CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 Conceptual Literature
Gender discrimination refers to any situation where a person is denied an opportunity or
misjudged solely on the basis of their sex. Gender discrimination is any unequal treatment based on
gender and may also be referred to as sexism. Gender discrimination occurs when a person shows a
prejudice towards another that would not occur had they been the opposite sex (Salvini, 2022).
Gender discrimination is unequal or disadvantageous treatment of an individual or group of
individuals based on gender. Sexual harassment is a form of illegal gender discrimination. Gender
discrimination can be treating an individual differently based upon his/her gender in academia or
extracurricular activities, academic programs, discipline, class assignments given in a classroom, class
enrollment, physical education, grading, and/or athletics (Langston University, 2020).
Gender discrimination is unfair treatment based on a person's sex. Unfair treatment may include
promotions, pay raises, or even sexual harassment and have a direct impact on gender imbalance in a
workplace. While most gender discrimination is directed toward women, it is possible for anyone to be
discriminated against because of gender (Barret and Farahany, 2016).
Women did not have the same rights and benefits as males in the early years of this nation. In
most cases, after marriage, women had to give up ownership of their property to their husbands and
were not able to vote. Furthermore, they had very few options for employment and education. It was
widely accepted that a woman's role was in the home, taking care of the family and raising children.
The 1800s saw the start of serious attempts to advance women's equality. Coeducational studies were
first made available at the university level in the early years of that century. State legislation was passed
allowing women to keep their assets after marriage. Additionally, the first convention for women's
rights was convened. During the Civil War era, many advocates for women's rights got involved in the
abolitionist movement. Some even rose to prominence as public speakers, a rare profession for women
at the periodThe quest for equality continued after the Civil War. In 1869, the Wyoming Territory
passed a law which allowed women to vote and serve on juries. Several other western territories and
states subsequently granted women the right to vote. Women's rights advocates were outraged that the
Fifteenth Amendment, which was ratified in 1870, prohibited the states from denying voting rights on
the ground of race, but not on the basis of sex. In 1878, Congress considered a Constitutional
amendment giving women the right to vote. Although the amendment failed, it was revitalized every
year for a period of 40 years. The movement for women's suffrage was led, among others, by Susan B.
Anthony, who was arrested for voting in a presidential election, and by Lucy Stone, who was one of the
first American women to retain her maiden name after marriage. In 1920, women were finally given
the constitutional right to vote in the Nineteenth Amendment, which provided that "the right of citizens
of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on
account of sex” (law.jrank.org., 2022).
Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, and questioning (LGBTQ) students frequently
experience hostile school environments, including bullying and discrimination based on sexual
orientation and gender identity. This makes schools a dangerous place for them. The wellbeing of
LGBTQ adolescents may be threatened by unfavorable educational environments and discriminatory
incidents (Russell et. al 2021).
Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, and questioning (LGBTQ) students often experience
negative school environments, where they are subject to victimization based on sexual orientation,
gender identity, and gender expression. As a result, LGBTQ students are more likely to report negative
physical and mental health outcomes than their peers. Over the last decade, four strategies have emerged
in the research literature to prevent or at least minimize these risks: specifically inclusive anti-bullying
policies, professional development on LGBTQ issues, LGBTQ-related resources, and student-led clubs
like Gender and Sexuality Alliances (GSAs) (National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and
Medicine [NASEM], 2019, 2020).
All forms of discrimination can create an environment where people feel disrespected, excluded
and potentially unsafe. In the postsecondary environment, discrimination creates barriers to full
participation which may hinder the success of students (Asquith et al., 2019; Levchak, 2013).
The issue of discrimination based on gender has permeated postsecondary institutions since at
least the mid-twentieth century, with observers pointing out that people who identify as women continue
to face discrimination in fields of study where they are underrepresented (Barthelemy et al., 2016; Reilly
et al. 2015; Stratton et al., 2005). More recently, discussions on the rights of transgender people and
those whose gender identity fits beyond the traditional dichotomy of “woman” and “man” have gained
prominence, as members of these groups and their allies draw attention to barriers in academia and
beyond (Dugan et al. 2012; Griner et al., 2017). Concurrently, people identifying as lesbian, gay,
bisexual and queer have drawn attention to the inequalities they face in the postsecondary system and
elsewhere (Friedman and Leaper, 2010; Woodford and Kulick, 2014).
2.2 Research Literature
Scientific field studies, controlled experiments, scholarly journals, court cases, state and local
administrative complaints, complaints to community-based organizations, as well as articles in
newspapers, books, and other media have all provided evidence of widespread and ongoing
employment discrimination against LGBT individuals. Despite the fact that different authorities have
concluded that sexual orientation and gender identity have no bearing on job performance, over the past
40 years, a sizable body of research using a variety of methodologies has consistently shown that
lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people face high levels of discrimination at work (Brad
and Christy, 2014).
LGBT people routinely face discrimination and harassment in the classroom, which hurts their
chances of finding work. Discrimination persists in the employment cycle and in access to jobs, and
can, in severe circumstances, lead to LGBT employees being bullied, surrounded by others, or sexually
or physically assaulted. Because of preconceived notions about how men and women should look and
behave as well as perceived non-conformity to heteronormativity (the social perception that being
heterosexual is "normal"), discrimination, harassment, and exclusion from the workforce frequently
occur. Men and women who are viewed as being "feminine" or "masculine" in behavior or appearance
frequently experience discrimination or harassment. Lesbian, gay, and bisexual employees frequently
reported being subjected to intrusive queries about their personal lives (Internation Labour
Organization, n.d.).
LGBT workers, especially LGBT individuals of color, continue to experience discrimination
and harassment at work. In the past year, nine percent of LGBT employees reported being dismissed or
turned down for employment due to their sexual orientation or gender identity, demonstrating the
persistence of this discrimination. LGBT employees of color were more likely than white LGBT
employees to report discrimination and harassment, including verbal abuse and being refused
employment due to sexual orientation or gender identity. Additionally, compared to cisgender LGB
employees, transgender employees reported various forms of harassment and discrimination at higher
rates (Sears et. al, 2021).
Theoretical Framework