Subject: Written Expression
Teacher: Dr. RAHMANI. A
Group: 1st year G 10
CONTENT OF THE HANDOUT
1. Sentence Structure
2. Sentence Problems (+ Exercices)
3. Subject-Verb agreement(+ Exercices)
4. Eliminating Wordiness (+ Exercices)
5. Mechanics of Writing
6. Course06: Run-ons, fragments and comma splice
7. Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers
Instructions:
Dear students,
Try to read the content handout carefully.
Try to do the exercises.
Till we will meet, try to take notes and prepare any questions.
Best Regards,
Your teacher
Teacher Email: asma.rahmani@univ-batna.dz
Course 01: Sentence structure
Sentence Definition and Characteristics
Etymologically, the term sentence has its origin in a Latin word ―sententia,‖ which
translates as ―feeling,‖ or ―opinion.‖ In language, a sentence is the largest grammatically
independent unit, having a subject and a verb, and expressing a complete thought or an idea.
A sentence:
Is a group of words containing a subject and predicate.
It expresses one idea, a question or command.
It ought to start with a capital letter.
It ought to end with a full stop or an equivalent mark: question or exclamation mark.
Function
As the largest unit in writing, the sentence is comprised of several words, phrases, and
clauses. It organizes a pattern of thought, conveys meanings; and contains characteristics, such as
timing patterns and intonation. In both writing and speaking, the purpose of a sentence is to make
statements, asks questions, make demands, and show strong feelings. It is a complete statement,
having a subject and a predicate. Sentences have a very important function, which is to convey
the message in the same way it is intended to be conveyed.
Types of the Sentence
We can categorize sentences into four main types, depending on the number and type of
clauses they contain:
1. Simple (one independent clause): It consists of one complete statement (a single independent
clause or main clause).
It may consist of one subject and one verb.
e.g.: We drove from Connecticut to Tennessee in one day.
Also, simple sentence may encompass two or more subjects and / or two or more verbs.
Lila and William arrived.(A simple sentence = Subjects+ Verb)
Ali writes and read.( A simple sentence = Subject+ Verbs)
2. Compound (more than one independent clause): consists of two or more independent clauses
which may be connected by a comma and a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet,
so), a semicolon, or a semicolon and a conjunctive adverb or a colon.
e.g.: We were exhausted, but we arrived in time for my father's birthday party.
ma and a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so), a semicolon, or a semicolon
and a conjunctive adverb or a colon.
E.g.: I really need to go to work
, but
I am too sick to drive.
Italy is my favorite country
;
I plan to spend two weeks there next year
It was a difficult assignment
; however,
Kelly was up to the challenge.
A dolphin is not fish
:
it is a warm-blooded mammal.
Independent clause
Joining method
Independent clause
A compound sentence= Independent clause ,+ Coordinating Conjunction+ Independent Clause.
or
A compound sentence= Independent clause ,+ Conjunctive Adverb + Independent Clause.
3. Complex (one independent clause and at least one dependent clause): consists of one
independent clause (main clause) and one or more dependent clauses (subordinate clause).
e.g.: Although he is now 79 years old, he still claims to be 65.
Dependent clauses like to make themselves useful:
As NOUNS:
She knew that her brother had an irrational fear of accordions.(Direct Object)
Whatever is hidden under the bed has started to snore.(Subject)
As ADJECTIVE:
She will always remember the day when the accident happened.
As ADVERBS:
We played in the garden until the sun set.
If Sam calls, please tell him that I will be late
Though she was busy, Alice helped the young boy.
John went home after he finished his lunch.
4. Compound-complex (more than one independent clause and at least one dependent clause):
e.g.: After it was all over, my dad claimed he knew we were planning something, but we think he
was really surprised.
Sentence Purposes
Moreover, sentences are classified according to the purpose behind their use in texts. In
this spectrum, 4 types exit:
1. Declarative Sentence: A sentence that provides information or marks a statement .e.g. She is
good.
2. Imperative Sentence: A sentence which expresses an order, request, or commend. Also, it can
give instructions, or direction.
3. Interrogative Sentence: A sentence which ask a question .e.g. Who did this?
4. Exclamatory Sentences: A sentence which expresses surprise, astonishment and extreme
emotion .e.g. How did you do this!
Sentence Structure
A. Clause
Definition of Clause
The word ―clause‖ has been derived from the Medieval Latin word ―clausa,‖ meaning the
close of a period, a termination, or a conclusion. In grammar, a clause is a combination of words
within a sentence that is comprised of a subject and a predicate.
A clause can be an independent clause, or dependent clause. A complete sentence
sentence must contain at least one independent clause.
Independent Clause
An independent clause is also known as the ―main clause,‖ because it contains enough
information to stand alone. An independent clause could, in effect, be considered a
grammatically complete sentence. An independent clause contains a subject that lets the readers
know what the sentence is about, as well as a verb that informs the readers what the subject is
doing or will do.
Independent Clause is formed with: Subject+ verb+ Complement
e.g.:
This cat
subject
likes
bread crumbs.
Verb
Complement.
Dependent Clause
A dependent clause is also known as a ―subordinate clause.‖ A dependent clause, as its
name would suggest, cannot stand alone because it does not have all the information necessary to
make it a complete sentence; therefore, an independent clause needs to be connected to it. A
dependent clause uses words called subordinators like ―because,‖ ―before,‖ ―after,‖ ―since,‖
―although,‖ ―though,‖ and ―in order to.
Example: ―Because my cat likes when the deliveryman feeds her bread crumbs, she does
not irritate the deliveryman.‖
my cat
Likes
when
the , she
does
not the
deliveryman
feeds
irritate
deliveryman
her
bread crumbs
Subject
Verb
Complement
Subject
Independent
Verb
Complement
Dependent
A dependent clause = Subordinator+ Subject+ Verb+ Complement.
Relative Clause
A relative clause begins with a relative pronoun, such as ―whom,‖ ―who,‖ ―whose,‖
―which,‖ ―why,‖ ―where,‖ or ―when.‖ A relative clause describes a noun and connects that noun
to the main clause in order to express a complete idea. For instance, in the sentence, ―My cat
who likes bread crumbs is a black cat,‖ the clause ―who likes bread crumbs,‖ contains the
relative pronoun ―who.‖
For another example, in the sentence, ―My cousin is employed by Walmart, where he works with
enthusiasm,‖ ―where‖ is the relative adverb in the clause ―where he works with enthusiasm.‖
Noun Clause
A noun clause is also called a ―nominal clause.‖ A noun clause functions as a noun but
can also be used as a subject, an object, or a complement within the sentence. A noun clause is
almost similar to a relative clause; however, a noun clause functions as the noun of the sentence,
whereas the relative clause derives its meaning from the noun.
Example: ―The difference between how you remember and what you remember is your own
personal matter.‖
Phrases
Definition of Phrase
A grammatical term, which is a group of words, functions as a meaningful part or unit
within a clause or sentence is called phrase. It consists of a headword that determines the
grammatical nature of the unit and an optional modifier. A phrase may consist of other phrases
as well.
When it becomes difficult to describe something through an adjective or adverb, there
comes a phrase to help the writer. For instance, ―It is always the best policy to speak the truth –
unless, of course, you are an exceptionally good liar.‖ (The Idler, by Jerome K. Jerome). In this
sentence, the underlined phrase is an adjective phrase.
Types of Phrase
Based on constructions and functions, phrase is of eight types:
1. Noun Phrase (NP)
A noun phrase contains a noun as a headword and related words such as determiners (like
the, her, a) and modifiers, which modify that noun. It serves as a noun within a sentence.
2. Prepositional Phrase (Prep P)
A prepositional phrase contains a preposition, an object of preposition (pronoun or noun)
and related modifiers. It mostly starts with a preposition and ends with an object of a preposition.
It serves as an adjective, or adverb within a sentence.
3. Adjective Phrase (Adj Ph)
An adjective phrase works as an adjective within a sentence. It contains an adjective,
some relevant determiners and modifiers, and a word that modifies a noun or pronoun. The
function of this phrase is to work as a verb, noun, preposition, adverb, or an adjective. The role
of the phrase in writing depends upon its construction.
4. Adverb Phrase (Adv Ph)
It works as an adverb within a sentence. It contains and adverb and other grammatical
units such as a verb, noun, preposition, and some modifiers.
5. Verb Phrase (VP)
It consists of the main verb and auxiliaries or helping verbs within a sentence. According
to Transformational generative grammar, verb phrases may contain the main verb, auxiliaries,
modifiers, and compliments. It could refer to the whole predicate of a sentence.
6. Infinitive Phrase (IP)
An infinitive phrase contains an infinitive, which is a combination of (to+ simple verb
form), with or without other words, and modifiers associated with that infinitive. It always works
as a noun, adjective or adverb within a sentence.
6. Gerund Phrase (GP)
Gerund phrases contain a gerund, combination of (verb+ing) other words, and modifiers
associated with that gerund. In a sentence, it functions as a noun.
7. Participle Phrase (Part Ph)
Participle phrases contain a present participle, which is (verb+ing), and a past participle,
modifiers, or other associated words. They are separated from the rest of the sentence by
commas. A participle phrases act as an adjective within a sentence.
8. Absolute Phrase (AP)
Absolute phrase consists of a noun, pronoun, participle, and associated modifiers. They
are also known as nominative phrases. They modify or provide information about an entire
sentence. Absolute phrases look like clauses, yet they lack a true finite verb. They are separated
from the rest of the sentence by commas.
Course02: Sentence Problems(+ Exercises )
Parallelism
Parallelism Definition
Parallelism is the use of components in a sentence that are grammatically the same; or
similar in their construction, sound, meaning or meter. Parallelism examples are found in literary
works as well as in ordinary conversations.
Parallelism is also called parallel structure or parallel construction.
Examples:

Like father, like son.

The escaped prisoner was wanted dead or alive.

Easy come, easy go.

Whether in class, at work or at home, Shasta was always busy.

Flying is fast, comfortable, and safe.

She played basketball, had a shower and gone to the school.(Wrong)
She played basketball, had a shower and went to the school.(Correct)

You can apply for this job by filling this form or apply by telephone.(Wrong)
You can apply for this job filling this form or you can apply by telephone.

Anna likes eating blueberries, strawberries and eat watermelon.
Anna likes eating blueberries, strawberries and watermelon.
Function of Parallelism
The use of parallel structures in speech or writing allows speakers and writers to
maintain a consistency within their work and create a balanced flow of ideas. Moreover, it can be
employed as a tool for persuasion as well because of the repetition it uses.
Rules of Parallelism
1.Parallelism is used to balance nouns with nouns, prepositional phrases with prepositional
phrases, participles with participles, infinitives with infinitives, clauses with clauses.
2.Parallelism is used with elements joined by coordinating conjunctions.
My mother likes cooking and to read.
My mother likes cooking and reading
3.Parallelism is used with elements in lists or in a series.
This task can be done individually, in pairs, or can be done in groups of four.
This task can be done individually, in pairs, or in groups of four.
4.Parallelism is used with elements being compared.
She is mad about watching TV more than to read a book .
She is mad about watching TV more than reading a book.
5.Parallelism is used with elements joined by a linking verb or a form of be
To learn is understanding the world.
To learn is to understand the world.
6.Parallelism is used with elements joined by linking words.
The teacher not only wants his students to keep quiet but also to do the task .
The teacher wants his students not only to keep quiet but also to do the task
Exercises
Exercise 01:
Choose the right parallel structure.
1.
Tom has: a beautiful wife, a big house and he has lovely children.
a beautiful wife, a big house and lovely children.
2.
Complaints were made by: teachers and administrators also.
teachers and administrators.
3.
I leaned :to be attentive to my teacher and to do my homework.
to be attentive to my teacher and I do my homework.
4.
She was known: for her beauty and generosity.
for her beauty and generous.
5.
This is what I want: to study hard, to get best grades and getting a good job when I
graduate.
to study hard, to get best grades and to get a good job when I graduate.
6. I advise you to sleep early, eat healthy food, and exercise regularly.
to sleep early, eat healthy food, and to exercise regularly
7. I hate: washing linen by the hand and to cook.
washing linen by the hand and to cooking.
8. I consider your behavior: rude, irresponsible, and I think it is offensive.
rude, irresponsible, and offensive.
9. She decided to: forget about her ex-boyfriend, start a new relationship and work hard on
her project.
forget about her ex-boyfriend, start a new relationship and to work hard on
her project.
10. To apply to this job you need: to have a university degree in linguistics, and five year
experience as an interpreter.
to have a university degree in linguistics, and having five
year experience as an interpreter.
Course 03: Subject-Verb Agreement(+Exercices)
1 .Subjects and verbs must agree in number. This is the cornerstone rule that forms the
background of the concept.
The dog growls when he is angry.
The dogs growl when they are angry.
2. Don’t get confused by the words that come between the subject and verb; they do not affect
agreement.
The dog, who is chewing on my jeans, is usually very good.
3. Prepositional phrases between the subject and verb usually do not affect agreement.
The colors of the rainbow are beautiful.
4 . When sentences start with ―there‖ or ―here,‖ the subject will always be placed after
the verb, so care needs to be taken to identify it correctly.
There is a problem with the balance sheet. Here are the papers you requested.
Exercisen01:
Determine whether the following sentences are correct. If they are incorrect,
make the necessary adjustments.
1. There are extra butter in the refrigerator.
……………………………………………………………………………………..
2. My mother, along with the other representatives, are going to the convention.
…………………………………………………………………………………….
3. A player on the Vikings are going to sign autographs at the mall this Saturday.
……………………………………………………………………………………..
4. My sister eat paste.
……………………………………………………………………………………..
5. This Tuesday, John, as well as his friends, is driving to the rock concert.
……………………………………………………………………………………..
6. Runners on the team is being tested for performance enhancing drugs.
………………………………………………………………………………………..
7. Dad and mom yells at me when I play my music too loud.
………………………………………………………………………………………….
8. Here are a plate of Oreo cookies.
……………………………………………………………………………………….....
9. There are a box for you to pack your things in.
……………………………………………………………………………………….....
10 .Finally ،this exercise, after reading pages of material, are finished.
………………………………………………………………………………………
5 . Subjects do not always come before verbs in questions. Make sure you accurately
identify the subject before deciding on the proper verb form to use.
Does Lefty usually eat grass? Where are the pieces of this puzzle.
6 . If two subjects are joined by "and", they typically require a plural verb form.
The cow and the pig are jumping over the moon.
7 . The verb is singular if the two subjects separated by and refer to the same person
or thing.
Red beans and rice is my mom's favorite dish.
8. If the words each, every, or no come before the subject, the verb is singular.
No smoking and drinking is allowed.
Every man and woman is required to check in.
Exercise n02:
Determine whether the following sentences are correct. If they are incorrect,
make the necessary adjustments.
1. Were the election news on the front page?
………………………………………………………………………………………
2. Mary and David is driving to the city this afternoon.
……………………………………………………………………………………….
3. Each man and woman are required to pay taxes.
……………………………………………………………………………………….
4. Macaroni and cheese are Ben’s favorite dinner.
……………………………………………………………………………………….
5. Every college and university require a transcript for admission.
……………………………………………………………………………………….
6. The teacher and the principal negotiates the labor contracts for the building.
……………………………………………………………………………………….
7. Steak and green beans is what we will have for dinner.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
8. Bacon and eggs is what we will have for breakfast.
………………………………………………………………………………………….
9. Do John normally arrive late to the meeting?
…………………………………………………………………………………………
10. No running and horseplay are allowed in the hallways.
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
9. If the subjects are both singular and are connected by the words or, nor, neither/nor,
either/or, and not only/but also the verb is singular.
Jessica or Christian is to blame for the accident.
10. The only time when the object of the preposition factors into the decision of plural
or singular verb forms is when noun and pronoun subjects like some, half, none,
more, all, etc. are followed by a prepositional phrase. In these sentences, the object of
the preposition determines the form of the verb.
All of the chicken is gone. All of the chickens are gone.
11. The singular verb form is usually used for units of measurement.
Four quarts of oil was required to get the car running.
12. If the subjects are both plural and are connected by the words or, nor, neither/nor,
either/or, and not only/but also, the verb is plural.
Dogs and cats are both available at the pound.
Exercise n 03:
Determine whether the following sentences are correct. If they are incorrect,
make the necessary adjustments
1. Three cups of milk are needed to make this recipe.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
2. Not only the teachers but also the students is attending the assembly.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
3. Either Mary or John are taking Pete to the movies.
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
4. Some of the butter are melting in the sunlight.
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
5. Some of the cakes are covered with pink icing.
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
6. Fifteen gallons of gasoline is enough to fill my car.
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
7. Neither the parents nor their children is going on the fieldtrip.
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
8. All of the people has the chicken pox.
………………………………………………………………………………………......
9. Ann or Kathy have the remote control.
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
10. Half of the class are home with the flu.
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
13. If one subject is singular and one plural and the words are connected by the words
or, nor, neither/nor, either/or, and not only/but also, you use the verb form of the
subject that is nearest the verb.
Do your sisters or your girlfriend want any pizza?
14. Indefinite pronouns typically take singular verbs.
Everybody wants to be loved.
15. * Except for the pronouns (few, many, several, both) that always take the plural
form.
Few were left alive after the flood.
16. If two infinitives are separated by and they take the plural form of the verb.
To walk and to chew gum require great skill.
Exercise 04:
Determine whether or not the following sentences are correct. If they are
incorrect, make the necessary adjustments.
1. Either the principal or the students is planning the assembly.
………………………………………………………………………………………….
2. Either the students or the principal is planning the assembly.
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
3. To run and to jump is the key to success in track and field.
………………………………………………………………………………………….
4. Several has to attend the meeting on Saturday.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
5. Nobody have a clue as to the correct answer.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
6. Not only the players but also the coach were in the bus accident.
………………………………………………………………………………………….
7. Everybody need several glasses of water every day.
………………………………………………………………………………………….
8. Both was on the train that derailed.
………………………………………………………………………………………….
9. Neither the mice nor the cat was found after the house burned down.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
10. To sleep and to eat is the primary routine for a baby.
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
17. When gerunds are used as the subject of a sentence they take the singular verb
form of the verb, but when they are linked by and they take the plural form.
Standing in the water was a bad idea. Swimming in the ocean and playing drums are
my hobbies.
18. Collective nouns like herd, senate, class, crowd, jury, crew, etc. take a singular
verb form when they act as a single unit. They take a plural verb form when the
members or parts of the group are acting individually.
The jury has decided on its verdict. The jury have different opinions about the verdict.
19. Titles of books, movies, novels, etc. are treated as singular and take a singular
verb.
The Burbs is a movie starring Tom Hanks.
20. Final Rule – Remember, only the subject affects the verb!
Exercise no 05:
Determine whether or not the following sentences are correct. If they are
incorrect, make the necessary adjustments.
1. The class are making way too much noise.
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
2. The students are making way too much noise.
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
3. Skiing is probably my favorite winter activity.
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
4. Boating and fishing is probably my favorite summer activities.
………………………………………………………………………………………….
5. The Outsiders are my favorite S.E. Hinton novel.
………………………………………………………………………………………….
6. My mother, along with all of her friends and all of our neighbors, eats exotic fruit.
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
7. The senate vote on the legislation this Tuesday.
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
8. The herd were stampeding.
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
9. Students for Safety are a new organization in the school.
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
10. The Wedding Crashers are the funniest movie I have seen in a long time.
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
Course 04: Eliminating Wordiness(+Exercises)
What is wordiness?
The situation of wordiness is one in which writers attempt to utilize several words or
extravagant words or jargon-laden language in the place of a few, well-chosen, concise, and less
ambiguous, clearly understood words. What is the point of writing an essay?
The clearer definition: Wordiness means using more words than necessary to express
thought resulting in wordy papers that are difficult to follow.
General Examples of Wordiness
Better Phrases or Words
absolutely essential
according to
all of
are connected with
as a result
as long as
at all times
at this time
close proximity
consensus of opinion
despite the fact that
due to the fact that
few in number
first and foremost
for the production of
for the purpose of
for the reason that
has (or needs) to
if�, then �
in a given
in accordance with
in an attempt (effort) to
in connection with
in order for
in order to
in point of fact
in reference to
essential
per
all (or each)
relate to
thus
if
always
now (or currently)
proximity
consensus
even though
since (or because)
few
first
to produce
for (or to)
since (or because)
must (or should)
if�, �
each
according to
to
about
for
to
in fact
about
in (or with) regard to
in the event that
in view of the fact that
inasmuch as
is allowed (able or entitled) to
is located in
is required to
it should be noted that
look into
making a determination (decision)
more often than not
needs (or has) to
not allow
not different
not include
on the basis of
owing to the fact that
past history
payment made to
prior to the limitation on
small in size (number)
subsequent to the use of
that limits (or other verb after ―that‖)
the creation of (or other ―-tion‖ noun)
there are (or there is)
whether or not
will be able to
will depend upon
will have to
with reference to
with regard to
with the exception of
regarding (or about)
if
since (or because)
since (or because)
can
is in
must (or should)
OMIT
consider
determining (deciding)
often must (or should)
must (or should)
prevent (or preclude)
similar
omit
based on (or since)
since (or because)
history
paid to
before limits
small
after using
limiting (i.e., the verb’s ing form)
creating (i.e., the noun’s ing form)
CONSIDER OMITTING
whether
can
depends on
must (or should)
regarding
regarding (or about)
except
Defined broadly, wordiness also might include using words with multiple syllables where simpler words would s
common examples are listed below.
Words with Multiple Syllables
Simpler Words
although
altogether
anticipate
because
commence
consequently
into
oftentimes
therefore
upon
utilize
whenever
within
Exercise:
though
together
expect
since
begin (or start)
thus
in
often
thus
on
use
when
in
1. He found his neighbor who lived next door to be attractive in appearance.
…………………………………………………………………………………
2. He was really late to his English class due to the fact that he had to finish his math test.
…………………………………………………………………………………
3. Although they were several in number, the street gang feared the police.
…………………………………………………………………………………
4. Bob provided an explanation of the computer to his grandmother.
………………………………………………………………………………….
5. During the time when I lived in South Carolina, it was my intention to go to college in
Florida
…………………………………………………………………………………..
6. In order to prove that he could hold his own on the track team, Gordo had to train hard
like the old runners.
…………………………………………………………………………………..
7. If you go to the store, you will see that the store is closed on Sundays because the
storeowner likes to go to church.
…………………………………………………………………………………..
8. Due to the fact that Jim liked chocolate, he was very upset when the candy company
canceled production of his favorite chocolate bar.
………………………………………………………………………………...
9. One time when I went to the park, my friend, whose name is Jake, went with me and we
had fun due to the fact that it was a nice day out.
..............................................................................................................................
10. In this report I will conduct a study of ants and the setup of their colonies.
…………………………………………………………………………………
Exercise no 02:
Revise these sentences to state their meaning in fewer words. Avoid passive voice, needless
repetition, and wordy phrases and clauses. The first sentence has been done as an example.
1. Many local farmers plan to attend next Friday's meeting.
2. Although Bradley Hall is regularly populated by students, close study of the building as a
structure is seldom undertaken by them.
3. He dropped out of school on account of the fact that it was necessary for him to help support
his family.
4. It is expected that the new schedule will be announced by the bus company within the next
few days.
5. There are many ways in which a student who is interested in meeting foreign students may
come to know one.
6. It is very unusual to find someone who has never told a deliberate lie on purpose.
7. Trouble is caused when people disobey rules that have been established for the safety of all.
8. A campus rally was attended by more than a thousand students. Five students were arrested by
campus police for disorderly conduct, while several others are charged by campus administrators
with organizing a public meeting without being issued a permit to do so.
9. The subjects that are considered most important by students are those that have been shown to
be useful to them after graduation.
10. In the not too distant future, college freshmen must all become aware of the fact that there is
a need for them to make contact with an academic adviser concerning the matter of a major.
11. In our company there are wide-open opportunities for professional growth with a company
that enjoys an enviable record for stability in the dynamic atmosphere of aerospace technology.
12. Some people believe in capital punishment, while other people are against it; there are many
opinions on this subject.
Exercise no 03:
Directions: Combine each sentence group into one concise sentence.
1. The cliff dropped to reefs seventy-five feet below. The reefs below the steep cliff were barely
visible through the fog.
2. Their car is gassed up. It is ready for the long drive. The drive will take all night.
3. Sometimes Stan went running with Blanche. She was a good athlete. She was on the track
team at school.
4. Taylor brought some candy back from Europe. It wasn't shaped like American candy. The
candy tasted kind of strange to him.
5. Government leaders like to mention the creation of new jobs. They claim that these new jobs
indicate a strong economy. They don't mention that low-wage jobs without benefits and security
have replaced many good jobs.
Course..: Mechanics of Writing: Spelling, punctuation and
capitalization
Punctuation
What Are the 14 Punctuation Marks in English Grammar?
There are 14 punctuation marks that are commonly used in English grammar. They are
the period, question mark, exclamation point, comma, semicolon, colon, dash, hyphen,
parentheses, brackets, braces, apostrophe, quotation marks, and ellipsis. Following their correct
usage will make your writing easier to read and more appealing.
Sentence Endings
Three of the fourteen punctuation marks are appropriate for use as sentence endings.
They are the period, question mark, and exclamation point.
1. The period (.) is placed at the end of declarative sentences, statements thought to be
complete and after many abbreviations.
As a sentence ender: Jane and Jack went to the market.
After an abbreviation: Her son, John Jones Jr., was born on Dec. 6, 2008.
2. Use a question mark (?) to indicate a direct question when placed at the end of a
sentence.
When did Jane leave for the market?
3. The exclamation point (!) is used when a person wants to express a sudden outcry or
add emphasis.
Within dialogue: "Holy cow!" screamed Jane.
To emphasize a point: My mother-in-law's rants make me furious!
Comma, Semicolon, and Colon
The comma, semicolon, and colon are often misused because they all can indicate a pause
in a series.
The comma is used to show a separation of ideas or elements within the structure of a
sentence. Additionally, it is used in numbers, dates, and letter writing after the salutation and
closing.
Direct address: Thanks for all your help, John.
Separation of two complete sentences: We went to the movies, and then we went out to
lunch.
Separating lists or elements within sentences: Suzi wanted the black, green, and blue
dress.
Whether to add a final comma before the conjunction in a list is a matter of debate. This
final comma, known as an Oxford or serial comma, is useful in a complex series of elements or
phrases but is often considered unnecessary in a simple series such as in the example above. It
usually comes down to a style choice by the writer.
The semicolon (;) is used to connect independent clauses. It shows a closer relationship
between the clauses than a period would show.
John was hurt; he knew she only said it to upset him.
A colon (:) has three main uses. The first is after a word introducing a quotation, an
explanation, an example, or a series.
1. He was planning to study four subjects: politics, philosophy, sociology, and
economics.
2. The second is between independent clauses when the second explains the first, similar
to a semicolon:
I didn't have time to get changed: I was already late.
3. The third use of a colon is for emphasis:
There was one thing she loved more than any other: her dog.
A colon also has non-grammatical uses in time, ratio, business correspondence and
references.
Dash and the Hyphen
Two other common punctuation marks are the dash and hyphen. These marks are often
confused with each other due to their appearance but they are very different.

A dash is used to separate words into statements. There are two common types of dashes: en
dash and em dash.
En dash: Twice as long as a hyphen, the en dash is a symbol (–) that is used in writing or
printing to indicate a range, connections or differentiations, such as 1880-1945 or PrincetonNew York trains.
Em dash: Longer than the en dash, the em dash can be used in place of a comma, parenthesis,
or colon to enhance readability or emphasize the conclusion of a sentence. For example, She
gave him her answer — No!
Whether you put spaces around the em dash or not is a style choice. Just be consistent.

A hyphen is used to join two or more words together into a compound term and is not
separated by spaces. For example, part-time, back-to-back, well-known.
Brackets, Braces, and Parentheses
Brackets, braces, and parentheses are symbols used to contain words that are a further
explanation or are considered a group.

Brackets are the squared off notations ([]) used for technical explanations or to clarify
meaning. If you remove the information in the brackets, the sentence will still make sense.
He [Mr. Jones] was the last person seen at the house.
Braces ({}) are used to contain two or more lines of text or listed items to show that they
are considered as a unit. They are not commonplace in most writing but can be seen in
computer programming to show what should be contained within the same lines. They
can also be used in mathematical expressions. For example, 2{1+[23-3]}=x.

Parentheses ( () ) are curved notations used to contain further thoughts or qualifying remarks.
However, parentheses can be replaced by commas without changing the meaning in most
cases.
John and Jane (who were actually half brother and sister) both have red hair.
Apostrophe, Quotation Marks and Ellipsis
The final three punctuation forms in English grammar are the apostrophe, quotation
marks, and ellipsis. Unlike previously mentioned grammatical marks, they are not related to one
another in any form.

An apostrophe (') is used to indicate the omission of a letter or letters from a word, the
possessive case, or the plurals of lowercase letters. Examples of the apostrophe in use
include:
Omission of letters from a word: I've seen that movie several times. She wasn't the only one
who knew the answer.
Possessive case: Sara's dog bit the neighbor.
Plural for lowercase letters: Six people were told to mind their p's and q's.
It should be noted that, according to Purdue University, some teachers and editors enlarge the
scope of the use of apostrophes, and prefer their use on symbols (&'s), numbers (7's) and
capitalized letters (Q&A's), even though they are not necessary.

Quotations marks (" ") are a pair of punctuation marks used primarily to mark the beginning
and end of a passage attributed to another and repeated word for word. They are also used to
indicate meanings and to indicate the unusual or dubious status of a word.
"Don't go outside," she said.

Single quotation marks (' ') are used most frequently for quotes within quotes.
Marie told the teacher, "I saw Marc at the playground, and he said to me 'Bill
started the fight,' and I believed him."
The ellipsis is most commonly represented by three periods (. . . ) although it is occasionally
demonstrated with three asterisks (***). The ellipsis is used in writing or printing to indicate an
omission, especially of letters or words. Ellipses are frequently used within quotations to jump
from one phrase to another, omitting unnecessary words that do not interfere with the meaning.
Students writing research papers or newspapers quoting parts of speeches will often employ
ellipsis to avoid copying lengthy text that is not needed.
Omission of words: She began to count, "One, two, three, four…" until she got to 10, then went
to find him.
Within a quotation: When Newton stated, "An object at rest stays at rest and an object in motion
stays in motion..." he developed the law of motion.
British vs. American English
There are a few differences between punctuation in British and American English. The following
charts details some of those differences:
he " . " symbol is called
The " ! " symbol is called
The " ( ) " symbols are called
The " [ ] " symbols are called
The position of quotation
marks
The punctuation for
abbreviations
British English
A full stop
an exclamation mark
Brackets
square brackets
British English
a period
an exclamation point
parentheses
brackets
Joy means "happiness".
Joy means "happiness."
Dr, Mr, Mrs, St, Rd, Ct
Dr., Mr., Mrs., St., Rd., Ct.
Capitalization
1. The first word of every sentence.
2. The first-person singular pronoun, I.
3. The first, last, and important words in a title. (The concept "important words" usually does not
include articles, short prepositions (which means you might want to capitalize "towards" or
"between," say), the "to" of an infinitive, and coordinating conjunctions. This is not true in APA
Reference lists (where we capitalize only the first word), nor is it necessarily true for titles in
other languages. Also, on book jackets, aesthetic considerations will sometimes override the
rules.)
4. Proper nouns
Specific persons and things: George W. Bush, the White House, General Motors
Corporation.
Specific geographical locations: Hartford, Connecticut, Africa, Forest Park Zoo, Lake
Erie, the Northeast, the Southend. However, we do not capitalize compass directions or
locations that aren't being used as names: the north side of the city; we're leaving the
Northwest and heading south this winter. When we combine proper nouns, we capitalize
attributive words when they precede place-names, as in Lakes Erie and Ontario, but the
opposite happens when the order is reversed: the Appalachian and Adirondack
mountains. When a term is used descriptively, as opposed to being an actual part of a
proper noun, do not capitalize it, as in "The California deserts do not get as hot as the
Sahara Desert."
Names of celestial bodies: Mars, Saturn, the Milky Way. Do not, however, capitalize
earth, moon, sun, except when those names appear in a context in which other
(capitalized) celestial bodies are mentioned. "I like it here on earth," but "It is further
from Earth to Mars than it is from Mercury to the Sun.
Names of newspapers and journals. Do not, however, capitalize the word the, even when
it is part of the newspaper's title: the Hartford Courant.
Days of the week, months, holidays. Do not, however, capitalize the names of seasons
(spring, summer, fall, autumn, winter). "Next winter, we're traveling south; by spring,
we'll be back up north."
Historical events: World War I, the Renaissance, the Crusades.
Races, nationalities, languages: Swedes, Swedish, African American, Jewish, French,
Native American. (Most writers do not capitalize whites, blacks.)
Names of religions and religious terms: God, Christ, Allah, Buddha, Christianity,
Christians, Judaism, Jews, Islam, Muslims.
Names of courses: Economics, Biology 101. (However, we would write: "I'm taking
courses in biology and earth science this summer.")
Brand names: Tide, Maytag, Chevrolet.
5. Names of relationships only when they are a part of or a substitute for a person's name. (Often
this means that when there is a modifier, such as a possessive pronoun, in front of such a word,
we do not capitalize it.)
Let's go visit Grandmother today. Let's go visit my grandmother today.
I remember Uncle Arthur. I remember my Uncle Arthur. My uncle is unforgettable.
This also means that we don't normally capitalize the name of a "vocative" or term of
endearment:
Can you get the paper for me, hon?
Drop the gun, sweetie. I didn't mean it.
6. Capitalizing People's Titles and the Names of Political Entities
One of the most frequently asked questions about capitalization is whether or not to
capitalize people's job titles or the names of political or quasi-political entities. Most writing
manuals nowadays seem to align themselves with the tendency in journalistic circles: less is
better. When a title appears ABCas part of a person's name, usually before the name, it is
capitalized: Professor Farbman (or Professor of Physics Herschel Farbman), Mayor Perez, U.S.
Secretary of State Colin Powell. On the other hand, when the title appears after the name, it is
not capitalized: Herschel Farbman, professor of history; Eddie Perez, mayor of the city of
Hartford; Juan Carlos, king of Spain. Although we don't capitalize "professor of history" after the
individual's name, we would capitalize department and program names when they are used in
full*: "He worked in the Department of Behavioral Sciences before he started to teach physics."
(We do not capitalize majors or academic disciplines unless they refer to a language, ethnic
group, or geographical entity: Roundbottom is an economics major, but he loves his courses in
French and East European studies.)
The capitalization of words that refer to institutions or governmental agencies, etc. can
well depend on who is doing the writing and where or from what perspective. For instance, if I
were writing for the city of Hartford, doing work on its charter or preparing an in-house
document on appropriate office decor, I could capitalize the word City in order to distinguish
between this city and other cities. "The City has a long tradition of individual freedom in
selecting wallpapers." If I were writing for the College of Wooster's public relations staff, I could
write about the College's new policy on course withdrawal. On the other hand, if I were writing
for a newspaper outside these institutions, I would not capitalize those words. "The city has
revamped its entire system of government." "The college has changed its policy many times."
We don't capitalize words such as city, state, federal, national, etc. when those words are
used as modifiers "There are federal regulations about the relationship of city and state
governments. Even as nouns, these words do not need to be capitalized: "The city of New York
is in the state of New York" (but it's New York City). Commonly accepted designations for
geographical areas can be capitalized: the Near East, the American South, the North End (of
Hartford), Boston's Back Bay, the Wild West. Directions are not capitalized unless they become
part of the more or less official title of a geographical entity: "He moved from south Texas to
South Africa."
7. Capitalization in E-Mail
For some reason, some writers feel that e-mail should duplicate the look and feel of
ancient telegraph messages, and their capitals go the way of the windmill or they go to the
opposite extreme and capitalize EVERYTHING. That's nonsense. Proper and restrained
capitalization simply makes things easier to read (unless something is capitalized in error, and
then it slows things down). Without the little tails and leaders we get in a nice mixture of upperand lower-case text, words lose their familiar touch and feel. Text written in ALL CAPS is
extremely difficult to read and some people regard it as unseemly and rude, like SHOUTING at
someone close at hand. Restrain your use of ALL CAPS in e-mail to solitary words that need
further emphasis (or, better yet, use italics or underlining for that purpose, if your e-mail client
provides for that treatment).
8. Words Associated with the Internet
There is considerable debate, still, about how to capitalize words associated with the
Internet. Most dictionaries are capitalizing Internet, Web, and associated words such as World
Wide Web (usually shortened to Web), Web page, Web site, etc., but the publications of some
corporations, such as Microsoft, seem to be leaning away from such capitalization. The Yale
Style Manual recommends capitalization. The words e-mail and online are not capitalized. The
Guide to Grammar and Writing is a monument to inconsistency on this issue.
The most important guiding principle in all such matters is consistency within a
document and consistency within an office or institution. Probably the most thorough and most
often relied upon guide to capitalization is the Chicago Manual of Style, but the Gregg Reference
Manual is also highly recommended.
Course06: Run-ons, fragments and comma splice
Run-On Sentences
A run-on sentence occurs when two or more independent clauses (also known as complete sentences)
are connected improperly.
Example : I love to write papers I would write one every day if I had the time.
There are two complete sentences in the above example:
Sentence 1: I love to write papers.
Sentence 2: I would write one every day if I had the time.
One common type of run-on sentence is a comma splice. A comma splice occurs when
two independent clauses are joined with just a comma.
Example of a comma splice: Participants could leave the study at any time, they needed to indicate
their preference.
Sentence 1: Participants could leave the study at any time.
Sentence 2: They needed to indicate their preference.
Some comma splices occur when a writer attempts to use a transitional expression in the middle of a
sentence.
Example of a comma splice: The results of the study were inconclusive, therefore more research
needs to be done on the topic.
Sentence 1: The results of the study were inconclusive
Transitional expression (conjunctive adverb): therefore
Sentence 2: More research needs to be done on the topic
To fix this type of comma splice, use a semicolon before the transitional expression and add a
comma after it. See more examples of this on the semicolon page.
Revision: The results of the study were inconclusive; therefore, more research needs to be done on
the topic.
You can correct a run-on sentence by connecting or separating its parts correctly. There are several
easy ways to connect independent clauses.
Correcting Run-On Sentences
A run-on sentence can be fixed by connecting its parts correctly. There are several ways to connect
independent clauses.
1. Use a period. The easiest way to fix a run-on is to split the sentence into smaller sentences
using a period. This revision works especially well with longer sentences. Check, however, to
make sure that this solution does not result in short, choppy sentences.
Revision example : I love to write papers. I would write one every day if I had the time.
2. Use a semicolon. Inserting a semicolon between independent clauses creates a grammatically
correct sentence. Using a semicolon is a stylistic choice that establishes a close relationship
between the two sentences.
Revision example : I love to write papers; I would write one every day if I had the time.
3. Use a comma and a coordinating conjunction . A comma, paired with a coordinating
conjunction (e.g., "and," "but," or "or"), corrects a run-on sentence. This method emphasizes
the relationship between the two clauses.
Revision example : I love to write papers, and I would write one every day if I had the time.
4. Use a subordinating conjunction . Turn one of the independent clauses into
a dependent clause. A subordinating conjunction (e.g., "because," "unless," and "although")
connects two clauses to create a complex sentence. This option works to cement the
relationship between the two parts of the sentence and may improve the flow of the clauses .
Example : Because I love to write papers , I would write one every day if I had the time.
However you decide to revise for run-on sentences, remember that maintaining sentence
variety helps to keep the writing clear and interesting for your readers.
Sentence Fragments
A sentence fragment is a string of words that does not form a complete sentence; there is a necessary
component of a complete sentence missing. This missing component may be a subject (usually a
noun) or a predicate (verb or verb phrase) and/or when the sentence does not express a complete
idea.
Here is an example of a fragment with a missing subject.
Example of a fragment: Shows no improvement in any of the vital signs.
The sentence above is a fragment since there is no subject (Who shows no improvement?). Fragments
can be corrected by identifying the missing element and including it.
Revision: The patient shows no improvement in any of the vital signs.
Here is an example of a fragment with a missing predicate, or action:
Example of a fragment: The doctors, who were using peer-reviewed research articles that
contributed to the body of knowledge in their fields, which was obstetrics.
Notice here that although the sentence is quite long, it still contains no action (What are the
doctors doing?). Once identified, the sentence can be corrected easily.
Revision: The doctors, who were using peer-reviewed research articles that contributed to the body
of knowledge in their field, improved their knowledge of obstetrics
Course 07: Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers
Modifier Basics
A modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that modifies—that is, gives information about—another
word in the same sentence. For example, in the following sentence, the word "burger" is
modified by the word "vegetarian":
Example: I'm going to the Saturn Café for a vegetarian burger.

The modifier "vegetarian" gives extra information about what kind of burger it is.
A modifier can be an adjective (a word that modifies a noun, like "burger"), but it can also be
an adverb (a word that modifies a verb):
Example: The student carefully proofread her draft.

The adverb "carefully" is the modifier in this example—it modifies the verb "proofread,"
giving important details about how the proofreading was conducted.
A modifier can even be a phrase or clause, as in the following example:
Example: She studied in the library.

Here, the phrase "in the library" gives us extra information about the verb, "studied."
Modifiers can also be used for sentence variety. See this page on varying sentence structure for
more information.
Misplaced Modifiers
When a modifier is ambiguously or illogically modifying a word, we consider it a misplaced
modifier. See APA 7, Section 4.23 for more explanation and examples.
Example: Dolger discovered an ancient Mayan civilization using astronavigation.

The modifier, "using astronavigation," is unclear in this sentence. Does it modify
"Dolger" or "civilization"? A reader will wonder, "Was Dolger using astronavigation? Or
was the civilization he discovered using astronavigation?"
Revision 1: Using astronavigation, Dolger discovered an ancient Mayan civilization.

This modifier placement makes it clear that "Dolger" is the one using astronavigation.
Revision 2: Dolger discovered an ancient Mayan civilization that used astronavigation.

This modifier placement makes it clear that the "civilization" used astronavigation.
Dangling Modifiers
When a modifier is not modifying a specific word, we call it a dangling modifier. See APA 7,
Section 4.23 for more explanation and examples.
Example: After consulting a selection of current publications , research in this area has been
sparse.

In this example, it is not clear who is consulting the selection of current publications. In
other words, there is no referent in the sentence.
Revision 1: After consulting a selection of current publications, I determined that the
research in this area has been sparse.

Now the subject in the sentence ―I‖ matches the modifier ―after consulting a selection of
current publications.‖
Revision 2: According to the selection of current publications, research in this area has been
sparse.

Now the modifier ―according to the selection of current publications‖ matches the subject
―research.‖