the jumper would have had more time to adjust his off the top pass to
the scrum half, who himself wouldn’t have lost time in getting the ball to the fly half, who
would have been able to adjust better his miss pass to the center, who himself wouldn’t have
to adjust his run to catch the low ball, ending the movement by knocking it on…The most
common mistakes in the game of rugby are often the result of chain-reactions unfolding for
the better or worse. We, as players and coaches, must get the small details correct step-bystep, beginning from initiation to the high performance stage. We are all in for a long
commitment! Getting this message across from the earliest stage allows players to understand
it, and it will get us a long way, and save us long painful guilt or bragging brainstorming.
Phases of technical and tactical training development
In order to develop these two fundamental aspects of the training to maximize game
efficiency, the path is established by two parallel trajectories:
• The knowledge and abilities of the coach. Skills enhanced by his/her experience,
knowledge and pedagogical skills.
• The ability of the players to assimilate new skills and tactical elements. A players’
level of retention of the presented information will directly depend on their capacity
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to process new information in correlation to their current understanding of
standardized models, and their individual biomechanical and biomotor abilities.
Generally, players will improve their technical and tactical skills in three phases as
presented in figure 1.1:
Phase 1
Phase 2
Phase 3
Objectives:
Objectives:
Objectives:
- Perfect the components of
a skill
- Integrate the components
- Develop dominant
biomotor abilities
- The system comes to a
whole under standardized
conditions
- Maintain the development
of the biomotor abilities
- Stabilize the system
- Adapt to game conditions
- Tune the motor capacities
for maximum performance
Requirements:
Requirements:
Requirements:
- Emphasize simple
conditions of performing
a skill
- Games are inadvisable
- Exhibition games can be
scheduled at the end of
this phase
- Utilization of disturbing
factors and practice under
fatigue condition
- Participate in competitions
Figure 1.1 The three phases of skill and tactical development (adapted from Bompa, 2003
and Teodorescu, 1986)
The goal of players and coaches is to achieve the highest level of technical and tactical
development because of the challenge it provides and it is fun to progressively play better
and smarter. Therefore, it is extremely important to initially practice the correct techniques.
Players and coaches must follow the learning law by primarily stipulating that in a learning
process, best assimilation is achieved by learning the right things first, then in accordance
to the law of exercise, to practice and rehearse the correct skill until technical automation
is complete. The same theory applies to tactical development. In some instances, technical
and tactical improvement will not be possible as they are directly dependant on physical
factors not yet acquired.
For example, if a team decides to apply a forwards unit penetration game based on pick
and go around the fringes of the breakdown in order to cross the gain line rapidly and
recycle the ball quickly before the retreating defense regroups, sucking in the defense
line and opening spaces to be exploited later on the outside, then players must be
physically and technically conditioned for multiple pick and go actions with support,
low body drive, optimal body position in contact and in getting to the ground late,
allowing the ball to continuously flow and keep the exact momentum essential to
destabilize the opposition’s defense.
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All involved players will need to not only technically train to optimize performance in
contact, but also be able to physically sustain such a tactical option repetitively. As long
as players are not physically ready, their technique will not improve and the sequence of
play will suffer technical deficiency under the condition of fatigue.
Fatigue is also a limiting factor of the learning process. Although it is valuable to technically
and tactically train under the condition of fatigue, coaches must imperatively avoid teaching
new skills or concepts when the players are tired. Other impeding factors in the learning
process could be logistical, such as poor quality or worn out equipment, as well as an imperfect
field surface for proper skill development. We all have memorable tackling stories on tough
pitches or inappropriate surfaces. In this case, scratches, bruises and the fear of injury can
deter the players to practice the best tackling techniques they have previously learnt.
In time, another factor coaches will have to deal with appreciates that not every player learns
at the same speed. Some individuals are fast learners and master concepts and techniques
quicker than others, which can create a disparity throughout the team. It is therefore
important to defuse all potential negative effects and frustration this situation can create. A
good way to do this is to anticipate the needs of the individual player and ensure proper and
clear communication when approaching more complex skills or tactical situations. Use
concise briefings, state of the art demonstration, and utilize senior players and fast learners
as tutors for slower learners, involving everyone in the process of development.
When the season is planned, the best time to develop technical and tactical training is
during the preparatory phase of the team’s annual plan. During the majority of the season
there will be no competition, so there are weeks and months to train technical and tactical
improvement, which will be first tested in game simulation training sessions then
through the exhibition matches of the precompetition phase and from then on, remedial
coaching will deal with actual technical and tactical failures occurring during
championship games as there will be no time to develop further. During the preparatory
phase, technical and tactical sessions must be practiced at different speeds and velocity
and the closer the team comes to starting the season, all skills involved in field action
should be rehearsed at an increased speed. It is indeed very common for players to
master skills and moves at a low pace with limited opposition, but this is not what will
really transpires during championship games when the opposition will throw at them
everything but the kitchen sink! Therefore, the higher the velocity that the skills and
moves will be achieved without compromising quality, the better it will be for future
competition applications. Moreover, we all know that fatigue will drastically impair
technical development and the lucidity of the player to be able to make the right decision.
It is then a valuable concept to occasionally train under fatigued conditions and rehearse
tactics attempting to push the limits of mental and technical blankness. Some tasks,
such as lineout throws or goal kicking, will need to be performed under a very high
fatigue level, meaning as we will see later on, that a high level of lactic acid will pool
in the muscles and flow into the blood stream. It is therefore always a good idea to get
the throwers, lineout pods, and goal kickers practicing while they are tired.
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The game plan and tactical applications
The general game plan is the plan-of-action the team will follow during a specific
competition, and reflects the team’s philosophy and concepts of the game of rugby. It is
usually written, read, and agreed upon by all members of the team and coaching staff. It
is conceived based upon these different vital elements:
• Strengths and weaknesses of the team
• Analysis and knowledge of strengths and weaknesses of the opposition teams
• Adaptation to fundamental game strategy
• Address both offense and defense issues
• Define the individual and units roles both in offense and defense
The goals of the game plan are to:
• Inform and remind players how the team will play the game
• Set realistic and agreed upon objectives for the team to pursue
From the general game plan, tactical concepts to play individual games will be drawn
into tactical plans, which will address the manner in which the team will play gameby-game in the competition. Each of these plans will follow specific guidelines dictated
by the team to be played. Flexibility is a key word here, as we all have experiences of
getting involved in matches, either as players or coaches, and realizing that what was
planned didn’t really work well on the field. Adaptation and decision making skills are
the key to change the course of events. Reading the game and adapting to it will always
remain the best option rather than sticking blindly to a tactical game plan which doesn’t
work, not having a plan “B” to switch to, or drilling players into absolute submission
to sequence play that, in turn, annihilates their feelings and sense of adaptation to an
unpredicted situation. By simply analyzing what is going on in front of them they would
be able, in most instances, to revert to a successful back-up plan to take control of the
game. For this reason, rugby teams must develop decision makers and leadership
throughout the team. Traditionally, this specific function was given to a few players
designated as tactical decision makers (TDM) lead by the captain of the team. Modern
rugby tends to develop every player as an efficient decision maker and, as with the
increased velocity of the game, a player is unable to refer to another team member for
guidance and decisions must be made instantly to carry on the momentum. There are
still positions regarded as tactical positions such as scrum half and fly half, but in the
modern game of rugby, developing a TDM in every player is an increasing necessity.
The tactical game plan occurs in three phases:
• Preliminary planning of the plan:
This is where experience and knowledge of playing other teams come into consideration,
and the team’s coaching staff will select some appropriate solutions to anticipated problems
to be encountered during the game. It is based on a sound understanding of the game, and
useful knowledge of the opposition team. Every player and unit is informed of the tasks
ahead, and training sessions will focus on developing a successful tactical game plan.
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• Application of the plan:
This phase will actually apply what has been decided on in a game situation. By understanding
how the team will play, and by practicing offense and defense patterns in training, the players
will theoretically be able to anticipate both their own teammate’s actions and the opposition’s
moves to secure the most favorable position on the field. Communication between players in
a unit, and from unit to unit, must be optimum and well-rehearsed.
• Analyzing the application of the game plan:
This phase is designed to provide constructive analysis of what has transpired during the
game and how to improve technically and tactically as a team. Audiovisual devices are used
to comment on what happened during the game and to evaluate if the decisions made at the
time of the game were optimal for the interest of the team. Video analysis is now widespread,
as with the development of computer software allowing the classification and segmentation
of a game set-piece by set-piece, ruck-by-ruck, maul-by-maul, and tackle-by-tackle if
necessary. These options are systematically used currently at professional and international
levels. This phase is also an opportunity to reinforce the positive and motivate players who
might feel down, in the case of a loss for example, or what seemed to be individual mistakes.
Dominant biomotor abilities for rugby
Technical and tactical developments have a direct relationship with the physical abilities,
also called biomotor abilities, the rugby players need to develop. These abilities include
strength, speed, endurance and coordination. These four parameters can’t function without
each other. Let’s analyze the physical implication of technical and tactical developments.
Technically, the major skills the players need to develop in order to play rugby are divided
into two categories:
• Skills with the ball
• Skills without the ball
With the ball, players will run at a different speeds, pass, kick, go in contact, and change
direction. Without the ball, which is not limited to defensive situations, players will run
in support, get into position, change direction, jump, push, tackle, and support in contact.
All these physical activities need strength/power, speed, endurance and coordination in
order to be performed with maximum efficiency. A specific activity, for example, may
need more power than another, but all the bio-motor capabilities are involved in some
extent to play the game of rugby with a sound technical base.
Tactical play, according to general and specific game plans, will put the individual actions
into a coherent collective effort towards the same goal in order for the team to perform the
best it can. The game itself is the sum of action bouts split by periods of rest. During these
collective action moments, arranged as coherently as possible, all biomotor abilities of the
player will be put into action. All parameters being equal, it is safe to assume that the team
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that is the least tired will win the game. In that case, to overcome the opposing team, one
must first individually and collectively overcome fatigue. This is the sole purpose of training,
not actually playing the game. Players train to overcome fatigue and adapt to it, so they can
perform at maximum capacity during games. To be able to perform at optimal capacity,
players must plan to enhance all biomotor abilities in tight relation with their technical and
tactical development. Hence, the lack of optimization of the physical abilities necessary to
play will become an impeding factor for the team’s development towards excellence.
If we wish players to run faster, hit in contact more powerfully, cross the gain line faster,
recycle the ball quicker to keep getting the advantage over the struggling regrouping
opposition defense, and ultimately be able to place fast runners into the spaces created,
or aggressively and powerfully defend going forward and pressurize the opposition until
the team turns over the ball, then players will be required to use biomotor abilities at
their optimal level. For high performance rugby, we cannot rely solely on good technical
and tactical players. We need to develop more complete players who will thrive to perform
optimally during the 80 minutes of the game, overcome fatigue to keep performing
soundly technically and tactically, and make a real difference towards the end of the
game. If players are able to optimize their biomotor abilities, all technical and tactical
activities will be performed quicker, the team will gain in momentum and cohesion, and
it will boost confidence and motivation therefore enhancing the psychological aspect of
the process. As we can see, performance and outcome are tightly interrelated and must
be addressed accordingly. It is a large task for those who decide to improve and play a
total type of rugby, but luckily today it is facilitated by fragmenting, or periodizing, the
training using the knowledge sport science has brought to us.
In summary, we can confidently say that all movements involved in rugby require varying
degrees of:
• Strength/power
• Speed
• Endurance (aerobic and anaerobic)
• Coordination/agility
These are the dominant biomotor abilities for rugby.
Table 1.2 shows the biomotor abilities for rugby implied in technical skills with the order
of importance to the specific skill from 1 to 4, 1 being the most important.
Strength/Power
Speed
Endurance
Run
1
1
3
4
Pass
2
3
4
1
Kick
2
3
4
1
Contact
1
2
3
4
Jump/Push
1
4
3
2
Figure 1.2 The importance of specific biomotor abilities for rugby
Coordination
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As a result, although all elements are important to develop any technical skills, we can
deduct from table 1.2 that strength/power is prominently important for rugby players
whatever the position played. Of course the element of speed is also extremely important
as are the others, and rugby can be classified as a speed & power team sport and training
should be oriented towards this trend.
With tactical play, players will be involved in the offensive and defensive schemes of
their units, linking with other units to make a whole, a coherent process for the team’s
success. In that instance, tactical, technical, and physical parts of the game will play
their most important roles. If the team decides to drive a maul from a lineout, release
the ball in motion to create a contact point in midfield, trying to eliminate the strongest
tacklers of the opposition, and from there, pick and drive the ball from the breakdowns
in the axis until scoring or eventually releasing the ball into wider space to score, it will
involve an element of continuity to the game. This continuity can only be achieved with
a clear understanding of the game, coupled with sound technique with or without the
ball, and the physical capacity to carry on multi-frames of ball recycling deep into
opposition territory. This will be determined by physical power to put players across the
gain line, strength and power-endurance to retain the ball in 2nd phase of play to keep
going forward, a strong aerobic endurance base to allow recovery in the shortest amount
of time, as the same players will not always be involved, lactate tolerance to overcome
fatigue, keeping the central nervous system as clear as possible to make the right
decisions and avoid a skill approximation or failure due to fatigue, all of this to optimize
the chances of success of the tactical decision made.
If carried out well, such a tactical frame of the game can unfold within 45 seconds,
a minute, or more, if the contest for the ball retention at the breakdown is tough. The
longer the time, the more tired will become the players, and the more approximate
their technique will be in contact and their urgency at the breakdown. Therefore, in
this situation, most factors being equal, the final word will come to the team which
is more resistant to fatigue and can stay sharp after a long burst of intense physical
activity. This was an example designed to explain how physical conditioning will have
a strong effect on the result of any tactical decision carried on collectively with a
sound technical base.
As we will see later on when we analyze time-motion in the modern game of rugby, the
physical aspect of the game has become one of the most critical components of the game
than ever before. To cope with the increase of physical demand brought on the players
in order to sustain the higher intensity of the game, at higher velocity, with broader
tactical and technical implications, we believe that a solid understanding of the
specificities of the game coupled with strong planning of all aspects of the training
process through a periodized annual plan, will increase the chances of a team to reach
the objectives fixed for the championship season.
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Chapter 2
Physiological Demand of the Game
Training the energy systems
Training the energy systems for team sports in general, and rugby in particular, has become
one of the most important features of all training programs. To correctly train the energy
systems and periodize the training accordingly to facilitate recovery, super-compensation
and optimal adaptation of the players to new work loads in order to play the game at a
higher intensity, one must first understand how these systems function, and then determine
which general and specific work must be utilized to optimize performance and prepare
the players and the team to peak at the right moment. Before we discuss the energy systems
in training we must first analyze one of central concepts in order to understand training
theory and its applications, the super-compensation cycle.
Super-compensation refers to the relationship between the workload in training activities
that induce stress in an athletes’ body and the regeneration phase, which will allow for
adaptation. After training sessions and games, the body replenishes its biochemical
sources of energy in a phase of compensation. As with many things in nature, there must
be an existing balance to function well. Therefore, any energy expenditure will be correctly
compensated to ensure that performance will not deteriorate. Regeneration takes some
time as it is a slow process demanding several hours or even days, if the energy sources
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are considerably depleted. The body needs to refuel its glycogen stores prior to being able
to function under physiological stress again. Figure 2.1 illustrates the phases of training
with fatigue levels, compensation phases, and the state of super-compensation, where, for
a short period of time, the body will need to overcompensate and the biological capacities
of the athlete/player will actually be beyond the state they were prior to the training session
(homeostasis). This is called the super-compensation phase or cycle. The next training
session or game, should take place in a period of time where a players’ physiological and
psychological arousal is beyond their individual homeostasis. Performance will then
improve, fatigue will set in again, and another compensation phase followed by a supercompensation cycle, will follow. Planning for optimal performance is simply designing
the manipulation of the physiological factors of training and games to allow players and
the team to consistently super-compensate at the correct selected times during the season.
This is called peaking and is the result of the manipulation of factors occurring in training
to maximize performance. We will see later in this chapter and in chapter 4 how to arrange
training sessions for optimum performance following some rules of periodization such as
alternating the energy systems and intensity levels within macro and micro-cycles.
Supercompensation
Involution
Stimulus
Fatigue
Compensation
I
II
III
IV
Figure 2.1 Super-compensation cycle from a training session (Bompa, 1988)
Every time super-compensation occurs in training, players will develop a new homeostatic
level, which will have a positive influence over the following training and performance.
We can assume that the state of super-compensation is the foundation of functional
increase in the athletic efficiency in the player. During and after training, as seen in figure
2.1, fatigue is induced in phase I. During the phase II rest period, energy stores are
replenished not only to the homeostasis state, but there is a noticeable increase in the
body’s adaptation to work load in phase III (super-compensation cycle). If the player does
not apply another stimulus through training at this optimal time, there will be an involution
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in phase IV which will bring a loss of the physiological benefits gained in the supercompensation cycle (phase III).
If training stimuli is done correctly, according to sound training rules and not at random,
and if the recovery period follows the right patterns as explained later in chapter 9, the
recovery period including the super-compensation phase is approximately 24 hours
(Herberger, 1977). Super-compensation cycles will also occur at alternate times
following different training stimuli such as 6 to 8 hours after aerobic training, or 24, 36,
and even 48 hours following strenuous activities where the central nervous system is
contributing measurably. It has been shown (Harre, 1982) that it is possible for
players/athletes to train again before complete super-compensation occurs if done
correctly. The sum of the training effect will have a positive influence on performance,
but in no way repetitive intense training will allow for super-compensation to ever occur
and will have a negative effect on training and game performance. It is therefore
inconceivable to train repeatedly at maximum intensity as some coaches or players try
to do, believing that every training session must be performed until complete exhaustion.
By not following recovery and energy system alternate training, staleness and a decrease
in performances is looming around the next corner!
The energy required for sport activities, team sports in general and rugby is the result of
the breakdown of a chemical compound called Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP), which is
converted at the muscular level into mechanical energy, allowing athletes and players to
perform technical, tactical and physical activities as requested. ATP is produced both
under anaerobic and aerobic conditions, where anaerobic (or nonoxidative, without
oxygen supply) does not involve oxygen in the process, and aerobic does involve oxygen
in the process. Physiologically, the anaerobic system produces ATP at a much greater
speed than the aerobic system and is therefore a very attractive means of energy
production for team sports and rugby, where bursts of speed and intense powerful physical
activities are common. The anaerobic system can be activated instantly for energy
production, whereas the aerobic system needs time to initiate energy production, due to
the fact that oxygen must travel to oxidate chemical compounds to produce the energy
required to be converted into mechanical energy.
The anaerobic system is divided into two subsystems of energy production:
• The alactic system produces energy very quickly for powerful, short duration
physical activities lasting only a few seconds, without producing any impeding
byproduct.
• The lactic acid system produces energy for a longer duration of powerful and fast
physical activities in the range of 20 to 90 seconds. This system releases, at the
same time, a fatiguing by-product from the chemical reaction called lactic acid.
Rugby is a fast paced game with bouts of intense, powerful physical activity for the
conquest and retention/repossession of the ball alternated with periods of rest, each of
them possessing different time durations. Features of the game will include high bursts
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of speed at maximum and submaximum velocities, high displays of power, quick changes
of direction, and other specific activities such as pushing in scrums, lifting and jumping
in lineouts, tackling, and wrestling for the ball either standing, or on the ground. These
activities rely on the nonoxidative anaerobic system to produce the requested energy since
it is capable of producing the maximum amount of energy in the shortest period of time.
We can summarize the three energy systems as follows (Bompa & Chambers 1999 and
Janssen 2001)
Production of ATP
1-The alactic system:
The alactic system is the main supplier of energy for all out efforts of up to 10 seconds
(i.e. sprinting), and keeps producing energy for activities up to 30 seconds. ATP is stored
in the muscles and enables the muscles to contract. During a physical/muscular activity
this chemical compound is broken down into Adenosine Diphosphate which supplies
direct energy to the muscles to contract.
ATP ADP + energy
The ATP stored in the muscles is limited in quantity, but some aiding systems will help
to reproduce ATP from the ADP produced. One of these aiding systems is the creatine
phosphate or CP and it can reproduce quickly ATP from ADP to maintain storage.
CP + ADP ATP + creatine
Due to the small amount of ATP and CP stored in the muscles, the alactic system can only
be a limited source of energy, but is readily available for fast, powerful all-out physical
activities.
Alactic training:
This system is trained through maximal speed-power physical activities, during which an
intensity of 95% or more of maximum effort is required. This will include sprints, agility,
changes of direction, maximum strength and power conversion development including
plyometrics. Rest intervals should be 3 to 5 minutes to allow total restoration of ATP
within the muscles prior the next repetition. The frequency of training the alactic system
should be 2 or 3 times a week during preparatory phase and 1 to 2 times a week for
maintenance during the competition phase.
Suggested total work time per training sessions: 75 to 200 seconds.
Alactic training can be general or specific.
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Restoration of ATP to be used to calculate rest interval between repetitions during alactic
training is as follows:
50% restored in 30 seconds
100% restores in 3-5 minutes.
2-The lactic acid system also called the anaerobic glycolytic
system:
The lactic acid system takes over when the alactic system is not functioning optimally.
This occurs when high intensity efforts last more than 10 seconds and will keep providing
ATP to the muscles for up to 90 seconds. The lactic acid or lactate anaerobic path is using
a chemical compound called glycogen, which is a form of glucose, stored both in the
muscles and in the liver. The glycogen can be converted into glucose to assist in the
production of ATP. In this reaction, glycogen is combined with ADP to form ATP and
lactic acid, which in turn can be metabolized by enzymes to reproduce ATP.
Glycogen + ADP ATP + lactic acid
And then 2nd phase (during recovery time)
Lactic acid + oxygen + ADP CO2 (carbon dioxide) + ATP + H2O (water)
More ATP is supplied by the lactic acid path than the alactic path. As a result of an increased
high intensity effort, lactic acid is produced. This byproduct of the process is the cause
of fatigue, and if produced in excess (far more than the body can metabolize to keep
physical activities going), players will be exhausted and cessation of activities will be
needed for recovery. It is therefore extremely important for players to develop a very strong
aerobic base, primarily to cope with the quick removal of the excess lactic acid from the
muscles and blood.
Lactic acid training:
Lactic acid training allows coaches to use technical and tactical drills with duration and
reflect on what players will be subjected to during the game keeping bouts as close as
possible to game reality, usually lasting between 20 and 90 seconds. Sessions can be
arranged with circuits, shuttle runs or technical/tactical drills. It is reasonable to develop
more lactic acid training in the post-puberty and onward stages, as younger players usually
have a limited tolerance for it, and training should be introduced gradually.
The frequency of training the lactic acid system should be two times a week, sometimes
three, with a total volume of training of 5 to 7 minutes per session with 2 to 3 minutes
rest between bouts. The best time for training is in the late preparatory phase after an
anaerobic-endurance phase. Closer to competition time, specific lactic training can involve
more game specific technical and tactical drills with rest periods mimicking game reality.
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We will give some indications later on in this chapter, but this will be adapted to the
general level of game played by the team. The ratio of work to rest is certainly different
at an amateur club level then at a professional level. During the season, and depending
on the frequency of championship games, maintenance is not entirely necessary as games
will provide long lactic sessions. A sound recovery policy is paramount during the
competition phase to deal with a player’s accumulated fatigue which may lead to more
injuries and technical and tactical staleness.
3- The aerobic or oxygen system:
The aerobic path of energy production during physical activity kicks in for longer periods
of activity, usually from two minutes to one, two or more hours in extreme sporting events.
This path produces a very large amount of ATP by utilizing both the glycogen and the
free fatty acids stored in the body.
The breakdown of fats is as follows:
Fats + oxygen + ADP CO2 (carbon dioxide) + ATP + H2O (water)
The aerobic system does not produce lactic acid, and will use fatty acids (fat) once the
glycogen stores are exhausted after approximately 25 minutes of continuous activity.
Generally, it takes 70 seconds up to 2 minutes for this system to become the major producer
of ATP. Delay is caused by the time required for oxygen to be transported through the
cardiovascular system and the blood to the working muscles. The supply of ATP via the
aerobic system is quasi unlimited, fatigue and exhaustion will occur through other negative
factors such as the loss of fluids leading to overheating and muscle malfunction.
As rugby is an intermittent multi-activity sport, mixing high intensity action bouts with
period of low activity or complete rest, the anaerobic path of energy production will be
primarily used by players during actual ball in play time, with some position-specific
differences as we will see later on. We must also consider the fact that the most intense
activities will take place where the ball is, or in a very close proximity. Nonetheless, the
aerobic path of energy production is of paramount importance to allow optimal recovery
and reproduction of ATP during recovery periods. It is during this time that the oxygen
brought to the muscles oxidizes and metabolizes the excess lactic acid produced during
repeated prolonged high or medium intensity bouts. The more the players can bring oxygen
to their muscles in resting periods during the game, the quicker the recovery and the higher
storage of ATP for the next action time. In that instance, a high aerobic capacity, also
known as VO2max or the maximum volume of oxygen an athlete can bring to the muscle
during efforts or recovery periods, the better the working power in the case of endurance
sports and also the better the energy production for the next high intensity effort.
VO2max is expressed in milliliters of oxygen supplied per kilogram of body weight and
per minute (ml/kg/min). The higher the aerobic-endurance of a player, and the better he/she
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will be able to cope with the lactic acid accumulation, specifically towards the end of a
game, where fatigue kicks in and makes most of the player’s technical and tactical actions
more approximate. An untrained person will have an average VO2max of 36 ml/kg/min,
whereas professionally trained athletes will have a VO2max of around 50-52 ml/kg/min,
but rugby players, those willing to achieve high performance levels, should have a VO2max
of around 60 ml/kg/min (with some position-specific allowance), which would correspond
to covering 3,200 m in the twelve minutes in a Cooper test.
Training the aerobic system:
There are two major approaches for training the aerobic system:
a) With submaximal continuous long duration exercises or runs at around 75% of
maximum oxygen capacity (75% VO2max). To develop this, it is possible to use running,
cycling, rowing, as well as technical and tactical drills of long duration. These will
provide good circulation of oxygenated blood to the muscles. This method is best used
during the early preparatory phase as a progressive adaptation to tougher interval
training. It is very efficient to get players progressively back into training. As this
method will mainly use fatty acid breakdown for energy production, it is an excellent
technique to lose fat and get players to a leaner body mass, specifically after the
transition/off period between seasons.
b) Intermittent aerobic development in the form of interval training or IT. This can be
running, cycling, rowing, but also with technical and tactical drills. As we previously saw,
the development of VO2max is important for rugby players to cope with the increased
level of fatigue during the games. It is important for rugby players to be able to provide
the largest amount of oxygen to the muscles as possible during rest time to compensate
for oxygen debt. This can only be achieved through a maximum development of oxygen
intake, enhanced by a well developed cardiovascular system. Sport science research has
shown that the best way to develop VO2max is with interval training, and this should be
a strong part of the aerobic endurance development program for rugby players in the
preparatory phase. Long slow distance runs will burn fat, optimize the capillarization of
the muscles and should not be overused. Only interval training in the form of running or
assimilated forms of training (i.e. cycling, rowing) and interval training drills will enhance
the actual oxygen intake capacity of the players.
As we shall see in more detail in chapter 8 for its practical application, there is an excellent
method of interval training (both short and long) to develop the VO2max with athletes /
team sports players, which is the result of precise research made by Professor Veronique
Billat, Ph.D, from the University of Evry in France. Billat established that the best way
for any athlete (specifically pure endurance athletes) to develop his/her VO2max was to
train and constantly reassess the interval training bouts throughout the progression of the
individual velocity at VO2max, also known as vVO2max, or the speed at which an athlete
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can run triggering the maximum oxygen intake without the accumulation of lactic acid
(Billat et al 1996). This speed is very close to the lactate threshold (LT) speed of any
individual. The particularity of this method is that once the players’ aerobic endurance
testing is achieved, the setup and actual training using the data is no more time consuming
than regular classic aerobic interval training, and has the tremendous advantage to be
completely personalized to the player through his/her velocity at VO2max. As the VO2max
increases through running at vVO2max, the player will then re-assess the vVO2max and
train using the new data. We shall see the training protocol in chapter 8.
Compared to players who lack aerobic capacity (also called stamina), a player with a
highly trained aerobic system will recover faster and be less subject to fatigue towards the
end of a game. He/she will therefore be able to play longer with a higher intensity before
the effects of lactic acid build-up claim their toll. It is therefore a great benefit for any
player, independent of the position played, to develop a high aerobic capacity even if the
actual play time is taxing more the anaerobic system of energy production.
If teams plan a long preparatory phase prior to entering a competition, they will leave
much more time to develop all the necessary elements of optimal performance. With more
time at hand, it becomes then a matter of efficient planning to gear the players with the
complete armory necessary to successfully achieve the team’s objectives and to maximize
performances. Aerobic training should be performed two to three times a week, of course
depending on the total training sessions of the team per week. The total volume of aerobic
development should be 30 to 60 minutes per session.
Restoration of energy from exercise
It is essential to understand and remember the principles of ATP and glycogen restoration
to be able to maximize recovery time between actual training activities. Research in sport
science delivers a vast amount of information to utilize for smarter training. Hence, we
could say that “Training hard is good, but training smarter is better.” No matter what sport
we train for, training is a designed plan made for athletes to physiologically and
psychologically adapt to an overload of work. Actual adaptation does not occur during
the physical activity itself, which is a stress brought upon the muscles and the central
nervous system (CNS) to induce an adaptation and an increase in performance, but the
athlete’s body and CNS will adapt to the new workload during periods of rest and recovery,
either during the training sessions themselves or between training sessions. Training is
simply the planned process of a neuromuscular adaptation to higher workloads to
ultimately increase performance. Resting is therefore a fundamental concept of training
often overlooked by players and coaches. It is during recovery that the body adapts and
supercompensates for higher loads. Training = Stress whereas Recovery = Adaptation
How can we optimize our training and recovery? By using some data sport science brought
to us such as the one illustrated in figure 2.2 below:
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Recovery and Restoration Process
Muscle phosphagen (ATP/PC)
Repayment of the alactic oxygen debt
Repayment of the lactic acid oxygen debt
Restoration of muscle glycogen:
Time
Minimum
2 minutes
3 minutes
30 minutes
- after intermittent activity
- 55% in 5 hours
- 100% in 24 hours
- 40% in 2 hours
- after prolonged or non stop activity
- 100% in 48 hours
- 60% in 10 hours
Removal of lactic acid from muscle
and blood
-
Restoration of vitamins and enzymes
Maximum
3-5 minutes
5 minutes
1 hour
25% in 10 minutes
50% in 25 minutes
95% in 1 hour / 1hour:15 minutes
24 hours
Figure 2.2 Recommended recovery time after exercise (data compilation from Fox, 1984,
and Willmore & Costill, 1999)
Moreover, we must also consider that factors such as the intensity and duration of work,
the type of activity chosen for training (intermittent versus continuous), the carbohydrate
intake of the players, and the players’ personal lifestyle will interfere with an efficient
recovery and may have a negative or positive impact.
Let’s consider a 100 m track and field athlete. The physical activity will be an extremely
short and explosive all-out effort achieved in 10 seconds or less, making the activity 60%
alactic, 30% lactic and 10% aerobic. Let’s imagine the same runner, a few hours later,
competing in a 200 m run with approximately 20 seconds of bursting all-out effort. He/she
will certainly induce less alactic and more lactic acid, specifically through the end of the
race, establishing that the energy systems do not act independently during physical activities
but rather together and complementarily, one taking over when the previous one fails due
to lack of fuel. Now if we consider team sports in general, and rugby in particular, it is
obvious that all these activities being intermittent, alternating high intensity bouts with
jogging, walking or resting, all the energy systems will contribute to the physiological
functionality of the players. We can deduce then, that rugby is certainly more of a mixed
energy system sport than categorized as a primarily anaerobic or aerobic activity. Certainly
the more intense actions during the game will primarily involve the alactic and lactic acid
systems, but as we shall see later, there is quite a bit of low intensity activity during a game.
Players don’t perform the game in the same mode; they accentuate the now more popular
concept of specificity in training due to individual and unit contribution to the team efforts.
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Performance Time
Major Energy System(s) Supplying ATP
- Less than 10 seconds
- Alactic
- 10 – 90 seconds
- Alactic / lactic
- 90 seconds – 2 to 3 minutes
- Lactic acid and oxygen
- Longer than 3 minutes
- Oxygen
Figure 2.3 Relationship between performance and energy systems supplying the ATP
(Bompa & Chambers, 1999).
Specificity for rugby:
Duration of Activity
Alactic
Lactic
Aerobic
5 seconds
85
15
0
10 seconds
50
40
10
30 seconds
15
65
20
1 minute
10
40
50
Figure 2.4 Percentage of energy systems contribution for technical, tactical and physical
activities adapted from Bompa & Chambers, 1999.
Alternation of the energy systems in training
How many stories do we all have about teams getting in good shape, fine tuning most of
their technical and tactical objectives through a few exhibition games prior the
championship, only to find players falling back a few weeks later and noticing a general
decrease in performance and an apparent lack of motivation? Why? How come everything
seems to be going well according to objectives and starts to fall apart with no apparent
reason? The answer to these questions is the planning of training is also planning not to over
train. To limit the possibilities of overtraining, there are two major factors to acknowledge:
1-The necessity of recovery
2-The necessity of alternating the energy systems in training
Recovery will be addressed in more detail in chapter 9, with some strategies for players
to enhance rest periods in order to maximize further performances.
Providing the best time for the mind and body to super-compensate through rest is of
paramount importance to ensure that each energy system used in training has sufficient
time to restore its fuel before the next training session and prior to a game. How can we
do that? First, we must classify the skills and drills we use in training in relation to what
energy system they utilize in order to be performed correctly.
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Alactic System
- technical
skills: 5-10
seconds
- tactical
skills < 10
seconds
- Maximum
speed/power/
agility < 10
seconds
- power
training:
few sets,
short
duration
Maximum
strength:
1-2 sets,
few reps
passing/contact
tackling
lineout/scrums/
backs/moves/
rucks and mauls
10 m, 30 m
sprints/stops
and go/direction
change/plyometrics/T runs
plyometrics/free
weights power
conversion/
medicine ball
Lactic Acid System
Aerobic System
- technical scrimmage/
skills:
ruck and maul
10-60
ball in contact
seconds
development
- tactical
drills:
backline moves/
10-60
continuity/
seconds
shuttle runs
- speed
training:
reps of
10-60
complex training/
seconds
scrimmage/free
- powerendurance
- technical
skill >
3 minutes
- tactical
drills:
2-10
minutes
- aerobic
endurance
/long
duration
drills/reps
- muscular
endurance
passing
units play
combination
rehearsal
interval
training
free
weights/
natural
resis-tance
free weights MxS
Figure 2.5 General classification and some rugby-specific examples of skills relating to
energy system (adapted from Bompa 2003)
One of the goals in alternating the training, or energy sources, is to train the activities
taxing the same energy system in the same day. Of course it is not possible to train all
types of alactic skills in one day, so here is a selection of skills and drills that will be
needed to split routines according to the number of training sessions the team has per
week, where the coach will select a few of the skills and drills available for the specific
training purposes of the chosen energy system and provide the balance with other
sessions. This way, players will exhaust in one day one energy system’s resources, but
will have the necessary time thereafter to replenish it to start the next session fresh.
Please refer to figure 2.2 for the recovery/time relationship.
As we shall see in chapter 4, a period of training of usually one week is called a microcycle in periodization terminology. Micro-cycles will be planned following a specific
method, which will alternate high intensity with lower intensity weeks and recovery
micro-cycles. There is a need to plan high intensity micro-cycles in order to challenge
the adaptability level of the players and challenge them to progress in the training
process. The team will increase its physical, technical, tactical, and psychological
potential by result of alternatively, but continuously, challenging the adaptation of the
players in training while providing sufficient time for recovery.
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Figure 2.6 is an example of an alternation of energy system in a three training session
micro-cycle (from Bompa 2003).
Monday
Tuesday
- T: alactic off
- Max speed
- P/A/MxS
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
Saturday
Sunday
TA: lactic
and aerobic
- P-E
off
- T/TA:
alactic/lactic
- P/MxS
off
off
Figure 2.6 Three day training micro-cycle
Legend: T=technical; TA=tactical; Max speed=maximum speed; P=power; A=agility
MxS=maximum strength; P-E=power-endurance
Monday’s schedule is designed to train the alactic system, where the coach should
select appropriate exercises for the selected activities. For instance, it could be training
at maximum speed with full recovery between sprints or technical drills of less than
10 seconds in duration, and then training MxS or agility or power depending on
logistical availability on that day or the drills rotation shift. Power training at the end
of the session can include medicine ball drills, plyometrics, changes of direction, stop
and go, and agility drills. It is always advisable to conclude the session with a light
aerobic workout to cool down and encourage a fast recovery.
Wednesday’s schedule will involve tactical training, where both the lactic acid and aerobic
systems will contribute to the training. Exercises should be planned for duration of 30 to
90 seconds, with recovery time similar to what happens during a game. Training can use
general or rugby-specific drills. It is highly advisable to conclude a high intensity lactic
acid session with some light aerobic work, which will help to metabolize the excess lactic
acid accumulated during the session, therefore enhancing the recovery.
On the Friday of this sample schedule, alactic and/or lactic acid systems can be stressed
again as both will have sufficient time for full recovery from the previous sessions.
Figure 2.7 suggests a 5 day training micro-cycle (from Bompa 2003) preparatory phase.
Monday
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
- T/TA
alactic
-S
- P/A
- TA lactic/
aerobic
- Aerobic
- P-E
- T/TA
alactic
-S
- P/MxS
- TA aerobic
- T/TA
- non specific, alactic/lactic
lactic acid/
-S
aerobic
- P/A/MxS
Figure 2.7 Legend: idem as above, with S=speed
Friday
Saturday Sunday
off
off
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This sample schedule provides an alternate training of the systems. Monday, Wednesday
and Friday emphasizes the alactic and lactic acid systems and the two remaining days
stress the aerobic system. Here again, it is advisable to schedule 10-15 minutes of a light
aerobic cooldown routine when the lactic acid system is stressed. This will help remove
lactate (lactic acid) from the body for a faster recovery. The coach should select the proper
skills for development session by session, and shift the drills appropriately.
Sample of a Monday session could be:
• Speed training after the warm up, followed by
• Technical alactic (less than 10 seconds repetition) selected general rugby skills or
specific backs/forwards, allowing full recovery between action bouts, and finish
with
• Agility drills
• Cool-down, end of session.
The benefits for a team to plan such training alternating the energy systems are multiple:
The training of all energy systems needed is well planned.
• Energy stores will have time to replenish themselves by the next training session.
• Players will recover faster and will therefore avoid lactate fatigue which, most of
the time, is the leading cause of physical and mental exhaustion.
Time-motion analysis of the game of rugby
Research in sport science has classified rugby as a multi-sprint, multi-activity sport because
during a game, players will alternate between bouts of intense efforts such as sprints,
tackles, rucks, mauls, with periods of jogging, walking and standing while waiting for the
next action to develop. To determine rugby’s demand for fitness and training researchers
analyzed games, time-motion and their evolution over time. But it has to be said that there
are still very few in-depth published research materials concerning the subject.
A statistical analysis done by the International Rugby Board (IRB) in 2003 (cited by Luger
& Pook, 2004) represented in figure 2.8 showed the following evolution in the game of rugby:
Ball in Play: (min:s)
Stoppages
Lineouts
Scrums
Cycles over 30s
Figure 2.8
Int’l game 1970’s
Int’l game 2000
24:34 (31%)
151
71
39
3 (7%)
34:17 (43%)
68
18
14
27 (40%)
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38
Further statistics from the IRB, published after the RWC 2003 have shown the
following data:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Average ball in play at RWC 2003: 42% compared with 31% at RWC 1991 and
38% at RWC 1999
Rucks and mauls: 136 average pre-game compared to 100 at RWC 1999
Passes: 241 per game compared to 193 at RWC 1999
Kicks: 52 per game
Lineouts: 33 average per game with 80% possession retained
Scrums: 21 average per game with 91% possession retained
Penalties: 24 average per game, representing a drop of 20% compared with RWC
1999; 46% of granted penalties were for ground offense at rucks and tackle area
Tries: 332 scored, 64% of them from set pieces, 83% were preceded by 3 or fewer
second phases of play and 53% were preceded by 3 or fewer passes
Closer to us, our survey of the European 6 Nations tournament 2006, gave the following
results for basic average data covering 8 games of the tournament: An average ball was
in play 39% of the total game time, involving an average per game of 18 scrums, 34
lineouts, 157 tackles/rucks where 89% of the tackles were made, and 20% of ball
possession was kicked.
A similar study of the Tri-Nations tournament 2006 gave the following results over 9
games recorded: An average ball was in play 41% of the total game time involving an
average per game of 19 scrums, 31 lineouts, and 83 stoppages with an average of 33
seconds in time. New Zealand played the most with an average of 42% game time, followed
by Australia with 41% and South Africa with 38%.
Furthermore, a study (Claro, 2005) has shown the differences of actual ball in play
time in elite domestic rugby with international incidences in France, New Zealand and
England. The study shows that there is a recent tendency for some nations to develop
a higher game volume and intensity through game continuity, and use more of the
conditioning aspect of rugby as a definite factor for enhancement of their technical
and tactical endeavors. This is where the manipulation of the physical aspects of the
game creates the development of a technical and tactical advantage for the team to be
able to induce more play time and follow up with a high intensity to go forward in
momentum both in attack and defense.
Figure 2.9 represents a summary of the information found in the survey. Data from
national championships, European Cup and Super 12 and final phase games in 2003,
2004 and 2005 have been used to determine the actual ball in play time in different
competitions.
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New Zealand France
NPC
Time of actual game
time (ball in play) in
percentage of total
game time
47%
England
Japan
European
Cup
Super 12
41%
35%
36%
43%
32%
Figure 2.9 Actual game time analyses of major professional competitions (Claro, 2005)
To complete this analysis, a study by the Irish RFU on the conditioning of the young
players found that the average distance covered during a game was between 4,000 and
5,700 meters, depending on the position played, and an average total number of 540
activity changes averaging 8 to 10 seconds during a game, giving us more evidence of the
specific aspect of training development. At later high performance stages, a study in New
Zealand (NZPA, 2005) using GPS in training sessions of the national team, has shown
that professional players in game simulation training can cover up to 7 km in a 90 minutes
session, with players running at the maximum speed of 30 km/h and spending 30% of the
sessions time cruising at 18 km/h (an international class marathon runner will run at an
average speed of 20-21 km/h to cover the distance in a bit less than 2 hours). This speed
will represent an anaerobic threshold speed, or beyond, for the vast majority of players.
Typically, high performance players will cover around 5 to 7.5 km during a game,
depending on position played. They will alternate high and low intensity levels of play,
with an average of 90 to 100 stoppages of various lengths during the game.
The statistics from these references of their respective eras show us that rugby has evolved
and developed into a more continuous and fluid game, where the time of actual play is now
longer, with fewer set pieces, and more open play cycles, generating a higher work rate for
the players involved. Forwards have been found to run about 25 to 30% more than the backs,
but rarely reaching peak sprint speed, whereas backs will cover less distance during a game,
but use higher velocity speed throughout. Furthermore, analysis was made of the work rate
and activities of players position by position by the IRB (2003, cited by Luger & Pook, 2004)
for an international game in 2003. Figure 2.10 show the resulting statistics.
Sprinting
High speed running
Running
Jogging
Walking
Number of tackles
Number of rucks/mauls
Fly Half
Center
Wing
Prop
Flanker
0:27
2:36
5:10
14:34
47:20
15
22
0:19
1:25
3:36
14:45
54:45
12
22
0:31
1:44
3:42
12:40
57:00
9
16
0:00
0:27
5:35
16:06
56:38
15
40
0:03
1:08
5:56
13:36
51:10
25
46
Figure 2.10 Motion analysis of players in international game (adapted from IRB 2003)
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40
Some players such as flankers, will average a heart rate of 175 bpm during a game,
which can be classified as a high work rate heart beat. Their heart rate can reach an
average of over 85% of maximum heart rate throughout the game. This rate will also
depend on position-specific work rate activities throughout a game, and also the level
the players are playing at. Work rate and general game volume will not be the same
at U19 provincial or amateur club level, nor will it be between amateur and
professional rugby.
Let’s look at two physiological opposites in the game, the prop and the winger. The
winger reached top speeds of 31 sec in contrast to 00 sec for the prop and the winger
participated in far less tackles and rucks than the prop. We can draw in conclusion that
backs in general and outside backs in particular rely more on speed and the alactic
energy system due to their dominantly sprint-intense efforts with a longer recovery time
between bouts; whereas the prop and forwards will tend to rely more on the lactic acid
system of the anaerobic energy production because they have a higher work rate and
shorter rest periods than the backs in general.
Professional rugby games keep the ball in play for an average of 25 to 35 minutes per
80 minutes of game time (IRB 2003, cited in Luger & Pook, 2004). There is a strong
tendency from some southern hemisphere nations such as New Zealand and Australia
to use continuity play and a higher ball in play time more effectively than European
nations as a means to generate a higher level of fatigue in the opposition, which they
will use to their technical and tactical advantage (Claro, 2005). Cycles of play
statistically are an average of 23 seconds, with a typical cycle range of 5 to 60 seconds.
Average period of rest between cycles is 42 seconds with the longest period of rest
occurring after scoring and while players are being treated for injury.
Another study focusing on the 2001 and 2002 southern hemisphere Super 12 competition,
arguably the fastest and most innovative competition in the world, by Duthie, Pyne,
Hooper, from the Department of Physiology of the Australian Institute of Sport, involving
a survey of motion analysis on a dozen forwards and a dozen backs over two seasons,
have shown these results:
•
Forwards worked an average of 7 min 3 1sec more than the backs in a game.
•
Forwards spent an average of 7 min 47 sec more time in static exertion than
the backs.
•
Backs spent 52 seconds more sprinting than the forwards with an average sprinting
time 0.7 sec faster than the forwards.
•
There was an average of 4 seconds high intensity work duration per involvement
with an average of 20 seconds recovery for the forwards and 1 min 40 sec for
the backs.
•
High intensity duration efforts involved mainly static exertion for forwards and
sprints for backs.
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It appears that rugby has evolved over time towards a high work rate, multi-activity sport
where the essential elements of fitness involved are:
•
Aerobic-endurance (essentially for recovery and limit oxygen debt between cycles
of play), and anaerobic-endurance to cope with higher lactate percentage. Although
there is no published research data on specific lactate production by rugby players
in actual game situation, it is widely believed that players will have a lactate
production of more than 8 mM/l of blood during intense activities, putting them
well beyond a lactate threshold activity rate, and therefore accumulating lactate
during effort bouts. This is specifically true for forwards.
•
Speed, strength and power, all three being interconnected
•
Agility (acceleration, deceleration and quick changes of directions)
The notion of specificity is now well understood in the world of rugby and this has brought
the following point to attention: Although a strong aerobic base is necessary for rugby,
overemphasizing it would be detrimental to the players’ performance. Most researchers
and coaches in the field of sport training agree that today aerobic training should focus
on short distance, tempo running, with an emphasis on developing running at anaerobic
threshold (AnT), combined with circuit training, also called “mix-fuel” training. In the
past, long slow runs were used to develop the endurance base of rugby players. Most
serious rugby teams now use a 3000 m time trial run or Cooper test to gauge aerobic
stamina. Emphasis should be placed on VO2 max development through a progressive
increase of individual vVO2max. The preferred method would be short and long interval
training, which we shall discuss in more detail in chapter 8.
We can observe from the previously cited statistics that power endurance has become the
major limiting factor for rugby. It has also become increasingly obvious that the training
addressing the particular demands of rugby physiology is a matter of specificity both as
a sport activity and also to the various positions played in the game, which corresponds
to different physiological needs.
An unpublished study in New Zealand (cited by Brandon, 2004) analyzed the time and
motion of 29 professional rugby players in the Super 12 competition, as they were filmed
during 8 games of the competition, showing these results:
Players were categorized in 4 different groups:
•
Front row forwards: # 1, 3, 4 and 5
•
Back row forwards: # 2, 6, 7 and 8
•
Inside backs: # 10, 12, 13
•
Outside backs: # 11, 14, 15
As a note, the # 2 hooker was placed in the back row forwards due to his role in the lineouts
as throwers and not pushing as much as the props in the scrum. The scrum-half # 9 was
not studied in this survey.
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Results were as follows:
Front Row Forwards
Back Row Forwards Inside Backs Outside Backs
Average high
intensity effort
per game
128.5
113.5
51.5
41.6
Average duration
of high intensity
effort
5.0 seconds
5.2 sec
4.2 sec
5.2 sec
Average duration
of low intensity
effort
35 sec
37 sec
88 sec
115 sec
Figure 2.11 Players intensity effort adapted from Brandon 2004
Efforts were categorized as:
• Low intensity: standing, walking, jogging, side/backwards stepping
• High intensity: running, sprinting, rucking/mauling, scrumaging and tackling
The survey clearly shows that back row forwards compete with close to 3 times as
many high intensity efforts than the outside backs. Also, if the average time of high
intensity effort is rather similar for all groups of players, the recovery time is globally
much more important for the backs than the forwards. The physiological application
of this can be understood that the time of recovery being much shorter for the forwards;
the alactic energetic stores will not have the time to replenish for the next action/cycle,
hence the dependence of the forwards on the lactic acid system of production of
muscular energy. By contrast, the backs having more time between cycles to recover
will be dependent on the alactic system, although lactic acid tolerance should also be
developed as they can be put to contribution repetitively during the game with little to
no recovery time between evolving actions.
Forwards should therefore be focusing on the anaerobic lactic method of training and
backs focusing on the anaerobic alactic method. Forwards are also involved in extra
pushing, lifting, and wrestling for ball conquest than the backs and hence, need more
general core and upper body strength development than the backs. This is of course
a general assessment of what we have previously analyzed, nothing is carved in stone,
and a team may have developed a game plan where the backs are far more active and
have a shorter recovery period. We must always stay aware to what is evolving in the
game of rugby and adapt to each situation, this is why all plans will always leave a
certain margin for adaptation and to allow for necessary readjustments to keep the
team on track. Training should not be dogmatic, but rather be a refined art served by
scientific knowledge.
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Research from France among Elite B rugby players (Doutreloux, 2004) has shown the
following results for lactic acid and heart rates correlation buildup during games.
Forwards
Backs
Average Acid Lactic
7.02 mmol/L
2.6 mmol/L
Average Heart Rate
170 bpm
150 bpm
Figure 2.12 Average LA & HR in French Elite B players (adapted Doutreloux, 2004)
This study confirms the highest dependence of the forwards on the lactic acid pathway
of energy production.
According to the principle of specificity, and specificity within the sport activity itself,
anaerobic fitness is of prime importance for rugby players, built on a strong aerobic
base, which can be developed through long intervals to improve tempo runs of medium
distance (1500 m to 3000 m), leading to time trial improvement, the goal being to
increase the VO2max of the players via improving their speed/velocity at VO2max or
vVO2max as we shall see later on. Anaerobic tolerance / endurance can be developed
through sets of shuttle runs of various distances, jingle-jangles and of course rugbyspecific technical and tactical drills.
From there we can create aerobic, anaerobic, strength, speed, and agility training development for rugby players, planning for position specificity and also gradually guiding the
players to adapt to higher workloads in training in order to enhance their performance.
The ergogenesis and dominant motor abilities for rugby
From what has been devised previously, we can deduct that the proportions of the energy
systems dominant for rugby, which we will call ergogenesis, can be extrapolated to a more
position specific model with ergogenesis and dominant motor abilities. This is of prime
importance to understand so coaches and players can plan the best training approach to
fulfill their team’s developmental potential.
General rugby ergogenesis:
Proportion of Energy System in %
Sport
Alactic System
Lactic Acid System
Aerobic System
Rugby
10
30
60
Figure 2.13 Rugby ergogenesis (adapted from Bompa 2003)
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It seems that the aerobic system is still a dominant system of energy production for
rugby players, although it has been argued for years that focus should be placed on the
anaerobic systems, we believe that the development of the aerobic system must be
emphasized in a specific way in order to provide players with a strong foundation for
anaerobic development. A rugby game unfolds in 80 minutes and the aerobic system
will provide the energy and resources for the players to sustain a high intensity work
rate during bouts of action. Without a specifically developed aerobic system, players
will not be able to cope with lactate accumulation. A high stamina level of the players
will provide the extra resources needed to end the game less fatigued than the
opposition giving the edge, in close games, to the less fatigued of the two teams for
the final result of winning.
The aerobic system will also facilitate a fast recovery between frames of play, games
and training sessions. We would all agree that even if the high intensity portion of the
game relied more exclusively on the anaerobic systems of energy production, the latter
part of the game where power and muscular endurance is important would not be
possible without a very strong aerobic base. It is because of that high aerobic capacity
that late in the game power bouts will be possible. Why? Because if players are able to
transfer a maximized amount of oxygen to oxidize and metabolize the muscular and
blood lactate, more energy as a result will be produced allowing the extra reserves of
ATP production to kick in and make the difference, very specifically at the end of a
game. Without the capacity of increased maximum oxygen intake, players will succumb
to the lactate pooling in the body and a higher level of fatigue will then set in and will
jeopardize technical and tactical astuteness.
Position-specific training approach
We shall see in following chapters that by periodizing the training throughout the year, every
segment of training the player’s biomotor abilities will necessitate a non specific and a
specific approach for better development and adaptation. Coaches should use general and
more rugby-specific drills to train endurance (both aerobic and anaerobic, for example), but
also consider that as we saw previously, all players do not have the same function during a
game, hence emphasizing the position-specific differences. It has been revealed in this
chapter that although aerobic-endurance should be a concern for all players to overcome
fatigue, forwards will rely heavily on the lactic acid pathway of energy production, while
the backs will rely more on the alactic system. We shall see more in detail what players are
doing on the pitch position-by-position in chapter 3. We shall also give a “job description”
for every position or group of positions, but it is clear for us today that training a prop and
a winger with the same drills and fitness programs belongs to the past.
A summary table of the ergogenesis and biomotor specific features for each position
or group of positions in a rugby team will be drawn at the end of the positions review
segment of chapter 3.
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Biomotor limiting factors for rugby
It has become extremely important to analyze and understand what would be the
limiting factors of an activity. We must ask ourselves “What are the two or three most
important points which may impair the optimal development of a player to achieve the
best they can be through diligent and planned training?” Once we figure out what will
potentially limit the performance of the players, it is then much easier to work towards
minimizing, if not eradicating, these limiting factors to enhance individual and
collective, technical and tactical performances. We have found through research data
that rugby is primarily a power sport where players will be asked to perform multiple
powerful activities, both in attack and in defense, repetitively throughout the game with
potentially the same impact on the opposition from the beginning to the end. Therefore,
not only power but power- endurance is a vital factor for the success of the team.
Acceleration and deceleration coupled with quick changes of direction, will also be of
paramount importance to deceive the opposition. Because of the duration of the game,
both anaerobic and aerobic endurance will potentially be limiting the performance of
the player if not well addressed during training. From the above, we can deduct that
the limiting factors of the game of rugby are:
• Power and power-endurance
• Speed; acceleration/deceleration with quick changes of direction
• Lactic acid and aerobic-endurance
In summary, we can infer from what we have learnt so far, the development of a rugby
training program is as follows:
•
Dominant energy systems: Lactic for the forwards, alactic for the backs, and
aerobic, although a combination of the three is a realistic statement.
•
Ergogenesis: Alactic = 10%, lactic = 30%, aerobic = 60%.
•
Rugby is a game of multi-sprints, multi-activities with high energy and power
demands.
•
Shorter period of recovery as the game evolves.
•
Limiting factors for performance: Power and power-endurance for the duration
of the game. Acceleration/deceleration with quick changes of direction often under
the influence of high lactate and aerobic endurance.
•
Training objectives:
Develop the three energy systems with excellent aerobic endurance base for all
players, alactic endurance for the backs and lactic endurance for the forwards
(although these conditions can also change with each team’s game philosophy and
game plan).
• Develop starting power and power endurance
• Develop speed, short sprints, with acceleration/deceleration and quick
changes of direction
• Develop agility through quick footwork
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Chapter 3
Testing
Rugby specific tests
For any team whose members have agreed to focus on development and become
individually and collectively the best they can become, testing the biomotor abilities of
players according to the sport of rugby ergogenesis as seen earlier, and the specificity of
position play, is of paramount importance. Why?
• It gives references to where the players stand and where they need to go.
• It provides information on how to fulfill the set objectives for the season and
beyond.
• It shows individual strengths and weaknesses.
• It increases players’ awareness and motivation, enhancing the team’s internal
competition for selection.
• It will help the general organization and periodization of the training on long and
short terms.
• It provides a guideline for the team’s conditioning effectiveness.
• It gives an individual guideline to gauge a player’s recovery after injury.
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Testing players should not be done for the sake of testing alone and to simply forget about
it later on. Players should be fully aware of the inner value of every test, they should agree
to be tested, and understand the general direction the team is focusing on in order to
validate the results individually and collectively. Players should be given a progression
grid according to their fitness and stamina level showing the expected level of achievement
every player must achieve in order to fulfill the plan. Moreover, means of improving should
not only be given by the training program but through individual counseling as much as
possible. The test results are often overlooked by coaching staff and only used as a means
to persuade players back into training. It is our belief that no matter which tests are used
to evaluate the players, they all must have a hint of RUMBA with them:
• Reasonable
• Understandable
• Measurable
• Behavior-oriented
• Agreed upon
Most of this, of course, makes sense for high performance players or professional teams
already competing for the highest domestic or international rewards. Amateur teams on
the other end of the spectrum, for which rugby is more of a social sport and competition
is not a major objective per se, the testing portion of a training program will be seen as a
complete bore and rightly so, if the objective of the team is pure fun without strain. But
as soon as a team makes a plan to develop to the best it can be to enjoy the competition
of the game, then the elaboration of a real training program will be needed. A training
program is simply a recipe for development, planned to follow a certain order and achieve
certain goals according to a set of pre-established assessments of the capacity of the team.
How can the players know where they will have to go if no one tells them first where they
are and then, how to get there? We all know by experience that testing players is usually
perceived as a chore rather than a fundamental element of the path a team agreed to follow
to enhance performance. We believe it is of prime importance for coaches to remind players
of the objectives of the team, why this is done, what is proposed to improve and how the
team will do it together. It is also important that the players develop the objective awareness
of where they stand and understand why and how they can improve, which will increase
their motivation for doing well for themselves and the team.
What should be tested?
To answer this question it is best to refer to what we have found previously concerning
the ergogenesis of the sport of rugby and the dominant biomotor abilities for players: We
saw that rugby is a multi-activity, high intensity, power team sport which involves 60%
of the aerobic energy system, 30% of the lactic energy system, and 10% of the alactic
energy system. We also noted that the forwards will be increasingly dependent on the
lactic acid energy system and the backs relying heavily on the alactic energy system, with
the understanding that both units develop a sufficient aerobic capacity to enhance their
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recovery and limit the oxygen debt after high intensity training/game bouts. Therefore,
and in accordance to the specificity of the game, it is reasonable to assume that the
following capacities should be tested as a base in order to pursue ongoing conditioning
improvement of team members:
• Individual physical features including body composition
• Aerobic capacity
• Anaerobic capacity
• Strength
• Power
• Speed
• Agility
How should it be tested?
It is important here to make a few special notes about the testing conditions. Players should
all agree to be tested and be given the list of tests which will be undertaken. They must
also have a clear idea of the value of each test performed. Players need to have a physical
examination by a qualified physician prior to any testing sessions and all personal physical
information should be documented for training development purposes and kept
confidential. All players should also be well-rested prior to testing. Tired players will show
only mediocre results and training will start on an incorrect evaluated base. There are
numerous tests available to assess a player’s fitness and stamina level for the game and
we shall reveal what we believe are the most efficient ways to gauge players for each of
the parameters of testing:
1-Skinfold measurements for general body composition:
To improve body strength, speed, power, agility, and losing extra kilograms of fatty tissues
is certainly on the agenda. The leaner the muscle mass of the players, the more efficient
they will be. To assess the body fat percentage, skin-fold calipers are certainly more
accurate than any electronic devices circulating an electric impulse through the tissues to
calculate the body mass index or BMI. These electronic devices are subject to a certain
margin of error and are never recalibrated.
Gender
Too low % body fat
Good % body fat
Average % body fat
Males
Less than 5
6-14
15-24
Females
Less than 10
11-18
19-31
Figure 3.1 Desired fat percentage in adult athletes (Willmore, 1993)
Measurements are made in four different areas of the body; biceps, triceps, suprailiac
(above the hip) and sub-scapular (back). Results are given in a chart which comes with
the calipers. Information should be documented on the player’s profile sheet.
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49
2-Aerobic capacity:
It is now understood that rugby players need a high capacity of maximum oxygen
absorption to minimize oxygen debt resulting in the multiple anaerobic bouts occurring
during the game. The more oxygen that can be transported to the muscles during recovery
times, the quicker the excess lactic acid can be metabolized to reproduce ATP necessary
for muscles contraction. Therefore, the highest VO2max rugby players can develop the
better. The aerobic capacity of a rugby player is like the foundation of a house, the stronger
the foundation the more solid the house is above. In rugby, as in many other team sports,
nothing significant will be achieved without a strong aerobic base. Certainly the best test,
according to rugby-specificity to assess players VO2max, is still the Cooper test consisting
of running as far as possible during 12 minutes on a 400 m track. Providing the participant
actually attempts to go as far as possible during the 12 minutes and finish the test fatigued,
a very simple formula allows us to calculate the participants individual VO2max: VO2max
= 22.351d-11.288
Where VO2max is expressed in ml/kg/min and d is the distance run in km
One of the drawbacks of this test is that it is very difficult for players in the early stages
of development, to sustain a high aerobic capacity effort for 12 minutes. It is possible to
replace the Cooper test with a standard 3 km time trial on a track, until players are able
to sustain a steadier 12 minute effort at high aerobic velocity. Please refer to the 3 km
time trial targeted value for high performance male players in figure 3.4
Using the above formula, figure 3.2 represents the VO2max results for the corresponding
distances run during a Cooper test.
Distance in km
2.7
2.8
2.9
3.0
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
VO2max in
ml/kg/min
49
51
53.5
56
58
60
62.5
65
67
Figure 3.2 Cooper test corresponding VO2max for distances run
Figure 3.3 shows targeted VO2max for high performance specific position or group of
positions for male players with similar biomotor abilities during the game
Position or group Props and Locks Loose forwards,
Inside backs Outside backs
of positions
(second row)
hooker and scrum half 10-12-13
11-14-15
Targeted
minimum
VO2max
52
58
56
54
Figure 3.3 Minimum VO2max targeted for group of positions at high performance level,
values represented are in ml/min/kg
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For methods to develop this aerobic capacity, please refer to chapter 8.
Figure 3.4 shows the targeted times for position groups at high performance level for male
players on a 3 km time trial.
Position or group Props and Locks Loose forwards, hooker
of positions
(second row)
and scrum half
Inside backs
10-12-13
Targeted 3 km
time trial time
11:30 minutes 11:45 minutes
12:00 minutes
11:30 minutes
Outside backs
11-14-15
Figure 3.4 Targeted 3km time trial for high performance players
3-Anaerobic capacity:
As previously seen, the anaerobic capacity of players will be two-fold:
• Alactic
• Lactic acid
Therefore, players must be tested for both. Maximum strength (MxS) and power are part of
the alactic capacity of the players, but they will be tested separately for the sake of specificity.
Alactic testing: This could encompass acceleration, maximum speed and changes of
direction agility. We therefore propose to test players on:
- 10 m short sprint
- 20 m sprint
- Standing start 30 m
- Flying start 30 m
- Agility wheel (as seen in chapter 6) or “T” run test
The player’s best of three attempts can be recorded for further assessment in the training
process with full recovery between attempts (3 to 5 minutes for full glycogen store
replenishment).
Sprint tests are usually done on a track and if possible with electronic pads or cells for
maximum accuracy. The agility wheel or “T” run test can be done on a dry rugby pitch
or flat, even ground. Manual timing is still acceptable in this case, depending on the team’s
logistical possibilities.
If the agility wheel is chosen, please proceed as explained in chapter 6. If the “T” run test
is the standard adopted speed agility test for the team, please proceed as follows:
CX
BX
AX
XD
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•
•
Distance between cones: A to B = 10 m, B to C = 5 m, B to D = 5 m
Procedure: Player runs from A to B, touch the base of B cone with the right hand,
shuffles to C, touches the base of the cone with the left hand, shuffles to D, touches
the base of the cone with the right hand, shuffles back to B, and runs backwards to A
Important note: Players must face forward at all times, they can’t cross their legs in
shuffling and they must touch the base of the designated cones.
Lactic testing: The most important value of this testing is to gauge the lactate tolerance
of the players and through training, develop it. There is a choice between two major lactic
acid tolerance tests we can suggest to be used; the coaching staff may choose one of them
for the entire team:
• Timed shuttle runs
• Timed jingle-jangles
Both of these can be performed on a dry rugby pitch, flat, or even ground.
Shuttle runs procedure: On the rugby pitch, players start from the dead ball line, run to
the 5 m line and back, immediately turn around and run to the 22 m line and back, then
immediately run to the 10 m line and back, then immediately run to the halfway line and
back (total distance = 314 m with multiple 180o changes of direction). Players should run
as fast as possible to sustain.
Allow 90 seconds recovery. Players complete it two more times with a 90 second recovery.
Total time is recorded per player. Through adequate lactic acid tolerance training, this time
should be less in the subsequent tests at later stages.
Jingle-jangles procedure: A jingle-jangle (JJ), is a return run between two cones distanced
35 m apart. Therefore, 1 jingle-jangle = 70m run with a 180o change of direction.
There are 3 levels of performance:
• Level 1: 5 JJ and 10 seconds rest + 5 JJ and 20 seconds rest + 5 JJ
• Level 2: 5 JJ and 5 seconds rest + 5 JJ and 10 seconds rest + 5 JJ and 20 seconds
rest + 5 JJ
• Level 3: 5 JJ and 5 seconds rest + 5 JJ and 10 seconds rest + 5 JJ and 20 seconds
rest + 5 JJ and 20 seconds rest + 5 JJ
We suggest using Level 1 as an introduction to the two other levels. Once players are well
acclimated, they can move to Level 2 and 3. Level 2 can be the test model and timed or
Level 3 for extremely fit players. Results are to be recorded for each player for further
improvement assessment.
4-Strength testing:
We suggest a 1 RM test for the maximum strength (MxS) of the most experienced players
and all the prime movers muscles specifically used in rugby. As seen later in chapter 5, 1
RM refers to the one repetition maximum an athlete can lift for each of the exercises. Of
course, results will be different according to the level of MxS achievement of the players.
Recorded results will be very useful as well for the retest at the end of the planned MxS
period and to see the individual improvements.
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5-Power testing:
An excellent power test for rugby players (and all team sport players) is the vertical jump
test. This test is certainly the most simple and accurate test for power output and for the
anticipation of both acceleration and jumping power. It can be calculated with electronic
devices or simply using a wall and a piece of chalk. It can be done as follows:
A player stands high sideways next to a wall, a few centimeters away. With the arm closest
to the wall fully extended and a piece of chalk in hand, he/she places a mark on the wall
at the highest possible level with their feet flat on the ground. Then the player drops down
to a semi-squat position and jumps as high as possible without any arm assistance, putting
a chalk mark as high as possible above the initial marking. After a full recovery (3 to 5
minutes), 2 other jumps are performed with the same rest interval. The best of the three
results between the 2 marks is then recorded.
Figure 3.5 below shows, from different sources, the average performances from high
performance male players in tests with all positions taken into consideration.
Tests
Average
Good
Excellent
Body fat percentage
12.5 to 15%
10 to 12.5%
<10%
10 m acceleration
2.10 to 2.25 seconds
2.00 to 2.10 seconds
<2.00 seconds
30 m acceleration
4.20 to 4.40 seconds
4.00 to 4.20 seconds
<4.00 seconds
Flying 30 m
3.60 to 3.80 seconds
3.40 to 3.60 seconds
<3.40 seconds
T test
10.7 to 11.7 seconds
9.7 to 10.7 seconds
<9.7 seconds
Shuttle runs (per run)
58 to 62 seconds
55 to 58 seconds
<55 seconds
1 RM bench press
-
1RM
1RM
1 RM leg press
-
1RM
1RM
Vertical jump
30 to 35 cm
35 to 45 cm
>45 cm
Figure 3.5 An overview of high performance male players test results
When should the test be conducted?
The first tests should be conducted after the period of transition between two seasons and
at the beginning of the preparatory phase. If at all possible, players should be retested
midway through the preparatory phase and definitively just before the competition phase.
Professional teams will reassess players during the season to gauge fatigue levels and lack
of conditioning maintenance.
Testing, as mentioned at the beginning of this chapter, is designed to give an individual
conditioning path to the players and bring the team’s performance level to its best by
following the step-by-step periodized development of the training. It is therefore a
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necessity for the coaching staff not to forget to reassess periodically the progress of the
players to ensure the best conditioned players are utilized to accomplish the tasks needed
to fulfill the team’s objectives. Also, keep in mind that we must test what has already
been trained, so testing players after they have completed segments of the planned
training remains is the best option. MxS should be reassessed after the MxS phase and
prior to the power conversion phase. Referring to a player’s results over the preceding
years to gauge improvement can determine if there is something wrong in the program
development and long term goals will not be achieved. This will necessitate a
readjustment of the training plan accordingly.
Another way to effectively use these test results is to assess the potential and recovery
level of an injured player ready to come back for competition. We believe that strict
evaluation should be used for a player who has sustained an injury and peer pressure, ego
and the team’s interest should not prevail over an injured player’s health and safety. Injured
players should get medical clearance before training and playing again but this is not
enough. Players undergoing recovery should be thoroughly tested to assess if they are
back to their previous level of performance. If they are not, they should not be allowed to
play again until they are fully recovered. Most of us will agree that this is common sense,
but in practice, many players are playing too soon after an injury and they lack adequate
recovery to safely return to competition. We will advise in chapter 9 some efficient
strategies to avoid detraining, overtraining and to enhance recovery.
Developing a player profile:
We can confidently say that the more information a coaching staff has of its players, the
more individualized the training program can be for the players and the team. To do so,
it is highly recommended to profile the players according to the specific needs of the sport
of rugby which could be:
• Physical
• Technical
• Tactical
• Psychological
To accomplish optimal profiling within the team, there are a few elements that must be
taken into consideration:
• The objectives of the team and the general philosophy of the game chosen. What
is the team expected to achieve in the short, medium and long term and how will
the team do it?
• Individual assessment of players to fulfill the above mentioned point. This
assessment should not only be achieved through a battery of tests, but also in
developing a personal knowledge of the players and a psychological profile.
Figure 3.6 below shows what qualities a rugby player will enhance a team’s performance.
The table also shows qualities specifically applied for groups of positions.
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Qualities for Rugby
Forwards
Backs
Height
2
3
Weight
1
2
Agility/quickness
2
1
Speed/reaction time
2
1
Power legs
1
1
Power arms
1
2
Anaerobic power
1
1
Aerobic-endurance
2
2
Coordination
2
1
Focusing/attention span
2
2
Self control/discipline
1
2
Combat ability
1
1
Figure 3.6 Qualities sought for forwards and backs in rugby, adapted from Bompa, 2003.
Score given is in rank of importance where 1 is “extremely important” and 5 “not
important.” Note: Other team sports scores are dissimilar on this scale.
Moreover, a psychological profiling strategy could be devised between the coaching staff
and the players themselves. A profile sheet can be drawn up and given to both players who
will evaluate themselves and the coaching staff who will evaluate the players. Comparison
of the two will be discussed in individual meetings. This would fulfill part of the tremendous
task of communication between coaches and players for the benefit of all.
The psychological profile sheet should include, but is not limited to, an evaluation of the
following elements directly related to the game and how the players are individually
handling the emotional element such as:
• Self-confidence
• Concentration
• Consistency
• Performing under pressure
• Refocusing after personal negative psychological effect (i.e. technical or tactical
errors, failure after kick at goal, or missed tackle, etc.)
Having the players evaluate themselves first and then have a discussion about it with the
coaching staff in a nonthreatening and relaxed environment, will help develop mutual trust
and confidence. Everyone will discover and agree to pursue a set standardized path for
success but with enough flexibility to allow for individual and collective improvement.
Evaluation also adds value for the player to better understand why he/she has been
temporarily dropped from the team. It will always leave room for improvement and help
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the players refocus on their training and pursue regaining their status. Some coaches
believe that a system pre-exists and players must conform to it, others believe that the
players are making the system in which they evolve. We believe that realistically, a
combination of both makes the perfect alchemy for success. This is why the most
successful teams are always more than the sum of their individuals. The inner symbiosis
between players, coaches, managers and medical staff can only be achieved by the
renouncement of the “I” for the “we” through a transparent, agreed upon system, which
will progressively erase the different inherent conflicts of interest. It takes time, patience,
and a certain kind of detachment to bring players and a team system to what we could
call “the ultimate level of development.”
Players position analysis, role, ergogenesis and limiting factors
This review, by position or group of positions, is based on the typical work achieved during
a game and will take into consideration the specificity of each position. As previously
seen, rugby is a game played in 80 minutes where players alternate between high intensity
work such as sprinting, tackling, rucking and mauling, with low intensity activities such
as jogging, walking and simply standing. During action times the game is fast and
demanding for the portion of players surrounding the ball and close to the contact point,
other players might be waiting for further action to develop or repositioning themselves
for the next frame of the game. In the wake of the nature of the game, it is assumed that
all players have developed a strong aerobic endurance base to maximize recovery time
between bouts and to sustain intensity and work load during the 80 minutes of the game.
Therefore, the ergogenesis analysis provided in this chapter will voluntarily overlook the
necessary aerobic base as it is assumed all players have developed it previously.
In this section, we will briefly study players at work on the field and classify players
through the energy systems vastly utilized in their specific activities. For each position
we will divide work activities between “set plays” involving scrums, lineouts, kick-offs,
“open play” involving the role of the player in 2nd phase game, and “penalties and free
kicks.” This will help us to determine the best possible training development for the
different biomotor abilities involved.
The ergogenesis mentioned for each position refers to the percentage of the energy systems
in demand in the actual action of the game involving the players.
A. Front row: Props and hooker
1-Props:
The major functions of the props are to provide a “Go Forward” to the team. Props are
the core of the “engine room” where quality balls are won for the team, and where quality
balls are denied for the opposition. They are also essential to their scrum and lineouts
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technique and strength, and the work rate provided in rucks, mauls and tackles. According
to 2003 IRB statistics (cited by Luger & Pook in 2004), props will individually hit some
40 rucks and mauls during a game and perform an average of 15 tackles.
Set plays:
Scrum: Props are meant to set a solid platform for quality ball on scrums, they must
dominate their opponent physically and technically, get a strong bind, communication is
important, they must constantly analyze, adapt, talk and improve the set piece. Physical
dominance of their opponent will increase the quality of the ball won, but they also deny
quality ball for the opposition.
Lineouts: Main activity is to support the jumpers in the air (lift), protect both jumpers
and ball, and carry on moves around the set piece, linking with 2nd phase play if necessary.
Props also defend aggressively around the lineouts.
Kick-offs: Props must move quickly into position, support jumpers, and again set a strong
platform to make the won ball a quality ball.
Open play: In modern game, props are essential in moving quickly and to put physical
pressure on the opposition, to set the best platform possible for the won balls, or destroy
the quality of the balls gained by the opposition.
Props must get to position around the contact area very quickly and must develop fast
starting speed as the first 10 m are the most important to pressure the opposition.
Clearing rucks and mauls is a fundamental duty of the position, even more so than any
other positions. Low body position, with strong leg drive to aim pass the ball is paramount.
In defense: Their job is to put opposition players on the ground quickly to deny them a
go forward pass the gain line, in mauls, aim for the ball and tie the ball up. If props come
late at the breakdown/tackle area, they will cover the fringes quickly.
In attack: Props should become efficient runners to bring the ball in contact cross the gain
line around the rucks area.
Penalties, free kicks: Props move to position quickly.
Prop’s ball: Understand the move, support efficiently to implement the move accurately.
Opposition’s ball: Aggressive on the defensive line, go forward, tackle.
In reference to this job description, the props need to develop:
Core and specific strength and power endurance with the emphasis on trunk, neck, arms
and legs
Starting speed, short sprint speed max 10-15 m
Work involves: Push in scrum, lift in lineout, tackling, wrestling and gripping, short sprints
Ergogenesis: Anaerobic alactic-lactic 60-40
Limiting factors: Strength, power endurance, acceleration power
2-Hooker:
Major functions of the hooker are: Basically the same as the props, moreover the modern
hooker is also more seen in open play as a ball carrier. Hookers became more mobile on
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the field and can be often seen supporting backs on the move and even defending at a
close range loose forwards due to their increased mobility. They will hit as many rucks
and mauls as the props, having a tackle count even higher.
Set plays:
Scrum: The hooker is the leader and the organizer of the scrum, as such he is also expected to
communicate soundly with teammates, and promote a solid platform for quality balls, pressuring
physically and technically the opposition to deny them quality balls. He must analyze, correct,
adapt and talk with teammates. The hooker is a major decision maker in the forwards.
Lineouts: The major role of the hooker there is to be the thrower in most instances. His
duty involves accuracy in hitting his jumpers every time. On opposition ball, he covers
the 5 m line and covers blind side when opposition moves the ball wide.
Kick-offs: Move quickly into position, support jumpers, help in setting a strong platform
and a go forward once the ball is won, and be prepared to be a ball carrier in open play.
Open play: High mobility, applies physical pressure to opposition, sets a good platform
for won balls, and destroys the quality of opposition balls.
Like the props, the hooker must be in contact area before the opposition, quick starting
speed is essential. Hit rucks and mauls with low body position, blow opposition away in
clearing breakdown, aim pass the ball.
In defense, tackle and get opposition players on the ground, tie up ball in mauls, if late at
breakdown, cover fringes.
Penalties/free kicks: Hooker moves to position quickly.
Hooker’s ball: Understand the move, support efficiently to implement the move accurately.
Opposition’s ball: Aggressive on the defensive line, go forward, tackle.
In reference to this job description, the hooker needs to develop:
Core and specific strength, and power endurance with emphasis on trunk, neck, arms and legs
Starting speed, short sprint speed max 10-15 m
Work involves: Hook the ball in scrum hence not pushing as strongly as the props, throw
in lineout, tackling, wrestling and gripping, short sprints.
Ergogenesis: Anaerobic alactic-lactic 50-50
Limiting factors: Power endurance, acceleration power
B-Second row: Locks
1-Locks:
Major functions of the locks are: To win balls in lineouts, provide drive and forward motion
in scrum, support play both in attack and defense, specifically as being a second wave of
support in 2nd phase play. Locks are very active in defense, tackling and cover defense,
they must dominate their opposition and provide a good “Go Forward” in tight cooperation
with the front row.
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Set plays:
Scrum: Locks are the driving force of the scrum with the props. Cooperation and
communication between them must be optimal. There must be a total commitment in every
scrum to go forward and set a good platform. Grips and binding are paramount with body
position, coordination on the hit, pressure, keep pressure on and push.
Lineouts: Locks function as a unit with the props supporting / lifting them and must
achieve perfect coordination with the hooker/thrower. They are the jumpers and quality
ball winners, they must commit to drive if necessary, compete for every ball on own throw
and disrupt opposition lineout to deny them quality balls by driving early.
They must physically and technically dominate their opposite.
Kick-offs: They are the catchers, preferably with two hands. They must work with
support/lifters and set the best platform for quality ball delivery or drive depending on
call. On the opposition balls, they must attack the ball and disrupt clean possession for
the opposition.
Open play: Get to the ball quickly, make the right decision, and always keep in mind to
keep momentum going to provide quality ball for attack. In defense, get out of set play
quickly and make tackles, analyze the situation and reposition where most needed, if not
physically involved at the breakdown, guard the fringes.
Penalties/free kicks: Locks are usually used as support players in attack and they are
covering in depth the ball carrier to carry on the action’s momentum past the gain line
and deliver quick, clean ball to scrum half in contact. In defense, the locks work with tight
five to guard the area around the ball and make sure the blind side is covered, go forward
and make tackles.
In reference to this job description, the locks need to develop:
Core and specific strength, power, power-endurance with emphasis on legs power.
Short sprints and high speed running for support play.
Coordination for jump/catch/ball release actions.
Work involves: Jump at lineouts, push in scrums, short sprints, gripping and binding,
wrestling the ball and tackling.
Ergogenesis: Anaerobic lactic-alactic: 60-40.
Limiting factors: Power endurance, reacting power, acceleration/deceleration power.
C-Loose forwards unit: Blind side and open side flankers, #8
1-Blind side flanker: #6
Major functions of blind side flanker: The blind side flanker is a member of a hunting
trio composed of the loose forwards. Supporting the ball carrier, providing good continuity
in attack, running good lines, anticipating and making the tackles are a big part of the job.
Defensively work together and trust each other. The modern blind side flanker can also
be a jumper in the lineout and offers extra options to win quality balls. It is now a position
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becoming more and more polyvalent and interchangeable with locks. It is very important
in this position to analyze well the game, make the right decision, cover well, provide
speed around the field and always beat the opposition to the ball. The blind side flanker
is a decision maker and always must think where he will be of most use for the team at
any given moment.
The loose forward unit is the high work rate unit of the team, they will spend most time
running in support, sprinting short distances, they will perform 25 over tackles per
individual and hit some 45 or 50 rucks and mauls in a game, jump in lineouts, push in
scrums, and still be essential in pivotal positions for attacking options.
Set play:
Scrum: Push, cover blind side.
Lineout: Modern #6 are tall and powerful, they usually are jumpers too to add diversity
in calls and relieve pressure from the main locks jumpers.
In attack: The blind side flanker is an essential position for support play and continuity,
he will generally be the 3rd forward in support form set play, as a decision maker, the
blind side flanker is a constructive player ensuring continuity and increasing the quality
of the balls won, being usually taller than their open side counterpart, they also add running
power in attack, support in contact and ball offloading.
In defense: The blind side flanker is part of a very mobile unit, providing aggressive defense
and tackling at the breakdown area but also in open field play, he covers a long distance
at a fast pace, and is an essential part of a curtained defense system. The aim is to attack
the opposition to recover the ball quickly. He is essential in covering the inside area of the
backs and the fringes of set pieces such as scrum and lineout, his lines of run and
anticipation are paramount. He covers the blind side for the winger when opposition attacks.
Open play:
In attack: The blind side flanker is a great asset around the fringes both on attack and
defense, as a powerful player, he adds on continuity by carrying powerfully the ball beyond
the gain line, and is a great support player. The aim of the #6 is to always be in play, and
add speed and penetration power to the team on the field.
In defense: The blind side flanker is covering for gaps in the backline, covers inside, and
is an organizer of the defense line.
Penalties/free kicks: An important support player always near the mark and ball carrier,
supporting ball carrier close or wide. Defending these moves, the blind side flanker is
communicating with the open side flanker to mark and shut off opposition fly-half and
inside center.
In reference to this job description, the blind side flanker needs to develop:
Core and specific strength, power, speed, agility, power-endurance, emphasis on legs
and arms
Starting power, acceleration/deceleration power
Coordination
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Work involves: Sprint, jumping, running in support at high speed, pushing, gripping,
wrestling the ball and tackling
Ergogenesis: Anaerobic lactic-alactic: 70-30
Limiting factors: Power endurance, acceleration/deceleration power
2-Open side flanker: #7
Major functions of the open side flanker: Features of the position are similar than the
one described for the blind side flanker. Moreover, the open side flanker is a “fetcher”,
he glues to the ball and is prominent at the breakdown to turnover possession and in
support, he also now has a strong role as a ball carrier and is used to perforate defense
systems and ensure continuity deep beyond the gain line in opposition territory. The open
side flanker must have the “nose for the ball” by physically destroying the opposition, but
also be able to anticipate actions and run perfect lines both in attack and defense. Modern
open side flankers are fast, powerful, technically sound, agile, tackling machines and astute
tacticians. They also are in the position of a decision maker in many instances, and as
such are expected to be leaders on and off the field.
Set plays:
Scrum: Push and communicate, organize the loose forwards.
Lineouts: Can be an extra jumper, support role, mainly linking with the backline in attack
and annihilate options for the opposition fly-half.
In attack: The open side flanker is more of a ball carrier, powerful in defense line
penetration or supporting the ball carrier. In any case, he is the first to the breakdown
to increase quality ball in the continuity or to fight for possession and recovery of the
ball. He is seen as a pivotal position in attack where he can set good off-loading
platforms and increase game continuity; in most instances the open side flanker will
create space and opportunities for his teammates. He is a strong part of tactical
realization of a game plan.
In defense: Works together with the other loose forwards in the defense curtain, as
being the first to breakdown, he is expected to tackle and react quickly to turnover the
ball. He also covers the inside of the backs and the fringes of the set pieces. The open
side flanker is a disrupter of opposition tactics, he must read the game soundly, and
adapt quickly to situations.
Open play: The open side flanker is the typical predator both in attack and in defense.
He is a strong restless runner, covering fringes and the inside of developing action, he
hunts for the ball, recovers it, and maximize possession and quality balls for his team.
He has tremendous speed around the field, and must always be in play.
In defense, he is an organizer, hunts, tackles, turns over and provides a solid platform
for his team.
Penalties/free kicks: Same organization as the blind side flanker, in attack supports the
ball carrier and cruises wide to offer more opportunities to the backline.
In defense: Communicates with #6 and marks opposition fly-half and inside center.
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In reference to this job description, the open side flanker needs to develop:
Core and specific strength, power, speed, agility, power-endurance, emphasis on legs
and arms
Starting power, acceleration/deceleration power, high reactive power
Coordination
Work involves: Sprint, possibly jumping, running in support at high speed, pushing,
gripping, wrestling the ball and tackling.
Ergogenesis: Anaerobic lactic-alactic: 70-30
Limiting factors: Power endurance, acceleration/deceleration power, reactive power
3-#8:
Major functions of the #8: As part of the loose forward unit, he has the same duties in
the play both in attack and defense. He is the coordinator at the back of the scrum and
acts as a link with the scrum-half and the backline. He pushes in scrums, jumps and lifts
in lineouts to provide more options for quality ball.
Set plays:
Scrum: He is the coordinator with the scrum-half for channeling the ball and promotes
the good side options. He pushes at reinforces the bind with the second row to provide
the best possible drive.
Lineouts: He can be a jumper and a lifter, also set in the loose wider to provide penetrating
options.
In attack: He is the 1st support player of the open side flanker, he should provide the #7
with good options for game continuity every time, hence developping very good running
lines, and sound reading of opposition movements. The #8 provides options at the base
of the scrum, executes moves, and is a decision maker with a strong tactical involvement.
He is a very effective lineout player both as a jumper and a lifter. He has a strong speed,
good running lines and ball skill when running off the scrum.
In defense: He is also part of the defensive curtain, and covers #7. Both are aggressive
in defense, with heavy tackle count, and are designed not only to stop the ball’s progression
towards their line but to regain possession through sharp and sound retrieving techniques.
He also covers the inside of the backs, a bit deeper, and the fringes of set pieces. The #8
is a tower of tenacity and a strong leader and role model on and off the field.
Note: With the evolution of modern game, the tendency is now for #7 to be able to cover
as #8 position, #8 to play blind side (as they are similar in size and bulk), and blind side
to cover possibly for a lock position.
Open play: The #8 also acts more as a pivot and strong ball carrier. Breaking tackles like
the #7, in bringing the ball in contact will set opportunities for team mates in support. He
is constantly improving ball quality for his team, and destroys the opposition advantages
while defending. The #8 is available on the fringes of set pieces, rucks and mauls, and
maximizes the continuity of play for his team. He is a strong, powerful runner, with
excellent ball skills.
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Defensively, he is acting similarly to the #7, who he shadows most of the time, running
slightly deeper lines.
Penalties/free kicks: In attack, the #8 can be the first ball carrier or be in support outside
the fly-half and inside center. He supports the ball carrier.
In defense, he covers behind the backline for kicks or missed tackle.
In reference to this job description, the #8 needs to develop:
Core and specific strength, power, speed, agility, power endurance, emphasis on legs and
arms
Starting power, acceleration/deceleration power
Coordination and sound ball skills
Work involves: Sprint, jumping, running in support at high speed, pushing, gripping,
wrestling the ball and tackling
Ergogenesis: Anaerobic lactic-alactic: 70-30
Limiting factors: Power-endurance, acceleration/deceleration power, reacting power
D-Inside backs: Scrum-half (halfback), fly-half (1st 5/8 or stand off), inside center (2nd
5/8) and outside centre (center)
1-Scrum-half:
Major functions of the scrum-half: The scrum-half is, with his other half: the fly-half, the
symbol of decision making and tactical soundness of the game. His organization, vision, game
understanding, support, linkage, technical skills, quickness, communication and leadership
skills should be second to none. The modern scrum-half is the link between the forwards and
the backs, yet is asked to perform as a 4th loose forward in many instances, specifically in
defense. Virtually all won balls will go through his hands. He must therefore develop an astute
adaptability and understanding of the game to provide quick ball to the backs or keep his
forwards in a forward motion momentum. The scrum-half orientates the game as planned and
his vision should encompass the team’s playing philosophy. He is the conductor of the forwards
and provides the backs with clean, quick quality ball to maximize continuity in the game plan.
Vision and sharp decision making are key words for this position.
In modern rugby, many teams opt for a scrum-half being an extra loose forward with the
same work rate and defensive qualities. The scrum-half is a restless runner, trying to always
keep in play, capable of lightning fast short burst of speed around the fringes, keeping
defense lines on their toes, he must have a clear outstanding sweep pass off the ground
from both hands, and is also a long range runner, covering a lot of ground.
Set plays:
In attack: The scrum-half is coordinating the options according to the game plan, or
adapting to the game to fit the needs of the team. He is a distributor of quick quality balls,
and must communicate with his receivers. He dictates the pattern of play, supports ball
carriers, runs around the fringes to fix drifting defense systems, and keeps his forwards
in a forward momentum. The scrum-half is also a good tactical kicker.
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In defense: His role is to shut down opposition options around the scrum or the lineout.
He also covers deeper for kicks on lineouts. He has an essential role to pressure his direct
opponent on scrums but also must know when to cover the blind side. In a defensive
situation, he must be able to relieve the pressure from his fly-half in kicking and take the
responsibility to clear the team from the base of set pieces.
Open play:
In attack: All the set play features for the position apply to open play too. The scrumhalf communicates optimally with his fly-half or receivers to select the best options to
keep continuity and tactical plan on track. The choices inherent to the position will come
from the astute selection of play at close range from the breakdown or wider as the situation
demands it, hence the importance of decision making in the process. The #9 communicates
constantly with his forwards, give them options, relay the ball to the backs or linking ball
carriers, and organize the game from the “pocket” of rucks and mauls.
In defense: The scrum-half organizes the defense around the fringes, once the opposition
goes wide, he covers deeper for kicks, missed tackles in the line, keeping his vision clear
for game analysis and maximizes the use of the ball once it is turned over.
Penalties/free kicks: The scrum-half might be the one who calls the move, he must be
quick on the mark, and already have a clear vision of what’s ahead to maximize the
efficiency of the move, and select the right option for maximum ground gain.
Defensively, he organizes the defense and the forwards.
In reference to this job description, the scrum-half needs to develop:
Core and specific strength, power, agility, quick reaction time, high mobility and flexibility
of upper and lower body, specifically trunk and hips
Starting power, acceleration/deceleration, change of directions
Coordination, peripheral vision
Work involves: Sprinting, running at high speed in support or cover, tackling, wrestling
the ball, high speed passing off the ground, kicking
Ergogenesis: Anaerobic lactic-alactic: 70-30
Limiting factors: Power endurance, acceleration/deceleration power, flexibility,
reacting power
2-Fly-half or 1st 5/8 or Stand Off:
Major functions of the fly-half: As the scrum-half is the forwards conductor, the flyhalf is the backs conductor, his major function is to read the game, communicate the
options available through processing the feedback of teammates and what he sees, in order
to direct and transfer the play in the appropriate zone of the field the situation commands.
The fly-half constantly takes and centralizes information to adjust the team’s game
appropriately to the opposition. He and his direct outside man the inside center are space
creators for further exploitation by support runners or strikers. The fly-half will mostly
be on the receiving end of the scrum-half passes and is the link between the quality ball
offered by the forwards and the continuity of the game. Another primary goal of the fly-
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half is to keep the team on the “front foot” and keep going forward by running, passing,
kicking and tackling. He is a sound technician able to play in the lion’s mouth, an astute
decision maker and the leader of the backline.
According to IRB 2003 statistics for international games cited by Luger & Pook, 2004,
the fly-half had the highest “high speed running” ratio of all evaluated players, made 15
tackles and hit 22 rucks and mauls.
Set plays:
In attack: The fly-half calls the right move, communicates with players, runs onto the
ball and fixes defenders, hence holding the drift. If taking a ball from the open side to
the blind side, takes the ball close and at speed to create space for other support players.
One of the most important features of the fly-half in attack is the ability to fire quick
passes long or short from both hands, and always support the receiver from the inside.
Always know what the team wishes to achieve and implement the right decision. Of
course, the kicking options are wide for the fly-half, but he must do it with specific
purposes such as relieve pressure and kick to touch, or kick for field position, or kick
to teammates in space.
In defense: He leads the backs defense line, always communicates, specifically if a
change in defense organization is in order (from man out to man on, for example), as
a result of passed experience, the fly-half channel is often targeted by opposition, as
fly-halves have traditionally be known as poor tacklers. The modern fly-half must be a
tiger in defense and a devastating tackler. He also must cover for a loose ball, and look
for opportunities to create turnovers for his team. He must also know when to retreat
to cover for opposition short or deep kicks.
Open play:
In attack: The major function there is to read the game efficiently and always take the
good attacking option according to the situation at hand. Run to the ball to keep defenses
guessing, as for set play attacking options, the fly-half organizes the moves and arranges
previously for decoy runners to take out defenders, protecting created space for the striker.
In defense: Same as for the set play. Moreover the fly-half will reorganize the defense
line, communicate with teammates, and lead the line to targets.
Penalties/free kicks: The fly-half must get into position quickly and be accurate if the
aim is to kick the ball in touch. On quick tap, looks for space and directs the game in it.
In defense: Organizes the loose forwards to cover line and retreats to cover deep for kicks.
Communicates with back three and covers the field well for counterattacking if possible.
In reference to this job description, the fly-half must develop:
Good core and specific strength, power, starting power, acceleration and deceleration,
quick changes of direction, powerful and precise kicking preferably with both feet, good
quick passing from both hands
Coordination, peripheral vision
Work involves: Sprinting, high speed running in support or cover, kicking (both tactical
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and goal kicking), tackling, wrestling the ball
Ergogenesis: Anaerobic alactic-lactic: 60-40
Limiting factors: Power endurance, reactive power, acceleration/deceleration power
3-Centers: Inside and outside centers or 2nd 5/8 and center:
Major functions of the centers: The centers’ role is essential to carry attack moves and
provide an impenetrable defense in the midfield, which is a very strategic position as it
creates opportunities on both sides of the breakdown. Centers must create excellent
attacking opportunities and get the ball to space where continuity will be achieved by
support players or strikers. They should put the back three in space and get them the
opportunities to score, they will also provide them support at the breakdown or offer them
better offloading solutions. Centers are also kick chasers as being fast and powerful, and
able to compete for the ball in the air, their field covering allow them to fall back to support
the back three in counterattacks. In modern rugby, they are more used as deceptive runners,
also called “decoy runners” to fix defenders and allow strikers to hit the created space.
In doing so, they must run efficient deceptive lines, allowing them to get back quickly
into play. The defensive role of the centres is to provide a brick wall in the midfield, where
the opposition line break attempts will continuously be stopped.
Set plays:
In attack: The centers’ function is to get the proper alignment according to what will be
played, run straight at defenders to hold them on and break the potential drift defense and
commit opposition to a particular line of run. They will move the ball into space making
sure they will keep supporting the next ball carrier from the inside. They must get the ball
to or beyond the gain line, and have the ability to play well in the defense. They will
analyze the defensive system of the opposition and threaten the appropriate zone of the
field either by carrying the ball there with support, or by kicking in space with chase to
recover the ball and score. They will understand the moves and calls from the fly-half and
act accordingly. Set play is usually a very good platform for attack as opposition forwards
are committed to win the ball first and are fixed to the task.
In defense: Centers are to keep the line of defense steady and make tackles, they are
essential in wrestling for the ball at the breakdown after the tackle is done and turn over
the ball, recover loose balls and communicate with other incoming players.
Open play:
In attack: They must be decisive decision makers after analysis of the defense of the
opposition, they are keeping the attack straight, checking opposition, committing
opponents and avoiding defense to drift to close gaps on the outside. If gaps occur,
they must be sharp in decision making and penetrate the space decisively with support
to provide better opportunities to play behind or in the defense line, their game vision
and vista will promote teammates in better position to carry on the move by either
passing or kicking.
In the whole process, both centres must gather information on the opposition and pass it
on the fly-half who will then direct the attacks accordingly, making them important links
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in the analysis and decision making process. When centres are checked or tackled, they
must stay on their feet, keep driving forward with support, look for possible offload
ensuring continuity, and wait for further support.
In defense: Similar as in set play, but as the play in the open can go fast, they must
reorganize fairly quickly and keep constant communication with back three and fly-half.
Penalties/free kicks:
In attack: Swiftly communicate to fly-half, scrum-half and forwards any good option in
their zone of influence on the field, recognize opportunities of creating space early, and
exploit it. Always look for space behind defense line to kick and retrieve the ball or pressure
opposition on field position.
In defense: They must communicate well with loose forwards, make sure they stand
10 m, organize the line of defense, close time and space for opposition, make tackles,
turnover the ball.
In reference to this job description, the centres must develop:
Core and specific strength, power, starting power, running speed and speed endurance
Acceleration/deceleration power, quick changes of direction, ball skills, kicking
Coordination and peripheral vision
Work involves: Sprint, high speed support running, tackling, kicking, wrestling the ball
Ergogenesis: Anaerobic alactic-lactic: 70-30
Limiting factors: Power and speed endurance, reactive power, acceleration/deceleration power
E-Outside backs: Wingers and full back
1-Wingers:
Major functions of wingers: The wingers are the symbol of open space. They epitomize
speed, power, elegance, and are meant to be the strikers by excellence, the try hunters,
and the game winners. They are strong and powerful finishers who ideally will conclude
any great tactical movement by scoring. They make maximum use of offered space being
it tiny or wide open, they have a high involvement and work rate in modern rugby as they
are pushing to get the extra work done in the opposite line, create space by being the extra
man in the backline, or provide decoy running to deceive the opposition defense. They
are also essential in putting pressure on the receiver after kicks in field, and are often seen
as the last line of defense, squeezed on the touch line.
From IRB 2003 statistics on international games cited by Luger & Pook in 2004, wingers
are the players who reach all out sprint speed the most in a game, and second after flyhalf on high speed running, they will make 9 tackles in a game usually at high speed, and
be involved in only 16 rucks and mauls.
Set plays:
In attack: Wingers are essential to analyze the game and find space, once they have found
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it they call and communicate to set the ball in space to them, the ending result usually
being a try. Not every time is a try scored, their function is also to keep the ball alive,
carry on the continuity and set other support players in space if possible, they work together
with the full back and the midfield to find, create and exploit space around them with the
right timing for maximum efficiency. They are often used in modern rugby as decoy
runners, extra man in the backline coming from their opposite wing, and use their fast
pace to chase deep kicks and pressure opposition and annihilating counterattack options.
In defense: They move up with the backline closing space and time for opposition in
coordination with midfield, they cover the blind side on scrums and lineouts, and they
take deep kicks, returning them or setting a counterattack.
Open play:
In attack: Communicate efficiently options, and let teammates know of space and gaps.
In defense: They cover deeper for kicks, cover the touchline, and make tackles usually at
high speed. The wingers are the players calling the defense line from out to in, making
sure every opponent is marked. Defense line will then move from inside out.
Penalties/free kicks: Get in position quickly, look and communicate options, cover
touchline, find space and demand the ball.
In reference to this job description, the wingers must develop:
Core and specific strength, power, speed and power endurance
Acceleration/deceleration, quick changes of direction, kicking
Coordination, peripheral vision
Work involves: Sprinting, high speed running in support, tackling, wrestling the ball, and
kicking
Ergogenesis: Anaerobic alactic-lactic: 70-30
Limiting factors: Speed and power endurance, reactive power, acceleration/deceleration
power
2-Fullback:
Major functions of the fullback: The fullback is also a finisher and a space creator. In
modern rugby, the wingers and full back specifically 14 and 15 are often interchangeable,
with best full backs being also great at outside centre position. The full back is often the
last line of defense on high kicks and chase, and man on man defensive situations, his
function is to close space and gaps for the opposition, find space, create opportunities for
his teammates, and act as a decoy runner in the backline to set moves up.
Set plays:
In attack: The main duties of the full back are to come as an extra man in the backline,
penetrate and create space and options for the outside players. He also serves his wingers,
and the back three must develop a great trust and confidence between themselves. As a
finisher, he is a potential regular scorer, and always tries to promote and exploit space
on the blind side.
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In defense: He has a high work rate as he is often the last line of defense on kicks and
man on man situations, he must communicate, and organize his wingers for cover, always
checking opportunities for counterattacking options or returning kicks.
Open play:
In attack: The fullback is a space creator for himself of his teammates, he also is of great
efficiency in supporting the inside of the ball carrier for offloading options in contact, he
checks and runs the blind side, and also act as efficient decoy runner in the line to create
more opportunities in deceiving the opposition line.
In defense: The fullback communicates and directs the defense line to cover gaps and
holes. He is in an ideal position to see what is going on and provide feedback to the backs
and fly-half. He is decisive in placing the players to cover the field efficiently.
He must have the capacity to jump high and compete for the ball in the air in high kicks,
and set his cover in case of mishap.
Penalties and free kicks: Be the extra man in the line, find and exploit space, put wingers
in space, cover the field, reorganize defense from behind, make tackles.
In reference to this job description, the fullback must develop:
Core and specific strength, power, speed and power-endurance
Acceleration, deceleration and reactive power
Timing in runs, passing, kicking, coordination
Work involves: Sprints, high speed running for support, kicking, tackling, wrestling the
ball, high jumps to compete for the ball in the air
Ergogenesis: Anaerobic alactic-lactic: 70-30
Limiting factors: Speed and power endurance, acceleration/deceleration power
Following is a summary table of the ergogenesis and motor abilities needed position by
position: note that aerobic endurance has been voluntarily omitted as we assume that
all players developed a strong aerobic base to build on, with maximum VO2max
development as possible.
As a result, we can say that power and power endurance are certainly the most dominant
motor abilities for all rugby positions analyzed. Although strength is also important for
all positions, as modern rugby involves more frequently all players in static bouts of ball
conquest/retention, it will certainly be an additional asset for the forwards, whereas the
backs will be more dependant on maximum speed and speed-endurance. Nonetheless, if
we wish to develop fast players on the pitch, we need to develop their maximum strength
first to be converted appropriately into power and power endurance. To be fast and
powerful, players need to be strong first!
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Position
Ergo-genesis
Features of Motor Abilities
Props
- alactic: 60%
- lactic: 40%
- strength
- power, power endurance
- short sprints/starting power
Second row
- alactic: 60%
- lactic: 40%
- strength
- power, power endurance
- jumping power endurance
- starting power
Loose forwards
+ Hooker
- alactic: 30%
- lactic: 70%
- strength
- power, power endurance
- acceleration/deceleration
- starting power
- speed, speed endurance
Scrum-half
- alactic: 30%
- lactic: 70%
- power, power endurance
- starting power
- acceleration/deceleration
- quick changes of direction
- reaction power
- coordination
Fly-half
- alactic: 60%
- lactic: 40%
- power, power endurance
- acceleration/deceleration
- quick changes of direction
- starting power
- kicking power and accuracy
Centres
- alactic: 70%
- lactic: 30%
- power, power endurance
- maximum speed, speed endurance
- acceleration/deceleration
- quick changes of direction
- starting power
- kicking power and accuracy
Wings
- alactic: 70%
- lactic: 30%
- power, power endurance
- maximum speed, speed endurance
- acceleration/deceleration
- quick changes of direction
Full Back
- alactic: 70%
- lactic: 30%
- power, power endurance
- maximum speed, speed endurance
- acceleration/deceleration
- starting power
- reaction power
Figure 3.1 Adapted from Bompa 2003, the ergogenesis and the position-specific features
of bio-motor abilities in rugby
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Chapter 4
Planning Periodization
When defining planning, the first thoughts that might come to mind are planning is
the art of using science in sports training, planning means to organize coaches and
player’s time effectively and planning is a structure that gives you guidance and
direction to your training; planning reflects your training experience and expertise.
Commonly, sports planning represent a structure or a guide for a training program to
be done in the future. An organized training plan should eliminate the random approach
still used by some coaches today. In other words, a training program represents a
prediction, a prognosis of what the team’s players have to do in the future in order to
achieve training goals. But above everything else, planning is a tool to be used to
improve training effectiveness, since no matter how much knowledge is acquired,
organizing training poorly will affect the outcome greatly.
Periodization, to some individuals, seems intended to complicate a player’s and coach’s
life! However, the root of periodization originates from “period,” a period of training time,
or a phase of training. If we agree that planning is important in the quest of game
improvement, then periodization is more than essential. In fact periodization is one of the
most important concepts of sports planning. Let us explain what periodization is.
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71
Periodization refers to two important training concepts:
1. Periodization of the annual plan (the plan for the season). To ensure increased
training effectiveness, the entire program is divided into smaller, easier to manage
training phases, such as the preparatory, competitive (league games) and transition
phase. As illustrated by figure 4.1, periodization also incorporates smaller training
phases, or cycles such as microcycles, a week of training, and macrocycles or
training programs of 3-6 weeks long.
Months
of Training
1
2
3
Periodization Preparatory
4
5
6
7
8
Competitive (league games)
9
10
11
12
T
Macrocycles
Microcycles
Figure 4.1 A schematic illustration of periodization of the annual plan
NOTE: Since in many parts of the world league games are played in different months of the
year we have enumerated rather than using the name for each month of the annual plan.
Legend: T stands for the transition phase
Periodization of the dominant biomotor abilities in rugby, such as strength, speed and
endurance. Figure 4.13 illustrates the periodization of biomotor abilities for rugby, a
concept also shown in the annual plans sampled in figures 4.14 – 4.21.
Short-term planning
Training programs can be organized for long and short term durations. Our emphasis will
be on short term training session, the microcycle, and the annual plans. The term micro,
from the Greek term of micros (small), refers to a week-long training program, whereas
macro (macros) of the same linguistic origin means something of larger size, such as a
training plan for 3-6 weeks. Since in our discussion about short term planning we intend
to simplify rather than complicate this subject we shall emphasize only two types of plans:
training session and microcycles. These two types of plans are the most functional and
useful in the training programs you’ll organize for players.
Training session
From the training tasks point of view there are four types of training sessions:
• Learning session, where the scope is obvious: to teach new technical and tactical
skills. The model of such a plan is quite simple and can be modeled so that the
players can get maximum benefit for their effort (see below). These types of
sessions are mostly utilized for beginners whose limiting factor to improve the
game is the technique and tactics of the game.
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72
•
•
•
Repetition lesson has the scope to further the skills acquired in the past, both
technical and tactical. To play effectively, especially at the beginner level, the skills
to handle the ball are essential. Emphasize technique in every session with entrylevel players. The strategy of the game, on the other hand, has to be learned from
the early lessons, as soon as basic skills are at an acceptable level and the players
can practice tactical tasks.
Technical refinement. Skill perfection and technical refinement have to be planned
only for players who have reached an acceptable level of ball handling (accuracy
of passing and catching). This type of session will be part of the majority of training
sessions for as long as a player will play rugby.
Testing, or an assessment session, is planned regularly so that it is possible to verify
the level of improvement of the team’s players in the area of technical, tactical and
physical qualities. These types of sessions must be part of the preparatory phase
where regular testing will hopefully validate training programs organized between
two testing dates. Exhibition games should also be regarded as an opportunity to
assess the progress of players but also used to homogenize the play of different
units, sectors of activities (offense, defense) or the team as a whole. Final team
selection can be done during these testing games.
The structure of a training session
For maximum training efficiency, a training session can be divided into several parts,
where each part can have very specific training objectives:
1. Warm-up. The main role of the warm-up is to physiologically and psychologically
ready the players for training, to prepare for easy accomplishment of the training goals.
Before the actual warm-up begins, an explanation must be given to the players of the
training goals of the day and the methods being used to achieve them. The better team
players will understand the training goals and be higher motivated to accomplish them.
The warm-up itself helps a player reach a physiological readiness prior to performing the
main tasks of the training session. A good warm-up increases body temperature, improves
coordination, decreases the time of motor reaction, and helps the prevention of injuries.
The duration of a warm-up can be approximately 20 minutes long, depending on the
environmental temperature. Some coaches consider the onset of perspiration a sign that
the warm-up has ended. However, this might be a good indicator that the body temperature
has elevated but does not necessarily confirm that the players are ready for everything at
task in that session. This is why you should consider the sequence of the activities
performed during the warm-up:
• 5-10 minutes of low pace, different running styles with or without the ball. The
environmental temperature may dictate the duration of this part of the warm-up.
The warmer the air temperature, the shorter the running segment of the warm-up.
• 5 minutes of calisthenics, different exercises for all parts of the body.
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•
•
•
5 minutes of stretching exercises which also can help the players to improve joint
flexibility.
Perform a few short sprints, with or without the ball, followed by simple hops or
low impact jumps.
For maximum preparedness and training effectiveness, at the end of the warm-up
players may repeat a few well known technical or tactical drills.
2. The main part of the session. Normally this part of the training session is the longest
since during this segment of training the objectives of technical, tactical, and physical
training are being met. Very often learning, or perfecting, technical and tactical skills
represents the main goal of a training session. The best method to achieve perfection is to
use the repetition method where specific drills are repeated for many minutes during the
session. The interval training method (repetition of drills for a specific duration, interrupted
by a specified rest interval) can be a very effective training method to achieve your training
goals: learning, perfection of specific skills or for a specific physiological adaptation.
Considering the complexity of rugby, there are many training goals which might be achieved
during the session. However, of all the technical, tactical or physical objectives possibly at
hand per session, our advice is not to plan more than 2-3 major objectives per day since
fatigue may affect the ability to achieve your daily goals. Many coaches and psychologists
are constantly attempting to improve players’ motivation, determination, and resilience
during the game. Unlike many specialists in the field, we strongly suggest that most
psychological qualities can be enhanced during training. This is a perfect environment to
challenge weaknesses induced by fatigue, to overcome fatigue by drawing from a players
willpower and motivation to defeat it, and to stimulate and enforce a player’s desire to do
one more repetition with maximum effectiveness; to be a fighter. This environment is more
conducive to improve psychological qualities than any theoretical sessions, specifically in
the developmental stages and prior to a high performance level. For best results, it is
important to learn the necessary psychological techniques to appropriately apply them in
training. Individual and collective psychology sessions can be part of the high performance
development at later stages, to fine-tune specific aspects of the psychological aspect of the
game once the foundation of mental toughness has been well-implemented through practice.
The duration of a training session is essential in the quest to accomplish training objectives.
It relies on different factors: physical potential, level of performance, phase of training
and activities planned for the session. Consider our suggestion as a guideline only to
comprise the segments of a training session planned for two hours:
1) Warm-up: 20-25 minutes
2) Main part: 75-90 minutes
3) Cool-down: 10-15 minutes
3. Cool-down, or the conclusion of a training session, has the ability to return the players
to their normal activities of the day, to lower the bodily functions to a normal physiological
state (or homeostasis). As such, during the cool-down, the players can perform a low pace
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aerobic activity, with or without the ball, where the intention is to continue perspiration.
As the players perspire they also flush the metabolites induced by highly intensive training
(including lactic acid) and as a result speed up the process of recovery from training.
Similar benefits (recovery and regeneration prior to the next session) are also achieved
via stretching the muscles. During stretching, the muscles can quickly return to their
normal anatomical length, enhancing the biochemical exchanges at the cellular level.
Modeling the training session
In order to maintain the motivation of a player and stimulate interest, a training session
should be as varied as possible. One element that can reinforce this requirement is model
training. Originating in Eastern Europe in 1960’s, model training should be regarded as a
simulation of different strategies of the game itself. Since your team and opponent team’s
strategy may differ, as per the objective of the game, you should consider to model the team’s
training sessions in order to prepare the players to overcome the strategy of future opponents,
or impose the team’s own strategy to win the game. This is why the creation of a variety of
training models should be repeated several times to ensure your players will adapt before
league games start. From a variety of training models available, we will only suggest what
is in our opinion most functional. A well-planned coach should invariably have specific
training objectives for each training session, such as technical, tactical or physical. These
objectives have a higher probability of achievement if a training session is modeled according
to objectives. Consequently, please consider the following model training sessions:
Training model for skill acquisition/perfection, maximum speed
and agility
Learning or refinement of technical and tactical skills can be enhanced if the plan of a
training session has the following structure:
1. Warm-up: 15-20 minutes
2. Technical/ tactical drills intended to learn or refine skills
3. Physical training, or repetitions of known skill where the objective is both skill
automation and specific endurance
4. Cool-down: 10 minutes
Skill acquisition and perfection is best served under the conditions of a fresh nervous
system, when a player is rested and fatigue cannot interfere with learning. This is why
such training goals must be planned immediately after the warm-up, when a player is still
rested. In order to enhance retention, you should not push the player. This can be done
after you accomplish your goals for skill acquisition. Furthermore, to make sure fatigue
does not interfere with learning, the rest intervals between technical/ tactical drills need
to be long in duration and the entire training atmosphere should be stress-free.
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A similar training model can be organized for the development of maximum speed,
explosiveness and agility. For this type of training, players should be rested so that fatigue
will not affect maximum concentration. This is a very important physiological requirement
since the signals from the central nervous system, in the form of nerve impulses, must be
fast, fluid, powerful and often with a high frequency. This is why the above model has
been suggested for your attention.
Training model for the enhancement of skills, speed, and agility
under the conditions of fatigue
Fatigue is a normal outcome of any rugby game. However, the highest level of fatigue is
typically experienced during the second period, especially in the last minutes of the game
when the accuracy of performing a technical and tactical skill and the ability to move quickly
and with agility are visibly affected by exhaustion. The task of playing effectively at the end
of the game seem vastly larger to a poorly trained player. And yet, quite often the game can
be won or lost in the final moments of the game! This is why we suggest a specific training
model that will allow players to cope with fatigue, adapt to the requirements of the last
minutes of the game, and as a result, play more proficiently in the second period/last quarter
of the game. In order to achieve these objectives, so determinant for the outcome of the
game, we suggest the following structure of a training session:
1. Warm-up: 20-25 minutes.
2. Fatigue the players by using specific drills for technical/ tactical training tapping
the lactic acid and aerobic systems: 60-75 minutes.
3. Technical/ tactical drills where the main objective is to improve maximum
concentration for a correct and accurate execution of technical/ tactical skills,
speed, and agility under the conditions of fatigue: 20 minutes.
4. Cool-down: 10 minutes.
The above training model has a clear scope of first fatiguing the players followed by a
strong demand that players perform skills with a maximum of accuracy; perform
maximum speed and agility skills under conditions of high level physiological exhaustion
and psychological fatigue. This model can also be used to train kickers and lineout throwers
to improve accuracy in the demanding end-of-the-game conditions. The use of this training
model is of vital necessity if a team’s players are to increase game proficiency, and
consequently, to increase the chance of winning the game in its last decisive minutes.
Remember that players do only what they are conditioned to do. Do you want to increase
your chances of winning the game? Follow the above training model!
Training model for increasing pre-game arousal
Both teams in a rugby match have a high desire to play with maximum efficiency and to
win the game. A team’s chance to achieve this goal directly depends on the state of
physiological arousal and psychological alertness of the players. Controlled or reduced
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anxiety, excitability and restlessness; and the ability to optimize pre-game arousal, can
effectively be reached with a short morning workout on the day of the game. It could be
an advantage to use this short pre-game session to also promote calmness and controlled
confidence among the players. Such a training model can have this structure:
1. Short and relaxed warm-up: 10 minutes.
2. Reduced number of technical/ tactical and power training drills performed with
quickness and even with explosiveness: 10 minutes.
3. Cool-down: 5-10 minutes.
These short and non-fatiguing drills (use medicine/power ball throws) can increase the
contractibility of rugby-specific muscles, arousing power production before the game. For
the best results and proper neuromuscular activation, tasks/ drills performed during this
session should not result in fatigue since it can interfere with the ability of your players
to reach super-compensation prior to the game. This is why the rest intervals between
drills should be longer than usual to facilitate full recovery and the atmosphere of relaxed
and controlled optimism.
The microcycle
Along with the training session, the microcycle or the weekly training plan is the most
practical, functional and useful plan you need to use in training. While the annual plan is
a forecast, a vision for the future, the structure and content of a microcycle is very practical
and determines to the quality of your actual training program. Certainly, the quality,
intensity and volume of training you are planning for your microcycles strictly depend on
the training phase, the training methods used and more importantly, on the players’
physiological and psychological capacity to tolerate work and stress.
The structure of a microcycle
An effective structure of a microcycle can successfully assist to maximize a player’s
availability for training as well as the ability to achieve your training objectives. Depending
on their capacity to tolerate work and the ability to recover quickly from training, some
players can train 3-4 times per week while others may effectively train 5-10 times per
week. Deciding factors for structuring a certain type of microcycle will depend on:
• Training phase: During the preparatory phase players can train more often. As soon
as the official/ league games start, the dates of the games and time necessary to
recover from them dictate how many training sessions can be planned per week.
This is why during league games the number of training sessions per week might
be lower than during the preparatory phase.
• Players’ ability to tolerate work is a determinant factor to decide how many times
a player can train per week. Entry-level players may train 2-3 times/week while
intermediate-class players 3-5 times. Finally, players with a strong background,
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•
who play at state level, or even for professional teams, would tolerate a microcycle
with 7-10 sessions per week.
Training camps are also determinent for the type of microcycle you’ll choose.
During the school year, players may train only 3-5 times per cycle but during
vacation or training camps, the structure of a microcycle will be drastically
different. Under such conditions some teams may train 7-10 times per cycle.
Figures 4.2-4.5 illustrate, without exhausting all possibilities, several structures of a
microcycle. Please analyze our suggestions and create your own structure of a
microcycle depending on the specific conditions and circumstances of your team. In
some instances we suggest 3-5 training sessions per cycle in others, an increased
number, up to 10. The charts presented by figures 4.2-4.5 specify, at the top, the
training days and just under them the training time, such as AM and PM. Below
this line, we refer to training demand of a given training session as high (H), medium
(M) or low (L). This implies not only how intensive a session might be but also its
psychological/mental stress or training difficulty.
For instance, a training session which incorporates very difficult tactical drills tapping the
anaerobic (lactic acid) system with maximum quickness and repeated many times, can be
classified as a highly demanding session since there is a high physiological (lactic acid
endurance) and psychological demand (maximum concentration to perform tactical drills
with accuracy). Depending on technical and tactical complexities, and physiological and
psychological stresses, other sessions may be of medium demand. However, in order to
facilitate recovery and regeneration between sessions or even super-compensation, lower
demand sessions must be considered.
Training Days
Monday
Training
Time
AM
PM
Training
Demand
H
M
X
Tuesday
x
Wednesday Thursday
x
Friday
Saturday
x
L
Figure 4.2 illustrates a microcycle with four training sessions per week, planned in PM
with two sessions of medium and two of high demand training.
Wednesday, Saturday and Sunday are resting days (blank space)
Legend: H=high demand
M=medium demand
L=low demand
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78
Training Days
Monday
Training
Time
AM
PM
Training
Demand
H
M
x
Tuesday
Wednesday Thursday
x
x
x
Friday
Saturday
x
L
Figure 4.3 suggests a structure of a microcycle with 5 sessions per week
During a training camp, or for professional teams the structure of a microcycle can have a
busier schedule, such as in figures 4.4 and 4.5. Please note that in these figures there are
AM and PM sessions, figure 4.5 being more difficult that 4.4. Also please note that the chart
is slightly different, the AM and PM sessions being placed immediately below the training
days. The final difference between these two figures and the others suggested above (figure
4.2 and 4.3) is that the training demand is suggested for each training session of the day.
Training Days Monday
Training
Time
AM
PM
Tuesday
AM PM
Wednesday Thursday
AM
PM
AM
PM
Friday
Saturday
AM PM AM
PM
Training
Demand
H
M
L
Figure 4.4 presents a possible microcycle with eight training sessions: Two of high, three
of medium and three of low demand. Sunday is a complete rest day.
Training Days Monday
Training
Time
AM
PM
Tuesday
AM PM
Wednesday Thursday
AM
PM
AM
PM
Friday
Saturday
AM PM AM
PM
Training
Demand
H
M
L
Figure 4.5 illustrates the structure of a microcycle with 10 sessions per week (national
divisions and professional players). You may create other structures remembering,
however, that more than three high demanding training sessions per week is very difficult
to tolerate, even for elite-class players.
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Modeling the microcycles
Not every microcycle has the same training objectives. Depending on the training phase,
some cycles may have the objective of learning new skills or developing the foundation
of biomotor ability, while others may have the scope of strongly challenging the present
state of adaptation. In other words to improve a players’ physiological ability, some
microcycles have to strongly challenge the level of physiological adaptation reached in
that phase, to “shock” a player’s body system in order to develop a tolerance of high levels
of fatigue, typical of highly contested games during league games or major tournaments.
From this point of view we propose the following types of microcycles:
•
Developmental microcycles: Specific for the preparatory phase, where the main
training objective is to develop skills and the foundation of overall team conditioning.
For these types of cycles there are two options:
-
adaptation or microcycles where the scope of training is to properly adapt players’
abilities to tolerate work. This microcycle is typical for the early preparatory phase,
where the scope of training is to ensure that players progressively adapt and improve
their conditioning (progressive adaptation),
and
-
improvement, where the foundation created by the first 2-3 microcycles of
progressive exposure, players will require more demanding sessions to ensure
overall conditioning improvement. Progressively the players will be able to tolerate
more intense microcycles.
•
Shock microcycles have the objective of breaking the present ceiling of adaptation. In
other words, to plan microcycles where the overall demand and training intensity is very
high, often beyond the present level of tactical and physical adaptation. Every time this
planning occurs, the second period of a highly contested game must be the vision. These
types of cycles are planned primarily during the mid and last part of the preparatory phase.
•
Recovery-regeneration (R-R) microcycles. The expectation for players to positively react
to the training plans will succeed if it is explained to them that in order to avoid staleness
and over-training you have to constantly alternate microcycles of high training demand
with cycles of recovery and regeneration. The main objectives of these types of cycles are:
- Decrease training intensity by planning lower and medium demand microcycles.
- Facilitate the removal of residual fatigue (the fatigue accumulated in the previous
weeks of higher training demand), via low intensity aerobic compensation training.
- Facilitate psychological relaxation by creating an atmosphere of fun and enjoyment.
- Replenish the glycogen stores to ready the body for upcoming training cycles of
higher demand.
- These types of cycles are planned every 3-4 weeks, often following a set of shock
microcycles.
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•
Tapering/peaking microcycles are planned prior to the beginning of league games,
play-offs, before very important championship games, or international tournaments.
By planning a microcycle similar to a recovery-regeneration cycle, players will be able
to prepare for highly important games.
Competitions microcycles are weekly plans created during league games. The structure
of such a cycle should consider three important segments with different training objectives
and types of activities (figure 4.6):
-
Segment 1: Following a league game the first objective is to Recover-Regenerate
(R-R). Difficult training sessions should never be planned before the players are
recovered, rested and regenerated.
-
Segment 2: Plan 2-3 training days for the mid part of the week. The Intensity, the
volume of training planned, and the alternation of energy systems strictly depend
on the team to be played next. Always before a very difficult game against a strong
team, caution must be emphasized regarding how many and how intensive the midweek training will be. Otherwise, with an easier game, players can be pushed
harder, at least for two days, so that there will still be an opportunity to improve
the determinant rugby-specific abilities and as such, maintain a strong
physiological potential for the last part of the league games. Coaching the team
after a league game focuses on remedial coaching for technical and tactical mishaps
which happened during the game and to rehearse new tactics for the game to come.
-
Segment 3: Planned for 1-2 days prior to the next game, where the scope of training
has a mini-taper (1-2 days), to remove fatigue, replenish glycogen stores, and as a
consequence, to reach super-compensation at the time of the game.
Day
Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday
Training Segments
Activity Game
1
- RecoveryRegeneration
(R-R)
- Compensation
- Physiotherapy
2
Saturday Sunday
3
- Training: all intensities, - Micro-taper for
Game
including high demand
the game to
training
facilitate removal
- Model training
of fatigue,
according to your
replenishment of
next opponent
glycogen, supercompensation
- Model training
(tactical)
- Friday: few drills
of higher intensity
Figure 4.6 A suggested model for a competition microcycle typical for two league games
a week
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Three examples of competition microcycles are presented by figures 4.7, 4.8 and 4.9, each
of them referring to a different competition structures.
Competition training model for a microcycle with one game per week
In the first example we refer to a model with one game per week (figure 4.7). Please
note that in the suggested models we refer to training demand and training objectives
only. Please also observe that the suggestions made by figure 4.6 are also followed in
these models. Consequently, each of the three examples follows the same three
segments proposed by figure 4.6. Segment 1 represents the time when post-game
recovery-regeneration is the goal, segment 2 is the actual time to train the players,
where the scope of training is to challenge the present level of adaptation, and segment
3, the pre-game day(s), is to enhance peak-performance for the game (remove fatigue,
replenish glycogen stores, relax psychologically). For this particular segment, we are
suggesting a model-training session, mostly for tactical purposes, to prepare the players
to overcome the game strategies used by the opposite team and to promote and practice
own game plan.
Day Number Monday
Tuesday
Wednesday Thursday Friday
Saturday Sunday
Training
Demand
None
M
H
L
Training
Objectives
- R-R
- Physiotherapy
- T/TA
- T/TA
- Aerobic - S or
- P/A
- MxS
(30 min)
L/M
H/M
H
- T/TA
- Aerobic
- T/TA - TA
Game
- S/A
model
or
training
- P/MxS
(30 min)
Figure 4.7 suggests a training model for a microcycle with one game per week. Please
note that in days 4 and 5 you can choose either L/M (day 4) or H/M (day 5), depending
on the players’ physiological conditions.
Legend:
T=technical training, TA=tactical training, S=speed, P=power, A=agility
MxS= maximum strength
Competition training model for a microcycle with two games per week
The following example (figure 4.8) illustrates a training model for a microcycle with two
games per week used in some countries. In examining this model, it is noticeable that
there is not much time left for training, since prior to and after each game, time has to be
allotted to either replenish glycogen stores so that super-compensation will be reached for
the next game, or recovery-regeneration (R-R) before any training will be organized.
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Please also note that in both of these models a short maximum strength (MxS) training
is suggested since it has been demonstrated that in neglecting to maintain this type of
strength, players will experience detraining with all its negative effects on speed, power
and agility (please refer to chapter 5).
Day Number Sunday
Training
Demand
H
Training
Objectives
Game
Monday
L
- R-R
- Physio
Tuesday
M
Wednesday
Thursday Friday
H
M
- T/TA
- T/TA
remedial
remedial
coaching - S
- P/A
- MxS/P
(20 min)
(30min)
L
Saturday
H
- T/TA
- TA
Game
-S
model
- P/A
training
(30 min) (30-45
min)
Figure 4.8 A suggested training model for a microcycle with two games per week
Competition training model for longer rugby tournaments
In addition to the above models of microcycles, we would like to also suggest the structure
of training sessions for longer tournaments (figure 4.9). Since the systems used in major
tournaments slightly differ, please consider our suggestion (figure 4.9) as a guideline only.
What is essential to consider is to not necessarily follow a rigid structure proposed by
figure 4.8 but rather to adapt it to situations and needs.
Days
1
2
AM
Pregame - R-R
arousal - Physio
therapy
PM
Game
3
TA;
aerobic
4
5
Pregame - R-R
arousal
- Physio
therapy
- TA aerobic TA aerobic Game
- Psycho- Psychological
logical
relaxation
strategy
- Carbohydfor the
rate-rich
next game
nutrition
plan
6
7
TA
aerobic
Pregame
arousal
- TA aerobic
TA aerobic Game
- Psycho- Psychological
logical
relaxation
strategies
- Carbohydfor the
rate-rich
next game
nutrition
plan
Figure 4.9 A suggested training model for rugby tournaments
This structure can be extended (i.e. two weeks) for the duration of the tournament. Please
note that this particular example used a day number and not the actual day of the week.
Legend: R-R=recovery-regeneration, TA=tactical training, model training as per your
next opponent
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The concept proposed by figure 4.9 is an adapted program researched and applied in
major tournaments for soccer (Argentinean soccer team). This concept is applicable to
rugby as well since there are many physiological similarities between the two games.
The major scope of the study was to conclude which model results in the replenishment
of the highest level of glycogen stores before the date of the next game. It is a well
known fact that following a highly contested game, the glycogen stores are almost or
completely exhausted. Without replenishing the glycogen stores prior to the next game
you cannot expect to reach super-compensation and as a result your players will not
display a great deal of energy during the game. Please remember that a player can spend
only as much energy as the amount of glycogen still available in his/her liver. Therefore,
the highest amount of glycogen restoration between two games comes from the model
in which two short training sessions both aerobic in nature, have been organized per
day (30-45 minutes maximum, including warm-up). These programs have resulted in a
higher percentage of glycogen restoration than just one session per day, or after a
complete resting day. Figure 4.9 is also based on other activities planned between two
games, such as a carbohydrate-rich nutrition program, rehearsing psychological
skills/strategies required for the next game, problem solving, readying players to cope
with eventual psychologically intimidating strategies that might be used by the
opposition, psychological visualization, positive self-talk, and energy.
Training models for the alternation of energy systems per microcycle
Of all elements that are important to effectively plan a microcycle two of them are
essential:
1. The game schedule
2. The alternation of energy systems
In the old school thought of microcycle planning, some coaches have used the simple
concept of alternating days of high intensity training with easy, low intensity training. In
doing so they have allowed a good recovery-regeneration between more difficult training
sessions but they have failed to comprehend the needs of alternating energy systems. If
this method was successful in some track and field events, it cannot convince and make
rugby coaches content with the application of the same method, especially when
considering that the same players may have two training sessions per day.
As demonstrated by the information we have shared in chapter two, the physiology of
training for rugby is highly sophisticated. Since all three energy systems are heavily taxed
during a game, it is quite logical to conclude that all three systems must be trained during
a microcycle. The only problem is how to do it? For best application of energy systems
training we suggest the following three steps:
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1. Classify every type of activity used in rugby as per the energy systems required to
produce the needed energy. Table 4.1 illustrates a classification of rugby-specific
activities as they match the requirements of energy systems. Theoretically speaking,
each of the activities suggested for each energy system can be trained in the same
training session. However, this is impractical since fatigue and time represent restrictive
elements to train all possible activities per energy system in the same training session.
This is why it is paramount to set the training objectives for each training session,
prioritize them, and decide which type of training will be employed in that session.
2. Alternate energy systems during the microcycle. To be successful in the methodology of planning a microcycle, consider the activities to be used, the energy system
to be taxed but also keep in mind the restoration time for different types of activities
and systems. This actually means that when planning to alternate energy systems
per cycle, providing enough time for a particular energy system to be restored
before being taxed again is of paramount importance. Although information
regarding the restoration of energy systems is discussed in chapter 9, a brief
examination of restoration time of some activities will assist us to better illustrate
how alternation of energy systems work:
•
Restoration time for muscle glycogen:
- 24 hours to restore 100% after intermittent activities (i.e. tactical drills: 12-15
x 75 seconds. Rest Interval = 2 minutes)
- 48 hours after a prolonged, repeated non-stop activity (i.e. repetitions of longer
tactical drills: 4x20 minutes). This actually means that these types of training
sessions can be planned no more than 2-maximum 3 times per week.
•
Restoration of glycogen after activities taxing the aerobic system:
- 6-8 hours after lower intensity
- 24 hours after more intensive aerobic training. The practicality of this physiological
reality is that following an aerobic training session, say of low or medium intensity,
it is possible to plan another training session taxing another energy system.
3. Create your microcycle keeping in mind steps 1-2 and the necessary restoration
times to effectively alternate energy systems. For the best illustration on how to
plan the alternation of energy systems per cycle we’ll provide two examples. Figure
4.10 illustrates a microcycle with five training sessions per week while figure 4.11
exemplifies the application of the same method for a cycle with 10 training
sessions. No examples are provided for 3-4 training sessions per week since during
off-days the body automatically restores the energy used previously, providing that
a proper diet is consumed.
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Monday
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
- T/TA:
alactic
-S
- P/A
- TA:
lactic and
aerobic
- Aerobic
- PE
- T/TA alactic - TA aerobic
- T/TA alactic/
-S
- Non-specific
lactic
- P/MxS
lactic/aerobic - S
- P/A/MxS
Saturday Sunday
Figure 4.10 samples how to alternate energy systems for a microcycle with five training
days (preparatory phase).
As shown in figure 4.10, Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays are predominantly anaerobic
training days, where speed and power/agility/MxS are suggested. For the remaining days,
aerobic training is planned to facilitate recovery, replenish glycogen stores and facilitate
super-compensation between the first three days of training.
Day/Time Monday
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
Saturday
AM
-T
aerobic
- TA
aerobic
T/TA
aerobic
-T
alactic
- P/MxS
- TA
- TA or
nonspecific
aerobic
PM
- TA;
lactic/
aerobic
- MxS
- T/TA
alactic/
lactic
- S/A
- TA
aerobic
- T/TA
alactic/
lactic
- PE
Sunday
Figure 4.11 illustrates same concept for a microcycle with 10 training sessions per week
(late preparatory phase).
As seen in figure 4.11, the most difficult training sessions are Monday PM, Tuesday PM,
Thursday AM and Friday PM. During these sessions alactic and lactic acid systems are
heavily taxed, substantially depleting the glycogen stores. In order to enhance the recoveryrestoration of these energy systems, aerobic training has been planned for the AM sessions
on Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday.
Between Tuesday PM and Thursday AM sessions, when anaerobic energies are heavily
taxed, we have proposed light aerobic training (Wednesday AM) and a half day off for
Wednesday PM. During this day, the glycogen stores have the necessary time to fully
restore. After Thursday AM’s challenging training session and prior to Friday PM sessions
(alactic/lactic), two aerobic sessions are also planned so glycogen restoration will be
achieved by Friday PM. In order to facilitate complete restoration of the anaerobic energies
following the Friday PM session, we have planned an aerobic session for Saturday AM
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and no training for the rest of Saturday PM and a complete resting day for Sunday. By
doing so, the Monday PM session can be very efficient and successful.
The dynamics and alternation of microcycles during the
preparatory phase
For the best conclusion regarding planning the microcycles, we’ll illustrate the
progression and dynamics of microcycles during the preparatory phase (figure 4.12).
Please note that same training demands are used to show how the difficulties of
microcycles progress from the early part of the preparatory phase to the dates of the
league games. This example of a 12-week preparatory phase leading into league games
can be adapted to each team’s needs and specific conditions. A longer preparatory
phase has the advantage of having more shock microcycles, which ultimately will result
in a superior improvement of technical, tactical and physical skills and abilities. Shorter
preparatory phases, on the other hand, can result in a more superficial preparation for
the league games and the probability of detraining towards the end of the league games.
Training
Demand
H
M
L
Type
Microcycle
D
A
D
A
D
I
Shock
1
2
3
4
R- Shock Shock
R
R- Shock Shock Taper LG
R
5
8
6
7
9
10
11
12
Figure 4.12 illustrates the progression and dynamics of different type of microcycles
during the preparation phase.
Legend:
-
D, A= developmental, adaptation cycle
D, I = developmental, improvement cycle
R-R=recovery-regeneration
LG= beginning of league games
For best adaptation, evading staleness and over-training after the first four cycles and
after the two consecutive shock cycles (weeks number 6 and 7), we have suggested a
R-R cycle. Finally, just before beginning league games we have suggested a tapering
microcycle to ensure players will be rested and ready both physiologically and
psychologically for the start of the competition.
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The annual periodization plan
This section on annual planning and periodization is intended to discuss the integration
of all biomotor abilities needed in rugby. Please note, chapter 5 discusses the periodization
of strength and power, chapter 6 discusses the periodization of agility, chapter 7 refers to
the periodization of speed, and chapter 8 refers to the periodization of endurance.
A very important aspect of planning the annual plan refers to how to integrate all training
elements determinant for a sound rugby performance. This is why an integrated plan for
technical, tactical, strength and power, agility, speed, endurance, nutrition and testing dates
are presented in figure 4.13. This is a very comprehensive plan that illustrates how all
these activities are integrated together into a whole to facilitate the best preparation
possible for team’s players. This integrated plan can be a guideline for a year of training,
including the competitive phase, or league games.
Figure 4.13 illustrates an ideal with a much longer preparatory phase than the one in practice
in some countries. By selecting this ideal annual plan, it allows us to dedicate the necessary
time for strong development of rugby-specific biomotor abilities, so important for training
high quality rugby players. However, we are also illustrating the periodization of training
for different countries (France, Australia, England, Celtic League for Ireland/Wales and
Scotland, New Zealand National Provincial Championships, and South Africa).
Please compare the ideal plan (figure 4.13) with the plans we have created for the above
countries (figures 4.14 – 4.21) and draw your own conclusion regarding which plan will
best serve your team’s desire to become a highly successful team. Our intent therefore is
to present a neutral plan, not specific to any given country, a plan that you may eventually
use to compare with your own. Therefore instead of using the name of the months of the
year we shall use a number to represent the length of the plan.
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Month/Periodization
1
Training
Phase
Preparatory
Technical
Training
Individual
skills
Tactical
Training
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10 11
League games
Integrate individual
skills into team tactics
- Integrate individual
- offence
- defense
- Adapt the according to
opposing teams
Develop fundamentals - Refine tactical skills:
of offence and defense
offence and defense
- Build flexible team tactics
according to adjust it according to your opposition
/
MxS
Maintain MxS and power
/
/
AA
Agility
training
/
Learn
new skill
Speed
/
Begin maximum speed
(alactic):
- Alactic and lactic
tactical drills
- Short repetitions of
maximum speed
(alactic)
Maintain
- Maximum speed
- Position-specific drills
Endurance
Aerobic
- Mixed
- Game and
positionspecific
endurance
Game and position-specific
endurance (ergogenesis)
Aerobic
Nutrition
- 15%
protein
- 65%
carbs
- 20% fat
- 20%
protein
- 60% carbs
- 20% fat
-
15%
protein
65%
carbs
20% fat
Testing
x
x
x
- Power
- Maintain
MxS/
M-E
T
Strength
and Power
x
- MxS
- M-E
12
Agility and Maintain specific agility drills
quickness
Game and
positionspecific
drills:
-Lactic
-Aerobic
x
20% protein
60% carbs
20% fat
AA
/
/
x
Figure 4.13 A guideline for planning an annual plan and the periodization of biomotor
abilities for rugby
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Legend:
T
/
AA
MxS
M-E
=
=
=
=
=
transition
that type of training is not planned for this phase
anatomical adaptation, or the foundation for maximum strength (MxS)
maximum strength, or the highest load a player can lift in one attempt
muscle-endurance
Figure 4.13 illustrates a three month preparatory phase that will give an adequate time to
develop the determinant abilities for rugby. In examining this chart, please focus on how
different abilities are integrated together into a comprehensive plan for the preparatory
phase. For instance:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
A long preparatory phase will give you the necessary time to refine the skills and
improve general working potential.
The stronger the preparatory phase, the easier players will cope with the fatigue
of the game and increase their playing effectiveness towards the end of the game.
A strong aerobic endurance will facilitate faster recovery-regeneration from the
game and training induced fatigue.
A sound strength base is needed before power, agility, and speed training can begin.
Always remember that power, speed and agility are strongly dependent on the level
of MxS. Any improvement in these abilities is impossible without a high level of
maximum strength - the ability to recruit high numbers of fast- twitch (FT) fibers
(Bompa, 2006).
A well-developed aerobic base will also serve as the foundation for game-specific
speed, both alactic and lactic.
Speed training can be developed in two ways:
- Maximum speed: Start in the mid-part of the preparatory phase to ensure that
a high recruitment of FT fibers will directly assist the development and further
improvement of maximum speed.
- Game and position-specific speed is developed via specific technical and
tactical drills.
A brief analysis of annual plans from selected countries
In an attempt to illustrate different approaches for planning the rugby season, we shall
share with you the approach used by selected countries with highly developed rugby
programs (in alphabetic order). Pertinent comments will also be made regarding each
example offered by figures 4.14-4.21. Please consider that the schedule of domestic and
international competitions are based on 2006 calendar dates and that our proposed
periodization programs and follow-up comments are considering only the competitions
in which the majority of players of that country are involved in. There are also international
games which require some coordination with league teams in order to build the best
possible training plans.
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We are aware of the multiple contingencies worldwide rugby unions have to face in order to
get these championships organized and running well. The comments and suggestions placed
after each plan are just an analysis of what has to be done in order to plan more efficiently
referring to a theoretical model such as the one presented in this chapter. We all know too
well that what is practically possible is not always close to an ideal situation. Nonetheless, in
regards to seasons and competitions, there is one thing we can always say: “Too much of it
will impair game quality development.” The scheme below illustrates this simple rule:
Increase competition time Increase players’ fatigue Decrease of recovery time Over-reaching / overtraining Decrease in performance
We believe that the competition seasons, in numerous parts of the rugby world but
specifically in Europe, are over-packed and would require a serious reassessment if quality
and development were to be part of the equation. How can this be prevented? The only
answer to this question is to reduce competition time, allow for best recovery and extend
the preparatory period of the training plan, which will allow players to better develop their
biomotor abilities and in return, will reward the game with an increased game quality.
Australia
Figure 4.14 illustrates the periodization of two competitions: Club Competition (June 3September 2) and SANZAR Super 14 (Professional Provincial Championship between
Australia, New Zealand and South Africa), February 10-May 27. Under normal conditions
the schedule of major competitions and the training program leading to them should
progress from domestic to international games. However, based on the information we
have collected and the best flow of a periodized program, figure 4.14 starts with SANZAR
Super 14 followed by Australian Club Competition.
Months Nov
Dec
Jan
Feb
Mar Apr
May Jun
Jul
Aug
Competition II:
- Club Competition
Sep
Oct
Periodi- Preparatory
zation
Competitions I:
SANZAR Super 14
T
P of
Str/P
AA
MxS - P/P-E
- MxS
Maintain: - MxS
- P/P-E
AA
P of
S/A
/
- Max. speed
- Agility:
alactic/lactic
Maintain: - maximum speed (alactic/lactic
- agility : alactic/lactic
/
P of E
Aero- Mixed Position- Maintain position-specific endurance
bic
specific (ergogenesis)
Aerobic
Figure 4.14 The suggested periodization of training for the Australian SANZAR Super 14
and Club Competition
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Legend:
T = transition, P of Str/P = periodization of strength and power, P of S/A =
periodization of speed and agility, P of E = periodization of endurance, / = no
training for that specific ability is planned for that particular phase
Comments:
• Although this plan has only one competitive phase (February 10 - May 27) we have
conventionally divided it into international and domestic games.
• The closeness of the two competitions didn’t provide us grounds to suggest separate
and specific preparatory phases for SANZAR Super 14 and for the Club
Competition. Since one competition immediately flows into the next one, for any
desired improvements in the rugby-specific biomotor abilities, you have to rely on
only one but very well-organized preparatory phase (November - mid February).
• Under the conditions proposed by figure 4.14, the Australian rugby coaches are
blessed with 3.5 month long preparatory phase. This is a periodized program
conducive to solidly train both the foundations of strength and endurance which will
lead to the development of specific training programs for power, speed and agility.
Canada
The Canadian Super League is organized from May 28-August 13. Since many players
do participate in both the university competitions and Canadian Super League and since
there is no time for a separate preparatory phase, we will include both of these two
competitions in one, but a longer competitive phase. Figure 4.15 illustrates only the
periodization of the Canadian main rugby competitions without incorporating the
provincial championships, which is not consistent throughout the Canadian provinces.
Months Jan
Feb
Mar Apr
May Jun
Periodi- Preparatory
zation
Jul
Aug
Competition I T
Super League
P of
Str/P
AA
MxS
- P/P-E
- MxS
P of
S/A
/
P of E
Aerobic Mixed
- Begin max.
Speed
- Agility: alactic
and lactic
Position
specific
Sep
Oct
Nov
Competition II
University
Competition
Dec
T
Maintain:
- MxS
- P/P-E
AA
Maintain:
- Maximum speed
- Agility: alactic/lactic
/
Maintain:
position-specific
endurance (ergogenesis)
Aerobic
Figure 4.15 A suggested periodization for the Canadian domestic competitions
Legend: P of Str/P = periodization of strength and power, P of S/A = periodization of
speed and agility, P of E = periodization of endurance
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Comments:
• The competitive phase is divided into two leagues: Super League and university
championships. In between there is a short transition (T) and two weeks of short
preparatory phase prior to the beginning of exhibition games and university
championships.
• The Canadian domestic schedule allows a longer preparatory phase than in many
other countries, being, therefore, conducive to a very solid conditioning program,
especially regarding the development of a strong base for endurance and strength
training. This foundation is very beneficial for the game, and position-specific
development of specific speed, power and agility.
• For more details about periodization of the biomotor abilities and training methods
please review figure 4.13 and the chapters discussing specific training methods
for each of these abilities.
Celtic League
The Celtic league (Ireland, Scotland and Wales) is organized between September 2nd and
May 28th. During this time other competitions are organized (i.e. Powergen Cup: England
and Wales and the European Cup and Challenge) but the overall periodization is not
affected by them.
Months Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct Nov
Periodi- Preparatory
zation
MxS
Dec Jan
Feb Mar Apr
Competitive
P of
Str/P
A
A
P of
S/A
/
P of E
Aero- -Mix.
Maintain: position-specific endurance (ergogenesis)
bic
-Positionspecific
-S
-A
P
Maintain:
P-E
Maintain:
- MxS
- P/P-E
May Jun
T
AA
- maximum speed: alactic/lactic
- Agility: alactic-lactic
/
Aerobic
Figure 4.16 A suggested periodized annual plan for the Celtic League
Comments:
• Since the preparatory phase for the teams involved in the Celtic League is only
two months long, there is little time allotted to build a strong fitness base and to
improve the biomotor abilities to superior levels every year.
• For the development of power and power-endurance there are only about two weeks,
a totally insufficient time for the conversion of gains in maximum strength (MxS)
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•
•
•
•
into power and power-endurance. For a successful conversion one will need 4-6
weeks, not the case for the players involved in this league.
Similar comments can be made for the improvement of maximum speed and
agility: insufficient time for a visible improvement from year to year. Therefore,
both maximum speed and agility training planned for the month of August must
incorporate both alactic and lactic speed and agility.
Visible improvement of aerobic conditioning would require a minimum of 8-9
weeks, not really the case in the present duration of the preparatory phase.
Improving the quality of the game is the sum of all the improvements of rugbyspecific abilities, such as technical, tactical, and the specific biomotor abilities.
Is it possible that with such a short preparatory phase the improvement of the
quality of the game will be granted? We have our doubts.
English Premier League
The English Premier League (figure 4.17) is planned from September 2-May 27. Other
competitions English players are involved in are not discussed since most of them are
organized during the same period of time.
Months Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct Nov
Periodi- Preparatory
zation
Dec Jan
Feb Mar Apr
May Jun
Competitive
T
- MxS
- P/P-E
AA
P of
Str/P
A
A
MxS
P
P-E
Maintain:
P of
S/A
/
-S
-A
Maintain:
P of E
Aero- -Mix
Maintain: position-specific endurance (ergogenesis)
bic
-Positionspecific
- maximum speed: alactic/lactic
- agility: alactic/lactic
/
Aerobic
Figure 4.17 The suggested specifics for periodization of training for the English Premier
League
Comments:
• Even a superficial examination of the English Premier League reveals, that
compared to the long duration of the competitive phase, the preparatory phase is
disproportionately shorter.
• By the same token, the competitive phase is far too long and physiologically and
psychologically stressful.
• As a result, the effectiveness of the allotted time for maximum technical and tactical
refinement is questionable.
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•
•
•
The periodization of strength, speed/agility and endurance should not give
English coaches the assurance that these highly regarded biomotor abilities can
reach superior levels from year to year. And yet, the desire to improve the quality
of the game will be quite difficult to fulfill without achieving a superior
development of the rugby specific biomotor abilities.
To improve the game a few adjustments are required. To become more competitive
internationally, English rugby would need to plan a longer time for the development
of the abilities, highly acclaimed by the English fans such as a high display of
powerful actions, performed with maximum speed, agility, and consistency for the
entire duration of game (specific endurance).
France
Yearly, France has the longest running rugby league in the world! For every month the
French players are preparing for the domestic league they play 4.5 months of nearly
continuous games, not to mention the international commitments. From the outset any
competent observer of the French domestic league may question the benefits of such an
overly extended competitive phase.
Month
Jul
Aug
Sep
Periodi- Preparatory
zation
P of
Str/P
A
A
MxS
P
P-E
P of
S/A
/
P of E
Aero- - Mix
bic
- Positionspecific
-S/A:
alactic/
lactic
Oct Nov
Dec Jan
Feb Mar Apr
May Jun
Competitive phase
T
Maintain:
A
A
- MxS
- P/P-E
Maintain:
- maximum speed: alactic/ lactic
- agility: alactic/lactic
/
Maintain:
position-specific endurance (ergogenesis)
Aerobic
Figure 4.18 The suggested periodization of training for the French domestic competition
Comments:
• Since the French rugby league is very long, the preparatory phase therefore, is
proportionately shorter. This is the reason improvement of rugby-specific abilities is a
very difficult task. Less than two months of training is completely inappropriate to
achieve the goals of improved speed, power and specific-endurance from year to year.
• After a month of transition to recover and regenerate physiologically and
psychologically from the fatigue accumulated during the previous almost 10
months of weekly games, there is a need to train the foundation of strength,
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•
•
anatomical adaptation (AA) for at least three weeks. Similarly, a solid development
of the maximum strength (MxS) would require six weeks of training. Finally, to
convert, to transform gains in MxS into power and power-endurance maximum
speed, and agility, would also need 4-6 weeks of training. This is a total of at least
13 weeks, a time quite impossible to find during the present system, where the
preparatory phase is six weeks long!
The French rugby players are by rights highly respected athletes. But, unless
some changes will be considered in the planning of the French rugby league,
we will express our reservations regarding future improvements of the needed
qualities to be highly competitive against the best in the world in international
competitions!
During the competitive phase, the rugby-specific abilities have to be maintained
(power, speed agility and specific-endurance). If not, the players will detrain
and the quality of game will be visibly affected. Therefore, a maintenance
program for all the rugby-specific abilities must be continuously trained 1-2
times per week.
New Zealand
For the next two countries, New Zealand and South Africa, the periodized plans are slightly
different; there are two distinctive competitions each of them having being preceded by
a preparatory and transition between the two types of competitions. Since for each
competition one must separately peak, this type of annual plan is called “double peaking”
or bi-cycle (two separate cycles of plans).
Month
Jul
Aug Sep Oct
Periodi- Preparatory Competitive I:
zation
I
National
Provincial
Championships
Nov Dec Jan
T
Preparatory
II
Feb Mar Apr May Jun
Competitive II:
T
SANZAR Super 14
P of
Str/P
- AA
- MxS
- P/P-E
Maintain: - MxS A
- P/P-E A
A MxS - P Maintain: - MxS
A
- P- P/P-E
E
P of
S/A
S/A
alactic
Maintain S/A:
Alactic/lactic
/
P of E
Aerobic
Positionspecific
Aero- Mix- Posi- Maintain: positionbic ed
tion
specific endurance
specific
- S/A: alactic/lactic
Maintain S/A: alactic/
lactic
AA
/
Aerobic
Figure 4.19 represents a suggested periodized plan for the New Zealand rugby players
competing in The National Provincial and SANZAR Championships.
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Comments:
• A good preparatory phase is always a guarantee that players will be ready for hardly
fought games and will be ready physiologically to display their training of rugbyspecific biomotor abilities. However, when the preparatory phase is short, as it is
the case prior to the National Provincial Championships, one cannot give the same
assurances to the players.
•
Certainly, the plan illustrated by figure 4.19 can be restructured to start with the
SANZAR Super 14 since for these series of games there is a much longer
preparatory phase. However, the reason for not doing that is a simple one: domestic
competitions are always used for selection of the best players for international
competitions, or to use it, as in this case, to test the best teams and players to enter
them in the SANZAR Super 14. Also some players will not play the Super 14
competition afterwards whereas others will play it. These players will not play as
much during domestic competition.
•
Analyzing the periodization of strength, it is difficult to train a strength training
base (AA) before focusing your attention to other types of strength training. In this
case, however, the time is minimal for planning a normal periodization program.
Under these restrictive conditions there is only one option: to train all the necessary
types of strength training progressively, during four weeks of preparatory phase.
•
Since this is a Herculean task, there is an option for a better progression: Two weeks
of AA training followed by two weeks of concomitant MxS and power training.
•
For the second preparatory phase (December-January), the preparedness of the
player participating in SANZAR Super 14 will be incomparably superior. Now
there will be time to adequately prepare for rugby-specific and position-specific
abilities towards a very challenging series of games.
•
Similar comments can be made about the periodization of speed/agility and
endurance, more time to improve and refine them for the second peak.
•
A brief comment has to be made about the periodization of aerobic training. If
the time to train the specifics of aerobic-endurance for the second peak is
adequate (using transition to build the aerobic foundation) the same thing cannot
be said about the development of this highly regarded ability prior to the first
peak. Therefore, the time to train the aerobic base, subsequent and crucial, gamespecific and position-specific endurance, is totally inadequate. To achieve rugbyspecific endurance objectives, you need at least 8-9 weeks of serious training
since the improvement of endurance actually requires that much time
(physiological changes in the body, such as improved transportation system and
increased capillary network).
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97
South Africa
Months
Dec
Jan
Periodization
Preparatory I
Competitive I
SANZAR
T
Preparatory Competitive II T
II
Currie Cup
P of
Str/P
A MxS P
A
P-E
Maintain:
A
A
MxS - P
- PE
P of
S/A
/
Maintain: - alactic and
lactic speed/ agility
/
- S/A:
Maintain: S/A: /
alactic/lactic alactic/lactic
P of E
Aero- -Mix
Maintain: positionbic
-Positionspecific
specific
endurance
-S
-A
Feb
Mar Apr May Jun Jul
- MxS
- P/P-E
Aug
Aero- Mix Posibic
tion
specific
Sep
Oct
Maintain:
- MxS
- P/P-E
Maintain:
Positionspecific
endurance
Nov
AA
Aerobic
Figure 4.20 A suggested periodized plan for the South African rugby competitions
Comments:
• This is a typical double-periodization annual plan with two month long preparatory
phases for each of the two peaks.
• All the rugby-specific biomotor abilities can be adequately developed and following
a good progression, build a good base (for both strength and endurance) before
specialized abilities are refined like power, maximum speed, agility, and positionspecific endurance.
• As in other similar plans, transition phases are used to maintain AA and aerobic
training and to ensure detraining is not eroding previously gained foundations for
both strength and endurance.
The above periodization plans and derived comments are meant to offer suggestions and samples
of what can be utilized in planning for the biomotor abilities for rugby. Of course, we have
overlooked international games and accounting for the players participating in them, adding
extra fatigue, and overlapping training plans occasionally conflicting with their club/province
team’s plan. Professional rugby has become an extremely demanding game with worldwide tight
schedules and an ever increasing performance demand from the national and international bodies,
sponsors and fans. It is extremely difficult in these circumstances to develop constantly
challenged players to play the game at high performance levels. Good planning today, for sport
activities in general and rugby in particular, is of paramount importance. Without a sound plan
for year-to-year development and improvement, teams are doomed to fail. Many coaches and
players also believe that such plans, as shown in this chapter, are only meant for professional
teams. If an amateur team can persuade their players to make a commitment to such a plan, a
less demanding schedule at the amateur club level, will allow for the perfect conditions in
realizing such a plan. If your team wishes to succeed and improve, plan your seasons well,
periodize the training, get players committed, and together, thrive for excellence! What works
for professional teams will work at the amateur level too, just adapt it. Be patient and committed,
follow an established flexible plan, and success will take care of itself!
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Chapter 5
Strength and Power Training
Strength and power are among the most important qualities sought out by any rugby player
for two fundamental reasons:
1. Specific positions in rugby require strong and powerful players.
2. Speed, agility, and quickness are strongly dependent on strength and power.
In fact, these highly regarded qualities are not separate identities but rather, they are
interlinked abilities. All of them are directly dependent on the level of maximum strength
(MxS) and power achieved by a player. Agility and quickness are so dependent on the
level of power development that we can express this training reality in the form of a motto:
“Nobody can be fast and agile before being strong!”
In simple terms, power is the ability to apply force in the shortest period of time. For a
rugby player, power takes the form of a strong push-off/propulsion applied against the
ground in order to quickly move the body in the intended direction and the ability to
offset the aggressiveness of a direct opponent, specifically the resistance presented in
contact situations.
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The importance of strength and power in rugby
Any rugby player will visibly benefit from following a well designed strength and power
training program because of a wide variety of benefits:
Injury prevention. For many years, strength training has been viewed as an important tool
to prevent injuries. Most of the injuries occur at ligaments, tendons, joints and sometimes,
muscles. However, strength training for injury prevention is not specialized or well
understood. This is why focus must be on (Bompa & Carrera, 2005):
• Compensatory exercises for antagonistic muscles, especially in overuse injuries.
• Strengthening the ligaments. Most injuries irrespective of sport, are at the ligament
level, since ligaments and sometimes the tendons, are weaker than the contracting
muscles. Also, running patterns in rugby are complex with quick changes of
direction, placing the main strain on the joints and the ligaments that ensure the
anatomical integrity of a joint. Strength training, e.g. anatomical adaptation (AA)
training, has to be directed to the strengthening of ligaments, especially during the
early part of the preparatory phase.
Improve speed. The ability to run fast with maximum speed directly depends on increasing
the power of the propulsion phase of the running step (the calf and knee- extensor muscles).
The more powerful the propulsion phase, the higher the velocity. Do you want to increase
your speed? Improve your leg strength and power!
Agility is incorrectly presented as a quality of its own. Agility in the form of shuttle
runs and quick changes of direction is nothing but powerful acceleration and
deceleration. To quickly stop during a specific game situation, you have to quickly
decelerate. By the same token, to run fast again, you have to quickly accelerate.
Therefore, improved acceleration, or a strong concentric contraction (shortening of the
muscles involved) of the triple-extensor muscles (calf, knees and hips), is possible only
as a result of increasing strength. On the other hand, deceleration can be ameliorated
via an improved eccentric contraction (lengthening of the muscles involved) of exactly
the same muscles. It doesn’t really matter how you are looking at it, improved agility
means nothing more than an increased force of the triple extensors so that they can
perform quick acceleration-deceleration.
Reaction to any game situation is also becoming faster as a result of improving the
power of a limb. The reaction of a player to a signal (e.g. an incoming pass) depends
on the time elapsed between reception of the signal and the time of sending of the nerve
impulse by the CNS to the limb’s muscles to act then catch, block or kick the ball.
However, after the nerve impulse has reached the muscles, the quickness of the limb’s
action depends on the power of contraction or how many fast-twitch (FT) muscles have
been recruited to contract with power. The higher the number of FT recruited into the
action, the faster the limb’s movement. Do you want to have a higher reaction time?
Improve your power!
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Finally, quickness, quick feet and quick shuffle in different directions come from power,
reaction time and movement time, quick acceleration/deceleration and a high frequency
of the legs. A powerful, and therefore a quick player will always be able to initiate tactical
actions faster than the opponent, an advantage sought by any coach.
Quickness and a high level of agility are possible only as a result of improving the strength
and power of calf muscles (such as gastrocnemius, soleus and tibialis anterior). To believe
differently, to try other methods, really means to decrease your training effectiveness.
Accuracy of passing the ball is more precise if the power of the arms performing the skill
is higher. The ball can travel faster, farther and as a result, with higher probability of
accuracy if the power of the player is higher.
Strength and power training for rugby
The belief that game-specific training, repeating only technical/tactical drills all the time,
is sufficient to develop the physical potential of a player (higher speed and power) still
persists among some coaches and players. There is some truth in that, especially in
reference to junior and low classification players but, many proponents of “old school”
thinking fail to realize that the development of physical attributes for rugby occurs in two
phases (Bompa, 2006):
1. Improvement phase, when a young player takes part in organized training.
Improvement is visible as the individual adapts to training. Such improvements are
visible for several years, up to the stage of high classification athletics such as
national league games.
2. Plateau. Unless the continuous needs of physical improvement are stimulated by
means other than game-specific training, the player will reach a plateau. From this
stage on, improvements come very slowly, or not at all.
Therefore, further improvements in physical qualities are necessary if a player expects to
become faster, more powerful in the scrum, lineouts and in contact situations as well as
having agile and quick feet. The only way to stimulate improvement of the necessary
abilities is to expose the player to strength and power training.
Neuromuscular strategy to increase power
To maximize the understanding of the following, we believe it is important to make a brief
note on how muscles function and review how different muscle fibers are involved in
muscular activities. The intent of this section is not to develop a complete lecture on muscular
physiology, which has been done extensively in other books, but rather to summarize basic
knowledge useful for a better understanding of the concepts mentioned here.
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A muscle is basically like a high power cable containing numerous other cables to
distribute energy. A muscle is formed of fibers all regrouped in fasciculi, these fibers
contain contractile proteins (actin and myosin), which combine to contract the muscle
according to an initial stimuli. The stimuli derive an electric impulse given through nervous
connections within the muscle. The nerves responsible for the muscular contraction are
called motor nerves. One motor nerve can stimulate one or several muscle fibers (up to
500 fibers sometimes for the fastest fibers). A motor nerve with the fibers it stimulates
is called a motor unit. When a muscular contraction takes place, the stimuli from the load
of work imposed on the muscle will trigger the amount of motor units to arouse to fulfil
the work to be done. This will directly affect the actual force produced at a given moment.
Therefore, we can say that every muscular contraction is the result of an actual
neuromuscular activity. The heavier the load, the more motor units will be stimulated to
cope with the demand. Hence, if we want to develop a muscle force capacity, we must
use very heavy loads to stimulate most or all of the motor units in the muscles involved
in performing the task. This is the principle of strength development through maximum
strength (MxS) training.
Throughout the body, every muscle will follow the same path of neuromuscular
stimulation to contract and provide enough force to perform a task. Nonetheless, muscular
fibers are different in their biochemical composition. Some fibers are suitable to be mainly
recruited for aerobic activities and have a slower contraction rate than other fibers. They
are called slow- twitch fibers type or aerobic Type I fibers, thereafter called ST. Other
fibers are more prone to be recruited for anaerobic activities (without oxygen) and for
faster contraction rates. They are called anaerobic, white, fast-twitch Type II muscle fibers,
thereafter called FT. These fibers do not require oxygen to contract and develop short
forceful contractions needed for speed and power activities.
Type I and II fibers exist in the body in roughly a 50:50 relationship and are basically a
genetic heritage, with some persons having slightly more ST than FT fibers or vice versa
as a genetic inheritance. Athletes with a genetic background of higher FT fibers will work
more powerfully than other athletes but fatigue quicker, whereas athletes with more ST fibers
will be more successful in pure endurance sports and will perform at lower intensities for a
longer time. Training is not a factor which will affect the ST and FT fibers repartition and
change, although the Type II FT fibers are divided into two categories themselves: Type IIa,
which are fibers called intermediate fibers and Type IIb, which are the FT fibers by
excellence. It has been shown that some Type IIa fibers can change to ST fibers during heavy
and prolonged aerobic-endurance training, whereas Type I and Type IIb will never be affected
by training. Their size can be, but not their biochemical composition.
All in all, moderate and low intensity type of muscular intensity will recruit mainly ST
fibers to fulfill the task at hand, whereas heavier workload and higher intensities will
recruit more FT fibers to perform. If the interchange of fiber types through training
remains controversial, it has been proven that through training, athletes and players can
increase the number of motor units involved in the muscular activity. The purpose of
strength training is to allow the body to recruit more motor units to activate more FT fibers
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to perform more forceful motor activities. Then, once this is achieved through specific
strength programs, athletes and players involved in speed and power activities develop the
speed at which the FT fibers will be recruited to perform a task. This is power training,
developed after the maximum strength has increased. Finally, performing repetitively
power tasks through a certain amount of time, like in a rugby game, is training for power
endurance. All these activities will necessitate training the neuromuscular capacity to
recruit and fire quicker FT fibers for repetitive tasks involved in the game.
It is a fact that the maximum power generated by a player is related to the fibers type
distribution and is genetically determined. Sport performance is directly dependant of
several factors such as psychological, biomechanical, neurophysiological and cardiovascular factors according to Wilmore and Costill, 2004, which means that the muscular
typology is not a sole indicator for optimal performance, hence high performance will
rather be a combination of all the factors involved. It is also important to note that aerobic
endurance training will not convert FT fibers into ST fibers as some researches already
have shown (Gollnick, 1985 and Hoppeler, 1986). This was an argument behind some
theories of not getting rugby players involved into much aerobic-endurance training by
fear of fibers conversion and loss of power. This will not happen as there is no scientific
evidence today that strength training will convert ST fibers into FT fibers. As we already
know, rugby is a multi-activities high intensity sport, where players have to be strong,
powerful (and therefore fast and agile!), develop high endurance level, combined with
technical and tactical skills. The best training for rugby is therefore a smart combination
of all these features brought to a team’s players through a periodized training plan.
How is a quick and powerful game action achieved? What types of neuromuscular qualities
are necessary to improve maximum speed, agility and power? To achieve high levels of
speed/power, you have to expose your players to high quality nervous system training,
wherein the end result is high levels of neural adaptation. In the methodology of training,
nervous system training refers to maximum speed, maximum strength and power training.
Consequently, nervous system training does not result in much increased muscle size but
rather in high efficiency of neural transmission of nerve impulses to the working muscles.
Nervous system training also means better inter muscle coordination of the muscle groups
involved in an increased recruitment and utilization of the powerful fast-twitch (FT)
muscle in the specific athletic actions of rugby.
When a player displays a fast and powerful action, such as a very fast sprint or a strong
push in the scrum, the neuromuscular system acts in the following ways (Bompa, 2006):
At the beginning of an action, a high number of FT muscle fibers are recruited to defeat
the force of gravity and the weight and force of an opponent. The higher the number of
FT recruited, the easier the player defeats resistance.
This is followed by an increased acceleration/display of fast and powerful actions. Such an
action is only possible as a result of increasing the quickness of muscle contraction, or the
discharge/firing rate of FT fibers. This quick application of force is the backbone of any
fast, quick and powerful athletic action and is impossible without at first increasing the
capability of the neuromuscular system to recruit the highest number of FT muscles.
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However, in order to improve and display quickness and power during the game, there
will be a need to apply in training the following neuromuscular strategy:
1. Develop maximum strength (MxS). Normally, MxS refers to the use of heavy loads in
strength training usually between 70-100% of 1RM. Eccentric method training is often used,
where the load is over 120 to 150% of the maximum load a player can lift in one attempt).
The scope of MxS training is to increase the ability of a player to recruit in action the highest
number of FT muscle fibers possible and as a result, defeat resistance. The stimulation of high
FT muscle fibers recruitment is possible only by using heavy loads. There is no other way;
specific training using the traditional skills of running and pushing/pulling cannot achieve a
high recruitment of FT muscle fibers since a plateau in the adaptation of strength training
occurs relatively quickly. Therefore, your testing will show, from year to year, especially for
mature players, either a very slow improvement or a plateau of adaptation of the players’
physical abilities. Do you want to defeat this plateau of adaptation? Apply the proposed
neuromuscular strategy and the periodization of strength proposed below.
2. Develop power. The improvement of power is achieved during the power training phase
where a specific type of training results in the increase of firing rate of the FT muscles.
As a result of using lower loads (<70% of 1RM) in strength training, but performing fast
medicine ball, plyometrics, and agility drills, the discharge rate of FT muscles drastically
increases. The consequence of power training is a higher speed, reaction display of power
in many game actions, and improved agility.
Any explosive, fast, and powerful moves occur in a specific sequence, called the
“stretching-shortening” cycle. For instance, during a sprint when the foot lands on the
ground, kinetic energy is stored (stretching phase) and then released in an explosive action
during the propulsion phase (shortening phase).
When MxS increases, power will increase as well, being visible in a high display of speed,
quickness and agility. But the contrary is also true; when MxS decreases, especially during
league games, power decreases. This is quickly reflected in decreasing maximum velocity,
quickness, and fast moves. When a player is losing speed, you’ll find the remedy in strength
and power training. Yet, there are still some coaches and players who believe that MxS
and power training are unimportant. By doing some circuit training, using light dumbbells,
a slalom course, and a few low impact plyometrics, some believe that this is quite sufficient
to train a rugby player for all the difficult parts of the game!
Periodization of strength and power
Gains in power do not occur all at once, but rather cumulatively and in a certain sequence.
Furthermore, the development of power is achieved by following a very specific training
process organized in specific training phases. This important training process is called
periodization of strength (Bompa, 2006; Bompa, 1999).
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Power is a function of MxS. This means that the higher the gains in MxS, the higher
the level of power. This is a training reality because during the MxS phase FT fibers
are conditioned to be recruited in the highest number possible. During the power training
phase, on the other hand, the neuromuscular system learns how to explosively discharge
the same FT fibers conditioned to be recruited during the MxS phase. As more FT fibers
are recruited, more are also discharged during any power action, the end result being
higher power, speed and agility.
Figure 5.1 illustrates the basic model of the periodization of strength/power. Note that we
have used the traditional periodization concept as our guiding concept to create this model.
At the top of the chart there are the three traditional training phases: preparatory (preseason), competitive (season), and transition (off-season). Since in this chart we refer to
the concept of periodization of strength/power only, we don’t specify the duration of each
training phase. Some examples however, will follow.
The aforementioned neuromuscular strategy starts with adaptation, or adjustment of the
body to progressively increase loads in strength training. The scope of this phase is to
strengthen and prepare the ligaments, tendons and muscle tissue for the next phase, when
the load is increased and the anatomical stress is much higher. The type of training planned
for this phase is typical for the anatomical adaptation (AA) phase, where the load is slightly
lower and each set is stopped the instant the player feels discomfort. Duration of the AA
phase (usually 4-6 weeks) depends on the background of the player, duration of the transition
phase and whether the player has performed some basic training during transition. Younger
players need longer AA (6-9 weeks), when the coach will have enough time without the
pressure of the game to achieve the scope of adaptation to strength training.
Training
Phase
Preparatory
Competitive: League Games Transition
Neuromuscular
Strategy
Adap- Increase
Increase
Maintain the ability to
tation the recruit- the discharge recruit and discharge FT
ment of FT rate of FT
Balance
development
of all muscles/
stabilizers
Periodization of
Strength/
Power
AA
AA
MxS
- Power
- Powerendurance
Maintenance of MxS and
power
Figure 5.1 The basic model of periodization of strength and power
Please note that the duration of each training phase does not consider the normal
proportion between them, where the competitive phase is longer as compared to the
preparatory phase.
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The following training phase, MxS, has the scope of increasing the ability of the
neuromuscular system to recruit in action the highest number of FT muscle fibers.
Increased recruitment of FT is stimulated by using high training loads, from 70 to 100%
of 1RM, two or three training session per week. Once again, the duration of MxS phase
depends on the background of individual players and the length of the preparatory phase
(usually 3-6 weeks for MxS training). MxS is shorter for the uninitiated into MxS and
longer for players with a solid background. However, a MxS phase shorter than three
weeks would be useless since neuromuscular adaptation to high loads takes a longer
time and such a short choice of training is therefore questionable. As such, the
neuromuscular system does not have the time to be stimulated in order to increase the
recruitment of FT muscle fibers.
For the next phase, power training, the neuromuscular system is conditioned to increase
the discharge rate, or the quickness of contracting the FT fibers. This means that FT fibers
are stimulated to contract faster and in higher numbers. A player adapted to power training
will be fast, capable of displaying powerful, explosive actions and agile. The success of
the power phase is directly dependent on the previous phase, MxS, where the FT fibers
have been stimulated and conditioned to recruit in action most of the FT fibers. The
training objectives of this phase can be achieved in four to five weeks, with two or three
sessions per week (please refer to the examples below).
Next comes the training during the competitive phase, when players take part in league
games. It should be obvious by now that if players don’t maintain MxS and power training
during competitions, all the neuromuscular benefits will fade away (detraining). This
means that:
• Disuse of MxS means protein degradation (catabolic phase) or break down, since
it is no longer needed to contract with power, or for tissue repair (Wilmore &
Costill, 2004; Appell, 1990).
• Protein degradation also means a decrease in the muscle cross-section area and
reduction in the recruitment pattern of the working muscles.
• As protein degradation continues, gains in strength and power are reversed.
(Houmard, 1991). As MxS decreases so does power, speed and agility. Consider
this chain reaction: loss of MxS equals loss of power, which equals loss of speed,
reaction and agility.
• When the capacity of recruiting FT fibers decreases, so does the neuromuscular
ability to maintain a high discharge rate of the FT fibers. Furthermore, as motor
unit recruitment decreases, nerve impulses to the working muscles decrease as
well. As a result, the nerve impulse decreases its quickness, power and frequency
(Wilmore & Costill, 2004; Enoka, 2002; Houmard, 1991). When players lose power
it directly affects their speed. Hence, athletes can’t display speed, agility, and
quickness at the same level anymore, despite their desire and motivation. A player
can only do what their neuromuscular system is conditioned to perform. The better
you’ll understand this physiological reality, the faster you’ll use MxS and power
training and the more successful training programs you’ll produce.
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Loss of MxS
Loss of power
Loss of speed, reaction and agility
Figure 5.2 Loss of MxS means a progressive deterioration of power and will have a
negative effect on the quality of speed, reaction and agility
During the transition phase, maintain strength training at a low level (AA-type
training) with two workouts per week. This is more important for players who have
longer transition phases of five to eight weeks. Certainly compared to a standard
transition phase of four to five weeks a longer inactive phase will result in a higher
detraining effect. As a result, a totally inactive transition means total loss of previous
gains. Therefore, every time the players start a new preparatory phase, they’ll start
from a very low level of physiological potential. As a consequence, the rate of
improvement from year to year is very low and the first month of training is basically
lost and used to regain a decent training potential. Figure 5.3 illustrates general
guidelines for a five week transition phase.
Weeks 1-2
Remove fatigue
Physiotherapy (if necessary)
Relaxation
Holiday
Weeks 3-5
Aerobic training, low intensity: 1-2 times per
week, 30 minutes
Strength training: 1-2 times per week; 1 hour
- low load
- compensation training for the antagonistic
muscles and parts of body
- train stabilizers
Figure 5.3 A suggested structure of training for the transition phase
Please note that players could perform aerobic and strength training on the same days.
As such, the players may work only twice a week.
Suggested training programs for MxS and power
Although the topic of training for all the training phases of the annual plan is discussed
by Tudor Bompa & Michael Carrera in their strength training book Periodization of
Training for Sports (Human Kinetics, 2005), a few examples are necessary to illustrate
what periodization of strength and power actually means. We’ll also explore some
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possible ways to train strength and power for rugby. This is a conceptual discussion,
since our main intent is to refer to the concept, not necessarily to offer recipes. When
you understand a concept, you can easily adapt it to the needs of your players and team
or to a particular training situation. Therefore, treat our examples as they are and do
your best to adapt them to your own needs.
It is of extreme importance to plan strength or power training in coordination with
other activities for instance; technical/tactical, speed and endurance training will be
trained in coordination with strength and power training in the different phases of the
periodized plan. Therefore, when we refer to the suggested number of training lessons
per week (usually 2-3), this means that the remaining sessions are reserved for
speed/endurance training. Equally important to consider is, that some strength/power
sessions may be organized following technical/tactical training. Therefore, be realistic
about how much work a player can do in a given day. Consider the total energy a
player has, divide it appropriately and use it according to the needs and objectives of
the training phase. If you plan to perform your physical training program before
specific, technical/tactical training begins, your task is much simpler. You need to be
concerned only with the elements specific to physical training. However, as soon as
specific training starts, you have to coordinate your training program with that of
technical/tactical training. In such a case, it will be necessary to remind yourself that
the conditioning program is performed in addition to technical/tactical training. In
such a case, monitor the fatigue the players encounter in both types of training,
specific and conditioning.
When players report for physical training after they have already done the daily
technical/tactical training, it will be a grave mistake to treat them as being fresh! They are
not! They have just finished approximately 1.5-2 hours of technical/tactical training and
thus their glass of energy is half empty, not half full. The best approach for such situations
is to have a short, specific training with a few exercises. The lower the number of exercises,
the more sets your players can do. However, if the conditioning program is performed
separately from technical/tactical training it is easier to accomplish all of your strength,
power, speed, and agility tasks.
Suggested training program for the AA phase
The main objectives of the AA phase are:
• Increase working potential of all athletes via a progressively demanding cardiorespiratory training.
• Increase general conditioning, endurance and anatomical adaptation-type strength
training.
• Adapt the ligaments, tendons and muscle tissue for the strength training phases to
follow. If you can achieve that the AA phase can also be called “injury-prevention”
phase.
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108
Duration of AA phase should be 3-6 weeks, depending on:
• Duration of the preparatory phase.
• Players’ qualifications (level of play).
• Background in sport (age and experience in strength training).
• Number of training sessions per week: 2-3 planned in coordination with other types
of training (technical, tactical and endurance).
• Duration of a training session: 60-75 minutes.
Every player beginning the preparatory phase has to be exposed to an overall conditioning,
where endurance training (see chapter 8) plays an important role. You cannot increase
working capacity without dedicating adequate time for endurance training. Solid
development of endurance is a guarantee that your players will rely on it during the long
competitive phase, effectively enabling them to play so many stressful games. It also
enhances a player’s rate of recovery-regeneration as a result of a high volume of
nonspecific and specific training programs. As for strength training, the examples
provided below are representative of what you’ll have to train during the AA phase. These
examples are provided for a gym setting. Each of the two examples can be used to create
several variations, depending on the facilities available to you.
Circuit training (CT) performed in a gym
Circuit A uses the athlete’s own body weight and/or light equipment:
#
Exercise
Duration of
Activity/Station
Rest Interval (RI)
Between Stations/sec.
1
Lunges: 5 kg dumbbell in each hand.
Perform them: Forward, diagonal, side.
30-45 sec
30
2
An abdomen exercise
8-15 reps
30
3
Between legs medicine ball (MB)
forward throws
10-20 throws
30
4
Push-ups
8-20 reps
30
5
Two-leg slalom jumps
20-45 seconds
60
6
MB chest/overhead throw
10-20 throws
30
7
Trunk twists on an oblique bench,
20 kg disc held above chest
8-12 each
direction
60
8
Chin-ups
8-15
30
9
Step-ups
1-3 minutes
60
Figure 5.4 Suggested CT for a gym setting
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Notes:
• Number of circuits: One to four depending on the training potential of the player.
• Rest Interval (RI) between circuits: Two minutes. After the first two or three weeks,
advanced athletes may perform CT non-stop, RI being considered only between
circuits.
• Progression: Build-up training demand progressively; several CT per lesson;
duration of activity per station, RI between stations, number of repetitions per
exercise, rhythm of performing an activity, etc.
• After two or three weeks of the above CT, move to another two or three weeks CT
using weights and cardio.
• If a player background is good, he can start the AA with circuit B.
Circuit B is combining weights with cardio:
#
Exercise
Week 1
Week 2
Week 3
RI min.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Cardio in min.
Leg press / squats
Bent-knee sit-ups
MB chest throws
Shoulder press
Cardio in min.
Arm pulls / rows
Bench press
Leg curls
Cardio in min.
8
50/15/3
To discomfort.
20x3
50/12/2
8
60/10/3
60/10/3
50/10/2
10
10
60/12/3
>
>
60/10/2
10
60/12/3
60/12/3
50/12/2
10
12
70/10/3
To high discomfort
25x3
60/12/2
10
70/10/3
70/12/3
60/12/2
10
1
2
1
2
1
1
1
1
2
1
Figure 5.5 Suggested CT for a gym set-up, with participants combining weights and cardio
for a better increase in working potential
Legend: > = the program of the previous week will be performed in that week as well
NOTE:
• The first digit of a weight program refers to the load in % of 1RM, the second
digit specifies the number of repetitions, while the third refers to the set number.
• The highest load you can lift in one attempt is considered your 1RM (100%)
• Cardio training could be anything possible in your facilities; running, stationary
bicycle, treadmill running, etc.
• Exercise number 3: Stop when you experience discomfort. “To high discomfort”
on the other hand, means to go beyond the feeling of pain.
• The first week test for 1RM for exercises 2, 5, 7, 8 and 9.
• Adapt the suggested CT (exercises, their numbers, number of sets and reps and
RI) to your needs and player’s potential.
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Suggested MxS training programs
The preceding justifies the scope of MxS. The faster you’ll accept this scientific
justification regarding the needs and benefits of MxS, the faster the players will improve
their speed and power. Ultimately, the benefit will be an improved quality of play.
Prior to considering the MxS sample of general training programs for intermediate and
advanced players, it is necessary herein to bring the concept of specificity adapted to strength
training. Traditionally, fitness and conditioning instructors/coaches have prescribed strength
development programs with a mindset oriented towards bodybuilding and/or Olympic
weight lifting techniques and philosophy. This is to the detriment of the sport-specific
features. What works for bodybuilders or power lifters will not necessarily work optimally
for other athletes and rugby players. With this in mind, we suggest below a list of relevant
specific exercises for rugby strength development. This list is based upon the development
of the prime movers muscle groups overall specifically needed for rugby:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Neck flexion/extension
Shoulder shrugs
Incline and flat bench press
Front lat pull-downs
Seated/upright rows
Back extension/hyperextension
Dead lift
Power lift (chest level)
Abdominal curls
Knee lifts
Leg curls
Squats
Jump half-squats
Reverse leg press
Toe raise
All players should generally develop prime movers maximum strength targeted through
the above exercises. Nonetheless, when we look deeper into the position-specific aspect
of the game, players should concentrate on developing the strength of the muscle groups
more specific to their tasks during the game such as neck, arm flexors/extensors and knee
flexors/extensors for the props, arm and knee flexors/extensors for the 2nd row, all of the
above for the loose forwards, arm extensors and knee flexors/extensors for the backs.
Consider the following two examples: The first with a lower load, normally suggested for
a player who is just experiencing a MxS strength program (figure 5.6) and the second
where training and MxS demand is higher (figure 5.7). Thus, MxS is not rigidly applied
but a training method that you must adjust according to the needs of your players and
their background and the needs of the game and position.
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# Exercise/
Week #
1
2
3
4
1 Squats
60/12/2
70/10/3
70/12/3
70/10/2
2 Leg curls
50/8/2
50/10/2
60/8/2
3 Abdomen
curls
To discomfort
>
>
4 Trunk twist
8x2
10 x 2
12 x 2
5 Bench press
60/12/2
70/10/2
6 Arm pull
60/12/2
7 Heel raise
70/10/2
Training
Demand
L
5
6
RI
Min.
80/7/3
85/6/3
3-4
50/12/2
60/10/2
70/6/2
2
>
To high
discomfort
>
1
10 x 2
12 x 2
>
2
70/12/2
70/8/2
80/8/2
85/5/2
2
70/12/2
80/10/3
70/8/2
80/8/3
90/3/3
2
70/12/3
80/10/3
70/10/2
80/8/3
90/3/3
1-2
M
H
L
M
H
Figure 5.6 A suggested six week MxS training program using lower loads
NOTE:
• First digits from exercises 1, 2, 5, 6, 7 and 8 represent the load of 1RM.
• Second digit represents the number of repetitions and third specifies the number
of sets.
• For exercise #4: First digit refers to number of reps and second to the number of sets.
• “>” means that the program in that week will be the same as in the previous week.
• Training demand: L = low-demand week, M = medium and H = high.
Figure 5.6 illustrates the progression of load, number of reps and number of sets per
training session. You can repeat the program 2-3 times per week, depending on the
training capabilities of your players. Please remember that the suggested program is not
very challenging. You can plan higher loads and training demands for players with better
backgrounds in MxS. We suggested these exercises as per the prime movers used in
rugby (main muscle groups). If necessary, you can add or change a couple of exercises.
Squats are necessary to stimulate the development of knee and hip-extensors, while
trunk twist (see description in figure 5.4), bench press and arm pull/rows strengthen the
abdominal (oblique), arms, chest and shoulders, so important in a contact sports. Finally,
heel raise strengthens the plantar flexors (ankle) muscles so determinant in sprinting,
scrum, and agility actions.
Figure 5.7 illustrates a suggested MxS for players with a better background in strength
training. Please note the specificity of exercises and their low number. A low number
of exercises have important advantages by using a higher number of sets (meaning
higher stimulation for MxS gains of the prime movers) and decreased time in the gym.
However, the above points are valid as long as the selected exercises properly target
the prime movers.
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112
# Exercise/
Weeks #
1
2
3
4
Bench press
Squats
Leg curls
Abdomen
crunches
5 Heel raise
6 Dead lift
Training
Demand
1
2
3
4
70/10/3
70/10/3
60/10/2
To discomfort
80/10/4
80/8/4
60/12/2
>
85/6/5
85/5/4
60/12/3
>
80/8/3
80/8/3
60/10/2
>
70/12/3
60/12/2
L
80/8/4
60/12/3
M
90/3/4
70/10/3
H
80/6/3
70/10/3
L
5
90/3/4
90/3/4
70/8/3
To high
discomfort
90/3/4
80/8/3
M
6
RI
Min.
95/2/5
95/2/5
70/8/3
>
1-2
4
3
3
95/2/4
>
H
2
2
Figure 5.7 Suggested six week MxS program for players with a better background in
strength training
The selection of exercises for legs facilitates the stimulation of the triple-extensors,
as well as the hamstrings. All these muscles are essential for running and agility,
however, since the hamstring muscles are more prone to injuries, the load and the
number of reps/sets is lower than for the other muscle groups. Same careful loading
has been used for the dead lift which is a very important exercise for strengthening
the back and buttock muscles. Finally, athletes must repeat abdomen crunches to
discomfort, or even high discomfort, to challenge the muscles for a better strength
development. You can also change this exercise, or use an abdomen machine that can
precisely calculate the load.
Suggested power and power-endurance training programs
Following the periodization of strength and power (figure 5.1), the scope of the power
phase is to stimulate the discharge rate of the FT fibers. As a result, players will become
faster, more agile, and more powerful in all phases of the game. Not surprisingly, therefore,
the power phase, 4-5 weeks long, is planned exactly prior to the beginning of league games,
so that the benefits of periodization of strength and power will be useful for the players
precisely during league games.
Some sports instructors often view power as just an explosive display of athletic skill.
However, especially in the case of rugby, power training must match the needs of the game
and also be position-specific. Therefore, power can be trained to be:
1. An explosive burst of high energy of athletic qualities
2. Power endurance, or the ability to repeatedly accelerate-decelerate, quickly change
direction and push and shove in the scrum for the entire duration of the game.
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Moreover, and following the principle of specificity again, we can identify the following
exercises as relevant for power development training for rugby:
• Low impact plyometrics
• High impact plyometrics
• Drop jumps
• Various bounding
• Reactive jumps
• Medicine ball throw
• Shot throw
• Tubing
• Complex training: combination of free weight, plyometrics and specific tasks
# Exercise / Week #
1 Jump squats
2 MB chest throws
3 Reactive jump
(plyometrics)
4 Between legs power
ball forward throws
5 MB between legs forward throw followed
by a sprint of
15-20 m (fig.5.11)
6 Training Demand
1
2
3
4
RI
50/8/3
10 x 3
6-8 x 3
60/8/3
12 x 3
8x4
>
>
>
60/10/3
15 x 3
>
3-4
2
3
8x3
10x4
12x4
15x4
3
8x
8x
8x
10x
3-4
L
M
M
H
Figure 5.8 A suggested four week training program for the development of power
NOTE:
• In order to avoid any anatomical discomfort make sure that jump squats are
performed correctly (form and mechanics). To avoid any knee strain, the players
must absorb the shock of landing (decelerate).
• Adapt the load, number of reps and sets to player’s potential.
• Plyometrics exercises have to be selected according to players’ previous
plyometrics history.
• Exercise 5: 6x means repeat that exercise six times.
Three important comments are also necessary:
1. We suggest a low number of exercises to ensure that energy is used for high quality
power/explosiveness.
2. Number of repetitions: If quality of speed of contraction/explosiveness is
decreasing this means that fatigue has set in. At this moment you should stop the
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player to continue the work for the reason that when explosiveness is missing it
means that the player is not training power anymore but rather an early form of
power-endurance.
3. To ensure that FT muscle fibers are conditioned to increase their discharge rate,
any power exercise must increase the acceleration through the entire range of
motion. The fastest acceleration has to be reached at the very end of an action,
culminating in a take-off (figure 5.8, exercise #1) or a fast release of the MB/power
ball (figure 5.8, exercises 2 and 4). If they don’t reach maximum acceleration the
discharge rate of the FT fibers is not accomplished and power training is not
achieving its training objectives.
Power is a more complex, combined ability than meets the eye. We can train power as an
explosive quality or as power endurance. However, in the case of power (figure 5.8), it is
trained to increase the discharge rate of FT. On the other hand, to make a player capable
of repeatedly performing fast/powerful athletic actions (or power-endurance), the training
formula is different (Bompa, 2006):
HV of HI
or
High Volume of High Intensity
Therefore, to adapt the body, to condition it to perform hundreds of fast, quick and
powerful skills during the game, the recipe is a high number of sets of repetitions of
powerful, fast and quick actions (figure 5.9).
You’ll certainly hear some coaches/fitness instructor’s state that specific training is quite
enough for the development of power endurance. “Why should you do that outside of the
field, in the gym?” Our answer is “Because strength training has to play a physiological
role!” This means that the role of strength and power must match the physiological profile
of the game. Players must apply it according to the ergogenesis of the game and be positionspecific. In other words, during the preparatory phase, players must be physiologically
conditioned to perform fast and powerful athletic actions repeatedly (power-endurance).
Maintain the same type of training during the competitive phase: 1-2 a week, 20-30
minutes per session. Neglecting to maintain MxS and power means
detraining, with all its negative repercussions.
Power ball
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As mentioned above, you must train power endurance differently, where the number of
repetitions and sets are high. Consider the suggestions made in figure 5.9 only as a guide.
Adjust the program to the needs of your players, their training potential and their positionspecific power endurance requirements. Again, to enhance the development of power
endurance, the number of exercises is low to allow the player to perform a high number
of repetitions. Make sure that the exercises you select address the needs of your players
and the prime movers used in rugby.
Figure 5.9 represents an illustration of a power endurance program. Don’t consider this
example as a program to rigidly follow. On the contrary, adapt it to the potential of your
players. The demand of such a workout is very high (i.e. number of repetitions), being
used only for players with a strong background in strength and power training. If you
want to apply the suggestions made by figure 5.9 to junior level players, reduce the
amount of work, especially the number of sets and repetitions. The potential of such
players might not be high enough and therefore, they might not yet be ready for such a
training program.
•
Plan this type of program for the last five weeks of the preparatory phase, just before
the start of league games (ensure that the players have the background for such a
demanding training).
•
Plan it for the last week before the first league game (reduce the work by 50 to 60%).
•
Continuously monitor the level of fatigue of your players.
•
Change the program (reduce it) if players cannot follow it (this means that they are
not ready yet for such a demanding training program).
•
Do the program once a week. The second workout may be power training suggested
by figure 5.8.
•
Following each set, relax the muscles of the exercised limbs.
# Exercises
Week 1
Week 2
Week 3
Week 4 R I Min
1 Drop jump followed
by 10 bounding steps
12-15 x2
18 x2
18-20 x3
20 x3
2-3
2 MB side throws
5x 15
6 x 15
7 x 20
8 x 25
3
3 Jump over 10 cone /
low hurdles jumps
(Figure 6.18)
8x
8x
8-10x
10x
3
4 Between legs power
5 X 15
7 X 20
8 X 25
H
H
5 Training Demand
L
5 X 20
M
Figure 5.9 A suggested workout for power-endurance of advanced players
3
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NOTE:
• For the drop jump (figure 5.10) the player may use a barbell (40 to 50% of 1RM) or
a dumbbell of 10 kg in each hand. Observe a correct technique.
• Land on the flat of the foot, without the barbell bouncing on the shoulders.
• Keep the trunk vertical and amortize landing (decelerate). As soon as the player has
stopped knee flexion, the coach/partners should immediately take the barbell off the
shoulders, so that the bounding part of figure 5.10 can be performed.
• The height of the box for drop jump should be 40 to 50 cm (2 feet at the most).
• MB: Use a weight of 3 to 4 kg (8 to10 lbs.).
• For exercise #4: Start from a half-squat position, as the player swings the ball forward
and up, accelerate knee extension, ending up in an upward jump (figure 5.11).
Figure 5.10 Drop jump followed by bounding steps
Figure 5.11 An illustration of the exercise “between-legs power ball forward throw”
Please note that this exercise can be performed with either MB or power ball. In either case
please make sure the player ends the exercise in a powerful forward-upward take-off.
For legs, you can also train power-endurance by running/hopping over stairs. As the athlete
runs upward, the triple-extensors contract concentrically. During downward running, on
the other hand, the same muscles contract eccentrically. For a simple training design,
consider these aspects:
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•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Running up/down from step to step.
Running up and down over two steps.
Running upwards over one step and downwards over one or two steps.
Slight hops upwards over one and two steps.
Same, with downward hops over two steps.
Same with a two-feet take-off.
Crossover steps (figure 6.7), performed up and down, over one or two steps. One
flight right side, followed alternatively on the other side.
Side shuffle over one, and after adaptation to doing the exercise, over two steps.
Quick feet: Place left foot on the immediately higher step—bring it down, while
the right foot is driven up on the same step. Change feet as quickly as possible,
always with a good control of balance (vertical projection of the center of gravity
must always be inside of the base of support).
NOTE:
• Always observe good form and body control.
• Organize a good long-term progression, such as running, run and hop over one step,
run and hop over two steps, crossover, side shuffle/quick feet and hops with rotations.
• It may take younger players 2-4 years of strength and power training before they can
perform a more complicated run/hop.
• Complicated exercises are possible only when players have improved leg power.
Progression:
Organize your program in a form of interval training, such as one flight up, rest a minute,
one flight down to the starting place; two or more flights, up and down; time one or more
flights and organize the program over a given number of seconds or minutes. For a better
benefit of power-endurance, increase the duration:
• 10-12 reps x 30 seconds
• 6-8 reps x 1 minute
• 4-6 reps x 2 minutes, etc.
Position-specific strength and power development
To better advise players who are training to specifically incorporate MxS and power
training, we must consider the characteristics of rugby when the ball is in play. There are
two possible situations independent of when players may possess the ball, or not, in a
particular action:
• Set play
• Open play
In the actual game of rugby, and as a result of a game evolution since the late 90’s, we
tend to see a difference in position play only during the set frames of play, being scrums,
lineouts, kick offs, restarts, or drop outs. In these game situations, every player will assume
the definite role assigned to his position, where forwards will play as forwards and backs
as backs. During the open play frames, it has become obvious that the specific role of the
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players, according to the position played, has become blurred due to an increase in ball
in play time combined with an increase of the speed at which the game is unfolding, frame
by frame of play (note that we don’t use here the generally heard term “game phases” or
“phases” as we believe that there are only two phases within the evolution of an action of
the game; one where there is an equilibrium of the forces in presence and another where
the forces in presence are unbalanced giving either a numerical or a positional advantage
to the ball users, until the phase 1 of equilibrium shifts to phase 2 of a clear advantage
for the ball users, the game is simply proceeding from frame to frame).
During set play, players are involved in specific tasks according to their position
requirements (pushing, lifting, jumping, running, tackling for forwards, running, passing,
kicking, tackling for backs). These requirements are either inherent to their position’s job
description (a prop push in the scrum, and lift in the lineouts, for example), or decided
through tactical set-ups (loose forwards running in support to specific places, or carrying
the ball, modern hookers acting as extra loose forwards or even centers, center acting as
a decoy runner, etc). During open play, and the faster the game evolves, there has become
less and less time for players to reshuffle positioning, to act as their position requires in
static circumstances. Players are increasingly requested to be extremely polyvalent in
action. Actual rugby has brought a new dimension to the game as forwards are now
running, passing and being more involved than ever in the less obscure parts of the game,
whereas backs are heavily involved in contesting the ball at the breakdown, clearing up
and guarding rucks, and moving bodies around to secure quality balls or regain possession.
Modern rugby has slowly but surely erased or at least changed, the specificities of the players
during the open play action. Actual players are often asked to be multi-tasked in order to
cover as many aspects of the game as possible, to the point of being interchangeable with
different positions. Twenty years ago, a multi-skilled, multi-tasked player was seen as an
anomaly not really fitting anywhere. These players are of immense value today and it is not
at all uncommon to see in international games or top professional leagues competitions
worldwide, blind side flankers playing as a second row, props able to scrum both as loosehead and tight-head, open side flankers playing #8 with equal skill and happiness,
interchangeable 9 and 10, 10 and 12, wingers able to play fullback and 13, fullback being
excellent wingers, and in some extreme extends loose forwards successfully transferred to
center or wing positions. As a result, physical, technical, and tactical abilities have to be
developed accordingly. Modern, high-performance rugby players, have developed and
refined all aspects of their game and it is more difficult today to separate strength and power
training for forwards and backs as it would have been in the past. They all need to posses
these qualities and will repetitively use them during training and their games.
We will observe what is different between these positions and how to provide positionspecific development. Figure 5.11 shows the specific activities for a group of positions
and highlights what is required to be trained for the sake of specificity. Figure 5.11 will
categorize activities and give recommendation for MxS and power development. It will
be the responsibility of the conditioning staff and the players to devise the best exercises
to specifically optimize individual development.
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Props
MxS
Power
Set play Open play
Set play
- Push
- Lift
Power-Endurance
Open play
Set play
Open play
- Ball wrestling Explosive - Short sprints - Push for
- Repetitive
- Clear rucks
pushing
- Contact play an average
5-10 m sprints
- Blockages
and lifting - Rucks fringe of 18 scrums with or withand tackles
and mauls
and lift in
out the ball
actions
an average - Repetitive
- Break tackles of 30 linerucks clear- Tackles
outs a game ance and mauls
- Break tackles
- Tackles
Second Push
Row
- Ball wrestling Explosive
- Clear rucks
jumping
- Blockages
and tackles
Loose
Forwards
- Push
- Lift
- Ball wrestling - Short and - Sprints with - Repetitively - Repetitive
- Clear rucks
longer
and without
jump, break sprints and
- Blockages
sprints
the ball
tackles, tackle support run
and mauls
- Break
- Contact play
and jump
- Repetitive
tackles
at the break- - Repetitively tackles and
- Tackles
down (ball
sprint and run breakdown
- Explosive contest)
in support
contest
jumping - Break tackles
- Repetitively
- Tackles
sprint and run
in support
Scrum
Half
-
- Rucks clearing - Pass from
- Contact play
base of
- Ball contest
scrum,
lineouts
- Break
tackles
- Tackles
- Kick
- Short
sprints
- Pass
- Pass ad kick - Pass and kick
- Kick
with conwith con- Break tackles sistency
sistency and
- Tackles
and accuracy accuracy
- Ball contest - Break tackles - Repetitively
- Short sprints and tackles
break tackles,
- Short sprints tackle
- Repetitively
sprint and run
for cover or
support
Inside
Backs
-
- Rucks
clearance
- Ball contest/
wrestling
- Tackles
>
>
>
>
- Sprints
- Kicks
- Pass
- Tackles
breaks
- Tackles
- Short sprints - Push
- Contact play - Jump
with and
without the
ball
- Tackles
>
Repetitively
sprint, pass,
kick, tackle
and break
tackles
- Repetitive
short sprints
with or without the ball
- Repetitive
rucks clearance and mauls
- Break tackles
- Tackles
>
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Outside Backs
- Rucks
clearance
- Ball contest
wrestling
- Tackles
- Sprints
- Pass
- Kicks
- Tackle
breaks
- Tackles
>
>
>
>
Repetitively
sprint, kick,
pass, tackle
and break
tackles
>
>
Figure 5.11 Game activities by group of positions and major biomotor abilities involved
As we can see, many activities for rugby players are identical no matter the position played
or the size of the players involved. Only very specific work loads will differ on set play,
where specific task involvement is optimal. According to this analysis, we can predict
more strength development for tight forwards than other players and they will be more
involved in tough isometric efforts during set play. Power and power-endurance are needed
for all positions and as previously seen, no player can be powerful prior to being strong.
Due to the nature of tight forwards activities in set play (props, hooker and second row),
strong legs, shoulders and neck development for static isometric effort in the scrum and more
dynamic jumps and lifts in lineouts and kick offs/restarts/dropouts, would be advisable. Other
players are usually involved in high speed running and MxS/power conversion programs
should emphasize exercises in combination to improve gain in reaction time, off the mark
speed, and fast changes of direction. Other players are usually involved in high speed running
and MxS and power conversion programs should emphasize exercises in combination to
improve gain in reaction time, off the mark speed and fast changes of direction.
Again, actual rugby has changed the profile of the players in comparison to fifteen or
twenty years ago. The best training will encompass the most refined compromise to
develop strong, powerful, fast, agile and technically sound players, who will be able to
put their acquired individual high performance skills to the service of the common goals
of the team, and fulfil the game plan and all tactical implementations to their best.
We shall present you hereafter with the illustrations of the core strength and power
exercises best adapted for rugby players. These exercises are fundamental in optimizing
the performance in these areas. They could be used on a circuit format in the preparatory
phase for Anatomical Adaptation and then for MxS and Power development during both
preparatory and competition maintenance phases. All the exercises presented can be used
in the Anatomical Adaptation (AA) or MxS / Power phases. Medicine ball and power ball
exercises preferably in both AA and power conversion phases.
Nonetheless there will still be a need for work on specific muscles’ group according to
the position played. We are here specially thinking of the front row who will have more
specific requirements in developing neck, arm flexors and back muscles.
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Upper body:
Abdomen flexion and extension
Trunk extension
Good morning
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Trunk twists
V-sits
Back & biceps
Triceps push down
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Bench press
Incline bench press
DB seated press
Shoulder shrugs
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MB chest throw
MB side throw
PB overhead throw
PB overhead 1 hand
MB overhead throw
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Lower Body:
Half Squats
Deadlift
Front squats
Squats
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Leg press _2
Lying leg curls
Standing leg curls
Standing calves raise, heel raise
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MB squat jump
Step ups
Jumps over cones
Lateral side jumps over cones
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Chapter 6
Agility and Quickness Training
Throughout chapter 5 we attempted to elucidate what agility and quickness actually are.
We’ve asserted that both of these highly regarded qualities are combined abilities, where
maximum strength (MxS), speed and power play a determinant role. Once again, power
is of great essence, being the key ingredient in agility and quickness. As such, we can
once again say “You’ll never be agile before being strong.”
In many articles and books agility is presented as shuttle runs or changes of direction.
Many training specialists view agility as quickness evolving from speed. However, as
demonstrated above, speed is essential but it is directly dependent on the leg power of
a player (propulsion phase). Therefore, a fast player is a powerful player. Can we say
the same thing about agility? Let’s try to analyze how players perform agility and quick
changes of direction. In order to change direction a player slows down first and then
starts again to move fast in another direction. In other words the action is performed
in two phases:
1. Deceleration, or slow down, and
2. Acceleration, or restart to run fast again
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Deceleration, or a sudden slow-down to a stop, results from muscle quadriceps being
loaded eccentrically. During deceleration, the muscles store elastic energy that they
use during acceleration when the athlete starts to run fast again. During these two
phases of performing an agility action the key to a fast change of direction are two
groups of muscles: calf muscles (gastrocnemius and soleus), and knee-extensors
(quadriceps).The quadriceps contract eccentrically to decelerate, while a fast
acceleration is impossible without gastrocnemius and soleus muscles pushing
powerfully against the ground, with the quadriceps extending the knees powerfully via
a concentric contraction.
The success of fast deceleration-acceleration therefore relies extensively on the force of
these muscles to contract powerfully both eccentrically and concentrically, so that they
perform a quick agility action. Of the two parts of the deceleration-acceleration coupling,
deceleration is the determinant factor. If power is poorly developed, the decelerationacceleration coupling will be slow. Do you want to be agile? Improve your deceleration!
And most importantly, improve your leg power!
Any agility action will always depend on leg power; it has to be seen as a function of leg
power. But the fast movement of these types of leg actions, so important for defenders to
contain the opposition’s offensive players or for the offensive to pass the direct defender
and deceive tackles, depends on these two important elements:
1. The technique of performing the first step. The quickness of moving the first step
directly depends on how quickly the player moves the opposite arm. Therefore, if
a forward step starts by moving first the left leg, its quickness depends on how fast
the player moves the right arm in the intended direction. In both sprinting and
agility runs, the arms and legs move in perfect coordination, legs action and its
quickness always depending on the opposite arm quickness.
Consequently, the sequence of the arm-leg coupling is performed in this sequence:
1. arm action, and 2. leg reaction (it is a reaction, because it reacts as per the arm
quickness). However, the interval between the arm action and the leg reaction is
just a fraction of a second. The technique of the agility/quickness actions is a
learned skill, acquired during many repetitions of agility/quickness drills.
2. The force applied by the leg against the ground. The stronger the push-off against
the ground, the higher the ground reaction. As the eccentric action is performed
(flexion of ankles, knees and hips), the leg muscles are loaded eccentrically. The
explosiveness of the push-off (the propulsion phase) of the first step depends on
the amount of force loaded during the eccentric contraction. The higher the
eccentric loading, the more explosive the propulsion phase. The force necessary
to move the first leg fast is a trainable quality, accumulated during many hours of
MxS and power training lessons.
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Periodization of agility and quickness
Many individuals working in the area of sports training have the impression that agility
and quickness are acquired as a result of repeating them, considering them as learned
skills. The more you repeat agility drills, the faster, quicker and more agile players will
become. Many people completely misunderstand and disregard the role of MxS and power
in the improvement of agility and quickness. True, the continuous repetition of agility
drills will result in improvement. But only to a point!
The improvement of agility comes from two basic phases:
1. Learning: Achieved as result of repeating agility drills, and based on progression
from simple to complex exercises applied in the early years of training. During the
learning phase, a certain level of leg power is also developed. However, learning
and developing leg power by repeating agility exercises have limitations. Often by
the time an athlete reaches national level or better, a plateau in improvement is
noticeable. From that point on, learning subsides, reaching a plateau that is difficult
to overcome. Unless you follow periodization of agility, further improvement in
agility and quickness will either slow down or plateau.
2. Improvement of MxS and power via the periodization of strength and agility: The
advantage of using periodization is that it recognizes the important need to add new
ingredients to agility/quickness training: MxS and power. Without making them an
integral part of training, further improvements in agility are more than limited.
Long-term periodization of agility
Periodization of agility refers to two aspects: Long-term and short-term periodization.
Figure 6.1 illustrates a long-term periodization while 6.2 suggest how to organize the
periodization of agility in an annual plan.
Age
Suggested Types of Training / Agility
Training Benefits
12-16
AA / simple agility drills
Learning and skill formation
17-20
MxS 50-70% / power / agility
Improve agility
>21
MxS > 80% / power / agility
High quality agility and
quickness
Figure 6.1 A suggested long-term periodization of agility training
During the early years of training (age 12 -16), the scope of training is adaptation to
strength training (AA) and the early phase of learning agility skills. This is the time
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when children are learning simple agility drills and progressively become capable of
reproducing their benefits in training and during games. Though especially in the early
years, the 12-14 year-old does not increase much in strength capabilities, agility
improves as a result of neural adaptation in the form of intermuscular coordination. This
actually means that as a result of repeating agility drills, children learn the inherent
skills and are progressively able to perform them faster since the muscles learn to work
together and, as a result, maximize their effectiveness.
As children grow older, strength training programs become more intricate. From the
age of 16 years on, introduce MxS using loads between 50-70% of 1RM and as a
consequence, increase strength and power. Benefiting MxS translates into an increased
capability to recruit more FT muscles into agility exercises. In addition, improvement
in MxS also means gains in power training since the discharge rate of the same muscle
fibers increases as well. From this age on, thanks to gains in strength and power, agility
and quickness, agility-endurance (AE) is getting better, the direct benefit being an
improvement in the quality of the game.
Short-term periodization of agility
Figure 6.2 exemplifies the short-term periodization of agility training, or an annual
plan. Please note that this plan considers players with several years of AA, power and
agility training. Strength and power training follows a traditional periodization plan,
where the scope of training is to reach the highest level of power and power-endurance
(PE) prior to the beginning of league games. This is a guarantee that your players will
be ready physiologically for the competitive phase and that throughout league games
the technical and tactical performance of a player will have the necessary physical
support for high quality play.
You can introduce some agility drills from the early part of the preparatory phase,
following three weeks of AA training after laying some physical foundation. During this
early part of agility training, the physiological capabilities especially power, are not strong
enough for any high quality agility and quickness drills. Therefore, after the early part of
AA strength training, the scope of agility training is mostly learning to acquire the basic
skills of impending agility drills.
You’ll also notice that players can perform high quality agility training from the second
part of MxS on, after at least three weeks of heavy loads strength training. When FT
fibers are recruited in higher numbers, you can plan to introduce your agility drills. At
first, the benefit will be from learning and an improved neuromuscular coordination.
As power training is improved, the discharge rate of FT increases. Now your players
will perform a better quality of quickness and agility drills, maximizing their benefits
during the league games.
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Training Phase/
Periodization
Preparatory
Competitive
Transition
# of weeks
3
6
4-5
Rest of the season
4-5
Periodization
of Strength
AA
MxS
P
PE
Maintenance of MxS
and power
AA
Periodization
of Agility
/
Skill
Agility
acqui- and
sition Quickness
training
Maintenance
/
Level of
Improvement
Low
High
Improve / maintain
Figure 6. 2 An illustration of periodization of strength and agility during an annual plan
Legend: “/” means that no agility training is necessary performed in that phase.
Considerations for the creation of a training program for agility
and quickness
The periodization of agility (illustrated by Figure 6. 2) and the considerations presented
herein will give you important guidelines for organizing a successful agility training
program. Adapt these suggestions to your training environment, players’ potential and
facilities. Use your experience and imagination to create the best program possible.
Intensity: Players are suggested to perform agility and quickness training with high
intensity. Since agility training highly taxes the neuromuscular system and the quality of
agility exercises is highly dependent on the neural response/reactivity, this type of training
is classified as nervous system training. The ability of the central nervous system (CNS)
to send fast, powerful and high frequency impulses to the FT muscles involved in
performing an exercise dictates the discharge rate of FT muscles and the intensity and
quality of an agility/quick-feet drill.
To be effective, players must perform most, if not all, agility/quickness exercises with a
very high intensity, 90 to 95% of your players’ best performance. Periodical tests of key
agility drills are necessary to monitor improvements in agility.
Duration of an exercise has to be based on the energy systems targeted. Budget 5 to 10
seconds for exercises taxing the alactic system and 30 to 90 seconds for a drill that relies
on the energy supplied by the lactic acid system.
Duration of agility training in a training lesson: In order to avoid the interference of
fatigue on the performance of high intensity/high quality agility exercises, the total time
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per training lesson is anywhere from 3 to 10 minutes. Obviously when rest intervals are
considered, total time of agility training per lesson could be as high as 25 to 30 minutes.
You have to properly monitor progression, a players’ background, drill duration, the
number of repetitions and the number of sets per exercise.
Agility during a training lesson: The scope of agility/quickness training dictates where
to place agility drills in your training lesson. High intensity agility training is placed
immediately after the warm-up, when the CNS is still fresh, rested and able to quickly
respond to high quality stimuli, such as agility training. If the aim is to train quickness
and reaction under the conditions of fatigue, then place agility training at the end of a
training session. Although fatigue interferes with the reactivity of CNS, you have to
coerce and/or drive your players to progressively adapt to high level of fatigue and be
able to perform fast, quick movements. Considering this training objective, the duration
of a drill has to be short (5-10 seconds) and performed as quickly as possible. If you
don’t apply this method, do not expect your players to be sharp, fast and explosive in
actions occurring at the end of the game.
Progression of agility/quickness training during an annual plan: As you design your
annual training plan, you also need to consider the progression of agility training per
training phases (figure 6.3). As you examine figure 6.3, you’ll notice that below the
training phases of the annual plan there are specified training objectives, the energy
system being taxed in a given phase, the duration of a drill and progression from
individual to combined drills.
Initially, plan your agility training program individually. Learn the drill first and then
actually train this specific ability. This means short agility drills that enhance quickness,
explosiveness, quick changes of direction or exercise patterns and quick feet. However,
as training continues to progress towards the competitive phase, various agility/quickness,
speed and power exercises are combined to create a sport-specific/position-specific array
of exercises. These combinations of exercises have to match the needs of the game and
be position-specific. The duration of a drill, therefore, can be much longer and similar to
the needs of the game (duration of a rally tactical combinations, etc.).
How can you detect players’ fatigue? Since agility/quickness taxes the neuromuscular
sphere, this system is the first to experience fatigue. Therefore fatigued players look
sloppy and foot contact is noisy and of longer duration. Often the entire foot, meaning
the heel as well, touches the ground. This element is a very significant clue to be aware
of since lowering the heel on the ground prolongs the duration of foot contact. The
longer the foot contact on the ground the slower the players are, a situation far from
being conducive to the development of agility. In agility/power/speed training, this is
totally undesirable. If players are ineffective to perform explosive actions, the training
goal is then far from being reached. Therefore, if an agility drill is not performed on
the ball of the foot, players will lose muscle elasticity and agility movements will not
have the desire spring effect any longer.
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Training Phase /
Preparatory
Specifics of Agility
Competitive
Transition
Training Objective
Energy System
Skill
Acquisition
Train the Train alactic
alactic
and lactic
system
acid systems
Maintain
/
Duration in sec.
5-10
5-10
5-10 (alactic)
30-90 (lactic
acid)
Position-specific
/
Progression of
Exercises
Individual
Individual
- Individual
- Individual
and combined - Combined
with other
players
/
Figure 6.3 An illustration of the specifics of agility drills per the training phases of the
annual plan
Agility and quickness exercises
The intention of this section is not to show all the agility/quickness exercises that exist
in this area of sports training. We’ll suggest a selected number of exercises, most of
which we consider the most effective. However, before some exercises are presented,
there are some requirements/recommendations to consider for the performance of
agility/quickness exercises:
• Foot contact: During the performance of agility/quickness and low impact
plyometrics exercises, the foot contact must be on ball of the foot so that the stretch
reflex is maximized. Call this light feet, with spring, extracting its power from
muscle elasticity as opposed to landing on the entire sole of the foot, or heavy feet.
Any extension of the duration of the contact phase of the foot will make the
drill/exercise slow and ineffective. Therefore, players must perform these exercises
quickly, with elasticity or light feet.
• Sound of steps represents an important cue to understand how the foot is placed
on ground. Often you should listen to rather than look at the players performing
agility drills. A sloppy, noisy/clapping sound means that players are placing their
feet flat on the floor, which is undesirable in agility/quickness drills. A quiet foot
contact on the ground, on the other hand, means that landing occurred on the balltoes of the foot, in an elastic manner. Muscle elasticity increases only as a result
of improving power. Be also aware that clapping/noisy foot contacts, especially at
the end of workout, mean neuromuscular fatigue. From that point on the agility
training is ineffective.
• Height of step should be as low as possible to get the foot back on ground quickly
for another quick push-off. Cue #1: Try to step below the height of the ankles.
Upward movement is a waste of time and therefore, a loss of quickness. Cue #2:
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•
•
•
Try to move as quickly as possible between the two points of the agility drill. The
dynamic element of an agility/quickness drill is the push-off/propulsion phase. The
more frequently a player pushes against the ground the faster he/she moves.
Body mechanics should, as much as possible, have a correct stance; feet shoulder
width apart, feet pointing forward and the weight of the body equally distributed
on both legs. The vertical projection of the center of gravity (CG) should fall inside
of the base of support, between the two feet. In order to improve body mechanics,
do some agility drills from an unbalanced position, meaning that the CG is falling
outside of the base of support. For a powerful propulsion/push-off at the beginning
of an agility drill, the heels of the feet have to be placed on ground to take advantage
of the powerful calf muscles. If the heel is raised, push-off power can be decreased
by up to 50% of maximum force. Do you want to have a correct foot placement
on the ground? Work on ankle flexibility! Flexibility (plantar flexibility) is the most
neglected joint of the entire human body.
Multi-directional drills: Since game actions are multi-directional, agility/
quickness drills have to be game and position-specific. Select, therefore, drills
which best address this important concern.
The objective/focus of agility drills: Organize agility and quickness drills to
enhance specific game objectives. Enhance maximum concentration by organizing
drills of high intensity, powerful and taxing the alactic energy system. The ability
to repeat such drills hinges on the duration of the rest interval, which needs to be
long for an almost complete restoration.
Selected leg power/agility exercises
Figure 6.4 Slalom jump and sprint
•
•
Use a tape or line on a gym floor or field (approximately 3 m in length).
Jump in slalom skiing fashion (zigzag) along the line and, at the end of the line,
sprint forward for 10 to 15 m (30 to 45 feet).
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Figure 6.5 Scissors splits
Area worked: calf and knee extensors
• Stand, with one leg forward, the other behind.
• Take off for a vertical jump and switch legs quickly in mid-air. Land and
immediately jump again for continuous jumps.
Figure 6.6 Cone jumps
Area worked: calf, knee, and hip extensors
• Begin standing in front of a row of cones two meters (six feet) apart.
• Run and jump over each cone.
• Return to the starting line.
Figure 6.7 Forward, backward, crossover
•
•
Moving left, right leg crosses in front of left leg for 10 meters (about 30 feet) in
each direction.
Repeat.
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Figure 6.8 Single/double leg box jumps
•
Jump from square to square inside a 50 x 50 cm (18 by
18 inches) box taped on the floor.
Figure 6.9 Inside-out box jumps
•
•
Stand at #1 of the taped box divided into four squares,
hop in and out, to and from the center and each of the
eight points.
Change direction based on instructions called out by
the coach during the exercise.
Figure 6.10 The ladder
Secure a rope ladder with each square in a size of 50 x 50 cm (18 by 18 inches) (slightly
smaller for elite athletes). Move into it, out of it, one foot in, the other out, crossovers,
etc. Movement should be on the ball of the foot, fast, and rhythmical quick feet. Don’t
step on the rope.
Figure 6.11 The agility wheel
From the middle of the wheel, the starting point,
work on the ground/floor eight stations (or cones,
numbered one to eight). Each station is three to
five meters from the start. Run as quickly as
possible from the center to each station and run
back to the center.
Variants:
• High position.
• Low position, ankle, knees and hips slightly flexed.
• Run forward, sideways, or back pedal.
• Side shuffle (added steps), crossovers, or simple bounding one to two feet low and
fast jumps.
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•
•
•
•
Change directions as called by the coach (call the station number to go in advance).
Use ball for dribbling form station to station (in which case the station can be five
to 10 m away from the center).
Combine all running possibilities together during the same wheel exercise.
Emphasize quick changes of direction.
Agility and relays exercises/games
Figure 6.12 Over-under bridge relay
•
•
•
Teams pass the medicine ball alternately over the head and between the legs.
The last player runs quickly with the ball to the front of the line and starts again.
The team finishing first is the winner.
Figure 6.13 Low obstacle relay
•
•
•
•
Set out one or more straight courses with a cone as a turnaround point. (The fewer
athletes per course the better.)
The course should have low obstacles that athletes can run over, not leap or hop over.
Placing the obstacles close together encourages quick steps, and placing them
farther apart encourages longer or more steps.
Have the athletes run the course with two steps between the obstacles; then spread
them out and run it again with three or four steps between. Hurdle rhythm involves
landing plus three steps between objects, like dot-dash-dash-dash in Morse code.
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Figure 6.14 Obstacle course
•
•
Set a slalom course with benches to step over, hoops to step in, mats for front
rolling, and saddle horses or boxes for ducking under or climbing over.
Start with a walk-through and increase speed as capability increases. Leave enough
room between athletes on the course (especially in doing front rolls).
Figure 6.15 Obstacle relays
•
•
•
Create an obstacle course of boxes, cones or balls to jump over, with a short space
between to run.
Time each athlete from start to finish.
Classify athletes individually or as a team.
Variation:
• Carry a medicine ball for the first part of the course and at the end of the first line,
throw the ball back to the next starter and then continue the course to the end.
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Agility quickness, reaction, and power games
Figure 6.16 Stop and go
•
•
•
•
•
An athlete stands 10 meters (30 feet) ahead of remaining participants, facing away
from the group.
This person calls out “Go” as many times as he or she likes, then “Stop”.
At “Go” the runners run toward the caller, and at “Stop” they freeze on the spot.
The caller turns to see if anyone is still moving.
The last person caught moving becomes the caller for the next round.
Figure 6.17 Octopus tag
•
•
•
Form a large group, with 20 to 30 participants. Designate one or two people as
octopus. The remaining participants line up against one wall.
The octopus yells “Octopus” and participants run to opposite wall.
If an octopus tags a participant, that person turns around on one foot to help tag
others.
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Figure 6.19 Rabbits and roosters
•
•
•
•
Two teams, four meters (12 feet) apart, each with a three-meter (none-foot) safety
zone in front of their home wall.
Name one team rabbits, the other roosters.
Call one team’s name they then chase the other team to their safety zone.
Those tagged join the other team.
Figure 6.20 Dodge game
•
•
•
•
•
Two teams start at their home wall. Place three balls in the center of the gym.
At the start there is a dash for the balls, and the players who get them first must
throw from their side to hit members of the other team.
If hit, a player must go along the side of the gym to the opposite wall.
While at the other wall, if an errant ball comes within reach, he or she may use it
to hit the opposing player despite being captured. Hit only below the waist.
The game ends when one team is entirely captured.
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Simple Tumbling Exercises
A series of simple tumbling/agility/space-orientation exercises can also be used with your
players, such as: side rolls, over-shoulder roll and, at the coach’s signal, quickly stand-up,
etc. Try other combinations as per figures 6.32 to 6.35.
Figure 6.21 Forward roll and vertical jump
•
•
•
Low crouch, with hands flexed at knee level.
Tuck the head under and roll over to a half-squat position, actively extending the
legs to perform a vertical jump.
Land and repeat.
Figure 6.22 Back roll into handstand
•
•
•
•
Sit with chest above knees.
Swing the upper body backward; roll the shoulders over with palms on the ground
below shoulders.
When approaching vertical, extend the arms into a handstand.
Lower legs into a low crouch, and then repeat.
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Figure 6.23 Back roll into vertical jump
•
•
•
Half squat.
Fully flex the knees, and roll backward into a full squat position. At that instant,
perform an active vertical jump.
Land, then repeat the movement.
Figure 6.24 Back roll into a handstand
•
Back roll on hips, back into a handstand. Lower one leg, then the other into standing
position.
Figure 6.25 Rolls with turns
•
From a standing position, do a front roll, followed by a jump, half turn into a back
roll, jump vertically again with a half turn (180 degrees).
Variations:
• Continuously repeat movement.
• Perform the movement with a full 360-degree turn.
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Figure 6.26 Jump and roll with turn
•
•
•
Stand to one side of a horizontally suspended rope or ribbon.
Jump over the rope into an immediate front roll with a half turn (180 degrees).
Perform in the opposite direction.
Variation:
• Continuously repeat the movement. (i.e. jump over the rope, front roll, jump, half turn).
Figure 6.27 Throw, roll, and catch
•
•
•
•
Begin standing.
Throw the ball up and forward.
Perform a front roll.
Catch the ball.
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Chapter 7 – Speed Training and Reaction Time
Chapter 7
Speed Training and Reaction Time
Since maximum speed and swift action on the playing field is directly dependant on the
quickness of reaction and the power of muscle contractions, both speed and reaction
training are discussed together in one chapter.
Speed training
One of the most important biomotor abilities required in sport is speed, or the capacity
to move quickly in the field according to the game conditions and placement of the
opposing players. Mechanically, speed is expressed through a ratio between space and
time. The term “speed” incorporates three elements: reaction time, stride frequency per
second and the speed to cover a given distance. Thus the ability to be quick and react
fast depends on the reaction of the player at the start of an action, the ability to read the
game, the ability to react to a game situation and the ability to swiftly apply force against
the ground to move quickly.
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In rugby, speed training is a multidirectional activity. Linear speed, as suggested by
some track coaches, has a limited usefulness since most fast running is combined with
sideways and forward running, back pedaling (backward running), pivots, push-over
movements, zigzags, stop-and-go movements, cuts and turns, and changes of direction.
Movements are performed in all directions throughout the game to find a better
placement to receive the ball, to contain the ball and deceive or evade the opponent.
A player does not achieve maximum speed instantly, but only after accelerating for at
least 5 to 10 meters. To reach high velocity, a player must react quickly and immediately
applying maximum force against the ground to have a strong push-off (propulsion
phase of the running step).
Factors affecting speed
Many elements influence speed development. Special factors include heredity, reaction
time, and the ability of the athlete to overcome external resistance, technique,
concentration, willpower and muscle elasticity.
Heredity
Compared with strength and endurance, where athletes may achieve spectacular
improvements after adequate training without having extraordinary talents, speed is
determined by heredity and requires more natural talent. Hence, the mobility of the
nervous processes, the quick alternation between excitation and inhibition and the capacity
to regulate the neuromuscular coordination pattern may lead to a high motor frequency.
In addition, the intensity and frequency of the nervous impulses represent determinant
factors in achieving high speed.
The property of skeletal muscle, especially the proportion between fast twitch (FT) and
slow twitch (ST) muscle fibers, represent a limiting factor in achieving a high speed
potential. The FT muscle fibers contract faster and with superior force than their ST
counterparts, which is a great asset for anyone who wants to be a fast player. The ultimate
maximum speed capacity depends on how many FT fibers are recruited into action and
how fast their firing rate is (discharge rate).
Reaction time
Reaction time is also an inherited human quality, representing the time between exposure
to a stimulus (the action of the direct opponent, the ball or the puck) and the first muscular
reaction or the first movement performed. From a physiological standpoint, reaction time
has five components:
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1.
2.
3.
4.
The appearance of a stimulus at the receptor level (visual or sonic)
The propagation of the stimulus to the CNS
The decision-making process by the CNS (the afferent or sensory transmission)
The transmission of the signal from the CNS through the nervous path to the muscle
(the efferent or motor transmission to the muscle)
5. The stimulation of the muscle to contract and perform a mechanical work
Reaction time to simple and complex or choice situations must be made in sports. Simple
reaction is the predetermined conscious response to a previously known signal performed
unexpectedly (e.g. signal of a teammate, the ball being passed to you). Choice or complex
reaction time, on the other hand, refers to a situation where a player receives several stimuli
and has to choose between them (e.g. the opponent passes the ball in one direction and
then he moves in another). Obviously, choice reaction is the slower of the two and the
time delay increases as the number of choices increases.
Reaction time must be clearly distinguished from reflex time, which is an unconscious
response to a stimulus (e.g. the tendons’ reflex or an arm quickly reacting to a ball passed
by the direct opponent). Reaction time is a determining factor in many situations during
the game and players can improve it with proper training. The reaction time to a visual
stimulus is shorter for trained individuals (0.15 to 0.20 seconds) as opposed to untrained
individuals (0.25 to 0.35 seconds). Similarly, the reaction time to sonar stimuli is slightly
shorter: 0.17 to 0.27 seconds for untrained individuals and 0.05 to 0.07 for world-class
athletes (Zatzyorski, 1980).
Movement time
Usually, movement time is considered to be the elapsed time between the first overt
movement of a response and completion of that movement, between the start and the finish
of a limb’s motion. Movement time is not just a muscular reflex to a stimulus, but also the
ability of the muscles to contract quickly and powerfully. Training both speed and power
will greatly improve the ability to move a limb quickly. Movement time is essential in both
the offence, to move a limb rapidly to get and secure the ball, and in defense to block or
repossess it. The faster a limb is moving, the faster the player can get, kick or block the ball.
Power
Power, or the capacity of a player to display force, is one determinant factor in performing
fast movements. During training and games, external resistance to player’s quick
movements comes from gravity (to quickly accelerate, or jump), environment (wet field,
snow, wind) and the opponents. To defeat these opposing forces, players have to improve
their power so the increased force of muscular contraction makes them capable of
increasing the acceleration and quick performance of a skill.
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Often, a player must perform a skill quickly and repeat it with the same quality many
times during a game. Consequently, in speed training, players must complement the
development of power with the development of power endurance, which will allow a player
to perform fast and quick actions for the duration of the game.
Technique
Speed, frequency of a drill or repetition, and reaction time are often a function of technique.
Acquiring a rational, effective form facilitates the performance of a skill quickly by
shortening the amplitude of the action of a limb by correctly positioning the center of
gravity and by using energy efficiently. In addition, the ability to perform a skill with ease
and with a high degree of coordination as a result of conscious and reflex relaxation of
the antagonistic muscles is also important.
For a good and efficient running technique players should look at:
• Running on the ball and toes of the foot.
• The contact phase of the support leg on the ground is as short as possible. A
prolongation of the contact phase (i.e. sloppy or flat on the foot) demonstrates a
lack of power, and as such, the individual will never run fast. The fastest players
have a contact phase of between 180 and 210 milliseconds. Elite sprinters, on the
other hand, come close to 150 to 120 milliseconds.
• The torso is erect.
• The hand of the drive arm comes up to face level.
• Shoulder and facial muscles are relaxed. Any tension of these muscles means
unnecessary contraction, rigid muscles, poor form and excess of energy spent for
a slow run.
• The hips are high to allow the push-off leg to extend fully to the ground.
• If maximum speed is to be achieved, ankle, hips, and knee joints should be
extended. Full knee extension can be achieved only when the quadriceps (knee
extensors) muscles are becoming very strong. This is not just a demonstration of
good leg, hips and ankle strength but also a proof of a very correct running
technique. Only good form can make one fast. Please remember that the form of
running is incorrect when strength does not support it anymore.
Strong legs = good form
• The ankle and recovery leg (back leg), travel above knee level of the driving leg.
• Rugby players constantly change the height of the center of gravity (CG) depending
on the pattern of their run. When running direction is changed, the CG lowers.
When a player decelerates and then accelerates in another direction, the CG lowers
progressively during deceleration, the lowest point being when the player actually
stops. As players accelerate, CG is progressively heightened, the highest point being
during maximum acceleration. But the CG also changes sideways, forward and
backward, depending on the player’s running pattern. Therefore, one should not
expect a player to run like a sprinter, except in situations when they run in a
relatively straight line or in a slightly curved line (curvilinear).
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Concentration and willpower
The speed of a movement is determined by the mobility and harmonious character of the
nervous processes, the frequency of the nervous impulses and their precise manner, and
strong concentration. Willpower and strong concentration are important factors in
achieving high speed. Therefore, prior to any speed drill, players must be in a state of
maximum concentration.
Muscle elasticity
Muscle elasticity and the ability to alternately relax the agonistic and antagonistic muscles
are important in achieving a high frequency of movement and correct technique. In addition,
joint flexibility is an important ingredient for performing movement with high amplitude (i.e.
long strides), which is paramount in any sport requiring fast, forward running.
Periodization of speed
The periodization of speed is always dependent on the league’s game schedule. Rugby usually
follows a monocycle annual plan, using the following phases of periodization of speed:
Specific speed
Since the necessary background for speed training is done in the early part of endurance
training (chapter 8), employing methods such as interval training (IT) and tempo training
(figure 8.2), actual speed training is planned immediately after. Figure 7.1 illustrates an
integrated speed and endurance training. This chart was necessary to actually illustrate how
the background created by endurance training can be used to improve the foundation on which
speed training is built on. As such, in the early part of the preparatory phase, the players will
improve their adaptation to cardiorespiratory endurance, followed by tempo training which
represents a transition to the development of maximum speed. Consequently, tempo training
is used to transition from endurance to the beginning of maximum speed.
Please note (figure 7.1) that while endurance training starts from higher distances (higher
volume of training), maximum speed, on the contrary, begins with shorter distances but
best form. When the strength capacity of a player increases you can increase training
distance (i.e. from 10-15 m to 20-30 m). As soon as strength and speed increases you can
introduce drills for the development of agility and reaction time.
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Periodization
Preparatory Phase
Type of Training Non-specific
- Game and position-specific training
- Maximum speed
# of Weeks
2
2
2
Endurance
Training
(see fig. 8.2)
Uniform
IT
Tempo
Training
- Model training
- Energy system training
Maximum
Speed Training
/
/
Begin
maximum
speed training
- Maximum speed
- Position-specific speed
Example of
Maximum
Speed Training
/
8-10x
10-15 m
2-4
10-12x
20-40 m with/
without the ball
- Maximum speed training
with/without the ball
- 10-15/20 repetitions
of maximum speed or
drills with the ball
Always look for best running form
Figure 7.1 An example of how to integrate endurance with maximum speed training
NOTE: - Speed training starts after a background of uniform and interval
training (IT) is completed. Do the maximum speed training in
separate days from the endurance training (alternatively).
- / means that in that phase speed training is not actually trained.
Training methods for the development of maximum speed
There are several methods used to develop maximum speed, some more specific than
others. However, in any of the following methods, there is a common element; the intensity,
or the elements that stimulate the neuromuscular system, to reach maximum speed.
The following five methodological elements are significant to speed training and will aid
in understanding the subsequent material.
Intensity of speed training
The intensity of speed, or type of drills employed in speed training, should be in the
range between sub-maximum (70-80% of maximum speed) and maximum (90-100%)
if you expect any improvement. A precondition to good efficiency in high intensity
training, however, is good technique. During maximum speed training the form of
running must be as perfect as realistically possible. The best training benefit is visible
when training is under optimal conditions, usually occurring immediately after the
warm-up when fatigue from other types of activities cannot impede the development of
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maximum speed, quickness, and quick changes of direction, etc. Furthermore, speed
training is more effective when it follows days of rest or days of low intensity training.
Maximum velocity is a very demanding type of training for both the body and mind. It
requires maximum concentration and leg power, especially for the propulsion phase.
Therefore use but don’t abuse this method.
Intensity for speed training derives from several factors, such as:
•
Intensity of a drill. Most drills you’ll use should be very fast and explosive and rely
on a great deal of leg power. Be careful about the number of drills you use in a
training session. Similarly, for better regeneration, alternate the energy systems used
during a micro-cycle.
•
The rhythm or pace of a drill. The pace of the game or drill can be a very taxing
physically, as well as mentally. The rhythm, or pace, can be controlled in training,
whereas the game pace depends on the rhythm imposed by the opposing team. If your
team is not well-trained for the intensity of a highly taxing pace or rhythm, the end
result may not be favorable to your players. The best and ideal way being for the team
to impose its own pace of the game to the opposition, and not the other way around.
Therefore, make sure your training program is organized so that it may avert any such
possible surprises.
•
The number of games per micro-cycle. Since you cannot influence the league’s game
schedule, you should at least use model training to prevent and cope with the stress
you have between games. During the stressing league games, do not plan any exhibition
games, unless you have just one game per week. Exhibition games belong to the phase
planned for the latter part of the preparatory phase.
•
The number of minutes the best athletes play during a game. Your best players are
always more solicited than others. This is why they must follow a more individualized
training regime, post-game regeneration techniques and a lower training demand
during the first training lesson. Never expose a fatigued player to hard training before
the fatigue is eliminated from the body systems! The consequence may be exhaustion,
or even overtraining with higher chances of injury.
•
Rate of recovery of a player. Even with similar aerobic conditioning backgrounds,
most players have an individualized rate of recovery. Therefore, it is important to know
each player’s rate of recovery, monitor it and use it with imagination. Slow regeneration
individuals need to follow a specific training regimen. The first post-game training
lesson should not be stressful; rather it should be a regeneration lesson.
•
Beware of social and psychological stress! Many coaches are good at controlling
physiological stress through the volume and intensity of their training lesson. However,
coaches must be equally effective in dealing with social and psychological stressors
(family, lifestyle, peer pressure, etc.). Find out everything outside of training that might
stress your players. Discuss these issues privately with each player; monitor, improve
and control the social and psychological environment for your players.
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Duration of a repetition/drill for training maximum speed
The duration of a repetition, like any other component of training, must be optimized. A
minimum duration is the time required to accelerate to reach maximum speed, which is
at least three seconds. If the duration of a repetition is too short and the player does not
reach maximum speed, the outcome may be improvement of the acceleration phase, but
not maximum speed.
If the scope of training is maximum speed, agility or quickness, the activity should be
terminated when a high level of fatigue is experienced. High levels of fatigue hinders the
development of maximum speed, quickness and explosiveness since the neuromuscular
system is not capable to recruit the highest number of FT so determinant in the ability of
a player to generate maximum force application against the ground.
Volume of speed training
Speed training is one of the most stressful athletic activities that the CNS and
neuromuscular system experience. Therefore, the optimal volume should be low. Only
a low volume of training allows the use of high intensity activities. The volume of
training, therefore, is a function of intensity and the training phase. During the
competitive phase, the total volume of work used for the development of maximum
speed can be between 30 and 60 minutes, depending on the duration of a
technical/tactical drill and the rest interval allocated between repetitions. For instance
a speed training session of 10 reps x 5 seconds or 5 reps x 15 seconds with a rest interval
of 3 minutes results in a speed training lesson of 44.05 minutes.
Frequency of speed training drills
The total amount of energy spent during speed training is low as compared to endurance
training. The energy expenditure for high intensity drills, however, is much higher than
many other activities you may do in rugby. This explains why fatigue is visible quite
quickly in a training lesson planned for the development of speed. Therefore, we suggest
the use of 6-12 repetitions/drills for maximum intensity per lesson, 2-3 times per week
during the competitive phase.
Rest intervals
Between any repetitions of speed or drills of high intensity, the players require a rest
interval (RI) that ensures almost complete replenishment of the fuels used. During RI
players should relax mentally so that another high intensity activity requiring high
concentration is possible. Under such circumstances, the players are able to maintain a
high working capacity and, as a result, repeat high quality work several more times.
Otherwise, high intensity work may be impossible to repeat with similar quality.
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The RI should, therefore, facilitate an optimal recovery during which lactic acid (LA) is
partially removed and oxygen debt is restored almost entirely. Lactic acid, which plays a
restrictive role in speed training, reaches a maximum level between two and three minutes
after performing a high intensity repetition or drill. On the other hand, the interval should
not be long enough so that the CNS’s excitability will fade away. Consequently,
considering individual characteristics, the RI between high intensity drills may be around
3-5 minutes. During normal intervals of 3-5 minutes we recommend an active rest, such
as light jogging or walking, and simple ball handling or passing/kicking. For intervals that
exceed five minutes, we suggest a combination of passive and active rest.
Methods of developing speed
Many methods are available to develop speed, some being better than others. The following
methods were selected simply because they are the most effective.
Repetition method
Repetition is the basic method used in speed training. It refers to repeating a set distance or
duration of a drill several times at a given speed. Although your objective is to improve speed,
this method may also be used to improve quickness of a technical or tactical drill. The
repetition method takes into account that a player cannot maintain maximum speed for a long
time. It is also based on the fact that improvement of maximum speed and quickness does
not result just from a single repetition of a given distance or duration of a technical/tactical
drill. Several repetitions are necessary to achieve speed improvement, consistency of speed
over a given distance or the quickness and technical refinement of a drill.
During repetition training the players’ psyche, will and maximum concentration are of
paramount importance. The will to surpass personal best in maximum speed and the drive
to overcome limiting factors such as force application against the ground and fatigue
should dominate the players’ mind. Players should direct their thoughts, will and power
of concentration to performing repetitions with maximum speed. Maximum concentration
will always help players reach superior speed and neuromuscular coordination.
Of equal importance is for players to direct focus and concentration at performing the
lead movement. For instance, before starting a sprint the player should not concentrate
first on the action of the legs, rather on the quick arm action, such as driving first the left
arm forward (or in the direction of running) which will result in an equally quick movement
of the right leg. Always remember that in sprinting the arm action leads the leg action,
not the other way around. Finally, a player must also first direct maximum concentration
on accomplishing a specific training task, such as the time to cover a distance, and only
then focus on how to perform it technically.
Players can perform repetition training with maximum speed using the progressive
method, in which the speed increases progressively until reaching maximum; maximum
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speed is then maintained for 2-3 seconds. Repetitions can also be performed with
maximum speed under decreased resistance, such as running on a declined surface up to
a maximum of 3 degrees. Conversely, players can execute repetitions with maximum speed
under conditions of increased resistance, such as dragging a sled or harness running. The
advantage of such a method lies in the fact that by using increased resistance, players
improve leg strength, which in the end will result in higher force application during the
propulsion or push-off phase of the running step.
Alternative method
The alternative method refers to rhythmically alternating the speed of performing a
technical/tactical drill, as often occurs during the game when different types of speed
are employed according to a given tactical situation of the game. During the drill,
players alternatively increase and decrease the speed or pace to prepare them to apply
the same during the game. As such, the pace alternations can have a tactical benefit.
The drill can also be organized as per the intensity and duration of alactic and lactic
acid energy systems.
Handicap method
The handicap method allows players of different abilities to work together, provided that
all have equal motivation. When a repetition is performed, players are staggered ahead or
back, depending on their speed potential, to allow all players to reach the finish line at
the same time. This method can be used for running drills performed in a straight or
curvilinear line or using other running patterns. Similarly, to make training more specific,
you can design an obstacle, slalom or zigzag course, or a more complex drill where
acceleration-deceleration and changes of direction are executed.
Relays and games
Considering their emotional feature, you can use relays and games extensively to
improve speed, quickness and changes of direction, especially during the preparatory
phase. One advantage is that this method will likely eliminate excessive strain and
provide enjoyment and fun.
Speed barrier
After applying standard methods, speed development may reach a plateau, called speed
barrier. After several years of employing the same training methods with few variations
and little excitement, the player may reach a level at which everything is monotonous and,
as a consequence, speed is no longer improved. To break the speed barrier, the player
requires new stimuli. New excitement has to break the monotony of training and the use
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of standard methods. Novelty in training represents stronger and more exciting stimuli,
which can result in corresponding physical and psychological benefits.
Among the most efficient methods used to surpass the speed barrier are for the players
to perform speed training under the conditions of decreased resistance such as decline
running or running with the wind blowing from behind. Under these new conditions, the
CNS, the neuromuscular coordination, will readapt to the new requirements of performing
an exercise with higher velocity. The multiple repetitions of new stimuli will create new
and more rapid adaptations, resulting in breaking the speed barrier. East German and
Soviet sprinters have used decreased resistance training extensively. The declined track
(two to three degrees) has been reported to increase the speed of an athlete by 17% over
the descending portion and by 13% when the athlete entered the horizontal section of the
track (seminar on “Speed Training Novelties”, East Berlin, 1988).
However, the inclination should never be beyond three degrees because it increases the
duration of the foot contact phase and, as a result, it decreases rather than increases
maximum velocity. The faster an athlete runs, the shorter the contact phase. This is why
many sprinters are constantly trying to increase leg power—to shorten the duration of
contact phase. Decreased resistance methods should however, facilitate accelerations that
the athlete could reproduce under normal game conditions. Further, you must restrict these
methods to advanced athletes whose skills are firmly conditioned and who, as a
consequence can handle very fast and powerful accelerations.
Anticipation speed
Being just one step ahead of a direct opponent represents a great tactical and positional
advantage during the game. The ability to read the game, to anticipate what the opponents
may do, react to it and then accelerate in the desired direction often represents the
difference between success and failure. A key element in a player’s capacity to anticipate
a game situation is the ability to visualize what may happen, to read the opposition’s
tactical action followed immediately by the player responding with the most logical and
effective counteraction.
Anticipation speed heavily depends on the player’s past experience, since experience
means the ability to quickly identify certain signals, game cues or hints used by the
opponents. Experienced players “have been there before,” meaning they have seen similar
actions in previous games. Furthermore, experience also means the ability to read tactical
thoughts, to quickly process the information (game cues) and select the most logical action
to counter the game plans of the direct opponents.
Since practice does produce miracles, we should not rely only on accumulated game
experience over time, but expose players to well-organized and designed training lessons.
Use model training methodology, where all possible tactical situations are repeated. Create
drills that reproduce specific game conditions where the players can learn to anticipate
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tactical goals selected by the direct opponents. By doing so, young players can visualize
tactical maneuvers, read and recognize them in other training sessions, and quickly decide
on the best action, therefore also enhancing decision making in the process.
Decision-making speed
The ability to make fast decisions is critical for any player, irrespective of the player’s
classification. Obviously, the higher the classification, the faster the game, and as such,
the shorter the time available to make specific game decisions.
Rugby players are exposed to a wide variety of actions, from observing where the direct
opponent moves to where the ball is passed, the players must constantly be vigilant, read
the game, and determine the best course of action. From the variety of choices available,
the player has to decide in split seconds what to do, where to go, the most accurate
response, which skills to use to block or repossess the ball, and how to annihilate the
tactical plans of the opponent.
Decision-making speed is based on the ability of the nervous system to analyze any given
game situation and to quickly react to it. Experience, as usual, may make a big difference
in the ability to quickly make the best decision, but so does well-organized training.
Organize your training lessons by effectively using the methodology of model training.
Figure 7.2 exemplifies various training methods for speed training. Although this figure
refers to many training forms, you may select only those in which you are interested.
Form of Training
Distance of
Activity (m)
and Sets
Number of
Repetitions
Rest Interval
(minutes)
Week
Number of Speed
Training Sessions/
High starts
10-30
6-10
3-4
1-2
Maximum speed
20-50
4-8
3-5
2
Sport-specific
speed
- Accelerations
- Deceleration
- Stop and go
- Accelerations
with changes
of direction
10-30
10-20
10-20
10-30
6-12
6-8
4-8
4-8
2
2
2
2
2-3
2
2-2
2-3
2-4 sets of
5-10 reps
2-3
2-4
Ballistic training
(throwing, kicking,
jumping, etc.)
Figure 7.2 Suggested parameters for speed training
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NOTE: Since training lessons for the development of speed are quite taxing, be very
selective when you decide how many types of speed training are possible per day. Plan
two to four forms of training per session, two or three times per week, depending on the
players’ potential. The balance will be on technical or tactical work. Please note the
duration of rest intervals for maximum speed as well as the suggested number of speed
sessions per week. Several of the suggested forms of training can be planned in the same
day, and as such, you’ll still have only two or three days of highly taxing maximum velocity
training per week. Using the concept of alternation the energy systems will assist your
players to cope better with the fatigue induced by high intensity training.
Planning-periodization of speed training
Figure 7.3 illustrates a possible micro-cycle for speed training, combined with technical
and tactical training. As you may plan these types of training lessons, you must consider
the need to alternate energy systems and days for recovery and regeneration. This means
the same energy system has to be planned for the same day.
Perform high starts from standing, feet shoulder width apart, in a ready position. At your
signal, or player’s decision, the athlete will accelerate as quickly as possible for 10 to 30
meters, repeating the same action 6 to 10 times, with a RI of 3-5 minutes with relaxation
and easy stretching to maintain muscle elasticity. In order to increase the quickness of the
start, initiate the action by first driving an arm in the direction of run. As the arm is quickly
moved forward, it stimulates a quick knee drive of the opposite leg in the same direction.
To convince yourself of the effectiveness of the arm action on a quick start, time your
players when they perform high starts, with and without initiating the arm action (please
refer to the illustration of a high start drill at the end of this chapter).
High starts are important for all players that are constantly in the situation to perform
quick accelerations. High starts can be performed separately from technical or tactical
training in order to improve a fast start, or as part of a specific drill.
Acceleration training to increase maximum speed over 20 to 50 meters, 4 to 8 times, with
a rest interval of 3-5 minutes, represents a training form that increases maximum
acceleration. By repeating the same distance 8 to 12 times or more, a player also improves
their speed-endurance.
You must also plan speed training with rugby-specific forms, such as technical-tactical drills.
Deceleration, or a quick stop from fast running, is as important as the ability to accelerate
maximally. Because players will rarely accelerate in a straight line, they must perform many
sport-specific forms of training with turns, direction changes and stop-and-go movements
(please refer to specific suggestions at the end of this chapter). The distance does not have
to be long, 10 to 30 meters, repeated 6 to 8 times. The rest interval is not long (two minutes),
to train the athlete to be able to accelerate-decelerate not only when rested, but also under
the conditions of fatigue. After all, this is the case during a rugby game.
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158
In ballistic training, players must perform dynamic, powerful throws and passes with
medicine/power balls, jumping and so on, for example, 5 to 10 repetitions in two to four sets,
with a one to two minute rest interval. Use these skills to train players under the conditions
of fatigue. However, you do not have to train all forms of training in the same lesson.
The suggestions made by figure 7.2 may also be planned as follows:
•
•
One or two days per week: High start sprints, maximum speed training and acceleration
with changes of direction.
Two days per week: Acceleration and deceleration and stop-and-go sprints.
Monday
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday Friday
Saturday
Sunday
Warm-up
Warm-up
Warm-up
Off
Warm-up
Warm-up
Off
T/TA drills
for speed and
agility: 12
reps x 30 m
Acceleration
with turns
and direction
changes: 6
reps x 30 m
TA drills:
direction
Acceleration- changes,
deceleration: stop-and-go:
8 to 10 reps
10 reps
x 3 min
x 30 m
TA drills
T drills
Maximum
acceleration:
6 reps x 15 m,
6 reps x 30 m
T drills with Scrimmage
turns/directio
n changes: 12
reps x 30 m
RI = 2 min
Scrimmage
RI = 2 min
RI = 2 min
Ballistic
training
TA drills: 8
reps x 1 min
RI = 4 min
T/TA drills
with turns,
stop-and-go:
8 to 10 reps
x 1 min
Acceleration
deceleration:
8 reps x 30 m
Stop-and-go:
10 reps x
15m
Scrimmage
Ballistic
Training
RI = 2 min
Ballistic
training
Figure 7.3 represents a suggestion of a micro-cycle where different types of speed and
power training.
Note: On Saturday the program can be performed individually. Perform power training
(ballistic, such as exercises with medicine ball) on Monday, Wednesday and Friday. If
you won’t have Thursday off, move the Friday training to Thursday and the Saturday
training to Friday.
Legend: T = technical, TA = tactical, RI = rest interval
For rugby players, the ability to accelerate quickly is not sufficient. The players must be
able to change direction and, especially, be able to decelerate quickly so they can turn
around and immediately accelerate in another direction. The stronger the legs, the faster
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the player can accomplish this; therefore, players should simultaneously participate in
strength training and speed training.
The distance players repeat to increase maximum velocity depends on the form of running.
In fact, running form dictates the distance and the number of repetitions the players
perform. In the early part of this phase, players repeat distances of 15 to 20 meters, which
require them to keep a relaxed and correct form. When the players cannot maintain good
form, they are fatigued, and the power of fast running is lost.
During the last part of the preparatory phase, most speed training is performed through
the repetition of specific technical and tactical drills or by doing speed-specific training
drills such as turns, cuts, steps, swerves, changes of direction and stop-and-go. This type
of speed training prepares the players for a game, which is dynamic with quick changes
of speed, from jogging to maximum acceleration.
Running technique and exercises for specific speed and quickness
Rugby players are not the most effective runners, with their rigid posture and with their
arms and legs in unnecessary tension (contraction). As explained before, sprinting varies,
sometimes compared to sprinting in track and field, but the mechanics of the running step
should be the same. Since some clubs, however, there is seldom any work done to correct
the mechanics of running, most players use an inefficient technique.
To improve running efficiency, players should work on running form and technique (see
figure 7.13). Good arm drive is crucial in achieving such a goal. Arms are driven backward,
forward, and up to face level. The leg frequency increases as the rate of the arm drive
increases. The thigh of the driving leg (the left leg in figure 7.13) should reach a horizontal
line; from this point, the foot of same leg is projected forward and downward. The ball
of the foot lands on the ground with a brushing action. The position of the body is vertical,
with the eyes focused ahead, in the direction of the run. The foot strikes the ground quickly,
coming underneath the body as it moves forward. As the body moves forward, the other
(left) leg is driven forward. The right leg is now pushing against the ground, projecting
the body forward. These actions are repeated for as long as the sprints last.
The running step has the following phases:
1. The propulsion phase: Pushing against the ground with power to drive the body
forward quickly.
2. The drive phase: The opposite leg drives forward, with the thigh horizontal. The
opposite arm also drives along the body, with the hand at shoulder height (arms
are bent at 90-100 degrees). It is essential to keep the ankle locked up during the
landing phase.
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3. The landing phase: As the foot strikes the ground, it quickly comes underneath
the body.
4. The recovery phase: When the heel of the propelling leg quickly drives toward
the buttocks the opposite arm quickly moves forward.
Specific speed/quickness diagrams
The diagrams below must be regarded as only some of the multitude of possibilities
available in rugby. They can be performed with or without the ball. When you add the
rugby-specific and position-specific drills you already know, you’ll have a large number
of exercises to choose from. With this wide variety of drills to choose from, your players’
needs will be well-served.
Figure 7.4 Selected running patterns used for the development of specific speed (unknown
source)
Note: All runs are to be performed from a standing start, from kneeling and from lying
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down on the ground, or from any position a player may experience during the game.
Methods of developing reaction time
Rugby players can develop reaction time by employing the following methods:
Repeated reaction
Repeated reaction is based on the arousal of an individual following a stimulus, either at
the instant of a signal (visual or sonar) or altering the conditions of performing a skill.
Some examples include repeated starts at varied time lapses between the get ready and
the starting time, changing the direction of travel at the coach’s signal or anticipating and
reacting differently to known skills or movements of opponents.
Simple reaction
Simple reaction refers to a predetermined conscious response to a previously known signal
performed unexpectedly, such as the coach’s whistle or a ball being thrown in during
specific drills.
Choice reaction
This type of reaction refers to a game situation that presents a player with several
options, such as a defender having to decide which attacker to take, or where to position
when attacking. Reaction time to visual objects, such as the ball in motion, is quite
short. Well-trained players can perform this in 0.15 to 0.20 seconds, as opposed to
beginners at 0.17 to 0.27 seconds. This time is even shorter for international class players
(Bompa & Chambers, 1999).
Among the exercises you may use are: throwing the ball toward a player from unexpected
positions or directions or at unexpected speeds. The player must quickly get to the ball
and take control of it. The drill can then be followed by other technical tasks, such as
passing, drop shots, or kicking. Use various drills in a reduced playing area where the
traffic is quite high. Under this condition, the player must concentrate fully to visualize
the ball, take control of it, pass or kick.
Training methods for the development of reaction time
The array of training methods for the development of reaction time is quite varied; they
can be developed on or off the field, for all the players. However, only a few selected
methods that are applicable to rugby are presented below.
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The sonic/visual method
The sonic method refers to the liaison between reaction time and the ability to distinguish
small time lapses, or micro-intervals of one-tenth of a second. The standard training
method is repetition with the player reacting to both sonic and visual signals, such as a
whistle, clapping hands or any other instrument that can create a stimulating signal.
Consider the examples below:
• The player runs backward (back paddle) toward you. At your signal the player turns
to face you. Use an arm to indicate the direction in which the player must move
as quickly as possible.
• The player runs back paddle toward you. At your signal the player turns to face you.
Throw the ball in a direction you want. The player should quickly control the ball.
• The player performs a reaction drill from lying on the field in various positions.
At your signal the player stands up as quickly as possible and then performs a
reaction, or technical task, as per your indication.
• Have two players push each other. At your signal they perform a technical, or
reaction task, previously determined by you. Combine this exercise with ball
actions, slalom between cones, zigzags, etc.
• The player moves in an indicated direction. At your signal he performs a reaction,
or technical task. If a drop shot or kicking is used, you must indicate where the
ball should go.
The improvement of reaction time depends very much on how well you prepare and explain
the drills and exercises to the players, as well as how motivated and focused the players
are on the specific tasks. If a players’ concentration is directed toward the exercise or drill
to be performed rather than on how fast the player hears the signal, reaction time is much
shorter. Reaction time is also reduced if the player slightly pre-contracts the muscles
needed to perform the action prior to performing the drill.
Among the most effective methods of training reaction response to visual signs, movement
time and hand-eye coordination is Dynavision equipment (Klavora et al 1995, and Klavora
and Leung, 1996). This board is 150 cm x 120 cm. Sixty-four small, square target buttons
cover small lights, which illuminate randomly. The scope of the exercise is to locate the light
and strike it with the hand as quickly as possible. The light extinguishes when struck and
another light appears on the board. The exercise can be preprogrammed to run for 30, 60 or
240 seconds. The results of the test are displayed on a panel and can be printed.
It is a very good training device for rugby players who must react
with the arms to game conditions. Among other benefits for the
players include: quick arm action/reaction, ability to focus on
the task, concentration, and improved peripheral vision.
Figure 7.5 The Dynavision board, a very effective
training device for hand-eye coordination and reaction
to visual signs
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Reaction to a moving object
Reaction to a moving object is typical for game-specific conditions when a teammate
passes the ball, the receiver has to see the ball, perceive its direction and speed, select his
plan of action and perform it. These four elements comprise the hidden reaction, which
takes between 0.25 seconds and 1.0 second. The first element requires the longest time,
especially if the player receives the ball unexpectedly. The sensory time, the time necessary
to perform the other three elements, is much shorter at 0.05 seconds (Zatzyorski, 1980).
Consequently, we should stress the first element during training is the ability to visualize
the moving object. Various exercises that include sending the ball toward a player from
unexpected positions and directions, or at unexpected speeds, to enhance their reaction to
moving objects, are suggested. Also, using various games or playing in areas smaller than
the field improves the reaction to a moving object.
Training methods for the development of movement time
Besides the traditional drills used to train movement time you can also use the reaction
ball (see figure 7.6, reproduced with permission from the catalog Perform Better) and
perform exercises exemplified below:
• Throw or kick/throw the ball against the wall and catch it as quickly as possible.
• Same as mentioned above, but kick or hit the ball in a predetermined direction.
• Stand three or four meters away from a wall. Throw the ball against the floor and
try to catch it as it rebounds off the wall.
• Perform the above with a hand or leg.
• Throw the ball onto the floor/ground and have 2-4 players battle to take control of
it with the arms or legs.
• Throw the ball against the wall, let it bounce, and have 2 to 4 players battle to take
control of it and immediately attempt to pass it to a given target.
• Distract the player’s concentration (e.g. point at the ceiling) then quickly throw the
ball in a given direction. Have the player take control of the ball and pass it at a
predetermined target as quickly as possible.
Figure 7.6 The reaction ball
Drills for reaction and movement time can be performed at the
beginning of a training lesson, when players are fresh, or at the
end, when they are tired. Often such drills have to be performed
at the end of the training session under the conditions of
fatigue. This variation will train the players’ reaction time for
the last part of the game. Since variety is important, use your
imagination to continually invent new drills.
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Selected exercises and games for the development of speed,
reaction and quickness
The selected exercises for the development of speed and quickness are intended to
illustrate the type of exercises you may use during the nonspecific training phase. These
exercises or relays far from exhaust all the available examples. However, in the case of
relays, they are both fun and effective for the development of speed and quickness.
Please always look for good form over winning. However, winning may be emphasized
for relays, both for the scope of achieving a psychological goal and for the development
of maximum speed/quickness.
A specific description follows each of the suggested exercises:
• #1 refers to starting position.
• #2 to 4 explains how the exercise/relay is performed.
NOTE: The description is always below the illustration.
Standing start drill
Figure 7.7 Standing start drills
Focus: quick acceleration from standing position
In rugby, the ability to accelerate quickly is a highly desirable quality. Standing start drills,
therefore, train players to quickly start a fast acceleration in a given direction.
1. Player stands with feet apart in a ready position.
2. At your signal, the player quickly accelerates in the specified direction.
Variation: Perform the same drill with turns around a cone or a series of turns or slalom
around four to six cones.
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Falling start drills
Figure 7.8 Falling start drills
Focus: quick acceleration from falling forward position
1. Player begins standing.
2. At the command, “On your mark,” the player moves to the start line.
3. At “Set,” one foot is back, the opposite arm is forward and both arms are at 90 degree
angles. The body weight should be about to tip over from a slightly forward leaning position.
4. At “Go” the player swings the arm vigorously forward and back and drives opposite
leg through to make first stride.
Quick steps
Figure 7.9 Quick steps
Focus: quick acceleration with short and quick steps
1. Player takes either of the previous starting positions.
2. Player performs quick steps from the start for 10 to 15 meters or yards, always landing
with the front foot below the knee of the front leg. This will result in acceleration with
short and quick steps.
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High knees
Figure 7.10 High knees
Focus: strengthens calves and hip flexors
1. Walk, driving the knee of the front leg above the horizontal, mounting up on the toes
of the supporting leg.
2. The arms, bent at 90-100 degrees, drive back and forth in coordination with the legs.
3. Do repetitions of 10 to 15 meters.
Big steps
Figure 7.11 Big steps
Focus: improve leg power and long strides
1. Player begins standing.
2. Make 10 to 15 marks or circles on the ground at a distance that will force the athlete
to take big steps (strides).
3. The player performs long strides and places feet in the circles then walks back to the
starting point.
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Harness running
Figure 7.12 Harness running
Focus: arm drive, leg power development
1. Place a rope, harness or ribbon around the athlete’s shoulders under the armpits (like
a rucksack).
2. Hold the ends of the rope and oppose the athlete’s forward drive with a slight resistance.
3. To defeat the resistance, the athlete must push forcefully against the ground, slightly
inclining forward and driving the knees forward powerfully.
4. Repeat for 10 to 15 meters.
Variation: Use a harness that can be released, meaning that the player can run 5 to 10
meters against the resistance provided by the instructor. At the instant of releasing the
harness or rope the player is looking for maximum acceleration.
Acceleration run
Figure 7.13 Acceleration run
Focus: improve fast acceleration
1. Player begins standing, one leg forward, in a ready position.
2. Repeat acceleration runs observing good form running tall, coordinating arms and
legs, arms bent, heels coming up to the buttocks, eyes forward and shoulders relaxed.
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Beanbag relay
Figure 7.13 Beanbag relay
Focus: acceleration and deceleration
1. Two teams face each other, 20 meters (maximum) apart.
2. The front athlete from one team runs with the beanbag or tennis ball and hands it off
to the front athlete of the other team, who becomes the next runner; the first athlete
sits at the back of the line.
3. The relay ends when all members have run with the beanbag and are seated.
Beanbag shuttle
Figure 7.14 Beanbag shuttle
Focus: fast acceleration and deceleration
1. A run and fetch game with teams running to pick beanbags or tennis balls out of a
box.
2. The first runner takes a beanbag and places it in a box. The next player runs to the
box as fast as possible, picks up the bag, and returns to the team, giving the bean bag
to the next player in line.
3. The game ends when the last team member gets a beanbag and returns to the start.
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The loop
Figure 7.15 The loop
Focus: start and fast run forward and around the loop
1. Divide the group into small teams of six to eight players. From a standing position,
the player falls forward and starts to run a loop around a cone.
2. Once around the cone, the player walks back rapidly.
Finders keepers
Figure 7.16 Finders keepers
Focus: acceleration-deceleration, reaction
1. Divide the players into teams of four or five. Two teams, 15 meters apart, stand to the
right and behind their home hoop, which has four beanbags or balls.
2. The object is to have six beanbags in the home hoop.
3. At the start command, the first runner runs to the opposing team’s hoop, finds any one
of the available beanbags, picks it up, returns to the home hoop, and drops it.
4. Once the beanbag hits the floor, the second team member goes to find a beanbag in
the other team’s hoop.
5. End the round when a team has six beanbags.
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Go, go, go, stop
Focus: reaction time, acceleration, and deceleration
1. An athlete stands 10 meters away from the group.
2. This person calls out “Go” as many times as he or she likes, then “Stop”.
3. At “Go” the runners run toward the caller, and at “Stop” they freeze on the spot.
4. The caller turns to see if anyone is still moving.
5. The last person caught moving becomes the caller for the next round.
These games and drills suggestions can be used with younger players as well as with older
and high performance players. They are suggested examples of making training fun,
interactive and enjoyable. Nonetheless, it is of extreme importance for modern rugby
players and coaches alike, to understand that speed training is not only a necessity, but
has already become a complete part of the game evolution. The time is well over when
rugby was played by slow forwards providers of the ball and fast backs finishing moves
in fast cavalry actions. Speed, associated with speed endurance, power, power-endurance,
quickness of reaction and decision-making should be considered as a must for all players,
regardless of the position played. Actual rugby is played faster than ever, with intense
contact at full speed, more ball-in-play time and less recovery time. Teams that are able
to develop with the most complete physical, technical, tactical and psychological armory
to compete have the best chance of success.
Withstanding this knowledge, the application of sport science results in all aspects of the
game increasing the potential of players and will enhance the teams’ performance. In that
instance, and for this specific area of speed training, where speed is associated with power
and power endurance during training and games, we can reasonably say that no player can
be faster without first improving his/her strength, and appropriately convert it to power
and power endurance for rugby-specific purposes.
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Chapter 8
Endurance Training
As indicated by the time-motion analysis, 60% of the necessary energy for the game is
supplied by the aerobic system, although most of the energy supplied during the actual
ball-in-play time (between 35 and 45% at professional level) will be through the anaerobic
system for the players that immediately surround the ball. This means that along with
power-endurance, endurance is the most important quality players should strive to develop
in order to achieve their athletic goals.
A player is said to have endurance when he can cope with and continue to play in a state of
fatigue for the entire duration of the game. A player is capable of doing this only if he is
adapted to the rigors of endurance training. Game-specific endurance, the ultimate goal of
endurance training, can be positively influenced by the technical ability of a player to perform
technical and tactical skills efficiently and the aptitude to use energy very economically
during a game. Moreover, with the actual game having the tendency to increase the ball-inplay time, hence reducing the recovery period between bouts, optimal physical conditioning
becomes a limiting factor for individual and collective skills and tactical abilities.
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While technical and tactical skills are trained in specific sessions with specific drills,
the efficiency of energy utilization improves as a result of a well-designed periodization
of endurance. Finally, the capacity of a player to tolerate pain and overcome fatigue
induced by 80 minutes of hard fought game also relies on strong psychological traits,
such as motivation, determination, fighting power, team spirit and cooperation between
players who share the same athletic objectives. A well-respected and competent coach
can also influence players’ behavior, determination, and the acquisition of dominant
qualities required by the game.
Classification of endurance
Considering the needs of training and the game, there are three kinds of endurance:
general, game-specific, and position-specific.
General endurance is the capacity to perform a type of activity that involves many
muscle groups and systems (central nervous system, or CNS, neuromuscular system
and cardiorespiratory system) for a prolonged period of time. A good level of general
endurance can be acquired prior to the inception of game-specific endurance and can
have obvious benefits for a player’s overall development of a solid foundation of
training and athleticism.
The early part of general endurance training can be initiated by each individual player
separately before a team begins its official training program. This implies that there is a
strong relationship between general and specific endurance, meaning, specific endurance
relies heavily on general endurance. Every player needs general endurance since it helps
athletes perform a high volume of work, overcome fatigue during training and games, and
recover faster between training lessons and after games.
Game-specific endurance refers to the capacity, or the ability, of a player to perform many
repetitions of technical and tactical actions during training or a game. Game-specific
endurance may be characteristic to each team depending on the physical qualities of their
key players and may be affected by the rhythm and tactical difficulties of a game. Also,
a very demanding game may drastically tax the specific endurance capacity of the players;
resulting in a very high level of fatigue, often visible by increased incidence of technical
and tactical errors, especially during the second part of the contest. Consequently, the
stronger the player’s specific endurance, the easier he/she will cope with and overcome
the stressors of training and the game.
Position-specific endurance is a determinant factor for the individual success of each
player. Since the success of a team is the sum of each individual performance, each player
will do well to train according to his/her specific physiological characteristics and
requirement of specific motor abilities (please refer to chapter 2). Some positions require
great skills; precision kicking, and/or high speed, while others have the highest capability
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to display great anaerobic endurance potential and therefore, cope with the fatigue of
being active in every phase of the game, from the first to the last minute. We determined
previously for instance, that forwards in general will rely largely on anaerobic lactic acid
during action time in a game, whereas the backs will rely more on the alactic system. In
the wake of available physiological information, the need to stress specific areas of
endurance for each position, or group of positions, becomes of vital importance. Since
physiologically rugby is a very complex game, all players need to train all three types of
endurance. Please note that each type of endurance must match physiologically each of
the three energy systems. Furthermore, the development of endurance follows the
principle of periodization of endurance organized in this sequence:
1. Aerobic-endurance is the capacity to perform work for a long duration and the ability
of a player to cope with the specific fatigue induced by the aerobic system. Energy is
mainly supplied by the aerobic system, which greatly involves the cardiovascular and
respiratory systems. During an aerobic-endurance activity, the heart rate is high, often
over 170 beats per minute. The heart’s minute volume (the volume of blood pumped by
the heart in one minute) is around 30 liters and the lungs ventilate 100 to 120 liters of
air per minute (Wilmore and Costill, 2002). Oxygen supply is a determining factor for
good performance. The vital capacity and the minute volume of the heart are, therefore,
limiting factors for high athletic results. They also reflect the player’s adaptation to the
stress of prolonged activities. Medium intensity work favors the body’s adaptation and
capillary networking so vital for the supply of oxygen to the muscle cells. One of the
characteristics of aerobic endurance is the development of the maximum intake capacity
of oxygen, also referred as VO2max, which gives athletes and players the capacity to
bring to the muscles as much oxygen as possible to counteract the accumulated oxygen
debt when the activity reaches levels of intensity beyond the anaerobic threshold (AnT)
and lactic acid has started to accumulate in both muscles and blood, passed the critical
barrier of 4 mmol/liter. Research results from MacLean in 1992 found that rugby players
during exhibition games can accumulate 5 to 9 mmol/l of lactate. A further study by
Doutreloux in 2000 found that forwards will build the most muscular and blood lactic
acid to an average of 7,2 mmol/l whereas backs will build lactic acid in the average range
of 2,8 mmol/l. This study was made among Elite players.
2. Lactic acid endurance is referred to as the ability of a player to perform medium
duration work of 30 to 90 seconds but with an intensity higher than activities performed
under the conditions of aerobic endurance, and the oxygen supply cannot totally meet
the body’s needs. Therefore, players develop an oxygen debt, which must be paid back
during the rest interval via an increased breathing rate, a mechanism that allows the
body to re-supply its oxygen needs. The energy produced by the anaerobic system is
proportional to the speed/pace of the game or training drills. High intensity drills that
tax the lactic acid system produce high amounts of lactate, often more than 8 to 12
millimoles (mmol), although more studies need to be published on lactate buildup
during rugby games. If a player is not trained to cope with the buildup of blood lactate,
he/she has to either slow down the pace of a drill/game, or simply stop.
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3. Alactic-endurance refers to the capacity of a player to tolerate the fatigue induced by
repeated, short duration (less than 10 to 12 seconds), but maximum intensity activities
repeated during specific and non-specific physical training. Alactic-endurance is
essential if a player is to successfully cope with the fatigue induced by many repetitions
and drills of short but high intensity. The anaerobic processes participate intensely in
supplying the energy required (up to 80%) to perform the actual ball-in-play game and
training tasks. Strength and speed play an important role in producing good results in
alactic activities. The oxygen debt is high, being repaid only during rest intervals. The
ability to develop the anaerobic capacity does rely quite heavily on the aerobic
endurance, and the increased development of a players’ VO2max. The stronger the
aerobic endurance, the later the player will rely on the energy produced by the
anaerobic system. Consequently, a player must develop a high aerobic capacity before
training lactic and alactic endurance.
Factors affecting endurance
The effective ways of improving the three types of endurance needed for a successful
performance in rugby depend on the following factors:
Central nervous system (CNS)
During training and a game the CNS adapts to the specific training demand the players
are exposed to. As a result of training, the CNS increases its working capacity, which
improves the nervous connections needed for well-coordinated function of the organs and
systems. Fatigue that occurs at the CNS level decreases its working efficiency, being a
major cause of fatigue. The struggle to overcome or cope with fatigue is a battle between
weakened body systems and the players’ willpower to maintain high working capacity.
You, as the coach, or player, can facilitate the CNS optimal function by selecting adequate
and optimal drills of training. Uniform work with moderate intensity improves the
neuromuscular coordination specific to long-duration repetitions of technical and tactical
drills performed under increasing levels of fatigue. As a result, high demanding technical,
tactical and physical training increases the capacity of the nervous cell to tolerate and
function effectively under the conditions of stressful training and games.
Athletic willpower
Willpower, also called mental toughness, is a paramount ingredient in any type of
endurance training. A player relies on it largely when he/she has to perform work in a
state of fatigue, or when the level of fatigue increases as a result of a prolonged training
lesson. This is even more obvious when intensity is an important component of training.
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The player cannot maintain the required level of intensity unless his will and desire
challenges the nervous centers to continue the work, or even increase it, particularly at
the end of the game. Players can maximize their training capacity only by appealing to
the will of defeating the weaknesses that is often a result of fatigue. An important training
objective, therefore, is to increase the pain tolerance of players so they can psychologically
tolerate the pain, hurt and agony of training and games.
There are no players who don’t encounter fatigue during a game. Nobody can evade the negative
effects of fatigue on performance, but the probability to win the game rests with the team
whose players’ mental toughness overcome the weakness resulting from high-level fatigue.
Aerobic capacity
The body’s capacity to produce energy in the presence of oxygen (O2), determines its
endurance capacity. Aerobic capacity is limited by the ability to transport O2 within the
body. Developing the O2 transportation system should, therefore, be part of any program
to improve endurance capacity. High aerobic capacity also facilitates faster recovery
between drills, after training and games. A rapid recovery allows the player to reduce the
rest interval and enable them to perform more work with a higher intensity.
If a player can train with shorter rest intervals he/she can increase the number of
repetitions/drills per training session, which results in an increased volume of training.
This actually means he can do more work/number of drills per training session.
Furthermore, a fast recovery capacity, resulting from improved aerobic and anaerobicendurance will always enable players to perform a higher number of technical and tactical
drills, which once again translates into increasing the volume of work per training session.
A player trained under these conditions will always recover faster during a game stoppage
and play more effectively when the game resumes.
The organs and especially the respiratory system (which supplies oxygen) become welldeveloped during endurance training. In fact, certain organs are developed according to
the training method employed. Interval training strengthens the heart and its capacity to
pump more oxygen and nutrients to the working muscles while long-duration endurance
training increases the O2 utilization capabilities (mentioned above).
Breathing plays an important role in endurance training. During longer duration tactical
drills, players must breathe deeply and rhythmically. Active exhalations are critical for an
effective game. Athletes must learn how to exhale in order to evacuate as much air as
possible from the lungs because the O2 has already been extracted from the air present in
the lungs. Without proper exhalation, the concentration of O2 in the freshly inhaled air
will be diluted which will adversely affect performance. A forceful exhalation is even
more important during the critical phase of the game, when the players are very tired and
an adequate supply of oxygen can enable them to overcome this difficulty.
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A high aerobic and anaerobic capacity allows a player to function longer before increasing
the level of blood lactate beyond the anaerobic threshold (4 mmols) and prior to
encountering an O2 debt. High levels of blood lactate affect a player’s capacity to play
with the same intensity, forcing him/her to slow down.
Anaerobic capacity
The anaerobic system produces energy in the absence of O2. Energy contributed by the
anaerobic system directly relates to the performance intensity of a tactical drill or game.
The shorter and more intense a drill the more you’ll rely on the anaerobic system to produce
the necessary energy. The best training methods necessary to improve the anaerobic
capacity are intensive but specific technical and tactical drills.
Periodization of endurance
During an annual plan, endurance is developed in several phases. Using as a reference an
annual plan with one peak such as the national league games (figure 8.1), a player develops
endurance training in three main phases: aerobic- endurance, mixed training (aerobic and
anaerobic), followed by game-specific endurance.
Aerobic-endurance
Aerobic-endurance is developed throughout the transition phase and the early 2-3 weeks of
preparatory phase through the uniform, steady-state method of long repetitions and tempo
training with moderate to medium intensity. As a consequence of such a program, the
cardiorespiratory system of the player and the efficiency of oxygen utilization improve
progressively. In the early preparatory phase, the long steady-state method will also induce fat
burning as long aerobic- endurance will primarily use fatty acids as a mode of energy
production. An excellent way for the players to lose those extra kilos gained in the transition
period! Parallel to the adjustment to training, the workload is progressively increased, especially
training volume. Good aerobic-endurance also has the benefit of facilitating a player’s recovery
during training, between training sessions, and during a stoppage in the game. This is
advantageous since a highly recovered player can continue to play with higher intensity.
Mixed training: Aerobic and anaerobic-endurance
Aerobic-endurance and specific endurance are extremely important in achieving the
goals of endurance training. Through the mixed transition phase you in fact plan a
transition from aerobic-endurance to game-specific and position-specific endurance.
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Progressively introduce rugby-specific elements according to the position-specific
requirements played by each player. High intensity training, specific to the competitive
phase, may fail unless you maintain the foundation of endurance during this second
phase. The prevailing methods are uniform, alternative, long-interval and mediuminterval training (toward the end of this phase).
Specific-endurance
Specific-endurance is developed throughout the main part of the preparatory and
precompetitive phase (figure 8.1) mostly via specific technical and tactical drills. The
appropriate training method must be based on the ergogenesis of rugby and the needs of
each player. At times you must emphasize training intensity that often exceeds the game’s
intensity. Alternating various intensities facilitates recovery between training lessons,
leading to specific development prior to the beginning of league games.
Training
Phase
Preparatory
Training
General
Sub-phase
Aerobic
endurance
Periodization of
Endurance
Mixed
training
Introduce
game
specific
endurance
Competitive
Transition
Specific
Precompetition
Aerobic,
lactic and
alactic Endurance
Game/posi- Game/position-specific Aerobic
tion-specific endurance (ergogenesis) endurance
endurance
(ergogenesis)
via technical
and tactical
drills
Gamespecific
endurance
(ergogenesis) via
specific
technical
and tactical drills
League games
Transition
Figure 8.1 A graphical illustration of the periodization of endurance for an annual plan
for rugby
NOTE: The proportions between the duration of different training phases may not
accurately represent an annual training program.
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178
Methodology of developing endurance
To improve endurance, players must learn to overcome fatigue and they do this by adapting
to the training demand. A good adaptation is reflected in improved endurance,
demonstrated both during testing and highly demanding training lessons and games.
Players must develop the three types of endurance, aerobic, lactic acid and/or alactic,
according to the specific position played by each player. The development of these three
types of endurance depends on the intensity and the methods used in training.
Training parameters for aerobic-endurance
Poorly trained players have difficulty maintaining aerobic activity for longer periods and
they encounter fatigue relatively quickly. Well-conditioned, elite players, on the other hand,
may maintain continuous activity under the conditions of fatigue for an hour, or slightly
longer with a heart rate at 150 to 160 beats per minute (bpm).
As a general outline, the following training parameters are significant for developing
aerobic-endurance:
•
The intensity of training must be lower than 70% of the maximum velocity. As a
standard to follow, you can measure intensity by the time of performance per a given
distance, the velocity in meters per second or the heart rate (140 to 160 bpm). Training
drills and methods that do not increase the heart rate above 130 bpm have an
insignificant effect on the improvement of aerobic capacity.
•
The duration of a repetition/drill must be of varying magnitudes, often between 6090 seconds to challenge the lactic acid and 3-10 minutes for the development of the
aerobic component. Training lactic acid endurance is essential for each player to be
able to cope with an intensive and aggressive beginning of a game.
•
For aerobic-endurance, the RI should definitely be between 45 and 90 seconds, without
exceeding 3 minutes. Because during a longer rest, the capillaries (the blood vessels
that connect the arteries with veins) shrink, and for the first minutes of work, blood
flow is slightly restricted.
•
Activity during the RI is normally at low intensity to facilitate biological recuperation.
Walking or jogging is a familiar activity for well-trained players. But easy, simple
passing/kicking the ball can also be performed during RI.
•
Heart rate can be a good indicator of the level of fatigue experienced by a player. It
normally increases as fatigue is encountered during strenuous drills. A heart rate higher
than 180 beats per minute represents the heart’s response to high intensity drills. Drills
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that result in a higher heart rate (over 180 bpm) are not conducive to improve aerobicendurance. On the contrary, it taxes the anaerobic energy system.
Training parameters for alactic and lactic acid endurance
Lactic acid (LA) and alactic-endurance are important physiological assets for rugby
players. Most of the methods used for developing lactic and alactic endurance are
performed with high intensity. The following parameters may assist you to better
comprehend the specifics of alactic and lactic endurance:
•
The intensity may range from sub-maximum (around 150 bpm) to maximum limits
(over 180 bpm). Although a variation of intensities in training can be used, intensities
around 90 to 95% of maximum should prevail for improving anaerobic-endurance.
•
The duration of work may be between 5 and 90 seconds, depending on the type and
energy system the player is using less than 10 to 12 seconds for alactic system and 30
to 90 seconds for lactic.
•
The RI following an activity of high intensity must be long enough to replenish the
O2 debt. This may be between two and seven minutes because the interval of
recuperation is a function of the intensity and duration of work.
•
Activity during rest must be light and relaxing (such as jogging, or low intensity
technical skills, such as passing) to facilitate recovery and energy replenishment. Total
rest (i.e. lying down) is inadvisable because the excitability of the nervous system may
drop to lower levels.
•
The number of repetitions must be low to medium (8-10), because the work for
developing alactic capacity is intense and too many repetitions will cause lactic acid
to accumulate. If work continues, the glycolytic resources become exhausted, which
means that the aerobic system must assume responsibility of providing the required
energy. Under this circumstance, the velocity decreases and, consequently, the work
you do will benefit the aerobic system. If your scope of training is to improve lactic
acid endurance, the number of repetitions must be much higher, often more than 10
to 12/15 repetitions.
Methods of developing endurance
Throughout the preparatory phases, you have to challenge the physiological limitations
of your players by planning endurance lessons 2-3 times per week. Physiological
limitation (tissue adaptation to work under the conditions of insufficient O2, or hypoxia,
and excess of carbon dioxide) is always noticed when players reach a high state of
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fatigue. Of all the available training methods used for the development of aerobic
endurance we are proposing a selection of the most effective ones, such as uniform,
interval, tempo and model training.
Uniform method
A high volume of work without any interruptions characterizes the uniform method. This
type of training is often called steady state, referring to the fact that throughout the duration
of a session of training the activity is performed in a steady, uniform speed. It is used
dominantly during the early part of the preparatory phase when some players may train
individually, away from the coach. The duration of one training lesson may be between
45 and 60 minutes, at times even longer. You can properly calculate intensity by using the
heart rate method; the rate should be between 140 and 160 bpm keeping in mind individual
differences. The main training goal is improving and perfecting aerobic capacity.
Interval training
Interval training (IT) is a highly taxing form of training comparable to the extremely
strenuous work performed by Sisyphus. According to Greek mythology, Sisyphus was
the king of Corinth and well known for his craftiness when Hades, the god of death,
came to get him. Sisyphus tricked Hades and put him in chains. Hades eventually
escaped and punished Sisyphus for his trickery. The sentence was that Sisyphus would
eternally push a huge stone to the top of a hill. Every time Sisyphus reached the summit,
the stone would roll back down, forcing him to start his work again and again and again.
Without abusing it, IT has its important place among the methods used for the
development of endurance. Those who want to exaggerate the use of interval training
had better remember the work of Sisyphus!
The term interval training does not necessarily refer to the classical method of running a
given distance (e.g. 200 m) several times (e.g. eight times) at a given velocity (e.g. in 36
seconds) and with a specified RI (e.g. two minutes). On the contrary, IT refers to all
methods performed with a RI. This method, in fashion in the 1950s and 1960s, is still
overrated in several countries, including the United States. Most exaggerations in interval
training came from the belief that repetitions of short duration (e.g. 200 to 400 m) could
improve everything, including aerobic-endurance. Obviously, this was never the case!
There is no one method that can do everything for every player. Only a sound combination
of all methods, wisely knitted together can be successful.
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Periodization
Preparatory Phase
Type of Training
Nonspecific
Training Methods
Uniform
IT
2
2
Suggested #
of Weeks
Example
of a Training
Program
Game-, position-specific
1 x 45-60 6-8 x 5
min.
min.
RI= 2-3
min.:
8-12 x
2 min
Tempo
2
- Model training
- Energy systems training
2-4
As per
fig. 8.4
Figure 8.2 A suggested periodization of endurance for the preparatory phase
The classical IT refers to a method of repeating distances of 200 to 400 m, or the time
equivalent of these distances (28/30-60-70 seconds) with a previously planned RI, which
can often be based on the heart rate method. This method assists you to better calculate
the duration of a RI. As such, you have to take the heart rate following a repetition and
time the duration necessary to lower the heart rate to 120 bpm. When this target rate is
reached, the player must begin a new repetition. During the RI, the player does not fully
regenerate, or fully replenish the energy fuel(s) used in a repetition. For best results,
combine the following three interval training methods:
1. Short distance interval training, between 30 and 45 seconds, which mostly develops
the lactic acid system.
2. Medium duration interval training of 1 to 3 minutes, which develops the lactic acid,
and cumulatively, the aerobic systems.
3. Long distance interval training of 3 to 10 minutes, or even longer, where the best
training effect is on aerobic-endurance.
The main elements of progression in IT are the intensity in percentage of maximum
velocity for that distance, the duration of a repetition, RI and the activity during the rest.
Interval training has the following training benefits:
•
•
•
•
Allows the alactic system to be used repetitively.
Delays (to some degree) the onset of fatigue by reducing lactic acid.
Trains the body systems to tolerate the buildup of lactic acid.
Works long enough at sufficient intensity to stimulate an overall improvement in the
aerobic system.
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182
The manipulated variables used in interval training are (figure 8.3):
•
•
•
•
•
Distance and rate/velocity (e.g. 200 m at 70%, or 35 seconds)
Number of repetitions (e.g. 12 times)
Duration of RI (e.g. five minutes)
Type of activity during RI (e.g. walking and stretching)
Frequency of training per week
Terms
Definitions
Work Interval
Portion of interval training program involving high intensity work
bursts
Repetition
One work interval
Relief, Rest Interval (RI)
Time between work intervals (jogging, stretching, ball handling,
passing, kicking)
Training Time
Rate at which work is performed
Figure 8.3 Basic parameters of interval training
Interval training can be very effective as a transition method between aerobic, uniform
activity and game-specific training. More importantly, IT can be extremely useful as a
training method during game-specific and position-specific training, when tactical drills
can be organized with specific parameters, such as the number of drills, duration,
intensity, and RI.
Although classic IT for aerobic development still has valuable and recorded efficiency,
we believe that it certainly lacks the individual customization, which would provide
maximum development efficiency for players. In that instance, we would like to present
here as mentioned in chapter 3, some extremely valuable information on how to
individually customize an increase of aerobic capacity with players. To do so, we would
like to briefly present the work of Professor Veronique Billat, Professor at the
University of Evry sur Seine in France, who is a world leading specialist for endurance
athlete performance development. Professor Billat’s method is based on the individual
development of the velocity an athlete can sustain at VO2max, thereafter referred to
as vVO2max. Increasing the speed a player can cruise at VO2max will provide two
major advantages:
• Push further the limits of lactate buildup.
• Increase oxygen intake to repay the debt occurring repetitively at higher velocities,
close to or at maximum velocity.
The concept of Professor Billat’s training is to develop the vVO2max, which is the real
indicator of aerobic capacity, more than the actual VO2max itself. Moreover, the best way
to develop VO2max remains through IT at vVO2max.
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How can we know the individual vVO2max?
Laboratory and field research has shown that the average maximum time an athlete can
sustain running at VO2max is 6 minutes. Therefore, players should run around a track
(300 or 400 m) as far as they can for 6 minutes. The distance is recorded and divided
by 360 sec for the 6 minutes run. Providing the players have genuinely run as far as
they could and finish the test-run exhausted, this will represent the individual vVO2max
for each player.
Let’s take an example: A player runs 1,650 m in 6 minutes around the track. His/her
vVO2max is:
vVO2max = 1,650 m / 360 sec = 4.58 m/s
Note: This is not to be mistaken with the maximum velocity or speed of the player. It
doesn’t equal his/her maximum sprint capacity. This is the speed at which the player runs
and triggers the maximum oxygen uptake capacity. This speed is close to the anaerobic
threshold (AnT), but higher. In fact, vVO2max training will trigger a maximum O2 uptake
during bouts and will also generally be associated with a blood lactate of 8 to 12 mmol/L
and a heart rate (HR) at least equal to 90% of the theoretical maximum heart rate (MHR)
of 220-age in years (Billat, 1996).
Where do we go from here?
The objective is to progressively increase this speed to also increase the oxygen uptake
as well as push away the lactic acid buildup, which of course doesn’t mean that players
will not have to train for lactic acid tolerance, as this will happen during training and
playing games. We should not forget that in rugby all three energy systems are taxed
heavily to contribution, and that aerobic development is the foundation on which we
evolve. Once players know their vVO2max, they can develop IT as follows:
30-30: In this IT session, players will be asked to run around a marked track in bouts of
30 seconds at vVO2max and 30 seconds recovery at 50% of vVO2max. This will be
sustained until the player is not able to run at vVO2max any longer (when the player is 5
m off the mark on two bouts). This indicates the end of the session.
Let’s take our above example as continuity in practical application:
vVO2max = 4.58 m/s in 30 seconds, the player will be required to run:
4.58 x 30 = 137.4 m and his/her recovery run will be: 68.7 m in 30 seconds
For practical reasons, distances can be arranged to the next rounded meter, and the training
can take place on a pitch as long as it is dry, players don’t use their boots but running
shoes, and players are paired to run similar distances. One player runs, the other player
times the run and they switch accordingly once the individual session is over. Two sessions
per week can be scheduled in the preparatory phase, non-specific aerobic development.
60-60: Once players are used to the 30-30 sessions and can run well over 10 bouts at
vVO2max, they can increase the time of run at vVO2max as well as the recovery run in
proportion. In our example this would give:
4.58 m x 60 = 274.8 m at vVO2max with 137.4 m in 60 seconds for recovery
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5 x 3 min: Once very comfortable with the 60-60 session, or if the players already have
a very good aerobic capacity, the next step would be:
5 x 3 min at vVO2max with 3 min recovery at 50% vVO2max
Coming back to our practical example: In 3 minutes our player will cover half the distance
covered in 6 minutes: 1,650 m / 2 = 825 m so our training session for this player would be:
5 x 825 m runs in 3 minutes with 412 m run in 3 minutes recovery between each bout.
Such a session will take the player 30 minutes, twice a week. Once it becomes a bit too
easy to finish, it means first that there is an improvement and secondly that the recovery
runs can be decreased to 2 minutes a 50% vVO2max to increase the intensity. Total session
time will then be 25 minutes, twice a week.
It is very important to reassess the players every 4 to 5 weeks with a new 6 minute run,
which will certainly induce a higher distance covered, meaning that the vVO2max has
increased. If increased, the vVO2max must be recalculated and new training sessions
reprogrammed individually. This is where the real advantage of vVO2max training resides
in the possibility to constantly reassess and reprogram individually the work load for
aerobic improvement. Another excellent feature of this aerobic-endurance development
is that it can be customized for multi-sports and cross training activities such a bicycling,
rowing, or swimming. Moreover as seen in this segment, vVO2max training is not only
the best way to develop VO2max, but IT at vVO2max will also induce high intensity bouts
where blood lactate level will reach 8 to 12 mmol/L depending on the individual and
induce intense heart rates periods close to 90% of maximum, both the matter being relevant
for high rugby performance development.
Tempo training
To many coaches, a player’s aerobic-endurance is expected to be developed via jogging,
a longer duration (3-5 km) of continuous, lower intensity running. Nothing is farther from
the truth! Jogging alone does not meet the needs of game-specific endurance. Furthermore,
since the speed of jogging is far removed from the intensity of the game of rugby it does
little for the game-specific adaptation of the major functions and organs of the body.
Instead, another type of activity is suggested for rugby players, tempo training, which is
closer to the dynamic rhythm of the game. This method can be best used as a transition
from all the endurance training methods to game-specific endurance training.
Tempo training refers to a repetition of 400 to 600 m at an intensity of 60 to 75% of
maximum velocity over that particular distance. All repetitions planned for a given training
session will be repeated at the same percentage of one’s maximum potential. Throughout
the repeated distance the velocity must be steady and continuous. If a player starts a
repetition faster than the prescribed percentage, he/she will develop more lactic acid than
necessary, forcing the player to slow down in the second part of that repetition. Therefore,
look for steadiness, a steady tempo and performance of work.
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The aerobic benefit of this type of training is cumulative. This means that if you do just
one repetition alone, the energy will be supplied mostly by the anaerobic system and as
such, it will not have a positive aerobic benefit. But by repeating 400 m several times, for
example, it does. The physiological explanation for this relies in the fact that in each
repetition, lactic acid accumulation can be around, or beyond, the anaerobic threshold (4
mmols). When the anaerobic energy system can no longer supply the necessary fuel
(glycogen), the body must tap the aerobic system. Therefore, tempo training has a
cumulative effect on the development of the aerobic base.
The benefits of tempo training are similar to most types of aerobic endurance, enlargement
of the capillary network and improved blood flow, which increases the supply of fresh
oxygen and nutrients to the working muscles, etc.
An example of tempo training is presented below (figure 8.4). Please note the progression
of repeated distance from 400 m, lowering it in the last week to 200 m. For each week a
proposed intensity in percentage of maximum speed is suggested. Every time a new
distance is suggested you are required to test your player’s maximum speed in seconds
(i.e. 400 m=68 seconds) and then calculate the indicated percentage (i.e. 60%). Please use
the calculated time every time you repeat that distance.
Week #
Suggested Program
RI min.
1
2
6-8x400 m
@60%
8x400 m
@65%
4
3-4
3
8-10x400 m
@70%
3- 4
4
10-12x200 m
@70-80%
4-5
Figure 8.4 Suggested regression for distance and intensity of tempo training
Model training
The originality of this method is based on the fact that it resembles the specifics of the
game, hence the name, model training. There are several variations of model training you
may apply, with or without the ball.
Model training for training game-specific energy systems/
pace of a game
There is a great advantage to considering this type of model training, namely that it can
resemble different paces of a game. Figure 8.5 illustrates a training lesson where the early
part of training consists of several repetitions that are short and performed with high
intensity, typical of a game where its beginning is expected to be fast and aggressive.
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186
Under such conditions both alactic and lactic systems are taxed. The mid-part of training
uses distances and intensities that improve aerobic-endurance. Finally, the last part of
training once again employs short distance repetitions to model exactly an increased
intensity for the finish of the game. The players perform these repetitions under a high
level of fatigue where lactic and aerobic systems are heavily taxed.
Lesson Part
Energy System Intended Training Methods
to be Developed
First
Alactic and lactic
- IT (short and intensive)
Mid
Aerobic
- IT (long)
- Game position-specific
aerobic drills
Last
Lactic and aerobic
- IT (short and intensive)
- Tactical drills of low intensity
Figure 8.5 Suggested example of a training lesson using model training
Other variations are also possible, such as mimicking the fast rhythm of the game at the
beginning of each period, or imposing a fast, powerful pace for the finish of each period.
Variations of pressuring must also be considered. As you organize model training lessons,
consider factors such as total volume of work, velocity of a repetition/drill, rest intervals,
and the number of repetitions according to the individual’s potential. You can use the heart
rate method to calculate the RI. Considering its specificity, employ this method during
the pre-competitive and competitive phases (league games).
Complex model training
Recognizing the complexity of the technical/tactical and physical characteristics of rugby,
there are other variations of model training that can specifically enhance the development
of the motor abilities and the skills required for a game. To create your own model to train
the complexity of the game, you must make a list of the types of activities a player performs
during the game. In doing so, it is imperative to make the program position-specific. Only
under this condition will a player be trained according to the position-specific
physiological demand and position-specific physical abilities.
Please adjust the list suggested below as per the specific needs of your players.
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Type, intensity and distance of various activities performed repetitively in rugby
training/game with and without the ball:
- Sprinting: 10-50 m at 100%
- Striding: 20 to 50 m at 70%
- Cruising: 20 to 40 m at 50%
- Bent run: 5 to 10 m at 80 to 100%
- Jogging: 50 to 4000 m at low intensity
- Acceleration-deceleration: 10 to 20 m at 80 to 100%
- Slalom run: 10 to 30 m at 70 to 90%
- Stop-and-go: 5 to 15 m at 80 to 100%
- Variations of changes of direction and fake runs: 5 to 20 m at 50 to 100%
- Side shuffle: 5 to 10 m at 70 to 100%
- Forward run and back pedal: 10-20 m at 50 to 90%
- Simple obstacle course: dive, run under an obstacle, run over an obstacle, side rolls
(5 m in each direction), crossover (10 m in each direction), leap over 5 to 10 simple
obstacles of 25 to 40 cm high, etc.
- Tackle at 80 to 100%
- Ball wrestling at 90 to 100%
- Jumping and lifting at 100%
- Dynamic and isometric/static pushes at 80 to 100%
Game-specific combinations of activities:
- Sprint, pivot, stride, side shuffle, jog, bending run, stop-and-go, compensation jog
- Acceleration-deceleration, jog, slalom run, jog, cruise, back pedal, compensation jog
- Stride, side-shuffle, jog, change of direction, pivot, compensation jog
- Sprint, stride, stop-and-go, jog, back pedal and forward sprint, compensation
jogging
- Slalom run, stop-and-go, jog, bending run, acceleration-deceleration, jog, leap over
simple obstacles, compensation jogging
- Simple obstacle course, jog, change of direction, jog, acceleration-deceleration,
compensation jogging
NOTE: Perform these combinations as per the specifics of interval training: distance,
intensity, number of repetitions and rest interval. Most of these drill combinations are
usually performed in the form of circuits.
Game-specific endurance
The development of game-specific endurance is a complex task, since rugby players utilize
all three energy systems. Consequently, to achieve a complex body adaptation one must
use several of these methods and variants. The physiological effect of a method does not,
however, have to be the only criteria for selecting a training method, as there is also the
psychological benefit of a method to be considered.
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188
Aerobic training for rugby takes a different yet, very complex form. As soon as a team
starts to train as a unit, specific technical and tactical drills are used extensively. To
maintain all three energy systems used in rugby, specific drills are designed to enhance
a given energy system:
-
High intensity drills of 5 to 10 seconds tax the alactic system.
Intensive drills of 30 to 90 seconds tap the lactic acid system.
Continuous drills of medium/higher intensity of 2-5 minutes, or longer (up to 10
minutes), develop/maintain the aerobic needs of rugby players.
Some coaches rarely organize drills, or training sessions, with the aim of training all the energy
systems. In the vast majority of cases, technical/tactical drills are short and very intensive. But
these drills are also very taxing, both physiologically and psychologically, constantly increasing
the level of fatigue in the players. To avoid exhaustion, and especially over-training, workouts
must be organized in such a way that all energy systems are trained and maintained.
More importantly, training sessions must not be organized on “easy” and “hard” days or
by applying the logic that since the game is very intense every training lesson must also
be very intense. Planning only high intensity lessons, followed by equally demanding
games, is a clear recipe for staleness and even overtraining. This is why we have often
referred to the need to alternate energy systems, to alternate between taxing alactic, lactic
acid and aerobic energies (figures 8.6 and 8.7). This is why we propose aerobic, lower
intensity, but longer duration drills, so that compensation and regeneration workouts are
planned following games, prior to games, and between high intensity days, where most
drills are taxing just the alactic and lactic acid systems.
Training the energy systems for rugby
Alternating training demands during a micro-cycle depends not only on the training phase
(preparatory versus competitive), but also on the need to super-compensate an energy
system. This will correctly train a player and prevent exhaustion, staleness and overtraining.
Since rugby is taxing all three energy systems we also have to understand that fuel
restoration is different for each energy system. If a game exhausts all energy reserves,
then training intensity during the post-game days must be low, to remove fatigue and
facilitate replenishment of all energy stores and, as a result, trigger super-compensation.
Although alternating work and regeneration is important, do not apply it rigidly. During
the preparatory phase, when the scope of training is to build a strong physiological
foundation, players may not experience super-compensation during two or three microcycles of high training demand. Planning developmental and shock sessions are highly
demanding micro-cycles without allowing time to remove the accumulated fatigue. As
competition approaches, carefully alternate intensities.
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Considering the technical, tactical and physical complexity of the game we have to ask
ourselves how to plan a micro-cycle so that you can train all the necessary skills and
biomotor abilities without experiencing a critical level of fatigue, injuries and
overtraining? How can we ensure that each energy system has the necessary time to restore
its energy pool? How to regenerate, recover and compensate physiologically and
psychologically prior to a very taxing training lesson, or before a game? In order to
facilitate all these essential elements of training we are proposing to use the four zones
of intensities suggested by figure 8.6.
The first step is to classify all of the skills and the types of training according to the energy
system they tax. Use the classification proposed by figure 4.7 as a guideline. You may
make your own systematization of skills and biomotor abilities and use it to plan a microcycle. You can plan all skills and physical training under a given energy system in the
same day, as they all tax the same energy source. However, for practical reasons, to improve
skill retention and ensure adaptation to the work you have planned for that day, select only
some of these training options for one day, leaving the balance for other days.
The second step is to analyze figure 8.6 to observe the proposed intensity zones and to
use these recommendations for the alternation of energy systems for a micro-cycle.
Intensity Zones
1
2
3
4
Training
Objectives
Lactic acid
tolerance
Alactic system
(ATP/CP)
Aerobic power
Aerobic
compensation
Characteristics
of Training
- T/TA
complex skills
- TA lactic
acid tolerance
training
- Suicide drills
- T/TA
alactic
- Maximum
speed/agility/
power
- TA: VO2 max
drills
- Aerobic
compensation
- T skills:
accuracy of
passing and
kicking
Duration of
a T/TA Drill
20–60/90 seconds
5–15 seconds
2–5 minutes
or longer
5–10 minutes
(several bouts)
Rest Interval
3–5 minutes
5–7 minutes
2–3 minutes
1 minute
Heart Rate/min
>180
150–170
>170
120–140
% of Total Volume of Training
40% progressively
40%
Figure 8.6 The four intensity zones for rugby adapted from team sports
20%
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As illustrated by figure 8.6, all possible training activities in rugby are listed in the chart
of the four intensity zones. Please note that the sequence of intensities, from 1 to 4, are
listed as per level of difficulty, where zone 1 is the most demanding and zone 4 is the
least demanding. Therefore, the objective of intensity zone 1 is to train the players to
tolerate the pain and discomfort of lactic acid buildup. Those who can tolerate the acidic
effect of high intensity training can work more intensely, produce and tolerate more lactic
acid and, therefore, perform better for longer periods of time.
Consequently, the scope of intensity zone 1 is to adapt the players to the limiting effect
of lactic acid, to tolerate more lactic acid in the system, to buffer its effects and to increase
lactate removal from the working muscles. Psychologically, the purpose of lactic acid
tolerance training is to push the players beyond the threshold of pain tolerance. However,
do not overdo the type of training suggested for zone 1 since it may result in undesirable
training states, such as critical levels of fatigue, staleness and even overtraining.
You can choose from a wide variety of skills and drills for intensity in zone 1, from shuttle
runs/jingle-jangles to any fast, explosive and energetic tactical drills. As long as the activity
is of high intensity and has a duration of 30 to 60/90 seconds, you will achieve the goal
of training your players to tolerate lactic acid buildup beyond the anaerobic threshold (a
concentration of 4 mmol/l).
The second intensity is for a shorter duration, but has the scope of developing maximum
speed and power, and of performing technical and tactical drills that are very fast, with
rapid changes of direction, maximum power and explosiveness. In order to duplicate high
quality activity, the rest interval needs to be longer. Do not neglect this training imperative.
Shorter rest intervals will prevent training at maximum speed or high intensity drills after
three or four repetitions, or rather the athlete will perform lactic acid tolerance training.
By not allowing enough time for restoration of the ATP and phosphocreatine stores you
will, in fact, tax the LA system. In addition, to planning incorrect rest intervals between
repetitions, your players won’t be fast, they won’t react quickly and they won’t perform
technical/tactical actions with power or explosiveness.
The activities trained for zone 3 have the scope of developing aerobic capacity, improving
oxygen transportation and increased oxygen extraction to be made available to the working
muscles. Similarly, zone 3 training increases the efficiency of oxygen utilization, meaning
to use the oxygen available at the muscle cell level more efficiently. During the game,
both oxygen transport systems, central (heart) and peripheral (capillaries), are heavily
taxed to supply the oxygen that participates in producing energy.
Since the supply of oxygen at the working muscle level represents a limiting factor of
performance, and players with a large volume of oxygen have demonstrated better ability
to have a consistent game, specific aerobic training, such as tactical drills of 2-5 minutes,
must constantly be your priority. The rest interval is not long enough to remove all the
LA from the system, or to fully replenish the glycogen stores needed for all repetitions
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planned for that day. Therefore, the type of training specific for intensity 3 is customarily
performed under some residual fatigue, making such a training session quite challenging,
both physiologically and psychologically.
Finally, intensity 4 is comprised of various types of activities that are taxing the aerobic
system. The forms of training you may use range from aerobic compensation, low intensity
to any technical skills performed with low intensity, at an easy and relaxing pace.
Remember that the scope of intensity 4 is compensation, fatigue removal, recovery,
regeneration, replenishment of energy stores and mental relaxation. These types of training
sessions will prepare the players for more intensive training lessons probably planned for
the following day. Intensity zone 4 plays an important role in your strategy to alternate
the energy systems used in rugby and as such, avoid the undesirable effects of highly
taxing training elements. Please remember that recovery and regeneration are as important
as high demanding training. While demanding training is necessary to take your player
to higher levels of adaptation, recovery and regeneration should represent a strategy to
avoid the negative effects of critical fatigue.
You have certainly noticed that we do not make any suggestions regarding the number of
repetitions for any of the four zones of intensity. You are best equipped to decide that. The
number of repetitions for a certain type of drill must consider the individual capacity of
each player and it has to be position-specific. It is your role to figure out how much work
a player can tolerate. However, in your quest to improve athletic performance, a players’
level of adaptation should always be challenged, and as such, plan a higher number of
repetitions on high intensity days.
You may choose to make your training zones per training lessons more specific. Please use
your training expertise and imagination to create training lessons, and microcycles, where each
intensity zone can be alternated as per the proposed alternation of energy systems proposed
in chapter 2.The duration of each type of technical and tactical training per intensity zone is
also suggested. Please note that these suggestions and the prescribed rest intervals match the
energy systems discussed in chapter 2. Similarly, the approximate heart rate reaction to a given
physical activity is also stated. Please use the proposed heart rate per each intensity zone only
as a guideline since individual differences always exist. Finally, the percentage of volume of
training for each intensity zone is also proposed. As you may practically apply these
suggestions, please also use the position-specific requirements of your players.
The third step is to actually plan a microcycle in which you alternate the proposed training
options from figure 8.6. As you do this, please consider the discussion from chapter 2
regarding the energy systems and the need to alternate them. Never overlook the need to
replenish the fuel depleted on a given day. When the fuel is fully replenished, supercompensation will occur, with all of its physical and psychological benefits.
It is important to mention that we are not using specific training examples in the proposed
microcycle (figure 8.7) where the intensity zones suggested in figure 8.6 are alternated and
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combined based on physiological logic. On the contrary, we are suggesting a concept, how
to alternate different intensities to have the best training effect. Obviously, in doing so, we
are using the digits from figure 8.6 to illustrate the needs of alternating intensities per
microcycle. In other words, we are using digits to suggest a given type of work. By looking
at each intensity zone (figure 8.6), you’ll equate a digit with a given type of intensity.
Monday
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
2
Friday
Saturday
Sunday
4
Off
3
1
3
1
2
1
4
4
4
4
4
Figure 8.7 A suggested alternation of intensities per microcycle during the late
preparatory phase
The scope of Monday’s training is maximum speed and lactic acid tolerance training (1),
followed by aerobic and technical training. Since the fatigue acquired from intensities 1
and 2, especially the lactic acid buildup, could be more easily removed from the system
via aerobic compensation, plan intensity number 4 for the end of Monday’s lesson. Tuesday
is a day for the development of aerobic- endurance. The scope of planning intensities 3
and 4 on Tuesday is to allow enough time for the glycogen stores to be replenished by
Wednesday, and as such, ensure players reach super-compensation. On Wednesday, lactic
acid tolerance training is planned, followed by aerobic compensation. Thursday’s training
has the objective of developing maximum speed, power and agility, followed once again
by aerobic compensation.
The scope of the training program planned for Friday is very complex and technically
challenging, to work on technical and tactical skills under the conditions of fatigue. This
means that after training tactical drills and maneuvers that tax the aerobic system (intensity
3) you plan several tactical drills that tax the LA system (intensity 1). Finally, now that
the players are highly fatigued, demand that each player stress the accuracy of passing,
kicking, throwing (intensity 4). This mimics the conditions the players will experience at
the end of the game. By using this system of planning you’ll train your players to increase
the game effectiveness for the final part of the game, where winning and losing is often
at stake and more than often, the best conditioned team will prevail.
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Chapter 9
Recovery, Fatigue, Overtraining,
Detraining, Injuries
As we have previously seen in this book and in analyzing the different segments of training,
fatigue is the #1 concern for rugby players. Fatigue, being the neuromuscular activities
debilitating factor, is a nemesis of athletes and players. Fatigue will cause bio-motor ability
impairment, technical failure, decision-making and tactical blurriness, mental black-outs,
game staleness, and certainly a potential increase in injury rates.
Fatigue is the inherent result of training and playing sports. It is actually overcoming
fatigue generated by training that the body will adapt to a new increased workload, through
planned rest and recovery periods. No one can escape the fatiguing effects of training and
game situations. Only when coaches and players truly understand that through adequate
recovery time the body genuinely adapts will planned training sessions throughout the
year start to make sense for everyone! Recovery is the key factor to training and playing
the game. Failure to plan well will result in over-reaching, overtraining, and cause potential
hazardous physiological and psychological situations for the players.
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Let’s consider these relationships:
Training = stress fatigue
Recovery = compensation adaptation
As seen in chapter 2, any stimuli in training will induce fatigue. Players will compensate
and even super-compensate for fatigue during rest periods, either between sets or drills
in a same session, between days of a microcycle, or between micro-cycles within the
macrocycle of a training plan. The ideal situation is to plan the next stimuli (stress) once
the body has compensated and even super-compensated from the previous stresses.
Biological functions will be reset for another equivalent and intense stimuli or even for
overload. In that instance, the super-compensation phase of the players is the optimal time
for the body to fully adapt from the previous activity. If athletes or players fail to train
again in this phase, an involution will occur and the player will return to the homeostasis
phase, where he/she was before training ever occurred.
It is therefore very important to take into consideration the volume and intensity of
the training. It is also important to allow sufficient time (but not too much) between
exercises of the same training session, days of a microcycle or between microcycles
for super-compensation to occur. The ability of the team to win competition games is
a reflection of the training phases the team has been through; therefore, sound training
programs are important recovery management plans. There is no need to “pump iron”
in a gym and rehearse the moves seen on the board full-force if the players are in a
constant state of fatigue and unable to properly recover from accumulated fatigue.
We will see later in this chapter the different techniques and methods offered to maximize
a players’ recovery. We will see what could be the physiological and psychological
consequences of accumulated fatigue, how to prevent these situations and how to manage
the injuries resulting from one or more of these conditions.
Different recovery methods
In both professional and amateur rugby levels, players are increasingly requested to
perform longer, better and at a constant rate. The use of proper recovery methods will
accelerate the regeneration process; decrease the level of fatigue and the frequency of
injuries. Always keep in mind that a fatigued player is at an increased risk not only to
perform poorly technically and tactically, but he/she is also at a much higher risk of injury
or recurrence of injury. It is very important to taper, or unload, before games and
particularly when the team is scheduled to peak during the season. It is highly
recommended for the coach and players to work in collaboration with medical staff,
physicians and/or physiotherapists consulting for the team.
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There are different factors that affect the rate of recovery of a player:
• Age: younger, under 18 years, and older, over 25 years, players will need more
time to recover.
• Experienced players will recover faster due to a higher physiological adaptation
capacity and efficiency of movement.
• Gender: Researches have shown that female players will recover at a slower rate
due to a hormonal difference than their male counterpart. The lower level of
testosterone hormone in females is responsible for this trait (Noackes, 1991;
Rowland, 1990).
We often hear about “the peaking time” for a team to occur. Peaking is simply manipulating
the periods of physiological stress at different volumes and intensities, and the recovery
time during training inducing unloading periods prior to important games.
Figure 9.1 shows some different methods to recover from training and games.
Natural Ways of Recovery
Physiotherapeutic Ways of Recovery
- Aerobic activities: After demanding sessions or games,
players have a light aerobic
workout. This will help flush
waste products such as lactic
acid. Energy stores will also
replenish faster than with
complete passive rest.
- Stretch therapy: Stretching
should not only be used in
warm-up, but also in cooldowns
after sessions and games. As
muscles become more flexible,
waste products will flush faster.
Stretching is very important for
the tendons.
- Complete rest: Main method
used to restore working capacity. Top players are resting for
10 hours a day, mainly at night.
Relax, have naps, avoid all
excitant substances such as
caffeine, alcohol and nicotine,
and go to bed no later than
10:30 P.M.
- Massage: Systematic manipulation of muscles to
purposefully induce relaxation and removal of toxic
substances accumulated during training. Massage can be
practiced for 15 minutes prior a training session or game,
and 10-15 minutes after the post session/game shower.
It has a tremendous power in relaxing both the muscles
and mind, and is a powerful de-stressor. Massage’s
function is to increase the blood circulation to
appropriate muscles and help flush waste products, also
bringing nutrients to muscle cells, remove excessive
swelling and relieve fatigue.
- Heat therapy: Via heat packs, hot showers (40-42° C) or
sauna. Relaxes muscles and improves blood circulation.
Note: No heat therapy in the case of acute trauma or fever.
- Cold therapy: Use of cold pack, ice cup, bags with crushed
ice. They have an analgesic effect on muscles and remove
pain. Application time: 15-20 minutes intermittently.
- Contrast baths: Players alternate cold and hot therapy,
which will increase the “pump action” of the blood due
to the vasodilatation and vasoconstriction effects. Blood
circulates faster and removes waste products, brings
nutrients for regeneration and healing micro-lesions.
Alternate cold shower or bath for 1 minute and hot shower
or bath for 4 to 5 minutes, always beginning and ending
with the cold, starting with extremities and then the core
of the body. They can be used 1 hour after training or a
game at home, stadium or in the hotel room.
Figure 9.1 Suggested recovery methods and techniques for rugby players
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Top athletes or players in any discipline tend to be excellent at resting. It has been a
shocking experience to journalists visiting the training camps of long distance runners in
Kenya to observe the astounding amount of time these top world athletes spend actually
sleeping, napping, eating and totally resting after and between grueling training sessions.
It is during recovery time that the body adapts, super-compensates and will find the
resources to adapt once again to an overload in the training, improving the physiological
capacities of athletes and players. Remember that rest and recovery is not a waste of time,
it is the only rational way to peak performance!
Rugby players should have 9 to 10 hours of sleep during any given night. Again, there are
several factors affecting sleep quality:
• Physical disorders: pain, asthma, sleep apnea, exercising within 3 hours of going to bed.
• Psychological disorders: stress, nightmares, depression, anxiety, emotions prior to
going to bed.
• Inadequate sleep environment: room temperature (too low or too high) noise,
partner snoring.
• Inadequate sleeping habits: too many day time naps (particularly after 4:00 P.M),
too much reading or watching TV in bed.
Recovery from exercise
It is extremely important that coaches and players understand the chain of events in physical
action and the time necessary to recover from a bout of exercise. During regular training,
energy releasing fuels such as ATP/CP and glycogen, or metabolite byproducts such as lactic
acid, take a certain time to be replenished or eliminated. The time involved is directly
dependant on the energy system taxed for that particular bout of exercises. Hence it is
important to establish a certain timetable encompassing this information. Figure 9.2 shows
the restoration time of the three energy systems (aerobic, anaerobic alactic, anaerobic lactic).
Recovery Process
Minimum
Maximum
Restoration of muscle ATP/CP
Repayment of the alactic O2 debt
Restoration of oxymyoglobin (O2)
Repayment of lactic acid debt
Restoration of muscle glycogen
a) After intermittent activities
2 minutes
3 minutes
1 minute
30 minutes
3-5 minutes
5 minutes
2 minute
60 minutes
b) After prolonged nonstop activities
Removal of lactic acid from the blood
2 hours to restore 40%
5 hours to restore 55%
25 hours to restore 100%
10 hours to restore 60%
48 hours to restore 100%
10 min to remove 25%
25-30 min to remove 50%
60 to 75 min to remove 95%
Figure 9.2 Energy system restoration timetable (Bompa, 2006)
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As we saw in chapter 2, the ATP / creatine phosphate system is the fastest to recover,
but still, if players are for example, training for maximum speed, they must have the
patience to wait 2 to 3 minutes between sprints to allow for maximum restoration of
the alactic energy producing system solely responsible for this type of activity,
otherwise they will not train to their maximum potential, but induce a lactic acid
tolerance training session.
For glycogen restoration, diet will have a great influence on the rate of replenishment. If
some intramuscular glycogen can be restored within 2 hours after exercising without
ingesting carbohydrates, the restoration will be incomplete. A rich carbohydrate diet is
highly recommended for the complete restoration of muscle and liver glycogen after
training sessions and games. We will see in chapter 10 that a high carbohydrate ingestion
30 minutes to an hour after exercising will start the refueling process rapidly. A
carbohydrate-rich meal should be taken within the first 5 hours of cessation of exercise
to enhance full restoration. Figure 9.2 also shows that the type of activity (intermittent
versus nonstop activity) is a factor for glycogen restoration. Players and coaches should
always be aware of what to expect after training and games.
Finally, one of the most important elements for power-endurance sports such as rugby is
the removal of lactic acid. It is physiologically done in two phases:
•
•
Removal of lactic acid from the muscles
Removal of lactic acid from the blood
Chronologically, lactic acid will be removed first from the muscles, then from the blood.
After an intense training session, taxing the lactic acid system or after games, it is advised
to perform 10 to 15 minutes of light aerobic activities like jogging. The removal of lactic
acid will be twice as fast with light exercises under these conditions, than for a player at
complete rest. This is due to the circulation of oxygenated blood, metabolizing lactic acid
and facilitating its removal from the system.
Generally and specifically speaking, the faster a player recovers, the more energy will be
available for the next training session or game. To help in this case, there are some ways
which will enhance recovery. Here is a list of some highly recommended rules players
can use to maximize their recovery plan:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Rational and planned alternation of work/training and regeneration phases
Good, positive, confident team atmosphere
Attempt to eliminate all social stressors
Planned diet according to the phase of training
Active rest and involvement in relaxing and fun social activities
Monitoring players’ health status
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Fatigue and overtraining
Fatigue is a natural occurrence of daily life and sport training. When rugby players train
under normal nonexhausting conditions, it will take close to 24 hours to completely recover
and restore all energy fuels. Inducing an increased volume and intensity of training with
less recovery time, players will usually be unable to fully recover and balance for the
increased physiological and psychological stresses. This simple rule applies:
Failure to recover = More fatigue x (number of training) x weeks = Overtraining
How to recognize effects of fatigue?
Figure 9.3 shows fatigue symptoms for specific intensities.
Low Intensity
Training
Optimal
Intensity
Training
Intensity Up to
One’s Limit
Intensity Slightly
Exceeding One’s
Limit
Fatigue Level
Low
Great
Exhaustion
Exhaustion
Skin color
Slightly flushed
Flushed
Very flushed
Paleness for
several days
Sweating
Light to medium Heavy sweating
in upper body
Heavy sweating
in lower body
May sweat some
Quality of
Technical Skill
Controlled
Loss of precision, Poor
inconsistency,
coordination,
technical fault
technical uncertainty, many
technical faults
Skill inconsistency,
lack of power
(24 hours), impairment of precision
and accuracy
Concentration
Normal, quick
reaction to
coach remarks
Low ability for
skill development, reduced
attention span
Low concentration span,
nervousness
Unable to correct
technical failures,
unable to concentrate on specific
tasks
Training and
Health Status
Performs all
training tasks
Muscular weakness, lack of
power, low
working capacity
Muscle and joint
soreness, headache, stomach
upsets, dizziness,
nausea
Sleeping difficulties, soreness,
physical discomfort, high heart
rate for longer
than 24 hours
Training
Willingness
Eager to train
Desire for longer Desire to stop
rest and recovery training, need for
but still keen to
complete rest
train
Lack of desire
to train, carelessness, negative attitude towards training requirements
Figure 9.3 Symptoms of fatigue associated with specific training intensities (Bompa, 2006)
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A common misconception among players and coaches comes is the interpretation of the
term “overtraining” which seems to encompass quite a few of training ailments. It is
important to note that there are a few stages players will go through prior to getting truly
overtrained. This is what we will attempt to define in the following segment where fatigue
will be classified from minor to more noticeable effects.
-
Acute fatigue or muscular over strain: occurs after a single training session. This form
of fatigue is usually short and last 24 hours. It is usually accompanied by muscle
soreness and some kind of sleep disturbance.
-
Training intensity up to one’s limits: to occur, this will need a few micro cycles of hard
training. Generally it will last longer than 48 hours and will be characterized by sleep
disturbance, lack of power and will to train, loss of appetite and can be accompanied
by emotional disturbances.
-
Overreaching: usually induced by one of the more particularly intense micro cycles
such as shock micro cycles without the proper time for recovery. It can also occur with
normal training patterns, but with a decrease of rest and recovery time. This fatigue
is of medium range and it can last anywhere from 48 hours to up to two weeks.
Muscular overstrain can be associated with overreaching but it is not necessarily a
symptom. Signs and symptoms of overreaching will be premature fatigue to training
stimulus, increased resting heart rate, a very visible drop in performances and increased
thirst, specifically at night.
-
Overtraining: Will occur when over-reached micro cycles are also combined with
insufficient rest and recovery time. Overtraining is a long term form of fatigue and
can last from several weeks to several months even after cessation of physical activities.
Physiologically, most biomotor abilities will decrease in performance and it will be
accompanied by very noticeable muscle weakness.
Once the player has reached the overtraining stage, there will be different areas which
will influence the state of overtraining and should be accounted for the recovery.
-
Neuromuscular fatigue: Without alternating intensity training and energy systems
used, the CNS will be fatigued and will cause slower reaction times, poor coordination,
loss of speed and power (as typically highly activated by the CNS), muscle force
decrease and a general decrease in the firing rate and speed of FT muscle fibers. As
a result, the motivation of a player will seriously decrease, together with a drop in
his/her performance.
-
Metabolic sources of fatigue/muscular overexertion: This leads to discomfort,
muscle soreness, and potential muscular and tendon damage. At this stage, the player
will be highly prone to injury or injury recurrence. Moreover, the abuse of high
intensity training sessions will also lead to an increased level of lactic acid in the
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200
blood which takes time for the body to eliminate. If resting periods are not respected
throughout intense training, the result could be an impairment of muscle contraction
due to an overflow of metabolite and waste products remaining in the blood. This
will induce a decrease in speed and power as it affects the firing rate of FT fibers.
Lactic acid build-up will also reduce the oxygen reaching the muscular cells and
will have a certain effect on the players’ capacity to play longer.
-
Neuroendocrine fatigue: Will occur when extreme fatigue sets in and impairs the
hormonal regulation system of the body. For example, a decrease in the production of
the male hormone testosterone will affect the overall strength of a player, as well as
the ability to recover normally between sessions and following games.
Prevention and treatment of overtraining
The most important issue for players and coaches is to prevent these different stages
before they set in. How? By thoroughly controlling and planning all the parameters of
training, and specifically ensuring that sufficient resting and recovery periods are
planned to allow players to not only recover from previous work, but also favor the
super-compensation phase of the recovery. This is the only guarantee of performance
improvement. Alternating training intensities and energy systems used, as explained
in this book, will go a long way to prevent overtraining. Light aerobic exercise after
lactic acid or heavy sessions will also help recovery. Proper hydration and diet, good
resting periods and enough sleep would ensure avoiding overtraining players. It is also
very important to monitor progress as well as recovery. Without sufficient recovery,
development will become impossible, stagnation and regression will set in, and a drop
of performances will be inevitable; it’s just a matter of time.
The treatment of overtraining is simple; stop all activities and rest. The process will last
several weeks or even months and the player may become psychologically depressed.
Detraining will also occur and most of what has been gained by hard work will be lost!
Prevention is the best remedy. If training is planned rationally with the acceptance and
commitment of the entire group, such problems will rarely occur. But in this professional
field of rugby, which is still in its early stages as a professional sport, opportunities to
overdo it are numerous. Simply remember; harder will be the fall!
Generally, the cause of overtraining will fall into one or more of these categories:
Training mistakes: Recovery overlooking, training beyond one’s capacity, high volume of
high intensity work.
•
Player’s lifestyle: Insufficient sleep, random life, alcohol and excitant
consumption, inadequate living facilities (space), quarrel with peers, poor diet,
over-agitated lifestyle.
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•
Social environment: Overwhelming responsibilities, high levels of frustration or
stress (family, dispute, work, peers), professional dissatisfaction or boredom,
overly stressful professional activities, excessive emotional activities (noise,
environment, TV etc).
•
Health: Illness, injury, fever, nausea, gastric problems, overall recovery
deficiency.
As a coach, it is important to observe and monitor the players without being too invasive.
Here is where it is often delicate. Always ask the players how they feel. Listen carefully
to the answers and observe specifically their body language before, during and after
training sessions. Initially many players will be in a state of denial quite equivalent to the
way players react when they sustain an injury.
What to look for?
• Inappropriate loss of weight.
• Increased resting heart rate: Coaches and players should be aware of the difference
of more than 8 heart beats when in a rest position. If it occurs for more than 2 days
in a row, it is a good sign that the player isn’t recovering properly and the training
regimen should be altered.
• Attitude towards training, game, enthusiasm or lack of, body language, facial
expressions, and specifically the expression of the eyes during training. The eyes
of a player tell a lot.
• Health status of the players should be monitored regularly by physicians. Observe
and note in a health log variations of weight. A gain or loss of 1 kg within a period
of 24 hours is considered normal, gains or losses above this should be considered
as suspect and investigated further.
• Monitor resting heart rate as previously mentioned.
• Monitor hours and patterns of sleep.
It would be a good idea for players to record their health status to monitor their own general
physiological state. This should be mandatory for high performance training development
and is usually applied in most rugby academies worldwide.
Special mention should be made for teams traveling through different time zones
domestically or internationally. Traveling through time zones will disrupt what is
called the circadian rhythm of the body. It is an inner body function allowing us to
know what time of the day or night it is and how the body should react to it. It is
obvious that traveling will affect some physiological capacities of the body,
specifically concerning recovery, sleeping and eating patterns. This can provoke a
disruption in sleep rhythms inducing lethargy and more fatigue, loss of appetite,
digestive disorders and restless sleep periods. Figure 9.4 shows some measure to
minimize circadian rhythm disruption.
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Small Time Zone Shift
Large Time Zone Shift
- Preset sleep and wake-up cycles to the
destination time.
- Train or play in the morning after
westward flights and in the evening after
eastward flights.
- Eat meals at regular time after arrival.
- Have light meals before flights.
- Avoid all alcoholic beverages before,
during and after the flights.
- Participate in light social activities (two
hours) after arrival.
- Avoid gas-producing food and beverages
prior to flying as gas expands at altitude.
- Arrive at destination at least one day early for
each time zone crossed.
- Westward flights should always be taken when
crossing more than 10 time zones. If this is the
case, the team should arrive at least two weeks
prior the first game to be played. For best
adaptation, the first four to seven days should
be at low intensity and aerobic in nature to
facilitate adaptation to new conditions.
- Attempt to partially synchronize sleep,
waking and eating times to the time at
destination before leaving.
- Maintain regular sleeping and eating times
after arrival.
- Have lighter meals 3 days prior the flight.
- Avoid alcoholic beverages before, during and
after the flight.
- Avoid gas producing food for flights.
- Program the use of chronobiotic (melatonin)
if necessary. It may alleviate the disruption
symptoms.
Figure 9.4 Minimizing circadian rhythm disruptions
Detraining
Detraining or the loss of the gains resulting in the body adaptation to progressive overload
in training will occur in two circumstances:
• During the competition phase
• During the transition phase
The longer the competition, league games phase, the more chance a players’ performance
will decrease if the specific biomotor abilities are not maintained during that time. This
is why it is always important to manage time in the plan to maintain the core of the
functions inherent to a good performance in rugby. Although the majority of time during
the competition phase will be devoted to recovery, remedial coaching and adaptation of
the game plan to different proposed oppositions, and providing maintenance of strength
(MxS), power, speed and agility must be made to ensure constant performance of the
players. Without a sound maintenance program, detraining will set in and players will
notice a decrease in performance and efficiency in the major functions needed to perform
well. Failure to maintain MxS will induce protein degradation within the muscles and a
loss of muscle force production will decrease power and speed. Maintenance of the major
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biomotor abilities in the competition phase must be organized in very specific sessions,
reduced to minimum exercises training prime movers muscles. Sessions must be short
and sharp.
After the competition phase, players should enjoy a well deserved transition phase. If the
transition is longer than four to five weeks, loss of fitness and stamina will be noticed
after the second week. Studies have shown that the rate of strength loss, for example, can
be 3 to 4% per day in the first week while endurance capacities can decrease by 7% in
the first 7 to 12 days (Bompa, 2006). With an extended transition period, fitness and
stamina loss can be low enough that players will have to work between 4 to 5 weeks to
regain what has been lost from the past season. It is therefore advised for players to keep
training with an Anatomical Adaptation (AA) program for strength and some aerobic
training after ten days to two weeks after transitioning from rugby. Flexibility is also
important to maintain as it is lost at one third the rate it is gained and it should be trained
two to three times a week year round.
Long transition phases will also affect the cardiovascular system and a loss of VO2max
will also be noticed after a prolonged period of cessation. Studies have shown that there
will be a drop of 6% in VO2max after two to four weeks of inactivity. The loss can be up
to 15% after three months of inactivity due to for example, an injury. Studies also have
shown that to maintain VO2max, cardiovascular training must be done three times a week
during the off-season period.
So if it is acceptable and of course healthy to “let go of rugby” for ten days to two weeks,
it is then advisable to start training in all areas of biomotor activities to avoid a loss from
the previous season and for the players to get the potential of improvement from one year
to the next. Spending too much time catching up will result in stagnation and plateau. Not
taking a break from training might result in excessive fatigue specifically for the CNS.
Once again, the right balance has to be found.
Injuries, origin and care
Sport has an impact on the lives of those who practice it; it changes their state of health
for the better or worse. In sport development in general and contact sports in particular
such as rugby, injury is part of life. For any training athlete or player, it is better not ask
yourself if you will ever be injured, but rather when? The more a player trains and plays,
the higher the chances are of being injured. The good news is that in most instances injury
can somehow be prevented by following a long-term physiological development plan
preparing the body progressively for higher velocities and stronger impacts, following
proper coaching advice, and emphasizing safe and responsible practices.
As we mentioned earlier, rugby is still in the infancy of professional development
compared to other professional team sports, and we actually lack surveys and studies on
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injuries sustained in rugby both at amateur and professional levels. Nonetheless, to better
fathom the scope and incidence of injury in rugby, we shall look at some studies made
essentially in the southern hemisphere. A 1994 study by Bird et al; from the Department
of preventive and social medicine of the University of Otago in New Zealand, has shown
that in the 1993 club domestic season there has been an average of 10.9 injuries per 100
games and 8.3 injuries per 100 practices. Among those, the lower limbs were affected the
most with 42.5% of injury occurring during games and 58.4% of injury during practices.
Sprains and strains were the leading results of injuries with 46.7% occurrence in games
and 76.1% in practice. During games, 40% of the injuries occurred at tackles, 17% in
rucks, 12% in mauls, with 13% of game injuries resulting from foul play. This study was
made during the amateur era of the game.
Another 1997 study by Targett from the University of Otago in New Zealand closely
followed 25 players of a New Zealand professional Super 12 team. The study established
that the rate of significant injury was of 45 per 1,000 playing hours. These injuries caused
players to miss games in the preseason development and in the last third of the actual
competition phase suggesting that recovery from an increasing workload in preseason and
the fatigue resulting from accumulated stress during the season were decisive factors in
the cause of injuries. The majority of the injuries sustained were musculotendinous sprains
and strains in origin, with the chief cause of injury resulting from tackles.
Finally, another 1997 study in USA by Wetzler et al analyzed the occurrence of cervical
injuries during the rugby scrum. The study resumed the history of a specific rugby induced
injury retrospectively from 1970 until 1995 in the USA. Results have shown that 63% of
these injuries occurred upon scrum engagement, while 37% occurred during a scrum
collapse. Of these figures, 80% involved an injury to the hooker, 17% to the props, and
3% to locks/second row. From these numbers, 60% of the hookers were hurt during
engagement and 23% during a scrum collapse. The study further shows that players and
teams involved in the injuries, only 50% had a coach or proper training facilities (such as
scrum machine etc). Most injuries occurring in rugby seem to happen more in practice
than games, at times where fatigue tends to have accumulated, more at the lower limbs
level, and more at ligament-tendon level, which are both situated in joints.
We have mentioned two terms which need to be defined, strains and sprains:
• Strain: Is the consequence of the overstretching of a muscle, beyond its elasticity
level. This can cause muscle fibers to be overstretched or ruptured, causing bleeding
within the muscle which can last for several days. Strains are classified in 3 degrees:
- 1st degree has a small amount of muscle fiber damage and will take approximately
two to three weeks for recovery. It is characterized by muscle tenderness but there
is no impairment of the muscular functions.
- 2nd degree has up to 75% of the muscle fibers torn. Swelling and bruising will
usually be present and the muscle will not function normally. Recovery time is 4
to 6 weeks.
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-
-
-
3rd degree presents the total rupture of the fibers of the muscle. The area will
usually be extremely tender, and there will be a total muscular impairment with
severe pain and bruising. Full recovery will take around 3 months. Surgery will be
highly probable in 3rd degree cases.
• Sprain: a ligament injury caused by a joint being forcefully brought over the
limit of its range of motion. Sprains are also classified in 3 degrees:
1st degree is a mild sprain, small or no swelling, no joint instability, with very little
loss of movement at joint level. Recovery time is 3 to 4 weeks.
2nd degree sprains have ligaments that are loose or partially detached. This will
cause swelling, usually bruising, moderate pain and partial loss of joint mobility.
No joint instability. Recovery time: depending on joint and ligaments involved, 4
to 12 weeks. No surgery required.
3rd degree is a rupture of ligament(s), which become separated from the bone. As
a result, severe pain, swelling, bruising, complete loss of movement and joint
instability will result. Recovery time is dependent on the joint and number of
ligaments involved and is usually between 3 to 10 months up to a year. Surgery
will be advised in most cases.
In rugby, the ankle and knee of the lower body and the shoulder of the upper body are
primarily involved in sprain injuries. Strains in the lower body usually involve the
hamstring group of muscles and biceps in the upper body.
Treatment for strains and sprains is similar. Immediate first aid should follow the RICE
model:
Rest
Ice
Compress
Elevate
The application of ice in a pouch or towel/cloth will relieve swelling and enhance future
recovery. Ice should be applied for 10 to 20 minutes every 2 hours depending on severity
of the injured area. It should continue for 48 hours after the injury occurred. Elevation of
the limb is highly recommended as well as compressing the injured area, but not at the
same time. It is of extreme importance to seek medical advice and attention as soon as
possible and avoid self medication at the exception of immediate first aid procedures. In
case of a joint dislocation, it is not advisable to replace the joint in its socket as further
damage could be done to the surrounding tissues and nerves. Medical attention will
address the matter.
The eternal question is “Can we prevent injuries?” The answer will always be yes, and
no. Yes, if players follow a sound progressive strength and flexibility development program
from a young age, starting with years of anatomical adaptation/preparation for strength
development with progressive increase of loads and work to develop a maximum
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efficiency at a complete range of motion of the joints in the post puberty period. Then the
body will have maximized the adaptation for sustaining increasing impacts and at higher
velocities. Such long-term preparation is by far the best prevention for injuries to occur.
Sound technique development for tackling, falling, going in contact, jumping and
scrumming will complete the preparation of players for a higher rugby performance,
hoping for an injury-free or non-career-threatening playing time. Now, beyond all what
we can do to prevent accidents from happening, there are always circumstances which
will occur that can cause injury, no matter how well-prepared a player is. Call it fate, bad
luck or, unfortunately, sometimes foul play, no one is immune!
We would like to take the opportunity to talk about the psychological consequences to an
injured player and how it can have a negative impact on his/her recovery. In most instances,
injured players, after going through the pain and frustration of the injury, will reach a
psychological state of denial, where a player will no longer admit he/she is injured and
even try to persuade him/herself that they are fine. It is of extreme importance for other
players, leaders and coaching staff to be aware of such a situation and never force, nor
encourage, a player to train or played injured! Peer pressure has the most negative impact
on an injured player and nothing, except maybe bad medical diagnosis and treatment,
could be more detrimental to the recovery process. It is in our opinion, plain and simple,
that an injured or recovering player should never be allowed to train or play unless physical
tests show that he/she is back at 100% of the ability demonstrated prior to when the injury
occurred. Does “Come on Fred, we have this make-or-break game to play next week, you
can’t let us down, we need you.” sound familiar? We hope not, but we all have memories
of this type of pressure. Nothing is worth taking the risk of shattering the life of someone!
When can an injured player train and play again? When he/she is back at 100% ability
and not before! It is the duty of team members, captains, coaches, and medical staff to
discourage injured players to carry on as if nothing has happened. It is also responsible
training to let the healing process follow its course under licensed medical supervision.
An injured player should never feel guilty about not being able to play a game. He/she
paid a heavy physical and psychological tribute to the game and team, and should be
highly regarded and respected. The professional arena induces stronger pressure on
players, team coaches and managers as performance has become a synonym of money.
Many have lost their mind and soul for it. Let’s hope for our noble sport that future players
will not shout: “Ave Caesar quid morituri te salutant” before the game kicks off!
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Chapter 10
Nutrition
Let’s imagine for a moment that you are in your car, listening to a great song and
remembering the last time you heard it: good times. When you pull over at a gas station
to fill up, you accidentally pump diesel fuel in your car instead of gasoline. Pulling
away everything’s great and then it hits you, the engine starts to hiccup and then it rolls
to a complete stop. Like all well-crafted machines no matter how well-engineered,
putting in the wrong fuel will not provide peak performance and can bring everything
to a standstill. For example, a race car serviced by an experienced pit-crew can fall short
of a win if the wrong octane is used. The car will run at only 80% potential or even
worse, run out of gas only laps away from the checkered flag. High octane fuel is optimal
nutrition for the professional athlete.
“You are what you eat” is a popular saying that is certainly true in sport as far as
performances go. This chapter will give both players and coaches some general
considerations about basic nutrition and the diet of athletes, will apply basic nutrition
concepts specific to rugby players, and will propose a periodization model for rugby
players and coaches to refer to for training and competition purposes. Fundamentally,
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our body gets all the energy it needs to sustain normal daily life by metabolizing
(metabolizing = transforming) the food we eat into energy. Through the digestive
system, our food is broken down into essential chemical components which will be
immediately used, or stored, according to the actual necessity for energy supply. Our
body produces mechanical energy through a complex chemical process of
transformation, which starts as soon as we chew our food.
The six basic nutrients we need to sustain normal life come from five different food groups.
Some are called macronutrients such as carbohydrates (sugars), fats (lipids), proteins (as
amino-acids chains), water, and others are called micronutrients such as vitamins and
minerals. The five food groups are cereals, fruits /vegetables, dairy products, meats and
oils. We are constantly bombarded with the benefits of a “balanced diet” in our daily lives
and most people agree and adhere to what and how much they should eat. But what if you
are an athlete? As an athlete, what should be considered a balanced diet? Most nutritionists
today agree that athletes in particular, should regulate what, how and when they eat. The
quality of training and the game produced, together with the way players are recovering
from training and competition, are directly affected by what the players initially consumed.
Generally, rugby players should have a diet providing the following:
60 to 65% of carbohydrates
20 to 25% of fats
10 to 15% of protein
This balanced diet provides players with the 2,500 to 5,000 kcal/day needed for training
frequency and regimen involved.
As a reference, a sedentary man will need 2,200 kcal/day, and a sedentary woman will
need 1,600 kcal/day.
As seen above, a diet high in carbohydrates is recommended. Carbohydrates are broken
down to provide the necessary sugars for muscular activities and enable the storage of a
more complex, unrefined sugar called glycogen. Glycogen is the primary source of energy
production, specifically for strength and power sports. It is stored in the muscles, but also
in greater quantity in the liver. Glycogen stores will be depleted in over an hour of high
aerobic work, but will last longer in intermittent short burst activities like sprinting.
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are made of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. They provide the necessary energy
for the muscles from starches and sugars. The fibers contained in these nutrients will also
aid in digestion, transit and help control fat and cholesterol. During digestion, carbohydrates
are broken down into simple sugars by digestive enzymes to be carried out of the small
intestine through the blood. Some of these sugars will be used immediately, but a certain
amount will be transformed and stored as glycogen for future use. This is what we call
glycogen storage, which is one of the most important energy supplies for power sports.
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Where can we find carbohydrates?
The following foods have a high value in carbohydrates:
• Bread (preferably whole grain)
• Pasta (preferably whole grain)
• Cereals (preferably whole bran)
• Vegetables rich in starches and fibers such as potatoes, corn, beans, peas, lentils
• Bagels, pizzas
• Fruits and juices such as orange, grapefruit, apple, banana
As an essential source of energy for rugby, players should always consider keeping their
glycogen stores replenished as much as possible, this will not only enhance training and game
efficiency, but will provide the necessary fuel to allow a better recovery between training
sessions and games. Part of the super-compensation phase for players, as seen in chapter 2, is
to ensure all energy stores replenish (primarily glycogen stores) and be well rested to sustain
an increase in workload after the body has adapted to the physical stress induced in training
and during the recovery process. Carbohydrates will provide 4 kcal of energy per gram ingested.
Nutritionists divide carbohydrate sources into three major families, introducing what is called
the Glycemic Index or GI. Researches in nutrition have shown that different foods will produce
a glycemic response from the body at different speeds. This response is an increase of the
blood sugar level, triggering an insulin hormonal discharge to regulate it. This reaction will
occur at different speeds depending of the type of carbohydrate ingested. The index response
was calculated by 50 g of white bread, which became the food of reference with a GI of 100.
From there, nutritionists classify different carbohydrates into three major groups depending
of their respective GI. Hence, there is high glycemic index foods with a GI>85, moderate
glycemic index foods with 60<GI<85, and low glycemic index foods with GI<60.
Figure 10.1 shows some examples of food classified in the three different families.
High GI>85
Moderate 60<GI<85
Low GI<60
- White bagel
- White bread
- Watermelon
- Sport and soft drinks
- Raisins
- Oatmeal
- Potatoes
- Muesli
- Ice cream
- Croissant
- Brown rice
- Carrots
- Glucose, sucrose, maltose
- White rice
- Sweet potatoes
- Sweet corn
- Popcorn
- Pita bread
- Orange (fruit or juice)
- Oat bran cereal, bread
- Mixed grain bread
- Mango, papaya, kiwi,
grapes, banana
- All bran cereals
- Basmati rice
- Fruit juices
- Dried apricots
- Apples
- Beans (any of them)
- Grapefruit
- Fructose
- Lentils
- Spaghetti
- Yogurt (any of them)
- Tomato
- Peanuts
- Fresh pears and peaches
- Dried peas
- Barley
Figure 10.1 Samples food belonging to the three different GI groups
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As we shall see later on, moderate and low GI food should constitute the majority of the
glycogen storage/replenishment before games and heavy training sessions, whereas food
with a high GI will be preferred for immediate consumption after training or games.
Fats, also known as lipids
Along with carbohydrates, fats, or lipids, provide the main source of the energy necessary to
the body. Fats will provide 9 kcal of energy per ingested gram (versus 4 kcal per gram for
carbohydrates as previously seen). Fats are the best source for energy production. Fats are
primarily used in prolonged aerobic activities as the major source of energy. Fats do not supply
energy as quickly as carbohydrates because an oxidation process is needed whereas glycogen
breakdown is available without the need of oxygen. Fats are easily stored in the body in the
adipose tissues. Fat is not the enemy. They are necessary for healthy body functions and they
help in providing or carrying some essential vitamins only soluble in fat such as vitamins A,
D and E. Like in most circumstances, excess is unhealthy and a no-fat diet should be avoided.
Nonetheless, it is important to distinguish between two types of fat sources:
• Saturated fat
• Unsaturated fat
Saturated fat comes from animal sources such as milk, cheese, butter, meat, poultry skin,
shortening, hamburgers, sausages, but also from two vegetable sources; coconut and palm
oils, abundantly used in Asian cooking. These saturated fats are known to increase
cholesterol levels and can be potentially hazardous for your health if consumed in excess
by contributing to long term cardiovascular illnesses. It is advised to minimize or eradicate
the consumption of these sources of saturated fat as much as possible. Saturated fat will
be in a solid form at room temperature. Just look at the pan a few hours after cooking a
steak or sausages! Instead, fat sources for a balanced diet should come from unsaturated
vegetable oils such as olive, sunflower or canola for cooking and salad dressings, use low
fat milk and cheese, yogurt, peanut butter, nuts (in energy bars, but fresh nuts are the best),
fatty fishes (Omega 3), unprocessed food in general and avocadoes.
It is very important for rugby players to control the amount of fat ingested daily, and to
keep within the 20 to 25% fat intake per day, preferably unsaturated. Rugby is known
worldwide for great social events after games and training sessions and we believe it is
quite unique in sport culture, and definitively a great part of the rugby culture, contributing
to making what rugby is today. But unfortunately eating well is not usually synonymous
to eating healthy and purposefully. Once again, players who can remain balanced in all
aspects of the game and tradition will certainly achieve the most.
Players need to develop lean muscle mass, not bulk that they carry around the pitch for
80 minutes. Fat intake control is of primary importance for players who are struggling
with putting weight on. These players do not want an increase in adipose tissues, but in
lean muscle mass as previously stated. Fat intake control is also a serious consideration
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for players who do not wish to gain weight and remain at a constant bulk. Inconveniently
while training and playing they will still need 4,000 kcal or more per day. Fats provide
twice as much energy gram for gram and it might be difficult for players to ingest the
equivalent in complex carbohydrates. Players might wish to consider cutting or eradicating
saturated fats from their diet, increase complex carbohydrates ingestion and compensate
with an increase of unsaturated fats from the samples previously mentioned.
Proteins
Proteins are an important part of the regular human diet and even more so in sports.
Nonetheless, they are not the only factor responsible for muscle growth as it is often mistaken
in sport. Proteins are a chemical chain of smaller substances called amino-acids. There are
twenty different types of amino-acids of which only nine are essential for body development,
simply because they cannot be produced by the body from existing substances and must
therefore come from outside sources (exogenous sources). These nine essential amino-acids
are leucine, isoleucine lysine, methionine, threonine, phenylalaline, tryptophan, valine and
histidine. From these, three are essential for the production of energy: valine, isoleucine and
leucine (Brooks, 1987). The major functions of theses proteins are:
• Helping in muscle growth and maintaining muscle fibers
• Regulating general and specific body metabolism
• Providing energy as a last resort, when fat and carbohydrate stores are close to
depletion
Proteins provide 4 kcal per ingested gram and are similar in potential energy production
as carbohydrates. Nonetheless, proteins are not used by the body for energy production.
This will occur only as a last resort, when all other sources are depleted or close to being
depleted. One of the reasons for this is that it is they cannot be stored in the body the way
sugars and fats are. If too many proteins are ingested, some will be metabolized as fat and
stored in adipose tissues, the rest will be metabolized in urea and other toxic by-products
and eliminated through the filtration and waste disposal systems. During that process, the
kidney will be overused and dehydration will be induced.
The recommended amount of protein in a daily diet for training athletes will be in the range
of 1.5 to 2.0 g/kg of body weight. This can easily be achieved through a regular balanced
diet. There are two sources of protein: animal and vegetable. Animal protein is found in lean
beef, chicken and turkey (without skin), fish (specifically non-farmed, wild salmon and tuna),
milk, eggs and cottage cheese. Vegetable protein is found principally in; beans, tofu, lentils,
bread, rice, corn, corn tortilla shells and peanut butter. Rugby players should get 10 to 15%
of the recommended protein intake through their daily diet. Nonetheless, it is advisable to
increase the daily intake to the upper limit of the recommended daily value once the players
approach the MxS phase in the preparatory phase, and during the MxS phase itself. Extra
proteins will always be welcome by the body to favor the reconstruction of damaged soft
tissues and muscular fibers due to strenuous strength training with heavy loads.
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212
Vitamins
Vitamins do not have a direct relationship to the energy production within the body, but
they are essential for the function of metabolizing (transformation processes occurring
within the body) carbohydrates and fats which will produce the necessary energy for
muscular activities. Again, like the nine essential amino-acids, vitamins cannot be
produced by the body itself and therefore must come from an outside source. There are
two types of vitamins:
• Water soluble vitamins like vitamins C and B complex, which can’t be stored in
the body, resulting in an excess amounts to be excreted in urine.
• Fat soluble vitamins such as vitamins A, D, E, K, which are absorbed by fat and
can be stored in the fatty reserves. As such, smaller amounts are necessary to keep
storage intact.
Once more, a well-balanced diet will provide ample sources of these vitamins and
supplements are not really necessary. In any case, if used, vitamin supplements should be
meant to remediate a temporary deficiency of vitamins and in no case be a substitute for
the food providing them.
Figure 10.2 gives some examples of good sources of essential vitamins and their functions.
Vitamin C:
Strengthening
and developing
new connective
tissues, antioxidant
Vitamins B:
Complex food
energy releaser,
skin healing,
nervous system
assistance
Vitamin A:
Healthy eyes
and sight, infection prevention
Vitamin D:
Assist body
in absorbing
calcium, helps
in bones
development
Vitamin E
Assist with
tissue growth
and red cell
wall strength
Vitamin K:
Assist in blood
clotting and
coagulation
process
-
- Lean beef
and pork
- Fish and
poultry
- Green leafy
vegetables
- Peas
- Milk
- Eggs
- Beans
- Whole grain
cereals
- Peanut butter
- Peaches
- Apricot
- Broccoli
- Spinach
- Carrot
- Sweet
potato
- Sunlight
- Milk
- Eggs
- Fish
- Cod liver
oil
- Shortening
- Wheat germ
- Vegetable oil
- Green leafy
vegetables
- Cereals
- Margarine
- Cabbage
- Meats
- Cereals
- Green leafy
vegetables
- Milk
Orange
Tomato
Broccoli
Apple
Brussels
sprouts
- Green
peppers
Figure 10.2 Summary of vitamins functions and food sample sources
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In reference to figure 10.2, we can see that there are a number of fruits and vegetables
containing vitamins. As we eat fruits generally uncooked, their nutritious value remains
intact. Eating raw vegetables (like in salads) will always guarantee a maximum ingestion
of the vitamins. If cooked, vegetables should be lightly boiled and eaten with no added
fat as much as possible. A good idea is to drink, at a later stage, the water used to cook
the vegetables as a lot of vitamins will have seeped into it.
Minerals
Minerals are non organic elements which are also essential to many body functions. During
sport activities, the body will naturally regulate the body temperature through perspiration.
In sweating, athletes will lose essential minerals called electrolytes. Electrolytes are a
combination of three minerals: sodium, potassium, and chloride. Losing too many of these
minerals during physical activity without replacing them will cause a malfunction of the
muscular activity. Players must keep their electrolytes in balance through their diet, and
absorb combined water and mineral mixtures to compensate loss and avoid dehydration.
Other minerals such as calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, iron, zinc and chromium are
also important for good functions of the body.
Figure 10.3 shows samples food to find essential minerals and their bodily functions.
Electrolyte: Sodium,
Potassium, Chloride
Calcium, Phosphorus,
Magnesium
Iron
Muscular contraction
Bones and teeth development, muscular contraction
Red blood cells and oxygen
transportation, important component of blood hemoglobin
- Apples
- Bananas
- Apricots
- Orange
- Tomatoes
- Broccoli
- Potatoes
- Squash
- Carrots
- Green, kidney beans
- Raisins
- Chicken
- Whole wheat breads
Calcium:
- Milk
- Cheese
- Green leafy vegetables
- Egg yolk
Phosphorus:
- Poultry
- Fish
- Eggs
- Cereal
- Meat
- Grains
Magnesium:
- Nuts
- Green leafy vegetables
- Liver
- Kidney
- Heart
- Green leafy vegetables
- Nuts
- Dried beans
- Red meat
- Bread and cereals
Figure 10.3 Minerals, functions and sample sources
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Water
We are made of about 70% water! Water is the most important nutrient in the body. One
can live a long time without eating and very little time without drinking. During strenuous
activities such as rugby, and moreover when temperature conditions are elevated, increased
muscular activity will activate the cooling system of the body to avoid overheating,
perspiration will increase, and the loss of water and essential minerals will also increase. It
has been shown that the loss of as little as 2% of body weight and electrolyte through sweat
can seriously impair muscular activity. Hydration is therefore of paramount importance to
perform well. Many players believe that “drinking when I am thirsty” is enough. It is actually
already too late. Good hydration starts well before any physical activity and players should
always carry water with them everywhere and drink regularly. Don’t wait until thirst starts.
One of the best ways to control your hydration level is through the color of the urine. As a
rule of thumb: the more yellow, scarce and odorous the urine, the more dehydrated the player
is. Players should never start training or playing in a state of dehydration, as this could lead
to hazardous health problems known as heat exhaustion or even heat stroke, which is a life
threatening condition. To facilitate hydration, it is recommended to drink small quantities
often and to drink 100 ml to 250 ml of water every 15 to 20 minutes during exercise, pending
on weather, temperature conditions and training or intensity.
Water loss through sweat will generate weight loss as well. Therefore, players should be
advised to weigh themselves prior to and after training, and drink 0.5 l of water per 0.5kg
loss in training or game. It is now common knowledge that beer and alcohol do not rehydrate athletes after training sessions or competitions. It will actually contribute to
dehydration as the body will use even more water to metabolize alcohol. All drinks
containing caffeine will also contribute to further dehydration.
Water can also be found in food such as:
• Oranges
• Watermelon
• Carrots
• Pineapple
• Lettuce
• Broccoli
• Spinach
• Apples
• Potatoes
These food samples should be eaten with no restrain for rehydration and the other elements
they will bring to the body to replenish the energy production systems.
How much to drink? A player training regularly should drink in the range of 2 to 4 liters
of water per day. A good rule is to drink 30 to 40 ml of water per kilogram of body weight.
So for example a 95 kg loose forward will need to drink 2.850 l to 3.8 l of water per day.
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The case of sport drinks
The purpose of sport drinks is to:
• Provide an addition of carbohydrates before, during and after physical activity
• Replace essential minerals lost during activity
• Replace water/fluid level in the body
Some of these drinks are high in carbohydrates (hypertonic > 8 g/100 ml), moderate in
carbohydrates (isotonic =4 g/100 ml), or low on carbohydrates (hypotonic<4 g/100 ml). Of
course these sport drinks are readily available on the market to purchase and are all efficient
in fulfilling their purpose. Nonetheless the cost of these drinks could prevent some players
to buy them on a regular basis. For those who are on a tighter budget at amateur level, here
are some simple recipes to make your own sport drinks fruit juice, water and salt based:
•
•
•
Hypotonic drink: Mix 250 ml of any fruit juice with 750 ml of water and a pinch
of table salt.
Isotonic drink: Mix 500 ml of any fruit juice with 500 ml of water and a pinch of
table salt
Hypertonic drink: Mix 750 ml of any fruit juice with 250 ml of water and a pinch
of table salt.
When to drink what?
Hypotonic drinks are perfect to maintain hydration when no additional carbohydrates are
needed. It actually encourages some players to drink more as it is somehow tastier than
plain water. They will keep the level of hydration up without adding too many calories.
Isotonic drinks offer a better energy source and are easily absorbed by the system. They
are the perfect option to drink before, during and after exercising.
Hypertonic drinks are a good component of the reloading system. After exercise (training
sessions or games), they will provide some immediate source of carbohydrates. We will
see later on that carbohydrates/glycogen reloading is made easier if 50 to 100g of
carbohydrates is ingested some 30 minutes after heavy exercise or a game. This will
facilitate the reloading process of depleted stores.
These drinks will fulfill their goal to replenish fluid, carbohydrates and mineral depletion
during training and games.
More rugby-specific nutrition
In this section, we will see how to devise a rational nutrition plan for rugby players in
training and competition. The following information is adapted from Sports Nutritionist,
Wellington’s International Rugby Academy and Super 14 Wellington Rugby franchise
nutrition consultant Rachel Svenson lectures at the Academy in 2003. Rugby players
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need a diet emphasizing carbohydrates, a moderate amount of lean protein and an even
smaller amount of fats and refined sugars. Figure 10.4 shows samples of food essential
for a rugby players’ diet. The table also shows the degree of importance of the category
of food to be consumed.
Carbohydrates (++) Lean Protein (+)
Fat (-)
Refined Carbohydrates, Sugars (--)
- Bread
- Cereals
- Pasta
- Rice
- Fruits
- Vegetables
- Butter
- Oil
- Margarine
- Cakes
- Biscuits, cookies
- Pastries
- Chocolate
- Chips
- Take-away meals
and fast-food
- Candies
- Soft drinks
- Jam
- Honey
- Sugar
- Sports drinks
- Lean meat
- Skinless chicken
- Skinless turkey
- Fish
- Eggs
- Low fat milk
- Low fat yoghurt
- Low fat cheese
Figure 10.4 Sample of food for rugby players’ diet including their importance level per
category (adapted from Svenson, 2003)
Legend: ++ very important / + important / - not important / — avoid as much as possible
The key nutrient needed for power sports and other sports is carbohydrates. To perform
well during competition games, players must be well-rested and include a carbohydraterich diet to enhance recovery between training sessions and to be ready for game days.
As for any training, the purpose is to force the body to adapt progressively against an
increased stimulus stressing the major functions and develop players in all aspects of their
game. Dietary considerations are of prime importance to achieve this goal. Remember
the story of the racing car and the fuel? Carbohydrates provide the energy necessary for
power and power-endurance activities.
Advice to players in need to lose weight:
Players and coaches alike occasionally misunderstand the difference between gaining lean
muscle mass and gaining weight. Rugby is a high impact contact sport where speed and
power are as important as sheer technical and tactical efficiency. Modern players need to
be strong, powerful and muscular. A right balance is needed according to the positionspecific play. Rugby League code solved some physical problems for the players in
eradicating ball conquest and retention in the game; players do not need to be tall and
heavy any longer, just solid, powerful and agile. Rugby Union players still have the burden
of jumping in lineouts, pushing in scrums and contesting balls at the breakdown. Hence,
some players still need to be tall, others more prone to show pure strength in contests.
Nonetheless, a need to find the best compromise is definitively desired.
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During the season’s transition time, it is normal and expected that players will indulge
and deviate from the strict dietary rules imposed by training and the game. It is therefore
also expected that players might gain weight during the inter-season. But body fat needs
to be dropped quickly once the preparatory period approaches and starts. Fast weight loss
is not healthy, so it is best for players to plan well how much they need to lose and work
on it progressively without health hazards.
To lose weight, the best is to follow these simple rules:
•
Suppress empty calories sources such as alcohol, high fat food and refined
carbohydrates as shown in figure 10.4.
•
Reduce the size of meals and decrease number of daily snacks.
•
Train for long aerobic-endurance which will use fats as the prime fuel for energy
expenditure; jog, bike, swim, or row for long distances at a slow pace with a heart
rate at 75% of MHR or lower.
Advice to players in need to increase lean body mass:
As previously seen, muscle mass and strength are both important to help withstand
contact and high impacts inherent to rugby games. To increase muscle mass in
complement of an appropriate MxS program, players will need to increase their daily
calorie intake an extra 500 to 1,000 kcal. It is important to stress low fat, carbohydrate
based foods which will also provide extra protein, vitamins and minerals. As such,
players can eat low fat yoghurt, cereal bars, and fruits before and after each
strength/power training session, a sport drink during the session and some extra healthy
snacks following the above guidelines between meals.
Competition nutrition
Once competition starts, players will need to establish a pattern for food and fluid intake.
The best way to do that is to get into the right dietary habits long before training actually
starts. Rehearse and individually adapt a nutrition plan during the whole pre-season
training process (preparatory and pre-competition phases) to get the optimal benefit of
the plan once the actual competition starts.
There are three distinct periods for nutrient and fluid intake for a game:
• The pre-game
• During the game
• After the game
Pre-game nutrition: It is extremely important for players to understand that what is eaten
24 hours prior to a game will be reflected in the energy sources available during the event,
and if a proper diet is followed, it can make a difference. Pre-event meals should be very
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high in carbohydrates, moderate in protein, and certainly low fat. If the game is in the
afternoon, it is best to eat the last big meal prior the game 3 to 4 hours before kick-off.
A light snack of carbohydrates is also advisable 1 to 2 hours before the game. Some players
will be nervous and will not be able to eat a major meal prior an event. In that case it is
best to eat small carbohydrate snacks repetitively up to 1 hour before kick off. It is also
possible to consume liquid meals in the form of carbohydrate enriched gels or cereals
such as oat meal with water and low fat milk.
Here are some examples of high carbohydrate, low fat pre-game meals (adapted from
Svenson, IRANZ, 2003):
• Cereal and low fat milk with added fruit
• Whole wheat toast with baked beans
• Rice, vermicelli soup with added vegetables
• Rolls or sandwiches with banana filling
• Fruit salad and low fat yoghurt
• Fruit smoothies (low fat milk + fruits + low fat yoghurt or ice cream)
• Baked potatoes with low fat filling
• Any pasta with low fat sauce, tomato based
Hydration for pre-game: Players must be well-hydrated and keep hydrating themselves
regularly following the guidelines previously mentioned. It is a good time for hypotonic
or isotonic sport drinks. Players should have their own drinking bottle, the 1,000 ml
squeezable version, available during the game. Write your name on it, and carry it with
you everywhere. It is one of the best ways not to forget to drink. Remember: if you are
thirsty, you already are dehydrated. Therefore, players should drink 300 to 600 ml of water
2 to 3 hours before the game. Drink an extra 300 to 400 ml before the match starts.
During the game nutrition: As long as players have good glycogen stores due to a proper
high carbohydrate diet, these stores should last a game, but will be severely depleted
towards the end. It is advisable for players running on empty to try some carbohydrate
enriched liquid gels at half-time to refuel for the end of the game. A rugby game lasts 80
minutes consisting of intermittent bursts of power and rest. To provide the muscles with
enough energy for an optimal power-endurance display, rugby players must store as much
glycogen as possible from a carbohydrate rich diet. All the hard work of months of training
can fall short if refueling is incorrect. The most important issue in a game situation is
fluid and mineral loss through sweat. Proper hydration is paramount to a good performance
and players should take any opportunity during the game to drink. Drinking little but often
should be a rule of thumb. Use the half time break to replenish fluids. Sport drinks
(manufactured or self-made) are a good option as they will provide extra carbohydrates,
fluids and electrolytes to compensate loss. Isotonic drinks are advisable during the event.
After the game nutrition: The game will not have completely depleted the body stores, but
it will be close. After a game, the first priority for all team players and coaches is to enhance
the recovery process. This starts with a proper rehydration strategy using water and
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hypertonic sport drinks, and gives a kick-start to carbohydrate refueling with absorbing a
small light carbohydrate meal/snack 30 minutes after the game has ended. It is a good idea
to have your next meal within 60 minutes after the game has ended. This meal should be
rich in carbohydrates, and have sufficient protein, vitamins and minerals to replenish stores
and help the recovery of the muscle fibers and tendons, which sustained microlesions during
the event. Specifically speaking of the aftermath of a game refueling process, researchers
have shown that the intake of 50 to 100 g of carbohydrates soon after the game ends will
facilitate the refueling and recovery process. The after- match team cooldown period is an
excellent opportunity to start the process, combining light aerobic exercises to help in lactic
acid metabolization with fluid intake, dynamic stretching and carbohydrate snacks.
The following items will provide 50 g of carbohydrates (adapted from Svenson, IRANZ, 2003):
• 800 ml to 1,000 ml of sport drink
• 500 ml fruit juice
• 250-350 ml of fruit smoothie
• Jam or honey sandwich (whole wheat bread)
• 3 muesli or 2 cereals bars
• 3 medium large pieces of fruit such as apple, orange or banana
• 2 cups breakfast cereal with skim milk
• 2 low fat yoghurts
• 1 cup of thick vegetable soup and a large bread roll
• 2 cups of fruit salad and ? carton of low fat yoghurt
• 1 large bread roll (preferably whole grain) and banana filling
Nutritional supplements
Nutritional supplements have become with time, a more delicate subject to give advice
about. Controversies have arisen specifically surrounding the chemical composition of
some of the products available on the market. It is the always advisable to ensure all
substances are not banned by sports and rugby governing bodies. This said, it is very
important to understand that there are no miracles expected with any supplements which
can be taken. Success in sports and rugby are due to a combination of genetics, right training
and appropriate recovery and refueling for the activities undertaken. No supplement will
make a player stronger, faster or cleverer. The following comments on nutrition supplements
are based upon Rachel Svenson’s lectures at IRANZ in Wellington, New Zealand during
her nutrition classes in the high performance player course, July 2003.
Here are some nutritional supplements often used by rugby players:
• Vitamins: Usually A, B complex, C, D, E and K. If a player has a balanced diet for
the activity and eats sufficient daily portions of fruits and vegetables (raw or slightly
cooked), the intake of vitamins will not be short. Moreover it is not scientifically
proved that sportsmen and women need more vitamins than other persons in their
daily lives. Always be also aware that too many vitamins can also be hazardous to
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220
•
•
health. All in all, the only players who might be encountering problems with vitamin
deficiency will be the players on a heavy diet, players with high protein, minimum
vegetable eating habits and players on weight loss or low calorie diets.
Minerals: Beware of too much iron intake, a right balance is needed, too much iron
is detrimental to good health. Iron supplements should be taken under medical
supervision. Unless a player is iron deficient, iron supplements will not improves
a player’s performance.
Protein: Protein supplements are usually promoted and sold as protein powders. They
are advertised as a “muscle builder.” Scientifically speaking, muscle mass building is
based upon genetic heritage, a sound strength program and a high energy, high nutrient
diet. Protein will be needed in slight addition during MxS development in order to
help the regeneration of muscles’ conjunctive and soft tissues, which will be stressed
and plagued with microlesions due to the hard work provided by the players. In that
instance, it is easier and cheaper for players to make protein rich liquids themselves.
Simply blend 400 ml of skim milk, 1 pot of fruit yoghurt, 1 banana or half a can of
tinned fruit. Generally speaking if a player’s diet follows an adequate nutrition pattern
for what they wish to achieve, extra protein may cause unwanted weight gain as it
will eventually be stored as fat in adipose tissues, and excreted by the filtering system
of the body, increasing therefore the dehydration process.
Another form of supplementation to be considered today is ergogenic supplementation.
This is usually considered as a performance enhancing method and the products associated
with it could be considered as performance enhancing substances. Some are simply banned
while others linger in a twilight zone around different sport and rugby governing bodies.
These supplements have scientific support for performance enhancement, but are not
necessarily permitted for usage among rugby players: creatine, bicarbonate, glycerol,
caffeine and antioxidants.
Creatine is a naturally produced by the body from the amino-acid chain. It is the result of
a chemical protein breakdown. Good natural sources of creatine are lean beef and pork,
herring, salmon and tuna. Creatine intake will induce the storage of fluids within the
muscles and will result in body weight increase. Nonetheless, there are currently no
available studies on health hazards associated with prolonged intake of creatine among
athletes and players. Creatine is a banned substance in some countries such as France.
Other supplements such as colostrum, glutamine, amino-acids are still undergoing
scientific study. Others so far have no scientific support such as: ginseng, carnitine and
inosine (non-exhaustive list).
In summary, with a proper diet planned for rugby’s nutritional needs, proper training and
a good genetic heritage, players should not be in need for much supplementation. Some
individuals may suffer from deficiencies and should be medically monitored. Always
beware of banned performance enhancing substances entering the composition of potential
supplements, abide by local law and regulations, and always keep in mind a very simple
rule: “If it seems too good to be true…it probably is!”
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Sample periodized nutrition for the different phases of the
yearly plan
As we previously have seen, rugby players will need to develop awareness of dietary issues
involved with good and steady performance development. Many nutritionists jokingly admit
that rugby players are the worst among all athletes to deal with concerning nutrition and dietary
purposes. Rugby culture has a strong epicurean tradition and background which certainly is
counted among one of the best features of the sport and has helped to build its reputation
worldwide. Nonetheless, high performance sport development is definitively bound to
scientific evidence of what is good for training and practicing the sport and what is not. Top
athletes in other disciplines are following a strong regimen and a customized nutrition program
to allow for all performance parameters to fit in a complete development process, from what
they do daily physically, what they eat and drink, when, how much they sleep and compare all
registered and logged physiological factors with one another. Why should rugby be different?
It is now common sense and knowledge that sport science is paving the way of actual and
future successes. Never in history has the association of science and its application to sports
through thorough studies and analysis been so strong and prominent. Rugby players are fun
loving people and such they should remain. Who said it was incompatible? Figure 10.5 shows
a sample nutrition periodized plan for rugby. It has to be seen as a sample according to what
we discussed in this chapter, but please remember that any plan must take into consideration
individual needs and medical history. It is highly recommended that rugby teams use the
services of local sport nutritionists to optimize the plan.
Players should adapt the plan to their personal intentions such has losing weight or gaining
lean muscle mass and balance with the help of a licensed nutritionist all elements for
successful implementation.
Preparatory
Competition
Transition
- 15% protein
- 20% protein
- 60% carbohydrates - 60% carbohydrates
- 25% fat
- 20% fat
- 20% protein
- 65% carbohydrates
- 15% fat
- 15% protein
- 60% carbohydrates
- 25% fat
Figure 10.5 Phases of training and sample nutritional input
Note that a consumption of protein at the upper limit of what is suggested is
necessary in the late preparatory phase, specifically during the MxS and power
conversion phases and also during the competition phase in order to help restore
damaged tissues and microlesions due to heavy training and games.
221
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Periodization in Rugby
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Photo & Illustration Credits
Cover photo:
Cover design:
Photos:
Drawings:
Manawatu Rugby
Jens Vogelsang
Rugby action: Manawatu Rugby
Strength & power: Tudor Bompa/Frederick Claro
Nutrition (p. 207): Irmgard Meyer-Purpar
Tudor Bompa
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Seite 1
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