TRIBHUVAN UNIVERSITY
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE
THAPATHALI CAMPUS
LITERATURE REVIEW ON
POST DISASTER HOUSING
Submitted by:
Submitted to:
Prizma Neupane (30)
Ar. Pradeep Adhikari
Rabindra Dev Yadav (32)
Ar. Suresh Singh Thing
Rasmita Acharya (34)
Samman Mani Acharya (36)
Siddhi Maharjan (40)
Susan Khatiwada (46)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to express our sincere humbleness and gratefulness to the Department of Architecture,
Thapathali Campus for addressing the need and importance of the ‘Housing Planning’ project as the Design
studio project of the VIII semester. We would like to extend our gratification to our Design Studio Teacher
Ar. Pradeep Adhikari and Ar. Suresh Singh Thing for this opportunity to study the literature of post-disaster
housing and case studies on low-cost housing and site damage assessment by giving continuous direction,
suggestion, and information in a convenient way for us.
We have tried to cover all the things on the case study of various types of post-disaster housing based on
regional contexts that are included under each topic and have gathered information that will help in the
further design phase. Finally, we would like to thank our friends for their continuous effort, cooperation,
and encouragement, and full support during the entire period of a case study of housing both national and
international.
Sincerely,
Prizma Neupane (30)
Rabindra Dev Yadav (32)
Rasmita Acharya (34)
Samman Mani Acharya (36)
Siddhi Maharjan (40)
Susan Khatiwada (46)
Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION TO HOUSING ................................................................................................................................ 8
DEFINITION OF HOUSING .................................................................................................................................................8
OBJECTIVES OF HOUSING .................................................................................................................................................8
QUALITIES OF HOUSING...................................................................................................................................................9
IMPORTANCE OF HOUSING IN ARCHITECTURE ......................................................................................................................9
HISTORY OF HOUSING ...................................................................................................................................................11
International History ...........................................................................................................................................11
National History ..................................................................................................................................................11
TYPES OF HOUSING.......................................................................................................................................................12
On the basis of form ............................................................................................................................................13
On the basis of Ownership: .................................................................................................................................16
On the basis of Location ......................................................................................................................................16
On the basis of Cost: ...........................................................................................................................................17
On the basis of Settlement ..................................................................................................................................17
On the basis of Purpose ......................................................................................................................................18
HOUSING CONDITION IN NEPAL .......................................................................................................................... 20
INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................................................20
HOUSE TYPOLOGY ...................................................................................................................................................20
NEEDS AND DEMANDS ............................................................................................................................................22
CONDITIONS AND PROBLEMS .................................................................................................................................22
NATIONAL SHELTER POLICY (1996) ..........................................................................................................................22
ORGANIZATIONS WORKING FOR HOUSING PROBLEMS IN NEPAL...........................................................................23
1. LUMANTI ....................................................................................................................................................23
1. CENTRE FOR INTEGRATED URBAN DEVELOPMENT, CIUD ..........................................................................23
2. SHELTER AND LOCAL TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT CENTRE, SLTDC ........................................................23
BUILDING MATERIALS .............................................................................................................................................24
TYPES OF BUILDING MATERIALS ..............................................................................................................................24
LOCAL (TRADITIONAL) BUILDING MATERIALS .....................................................................................................25
Modern building materials..................................................................................................................................25
Imported building materials ...............................................................................................................................25
GREEN BUILDING AND CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGIES IN NEPAL .........................................................................25
DISASTER MANAGEMENT .................................................................................................................................... 26
INTRODUCTION TO DISASTER ..................................................................................................................................26
GOALS OF DISASTER MANAGEMENT .......................................................................................................................26
TYPES OF DISASTER..................................................................................................................................................27
Natural disaster ..................................................................................................................................................27
Manmade disaster ..............................................................................................................................................27
DISASTER LIFE CYCLE, PHASES & STEPS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT .............................................................27
PRE-DISASTER HOUSING..........................................................................................................................................28
1. Prevention and Mitigation: .............................................................................................................................28
2. Preparedness:..................................................................................................................................................28
3.Early Warning: .................................................................................................................................................29
4.The Disaster impact: ........................................................................................................................................29
POST DISASTER AND POST DISASTER HOUSING ................................................................................................... 29
OBJECTIVE OF POST DISASTER HOUSING .................................................................................................................29
TYPES OF POST DISASTER HOUSING ........................................................................................................................30
IN SITE CONSTRUCTION/RECONSTRUCTION ...........................................................................................................30
RELOCATED/ RESETTLEMENT ..................................................................................................................................30
INTREGATED SETTLEMENT ......................................................................................................................................30
PHASES OF DISASTER SHELTER ................................................................................................................................31
Emergency Phase: ...............................................................................................................................................31
Transitional Phase: ..............................................................................................................................................31
Permanent Phase: ...............................................................................................................................................31
PROCESS OF RECONSTRUCTION OF PDH: ............................................................................................................. 31
1. Attempt–planning–scheduling ........................................................................................................................31
2.Design ..............................................................................................................................................................31
3.Construction .....................................................................................................................................................31
4. Using ...............................................................................................................................................................31
HOUSING RECOVERY .....................................................................................................................................................31
APPROACHES FOR RECOVERY OF POST DISASTER HOUSING ...................................................................................................32
Owner Driven approach ......................................................................................................................................32
Community driven approach ...............................................................................................................................32
Agency driven approach in situ: ..........................................................................................................................32
Agency driven approach in situ: ..........................................................................................................................33
ISSUES OF POST DISASTER HOUSING RECOVERY IN NEPAL......................................................................................33
COMPONENTS OF POST DISASTER RECONSTRUCTION PROJECTS ...........................................................................35
SITE......................................................................................................................................................................35
LAYOUT ...............................................................................................................................................................35
CONSTRUCTION ..................................................................................................................................................36
POLICIES ..............................................................................................................................................................36
POST DISASTER HOUSING SUCCESS FACTORS .....................................................................................................................37
Community participation: ...................................................................................................................................37
Community empowerment: ................................................................................................................................37
Community culture and beliefs: ..........................................................................................................................38
Support from local government: .........................................................................................................................38
PHYSICAL DIMENSION OF HOUSING .................................................................................................................... 39
INFRASTRUCTURES ..................................................................................................................................................39
ROAD ...................................................................................................................................................................39
WATER SUPPLY ...................................................................................................................................................42
SOLID WASTE AND WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT ............................................................................................43
ELECTRICITY.........................................................................................................................................................44
DESIGN ASPECTS .................................................................................................................................................44
BUILDING MATERIALS .........................................................................................................................................45
ENVIRONMENTAL DIMENSION OF HOUSING ....................................................................................................... 46
Construction Materials: ......................................................................................................................................46
Climate: ...............................................................................................................................................................46
Orientation: .........................................................................................................................................................46
Orientation for Visual Comfort:...........................................................................................................................47
Orientation for Thermal Comfort : Solar heat gain .............................................................................................47
Glazing and Materials on different faces: ...........................................................................................................48
Orientation for Thermal Comfort: Natural Ventilation: ......................................................................................49
Location: .............................................................................................................................................................51
Energy Efficiency: ................................................................................................................................................51
PASSIVE SOLAR ENERGY: ...............................................................................................................................................53
Concept of Passive Solar Buildings ......................................................................................................................53
Benefits of Passive Solar Buildings ......................................................................................................................56
PROBLEMS FACED BY PASSIVE SOLAR BUILDINGS ................................................................................................................56
Overheating: .......................................................................................................................................................56
Perception: ..........................................................................................................................................................56
SOCIAL VARIABLES OF POST DISASTER HOUSING................................................................................................. 57
INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................................................57
SOCIAL FACTORS OF POST DISASTER HOUSING .......................................................................................................58
1.Open space.......................................................................................................................................................58
2. Club house, gym, departmental stores and swimming pool ...........................................................................59
3.Temple Structure ..............................................................................................................................................59
4.Gender Equality................................................................................................................................................59
5.Occupation .......................................................................................................................................................59
6.Family Size........................................................................................................................................................60
7.Safety ...............................................................................................................................................................60
8.Educational Facilities .......................................................................................................................................60
9.Health Facilities ................................................................................................................................................60
10. Social Status ..................................................................................................................................................60
11. Economic Status ............................................................................................................................................60
CULTURAL VARIABLES OF POST DISASTER HOUSING ........................................................................................... 60
INTRODUCTION: ......................................................................................................................................................61
CULTURAL FACTORS OF POST DISASTER HOUSING .................................................................................................61
Ethnicity ..............................................................................................................................................................61
Religion and Spirituality ......................................................................................................................................61
Livelihoods ..........................................................................................................................................................61
Family Background..............................................................................................................................................61
Rituals .................................................................................................................................................................61
Attitudes..............................................................................................................................................................61
Social interaction ................................................................................................................................................61
Social Status ........................................................................................................................................................61
NEIGHBORHOOD AND COMMUNITY CONCEPT IN ARCHITECTURE ....................................................................... 62
CONCEPT .................................................................................................................................................................62
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN NEIGHBORHOOD AND COMMUNITY ................................................................................63
IMPORTANCE OF NEIGHBORHOOD AND COMMUNITY IN HOUSING ......................................................................63
Increase confidence and self-esteem: .................................................................................................................63
Achieve a greater sense of purpose: ...................................................................................................................63
Cultivate resiliency: .............................................................................................................................................64
Adopt healthy habits: ..........................................................................................................................................64
Live longer: ..........................................................................................................................................................64
INCREMENTAL HOUSING ..................................................................................................................................... 65
WHY INCREMENTAL HOUSING IS IMPORTANT? ...................................................................................................................66
HOW TO BUILD HOME INCREMENTALLY? ...........................................................................................................................66
Self-Build .............................................................................................................................................................67
Local Contractors ................................................................................................................................................67
Community Build: ................................................................................................................................................67
INCREMENTAL HOUSING CONSTRUCTION IN KATHMANDU, VALLEY .........................................................................................67
PLACEMAKING ..................................................................................................................................................... 69
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GREAT PLACE ...............................................................................................................................70
PROCESS OF PLACEMAKING ............................................................................................................................................70
PARTICIPATORY METHODS/ CO-HOUSING ........................................................................................................... 71
EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT HOUSING IN NEPAL ..................................................................................................... 74
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS OF EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT BUILDINGS ......................................................................74
MATERIALS USED FOR EARTH RESISTANT BUILDINGS .............................................................................................75
SHAPE OF THE BUILDING .........................................................................................................................................75
THICKNESS OF THE WALL .........................................................................................................................................75
INTRODUCTION OF MAPPING .............................................................................................................................. 77
MAPPING IN ARCHITECTURE................................................................................................................................ 77
COGNITIVE MAPPING ....................................................................................................................................................78
SOCIAL MAPPING .........................................................................................................................................................79
LIST OF FIGURES
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1 Green and sustainable Housing ................................................................................................... 10
2 Single Detached Housing ............................................................................................................ 13
3 Townhouse .................................................................................................................................. 13
4 Triplex ......................................................................................................................................... 14
5 Townhouses ................................................................................................................................. 15
6 Apartments .................................................................................................................................. 16
7 Formal and informal process of housing ..................................................................................... 18
8 Barrier Free housing .................................................................................................................... 18
9 Incremental Housing.................................................................................................................... 19
10 Sustainable housing ................................................................................................................... 19
11 Pakki/Permanent House............................................................................................................. 21
12 Semi-Pakki/Semi-Permanent Houses ........................................................................................ 21
13 Kirtipur Housing by Lumanti .................................................................................................... 23
14 Rat Trap Bond ........................................................................................................................... 25
15 Compact Soil Block ................................................................................................................... 26
16 Bamboo eco-Housing ................................................................................................................ 26
17 Typical Road cross .................................................................................................................... 39
18 Combined system to treatment .................................................................................................. 43
19 Separate system ......................................................................................................................... 43
20 Orientation of the building ........................................................................................................ 47
21 Thermal Chart ............................................................................................................................ 48
22 More glazing to the east and more thermal mass to the west .................................................... 49
23 Wind rose diagram..................................................................................................................... 50
24 Orinetation for maximum ventilation ........................................................................................ 50
25 Energy efficiency in building .................................................................................................... 53
26 Passive solar energy in building ................................................................................................ 54
27 Five elements of passive solar design........................................................................................ 55
28 Social Sustainability Chart ........................................................................................................ 57
29 Human Needs-Spatial Design Quality ....................................................................................... 58
30 Open Space Survey.................................................................................................................... 58
31 Neighborhood concept............................................................................................................... 62
32 Incremental Housing by Alejandro Aravena ............................................................................. 65
33 Process of Formal and Informal housing ................................................................................... 66
34 showing RCC Construction in Nepal ........................................................................................ 68
35 Placemaking of a city ................................................................................................................ 69
36 Community participation and identifying stakeholders ............................................................. 71
37 showing process of not having a communal space .................................................................... 72
38 Table showing thickness of masonry walls ............................................................................... 76
39 Mapping of a city....................................................................................................................... 78
40 Cognitive Mapping in Jodhpur city ........................................................................................... 79
41 Social mapping of Bungmati, Nepal.......................................................................................... 80
INTRODUCTION TO HOUSING
Housing is a basic necessity that provides shelter; security, safety, and means for storage of other essentials;
and is the setting for the communal life of the neighborhood. Housing is an object of attachment to the
important idea of home, a source of identity, and has a significant relationship to psychological well-being.
The right to housing is explicitly supported by the international laws. The provision for housing is identified
as one of the basic rights by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, article 25 as early as 1948, at par
with the need for food, clothing, and medical care. It states “Everyone has the right to a standard of living
adequate for the health and wellbeing of himself and of his family, including food, clothing, housing and
medical care and necessary social services”. (Naveed Anwar,2015)
Housing is not only a basic need of life but also a symbol of social status as well as economic security
against hardships for a majority of Nepali people. There are two distinct facets of human settlements in
Nepal: i) rural settlements-characterized by poverty, lack or absence of minimum basic physical facilities
and services and ii) urban settlements-characterized by haphazard urbanization, environmental problems,
inadequate physical infrastructure facilities and services etc. In addition to this, the settlement pattern of
Nepal can also be analyzed against the backdrop of ecological or geographical regions such as the
Mountains, Hills and the Terai which depicts typical settlement pattern of its own.
DEFINITION OF HOUSING
The concept “housing” has a similar concept -house which was described Melvikas (1998) as a specific and
relatively limited, physically, socially close place where people and group of people can live their biosocial
life by receiving services, performing house chores and other biosocial activities.
Researchers Grim and Orvilkle 1976 explain in the past the concept “housing “was associated with a
physical phenomenon and the policies of countries for its provision mostly are related with construction
costs that may largely vary depending on the type of construction material, various housing standards and
construction quality.
"Housing" means building, house, part of it or such permanent or temporary, partial or full structure
constructed for the residential purpose. (Nepal Housing Act,2018)
OBJECTIVES OF HOUSING
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
To promote preservation, rehabilitation and investment in regional housing and neighborhood.
To promote creation and maintenance of adequate supply of sound and affordable housing.
To expand opportunity of homeownership, especially for low to moderate income household.
To promote fair housing opportunity to residents in all neighbors.
To continue to provide appropriate infrastructure and services to neighbors.
To promote planning, design and construction of wider range of housing unit types in adequate
supply for all income level and all age groups.
QUALITIES OF HOUSING
1. Proper amenities and services
The housing where the occupants have to spend their everyday life should be provided with all necessary
amenities and services for their everyday life.
2. Affordable
Occupants should be able to cover housing costs and still have ample budget for life’s other necessities like
food, health care, transportation, education, etc.
3. Safeguard occupants’ health
The poor quality of housing can result in different kind of diseases due to lack of sanitations. Hence, the
housing should have a level of quality that could safeguard occupants’ health.
4. Secure
A formal documentation should be available that could protect against evictions.
5. Safe
Housing should be safe against threats of outside world and provide protection during disasters and
pandemics.
6. Accessible
Housing should be accessible to everyone. Housing should have wheelchairs or handrails installed for
accessibility to individual with disabilities.
7. Airy and Ventilated
Occupants can stay happy and healthy in well ventilated housing with ample sunlight and air flow. Proper
ventilation helps control lingering moisture inside and keep floor, ceiling, walls and furniture dry. (Habitat
for Humanity,2022)
IMPORTANCE OF HOUSING IN ARCHITECTURE
Housing is also the result of multi-layered legislations enforcing regulations and building codes, as well as
of advertising and commercial practices informing uses and esthetics. Idea of architecture collectively is
domesticity, function, nature, space, type, etc. which have been constantly changing over time. Architecture
is a series of socio-spatial, material, and symbolic assemblages connecting the private and the public realms
through multiple cross-scale relationships, which interweave buildings with cities and cities with the
infrastructures. The importance of architectures can be described as followings:
1. More Free Time, or the Necessity of Restful Peace and Quiet
Housing in architecture must decide how to react in order to overrun the controlled space with a new design
logic, which allows “to smooth, collapse, or expel the stratified mechanizations of lived time”. Even though
this is merely an illusion, it is fundamental for the social psychology of space.
2. More Ways of Inhabiting and Becoming Involved
Housing in architecture has capacity to accommodate and even promote new ways of inhabiting.
Architectural practices are capable of fostering or hindering multiple, alternative ways of experiencing
domesticity, beyond and sometimes in resistance to the traditional structures of modernity, which conceived
the inhabitant as being within a homogeneous series of spatial, social, and gender categories. Architecture
of the dwellings is the vital hubs of network and economies, allowing to enjoy the world, no longer as the
universal space of modernity but as a place which offers a true physical and metaphysical mix similar to
that which sustains the symbiotic relationship of plants that support life on Earth.
3. More Shared Space Instead of Merely Flexible Types
Housing leads to practice of sharing, facilitating, through architecture, at least three types of spaces:
common areas, such as hallways, doorways, stairs, patios, roofs, etc.; transition areas such as porticos,
porches and/or multi-use spaces, both outside and inside the dwelling itself.
4. More Urban Culture to Facilitate Exchange
Housing responds to changing lifestyles via its relationship with space types. people are constantly moving
and no longer belong to a place. Housing prone to socialization types, such as courtyard housing, typical of
the Mediterranean urban fabric and culture, can contribute to culture exchange.
5. More Balance, Definitively
When buildings rise and expand, the urban landscape around shrinks. The population grows so the area per
inhabitant decreases. The essential joys of the surrounding area are also decreased: less sunshine, less air,
less light, less greenery for all, all for the benefit of the few. Their privileges override the well-being of the
community. Importance of built environment of not only indoor comfort parameters and the quality of
nearby facilities and amenities but also through confident, constructive relationships with neighbors, which
can be facilitated by means of an integrated, balanced design. (Extending the Architecture of Collective
Housing: Towards Common Worlds of Care,2021)
Figure 1 Green and sustainable Housing
HISTORY OF HOUSING
Housing form different periods were intended to meet different needs and it is against the backdrop of their
own time that they should be judged.
International History
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
From 1800s to 1900s, workers lived in overcrowded houses with lack of sanitation, fresh water and
poor food. Henry Robert’s Model Home established new standard for worker dwellings.
From 1919, between wars, new housing was typically of cottage style, semi-detached and suburban.
In the mid-1930s, concern over variable quality of new homes for private buyer triggered the
establishment of national registration scheme for builders.
Following the Second World War (1939-1945), local authority council housing for poor people
was established.
In 1960s and 70s, Residential tower blocks were major part of the new housing mix that was
disapproved by the public due to poor design for community security, repetitive concrete exteriors
and technical deficiencies.
In 1980s, Right to Buy scheme was launched and by the end of 1990s about 1.9 million houses had
been sold. Safety standards in homes were improved significantly and set a path for much safer
homes.
Throughout 20th century globalization through internet and improved communications drove
commercial and social change. Code for Sustainable Homes. The Zero Carbon Homes policy was
also established.
In 2006, ‘Code for Sustainable Homes’ to enhance the environmental sustainability of new
developments was introduced. It also sponsored the establishment of the Zero Carbon Hub to
support the delivery of the zero carbon homes policy.
From 2013, Through its Housing Standards Review consultation, has encouraged a wide debate on
the technical standards of new homes.
From 2016, Policy on new homes has been to ensure that new housing minimizes carbon emissions.
National History
•
•
•
•
•
In 1950s, Nepal started planning development.
In Fourth Plan (1970-1975) Regional planning was incorporated which introduced concept of
growth centers and growth corridors.
In mid-seventies, Government of Nepal started formal housing program in the mid-seventies by
implementing for the first time three Site and Services (S&S) projects namely Kuleswor, Galfutar
and Dallu in Kathmandu through Kathmandu Valley Town Development Committee (KVTDC)
under the Ministry of Physical Planning and Works (MPPW).
In Fifth Plan (1975-1980) and Sixth Plan (1980-1985), Regional development was further
emphasized through large investment on development of infrastructure facilities in five
development regions.
Development Act 2045 (1988) provides a legislative framework for implementing land
development programs consisting of three model approaches for urban areas: 1) Sites and Services
(S & S), ii) Guided Land Development (GLD) and iii) Land Pooling (LP). For Rural areas, Rural
Home Loan Program (RHLP), Small Farmer Development Program (SFDP) and Rural Women
Welfare Program launched to benefit poor.
•
•
•
•
•
In 1996, Lumanti, an NGO, initiated slum and squatter community empowerment programs in
Kathmandu and Lalitpur which is now extended to Butwal, Bharatpur, Dharan and Birgunj
municipalities. This program focused on housing rights advocacy, secure tenure, building capacity
of the urban poor groups, improving access to finance and basic urban services. (The state of
Housing and Urban Development in Nepal, Udon Thani 2005)
In 1997-2002, realizing household living on public land called squatter settlement “Sukumbashi
Basti’ government worked out “National Shelter Policy”.
In 2000, Real estate and housing market begin.
In 2012, National Shelter Policy 1996 was revised to address new challenge of slums, rental
housing and housing for internally displaced and that of economically weaker section.
In 2015, Government of Nepal came up with strategy for supporting earthquake victim Nepal Rural
Housing Reconstruction Program (RHRP).
TYPES OF HOUSING
Types of
Housing
On the Basis
of Form
On the basis
of Ownership
On the basis
of Location
ON the basis
of Cost
On the BAsis
of Settlement
On the basis
of Purpose
Single
Detached
Public
Housing
Urban
Housing
Affordable
Formal
Barrier Free
Townhome
Private
Housing
Semi-Urban
Housing
Low-cost
Housing
Informal
Mobile
Housing
Duplex
Commercial
Housing
Rural Housing
Triplex
Social
Housing
Apartment
Disaster
Housing
Incremental
Housing
Sustainable
Housing
On the basis of form
1. Single Detached housing
It is a small size house designed for a single family which is free-standing building. This type of housing is
generally found in less dense urban areas, suburbs and rural areas. The structure is maintained and used as
a single dwelling unit and occupied by a single household.
Advantages
1. It gives you more privacy as it is built on a piece of private property and doesn’t share walls.
2. There is always more storage space compared to any other type of property with shared walls, you
have scope for shed or garage.
3. Landscaping can be personalized.
4. The costs to manage these properties are comparatively lower on an annual basis.
Disadvantages:
1. Since there is space for only one family living, there are fewer
ways to use your property to earn income.
2. Unlike shared living spaces, occupant alone have to pay the
bill for exterior maintenance. (Home Buying Guide,2022)
Figure 2 Single Detached Housing
2. Townhome/Condominium
It is a multi-story house in a modern housing development which is attached to one or more similar houses
by shared walls.
Advantages
•
•
•
•
It has double secured entry gate and security guard which is
very safe.
The developer takes care of the maintenance.
All the basic luxury can be enjoyed. Free pass to own
backyard, small playground for kids, clubhouse for mid weeks,
weekend or holiday celebrations, and much more.
They come under budget price.
Figure 3 Townhouse
Disadvantages
•
•
•
Low privacy in presence of neighbors.
Small association fees should be paid monthly for maintenance, upkeeping properties and any
future development.
Required to follow certain rule set by the management. (Breakingtravels,2017)
3. Duplexes
Semi-detached housing consists of two distinct dwelling typically with them own individual entrances,
located within a single structure. Generally, one house’s layout is mirror of its twin house. A duplex is a
multi-family home that has two units in one building. Apartments in a duplex will have their own entrances
and often have living spaces upstairs and downstairs. The two units will be similar in size.
Advantages:
•
Owners can buy a duplex house, live in one side and rent the other. This increases the owner’s
returns from the investment they made on the property.
•
Both, the buyers and tenants of a duplex house, enjoy greater mortgage facilities in a duplex house.
•
A duplex house design can serve many purposes. In case you want to set up an office, you can
simply set it up on one floor and have a home-office. As duplex house is huge and spacious, one
gets access to privacy in such apartments.
•
Duplex house is an ideal solution for a joint family where families want to stay together but also
like to have their privacy.
Disadvantages:
•
Common walls in a duplex house may lead to transmission of noise.
•
It is hard to get a tenant for a duplex house. (Harini Balasubramaniam,2022)
4. Triplex
A triplex is similar to duplex, but it is a three-unit multifamily structure with one owner. It consists of three
individual dwelling units combined into one building, the individual units typically share one or two
common walls. Each unit is self-sufficient.
Advantages
•
The landlord is close by when repairs are required.
•
Repairs and maintenance can be more efficient, with all three
units sharing one roof, one yard, and other common areas.
•
The landlord can move out and then have three incomeproducing properties.
Figure 4 Triplex
Disadvantages
•
A triplex is typically more expensive than a single-family home or a duplex.
•
It is more difficult to sell a triplex since there are likely tenants involved who might have different
lease end dates. (Laura Agadoni,2021)
5. Town houses/Row houses
When three or more houses are connected side by side in a row, the type of housing is known as rowhouses. Units typically have their own individual entrances, and can look like a building or several distinct
structures.
Advantages
•
Plan or architecture that is consistent. The row houses are largely identical, with similar front
designs, backyards, Private Gardens and stairways.
•
Row homes have their own character and are self-contained. A row house’s most appealing feature
is its independence, and its design may enhance the visual attractiveness of property as well.
•
A row home gives the most privacy and freedom because it is part of a gated community with
advanced 24x7 Security and CCTV surveillance in common areas that safeguard safety.
•
As all of the row houses are almost identical in design, the overall cost of architects’ fees is
decreased.
•
Every row house in the neighborhood has its own private patio.
Disadvantages
1. Many of them are devoid of a basement, a yard, or any other facilities and children may be deprived
of a safe place to play.
2. On one or both sides, the row dwellings are connected. As a
result, the likelihood of noise increases; sharing walls with
neighbors means hearing their loud music, conflicts, and so
on.
3. Because one must pay for interior, exterior, and other
society fees, the cost of maintaining a row house is more.
(Riya Prabhu,2022)
Figure 5 Townhouses
6. Apartments
They are multi- storied buildings where three or more residence are contained within one structure. They
are generally popular in the urban cities. There are low-rise, mid-rise and high-rise apartments
Advantages
•
•
•
Living in an apartment is a convenient choice for people who cannot afford monthly home loan
payments.
Living in an apartment will free the owner from the worries about insurance and home maintenance.
The apartment owners needn’t worry about the repairs like pavement, ceiling and others.
Disadvantages
•
•
Apartments have close proximity to neighbors and
provide less privacy along with maintenance rules
provided by the landlord and also the owner should
seek permission before updating or adding an extra
embellishment in an apartment.
Many apartments which have a lower monthly rent
have very less square footage, which results in a
cramped space providing a smaller room to the entire
family. (Riya Prabhu,2022)
Figure 6 Apartments
On the basis of Ownership:
1. Private Housing
Private housing is a form of housing, which is owned by private individuals of the society.
2. Public Housing
Public housing is a form of housing, which is completely owned by the government or state.
3. Social Housing
Social housing is a form of rental housing, which may be owned and managed by the state, by non-profit
organizations, or by a combination of the two, usually with the aim of providing affordable housing.
4. Commercial Housing
Commercial Housing is a form of housing, which is completely owned by a private company with the intent
of earning profit.
On the basis of Location
1. Rural Housing
Rural area exists far from the distance of a city where there are minimum facilities. The population density
of these areas is low. Hence, rural housing is a form of housing that exists in rural areas.
2. Suburban Housing
Suburban area is a mixed-use or residential area. It can exist as a part of a city/urban area or as separate
residential communities within commuting distance of a city. Suburban housing is a form of housing that
exists within a reasonable commute of an urban area.
3. Urban Housing
Urban area is the city area where the population density is high. Urban housing is a form of housing that
exists in the city area.
On the basis of Cost:
1. Affordable Housing
Affordable housing is housing that a household can pay for, while still having money left over for other
necessities like food, transportation, and health care. That means that what’s considered “affordable”
depends on a household’s income.
2. Low-Cost Housing:
Low-Cost Housing is a concept of housing which deals with effective budgeting and following of
techniques which help in reducing the cost construction through the use of locally available materials along
with improved skills and technology without sacrificing the strength, performance and life of the structure.
(Low Cost housing and human behavior towards low cost housing Dr.Pinal Barot, 2021) .It can be achieved
by the use of efficient planning and project management, low-cost materials, energy efficient materials,
economical construction technologies and use of alternative construction methods available. Low-cost
housing is done by proper management of resources and use of improved building technologies.
On the basis of Settlement
1. Formal Housing
Formal housing is the settlement where owner-occupants typically have free-hold or lease hold over the
land.
2. Informal Housing
Informal housing is the settlements where it is compliance with current planning and building regulation.
Figure 7 Formal and informal process of housing
On the basis of Purpose
1. Barrier-free Housing
Barrier-free housing are designed for those with physical or other
disabilities, involving the provision of alternative means of access to
steps (e.g., Ramps and lifts) for those with mobility problems. It is also
called universal design.
Figure 8 Barrier Free housing
2. Mobile homes
It is a prefabricated structure, built in a factory. It is used as permanent homes for holiday or temporary
accommodation. It is left open permanently or semi permanently in one place, but can be moved and may
be required to move from time to time for legal reasons.
3. Disaster housing
Disaster temporary housing is defined as short term provisions provided to disaster survivors. For a
specified period of time following the occurrence of fire, flood, storm or any other catastrophe. Student
housing Student housing provides student with clean, safe, secure and well-maintained residences. A
division of residential and dining enterprises, strive to enable comfortable and inclusive communities that
foster both personal and intellectual growth.
4. Incremental Housing
Incremental housing is a process of urban development that builds basic, core, structures to provide shelter.
These core spaces can be built upon by the individual owner according to their own timeline, needs, and
resources. Incremental housing can be defined as a gradual step-by-step process whereby building
components are appended or improved by owner-builders as funding, time, or materials become available.
In this way, the costs of housing construction can be reduced. It is a manner of construction that’s based on
the gradual evolution of a housing unit according to the needs of its inhabitants. This type of housing is
beneficial to people from all economic backgrounds.
Figure 9 Incremental Housing
5. Sustainable Housing
Sustainable housing is the type of housing that has the least possible negative impact on the environment.
This means energy efficiency, avoiding environmental toxins, and using materials and resources in a
responsible manner while having a positive physical and psychological impact on its inhabitants. (Fontan,
2021)
Figure 10 Sustainable housing
HOUSING CONDITION IN NEPAL
INTRODUCTION
Traditionally most of the settlements in Nepal were scattered in the hills and the valleys, the mountains
remained largely uninhabited because of the harsh climate and steep topography.
In valley, the individual house is a part of larger group, a villa community which consisted of houses built
in rows. The total of 50-150 housing units is planned in certain amount of land. The planning is basically
done in row pattern. Each row has 20-30 houses arranged as per the plan by professionals. All housing units
are generally 2.5 -3 storied and usually housed a single family of parents and their children or retired living
in search of security and quiet environment. These modern contemporary house are constructed on
rectangular style facing the street or road. The design is contemporary approach in some cases while slope
roof and a touch of traditional look is given in exterior taking the layout process into a new degree with
open spaces making homes which are convenient and enjoyable. These areas are basically targeted to
middle and higher income group people.
HOUSE TYPOLOGY
Urban housing in Nepal is typically multi-story buildings; single-story homes are unusual to find there.
Traditional building height limitations were based on the heights of the temples, so two and three-story
homes dominated the urban scene. However, two tendencies have emerged in recent years as a result of
rising in-migration and skyrocketing land prices.
More floors have been added to homes by homeowners. Naturally, there are more multi-story homes in
larger cities than in smaller ones, and in Kathmandu valley, four- and five-story buildings are becoming
more prevalent.
According to the 2010 CIUD survey, only 22% of homes, and even less than 5% in Kathmandu Valley, are
single-story structures, whereas nearly 50% of homes have three stories or more.
In Newari houses, traditionally the ground floor was not used because it was thought to be damp to be used
as living space. However, recently, as a result of industrialization and urbanization, it has become more
typical for ground floors to be rented to tenants for commercial use (shops). The hitherto "useless locations"
have developed into a significant source of income.
According to the household survey, there are more than 50% of homes that have a mix of residential,
commercial, and other uses. Only 41% of homes are exclusively residential. The hinterland is often where
these homes are located. (National Population and Housing Census, 2011), Volume 1
HOUSE TYPOLOGY
PAKKI
•
•
SEMI
PAKKI
KACHCHI
Pakki house:
These houses are permanent and durable. Burnt bricks
with cement mortar or concrete blocks are used in
construction of walls. Roof is made up of reinforced
concrete or cement clay tile.
Semi Pakki house:
These houses are semi-permanent. Stone, mud and
sunburnt bricks are used in construction of walls. Roof is
made up of all kind of tiles, slate, corrugated or tin
Figure 11 Pakki/Permanent House
sheets.
Figure 12 Semi-Pakki/Semi-Permanent Houses
•
Kachchi house:
These houses are temporary, fragile and non-durable. Wooden and bamboo reinforced walls with
mud plaster is constructed. Thatch, straw, bamboo, mud, corrugated or plastic sheets are for
construction of roof.
NEEDS AND DEMANDS
According to Population Census 2001, the country has 4,253,220 households. Average household size
varies from 5.4 in rural areas to 4.9 in urban areas. (Nepal Housing Sector Profile,2010)
Business Plan-2014 (DUDBC)
CONDITIONS AND PROBLEMS
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
More number of people are living on rent and the overcrowding indices is high.
The infrastructure is not meeting the needs of the people whether it be water supply or sanitation.
The number of squatters is increasing and the slum areas are also following the same trend.
The financial resource is not available easily.
The land plots are difficult to find. The urban houses are in dilapidated state and need upgradation.
Many houses are vulnerable to earthquake
Gated communities for people of a certain social class, including high-rise flats aimed for those
with a greater income.
Rapid deterioration of the historic centre, accompanied by an inflow of low-income migrant
tenants and locals’ migration to the suburbs.
Urban sprawl & rapid informal development of suburban areas
Undocumented rise in squatter along river banks public land.
(Nepal Urban Housing sector Profile)
NATIONAL SHELTER POLICY (1996)
The total housing need for period 1996-2006 was estimated to be 2.5 million units of which only 400.000
or 17 per cent in the urban areas. In addition, around 730,000 dwellings needed to be upgraded of which
60,000 were in the urban areas, less than 10 per cent.
The main instruments proposed to improve the housing situation were;
•
•
•
Supply of serviced housing plots through land development programs executed by Town
Development Committees and private developers.
Promotion of shelter finance.
Development of construction material and technology.
ORGANIZATIONS WORKING FOR HOUSING PROBLEMS IN NEPAL
1. LUMANTI
Kirtipur housing project was constructed in
order to create affordable housing. The
housing design was chosen by the
community from several alternatives
presented, and a total of 44 homes are
constructed. The houses are constructed in
two rows with open spaces which can be
used as play grounds and other purposes.
Two wells are constructed and effort is
being made to get a drinking water pipe line
Figure 13 Kirtipur Housing by Lumanti
from the government. During dry season
the water shortage is worse in the urban
centers so to overcome this problem, rain water harvesting is introduced. Three underground tanks are built
to collect rain water.
•
•
•
Address growing urban poverty and housing issues by setting up a proper mechanism involving
the city government, NGOs and the communities.
Provide soft loans to urban poor communities improve economic condition, basic infrastructure
facilities and housing conditions.
Enhance the capacity of the urban poor, low income families and the community organizations.
1. CENTRE FOR INTEGRATED URBAN DEVELOPMENT, CIUD
Centre for Integrated Urban Development is a NGO dedicated to improve urban environment. At present
the centre is involved in improving water and sanitation situation of 16 settlements of Kamalamai
Municipality in partnership with UN-HABITAT, WaterAid Nepal, Kamalamai Municipality and local
communities. Tigni, Gamcha, Madhyapur Thimi, Machchhegaun are other locations where the centre is
involved. CIUD, with the support of UN HABITAT developed a poverty mapping tool, which is being
extensively used by several agencies including Department of Urban Development and Building
Construction, UEIP and others.
2. SHELTER AND LOCAL TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT CENTRE, SLTDC
SLTDC is an NGO involved in cost effective house in rural area for low-income group. They introduce
improved walling materials like compressed soil block and layer of soil with plastic sheets, wire mesh and
bamboo for roofing material. The Centre demonstrates and disseminates cost effective construction
technologies and building techniques.
Some examples include:
•
•
Belhi-Chapena –To construct 225 houses for fire victims of Belhi-Chapena.
Siraha - Housing for the Musahar families: Musahar families refer to a Hindu scheduled caste The
Centre provided technical assistance to construct 35 houses for these families of which most were
homeless and squatters
•
Sitapaila Housing Project: This is a small housing project in Kathmandu, executed by a private
company mainly for demonstration. The project consists of only five houses, each showing
different types of cost effective building solutions.
BUILDING MATERIALS
Traditionally construction materials used in Nepal were different for different ecological zones. (chapter
1)
1. Terai:
Stone wall in mud mortar (21%), bamboo, timber and other temporary structures (62%), cement
mortar structures (17%) implying that a majority of the buildings are of temporary types. The
percentage distribution of the roofing types are as follows: thatch roofing (30%), CGI sheets (16%),
concrete (15%), and the rest are of other types including the roof tiles. As regards the flooring,
the mud floor occupies more than 80%. The average plot size and area of the dwelling unit are
found to be 1500 sq. ft. and500 sq. ft. respectively. Water supply distribution characteristics of
the dwelling units are as follows: piped water supply (2%), public tap stand (10%), wells/tube well
(78%), and the other means and sources for the rest (10%). 30% of the families have access to the
electricity, and about 2% and 25% of the families have access to telephone and toilet facilities
respectively. For cooking purposes more than 62% of the families uses wood.
2. Mid hills and Himalayan regions:
Stone wall in mud mortar (83%), bamboo, timber and other temporary structures (10%), cement
mortar structures (7%) implying that a majority of the buildings are of temporary types. The
percentage distribution of the roofing types are as follows: straw roofing (40%), CGI sheets (20%),
concrete (3%), and the rest are of other types including the roof tiles. As regards the flooring, the
mud floor occupies more than 90%. The average plot size and area of the dwelling unit are found
to be 1450 sq. ft. and 540 sq. ft. respectively. Water supply distribution characteristics of the
dwelling units are as follows: piped water supply (11%), public tap (55%), wells/tube well (4%),
and the other means and sources for the rest (30%). 25% of the families have access to the
electricity, and less than 2% and around 37% of the families have access to telephone and toilet
facilities respectively. For cooking purposes more than 93% of the families uses wood.
TYPES OF BUILDING MATERIALS
TYPES
s
LOCAL
BUILDING
MATERIAL
MODERN
BUILDING
MATERIAL
IMPORTED
BUILDING
MATERIAL
LOCAL (TRADITIONAL) BUILDING MATERIALS
•
•
•
Bricks: Normal hand-made bricks are called local bricks and the bricks made by Chinese brick
machines and are called Chinese bricks. Local bricks are extensively used for all types of structure.
Chinese bricks generally have a higher compressive strength compared to the local bricks.
Stone: Natural stone is perhaps the oldest most abundant and most durable ready-made building
material in Nepal. It is also probably the largest visible mineral resource in the country. Being
widely available in the hills the major varieties found in the country are limestone, sandstone,
dolomite, granite, quartzite and marble
Timber: Timber is one of the oldest and most extensively used building materials in Nepal. It is
used in house construction for doors, windows, staircases, flooring, roofing and wall panels, as
well as for structural members such as columns, beams and trusses. In traditional hill houses they
used predominantly soft local timber which is one of the reasons why hill houses had a short life
span. After the construction of a wider road network, hard woods are transported from the forest
of Terai.
Modern building materials
•
•
•
Ordinary Portland cement
Reinforced steel rods and structural steel sections
Corrugated galvanized iron sheets (CGI)
Imported building materials
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
finishing material
heating and ventilating fixtures
glass
Aluminium sections
plaster of paris
Sanitary fixtures
Electrical fixtures
Marble
Granite
GREEN BUILDING AND CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGIES IN NEPAL
•
Rat trap bond: The rat trap bond is a brick masonry walling
technique in which bricks are laid on edge such that the shiner
and rowlock are visible on the face of the masonry as a brick
cross, creating an internal cavity bridged by the rowlock. This
cavity acts as an insulating layer to balance the heat transfer
from outside to inside or vise-versa. It is as good as English
bond brickwork and due to its light weight, is resistant to
earthquakes also.
Figure 14 Rat Trap Bond
•
•
Compact soil block: The compact soil blocks are manufactured
by soil (usually stabilized soil) into required size blocks using a
block making machine. Compact blocks have higher
compression strength than ordinary mud and adobe walls.
Their use does not require any additional skills over those
required for 12W reinforcement for earthquake resistant
construction. The block making machine can be locally
manufactured and is transportable, thus saving in
transportation of the finished product to the site.
Figure 15 Compact Soil Block
Bamboo eco-housing: The houses are made of nine panels of
prefabricated bamboo in a wooden frame. The prefabricated
panels are then assembled in the light concrete foundation
made with stone and concrete. After the assembly of the
panels in the foundations, all the walls are plastered with
cement mortar.
Figure 16 Bamboo eco-Housing
DISASTER MANAGEMENT
INTRODUCTION TO DISASTER
A disaster is a catastrophic consequences of natural phenomena or a combination of phenomena resulting
in injury, loss of life or input in a relatively large scale and some disruption to human activities. (Shimi
Lawrence,2012)
Disaster is a serious disruption of the functioning of a community or society, which involve
widespread human, material, economic or environmental impacts that exceed the ability of the
affected community or society to cope using its own resources. (United Nations)
Disaster management is how we deal with the human, material, economic or environmental
impacts of said disaster, it is the process of how we “prepare for, respond to and learn from the
effects of major failures”.
GOALS OF DISASTER MANAGEMENT
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•
•
Reduce, or avoid, losses from hazards
Assure prompt assistance to victims
Achieve rapid and effective recovery
TYPES OF DISASTER
Natural disaster
Natural Disasters are naturally occurring physical phenomena caused either by rapid or slow onset events
that have immediate impacts on human health and secondary impacts causing further death and suffering.
These disasters can be:
•
•
•
•
•
Geophysical
Examples: Earthquakes, Landslides, Tsunamis and Volcanic Activity
Hydrological
Examples: Avalanches and Floods)
Climatological
Examples: Extreme Temperatures, Drought and Wildfires
Meteorological
Examples: Cyclones and Storms/Wave Surges
Biological
Examples: Disease Epidemics and Insect/Animal Plagues
Manmade disaster
Man-Made are events that are caused by humans which occur in or close to human settlements often caused
as a result of Environmental or Technological Emergencies.
This can include:
•
•
•
Environmental Degradation
Pollution
Accidents (e.g., Industrial, Technological and Transport usually involving the
production, use or transport of hazardous materials)
DISASTER LIFE CYCLE, PHASES & STEPS OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT
Disasters as recurring events that take place in four key phases:
•
•
•
•
Mitigation - Minimizing the effects of disaster.
Examples: building codes and zoning; vulnerability analyses; public education.
Preparedness - Planning how to respond.
Examples: preparedness plans; emergency exercises/training; warning systems.
Response - Efforts to minimize the hazards created by a disaster.
Examples: search and rescue; emergency relief
Recovery - Returning the community to normal.
Examples: temporary housing; grants; medical care.
(Corina Warfield)
Figure 15 Disaster management cycle
PRE-DISASTER HOUSING
Pre disaster housing are done to minimize the risk of disaster. It is done before a disaster to reduce the
potential for human, material or environmental losses caused by hazards and to ensure that these losses
are minimized when the disaster strikes.
Traditionally people think of disaster management only in term of the emergency relief period and post
disaster rehabilitation. Instead of allocated funds before an event to ensure prevention and preparedness.
A successful disaster management planning must encompass the situation that occurs before, during and
after disasters.
Here, are the possible phases in which pre- housing planning is done.
1. Prevention and Mitigation:
Reducing the risk of disasters involves activities, which either reduce or modify the scale and intensity of
the threat faced or by improving the conditions of elements at risk.
Although the term „prevention‟ is often used to embrace the wide diversity of measures to protect persons
and property its use is not recommended since it is misleading in its implicit suggestion that natural
disasters are preventable. The use of the term reduction to describe protective or preventive actions that
lessen the scale of impact is therefore preferred. Mitigation embraces all measures taken to reduce both
the effects of the hazard itself and the vulnerable conditions to it in order to reduce the scale of a future
disaster.
In addition to these physical measures, mitigation should also be aimed at reducing the physical,
economic, and social vulnerability to threats and the underlying causes for this vulnerability. Therefore,
mitigation may incorporate addressing issues such as land ownership, tenancy rights, wealth distribution,
implementation of earthquake resistant building codes, etc.
2. Preparedness:
This brings us to the all-important issue of disaster preparedness. The process embraces measures that
enables governments, communities, and individuals to respond rapidly to disaster situations to cope with
them effectively. Preparedness includes for example, the formulation of viable emergency plans, the
development of warning systems, the maintenance of inventories, public awareness and education and the
training of personnel. It may also embrace search and rescue measures as well as evacuation plans for
areas that may be „at risk‟ from a recurring disaster. All preparedness planning needs to be supported by
appropriate rules and regulations with clear allocation of responsibilities and budgetary provision.
3.Early Warning:
This is the process of monitoring the situation in communities or areas known to be vulnerable to slow
onset hazards and passing the knowledge of the pending hazard to people in harm’s way. To be effective,
warnings must be related to mass education and training of the population who know what actions they
must take when warned.
4.The Disaster impact:
This refers to the “real-time event of a hazard occurring and affecting elements at risk. The duration of
the event will depend on the type of threat; ground shaking may only occur in a matter of seconds during
an earthquake while flooding may take place over a longer sustained period.
Figure 4: Steps Pre-disaster (Saumyang Patel, 2021)
POST DISASTER AND POST DISASTER HOUSING
Post-disaster housing is defined as housing policies and applications following a disaster for meeting the
urgent, temporary and permanent sheltering needs of the survivors of the disaster. (United Nations Disaster
Relief Co-ordinator,1982)
The construction of the post-disaster housing entails a process radically different from the construction of
housing in normal times, since the recovery and reconstruction phases in the aftermath of disasters consists
of activities to be implemented in time of major crisis.
OBJECTIVE OF POST DISASTER HOUSING
•
•
•
Incorporate earthquake resistant standards and designs in housing reconstruction
Encourage people to rebuild on the original plot of land, • Disaster-affected people as well as
masons would need to be trained in approved design elements
Rebuild using familiar methods and materials
•
•
•
•
•
Earthquake resistant elements should be introduced in traditional and current building
techniques
Relocate settlements to minimize hazards, but only where necessary
Offer uniform, not compensation based, assistance packages
Co-ordinate to ensure full spatial coverage and prevent double counting or missing affected
households
Complement housing reconstruction with livelihoods and social and physical service support.
TYPES OF POST DISASTER HOUSING
IN SITE CONSTRUCTION/RECONSTRUCTION
Re-establishing housing in a place where disaster occurred. Renovation of building as well as building are
demolished and reconstructed in the same site. While the buildings are reconstructed; the physical, social,
and economic development and reconstruction of the damages caused by disaster should be done in
sustainable, resilient, and planned manner. In most cases, in-situ houses are constructed before either
relocation or the construction of permanent houses.
Revitalizing the productive sector for economic opportunities and livelihoods to developed new
opportunities. Reconstruction of damaged cities and ancient villages in their original form, while improving
the resilience of the structures. (National Reconstruction Authority (NRA), 2016)
RELOCATED/ RESETTLEMENT
When people have been displaced by the disaster, relocation is perceived as the best option after the
disaster.
Integrated settlement is defined as the process whereby a community’s housing, assets and public
infrastructures are rebuilt in another location reducing sometimes the vulnerability to the risk of future
disaster. Resettlement/relocation projects, provided mostly for underprivileged segments of the society,
are undertaken as low-cost constructions, swiftly built to respond to an impending crisis of housing with
aims of efficient use of finite resources of land, infrastructure, and finances. (Silva & Dharmasena, 2011).
Permanent housing production after quake is carried out with various alternative approaches.
• Providing the user with a complete housing by the state or a welfare organization.
• Building unit housing for the user and allowing the user to develop it according to his needs in the
course of time.
• Organizing the users by providing educational aid and material provision and helping the
individuals who build their houses themselves.
INTREGATED SETTLEMENT
“Integrated Housing” refers to the strategy of blending or integrating supportive housing units within
developments that also provide affordable and/or market-rate housing units. (Denniston, 2012) The NRA
has implemented a guideline on integrated settlement development since 2073 BS. According to the
guideline, ten or more families can come to the integrated settlement plan. Its policy is to support the
development of necessary infrastructures if the vulnerable beneficiaries, landless beneficiaries,
beneficiaries who were living in scattered places, now want to come and live in an integrated settlement.
It comprises all building units that use earthquake resistance building technology. If reconstruction in the
same place isn’t viable, relocation would take place. As per the provision, there should be at least 10
houses for the development of integrated settlement. But not everything is right in integrated settlements.
Some families even must accommodate 10- 12 people within the two-room house, some have been
separated from their agricultural lands and occupation. (Integrated Settlement: Living Together, n.d.)
PHASES OF DISASTER SHELTER
There are various phases of post disaster shelter.
Emergency Phase:
Emergency Preparedness used for civil protection. It refers to the process of managing, coordinating,
operating, in the various stages of the disaster cycle; hazard and risk mitigation, disaster preparedness,
emergency response, recovery and reconstruction.
In this phase victims, search for the emergency shelters such as tents.
Transitional Phase:
In this stage, the houses made up of bamboo, thatch and locally available materials are built. It is
economical. Transitional shelters are gradually upgraded to permanent shelters.
Permanent Phase:
In this phase, people start to build permanent and durable houses. Materials such as bricks cement, R.C.C
are used.
PROCESS OF RECONSTRUCTION OF PDH:
1. Attempt–planning–scheduling
- space needs and performance requirements, selecting the place and finance program.
2.Design
- quality and quantity of the solution are made.
3.Construction
-designed project is realized.
4. Using
-covers the longest period and the problems concerning the structure come out in this stage.
Apart from this,
• Cultural elements of building are information, technology and value systems that are possessed by
the society.
• Environment factor Climate, topography, local components whereas energy, artificial components,
workforce, etc. affect the quality of the space that is dwelled in.
• Quality of environment is measured by, beyond the criteria such as physical comfort and safety,
psychological and sociocultural meaning that environment has. From this aspect, design is to reflect
special requirements and profile of the users.
It will be possible to determine new requirements for the planning and the spatial requirements in
accordance with user, and to produce new designs and solutions in post disaster housing.
HOUSING RECOVERY
Housing recovery is the process of re-establishing the shelter arrangement of the victims in prior to the
events. It includes repairing damaged buildings, enabling persons to rent existing dwellings as well as
providing new sheltering solutions. It is also a process of construction of permanent durable solutions for
the affected populations that reduce future disaster risk.
APPROACHES FOR RECOVERY OF POST DISASTER HOUSING
There are various approaches for recovery of post disaster housing. This approaches depends upon the
economic condition of the victim, the community and overall socio cultural aspects.
Owner Driven approach
Owner Driven approach is the most empowering and dignified approach for households. The key difference
between this approach and agency driven approaches is that contractors and paid laborers are accountable
to the homeowner rather than to an external agency.
Advantages:
•
•
•
•
•
Mobilizes household to take active role in rebuilding
Consistent with incremental housing construction practices
Encourages repair and salvation of houses
Involves local industry, manpower
Helps preserve the socio-cultural aspect of society as the owners are heavily involved.
Disadvantages:
•
•
Without proper standards and oversight, a poor and vulnerable end product is possible
Maybe difficult with communities with no prior building experience.
Community driven approach
Financial and/or material assistance is channeled through community organizations that are actively
involved in decision making and in managing reconstruction.
Advantages:
•
•
•
Useful where new materials and technologies are used
Can foster social cohesion between people
High level of flexibility
Disadvantages:
•
•
High probability of corruption
Overheads maybe high
Agency driven approach in situ:
Refers to an approach in which a governmental or nongovernmental agency hires a construction company
to replace damaged houses in their pre-disaster location.
Advantages:
•
•
•
Communities are not displaced
New technologies in same location
No land acquisition is required.
Disadvantages:
•
Construction quality and location may hinder the reconstruction process
Agency driven approach in situ:
Refers to an approach in which a governmental or nongovernmental agency hires a construction company
to build new houses in a new site.
Advantages:
•
•
•
•
Appropriate for hazardous sites
Faster and cost effective
Appropriate for urban context
Can address housing needs of various categories of population
Disadvantages:
•
•
•
Difficulty in finding location
Disruption of everyday life of people
Loss of local building culture
ISSUES OF POST DISASTER HOUSING RECOVERY IN NEPAL
(Urban housing recovery in Nepal: challenges & recommendations, 2021)
(Apurva Pamidimukkala, 2020)
1. Reconstruction
• No byelaws information
• Too much set back
• Material cost
• Material availability
• High labor wages
• Inappropriate design
• Demolition
• Integrated settlement
2. Retrofitting
• Not feasible
• Less guidance
• Misinformation
3. Heritage
• Higher cost
• Unclear guidelines
• Less heritage socio technical assistance
• Heritage compliance
4. Resource
• Competing demand for resources
• Scarcity of resources
5. Planning and Management
• Inadequate planning
• Inadequate operational management related to post disaster recovery
• Effective management
6. Land
• Ownership Papers
• Small plots
• Multi ownership
• Landless
7. Mason
• Shortage of trained mason
• Mason from outside the district
COMPONENTS OF POST DISASTER RECONSTRUCTION PROJECTS
Post Disaster Reconstruction (PDR) projects need to be more human oriented comparing to other
construction projects. Gunawan (2008) has identified that there are 4 components in post disaster
reconstruction projects which have proved to be crucial in determining successful or unsuccessful outcomes
in terms of community cultural influence. These components are known as site, layout, housing and popular
input policies. The author further described that these four components are closely related to how the
community react to a given PDR project based on the culture, either in terms of kinship, rituals or values.
SITE
All cultures exist within their environmental context. Appropriate site identification and selection for a PDR
project is very essential for the community and time-consuming procedure because it is bound with
numerous dimensions including the community culture (Sridarran et al., 2008; Barakat, 2003). Therefore,
poor choice of site for the new settlement can result the re-settlement programs unsuccessful (Gunawan,
2008). Housing relocation projects are delayed mainly due to the difficulties of finding suitable land areas
to build large number of housing schemes, which are compatible with the disaster affected community
culture, unwillingness of beneficiaries to be relocated and inadequate provision of infrastructure by
government.
. In post tsunami case in Tamil Nadu, India, more than 80% of the affected people within fishing
communities, refused relocation due to their livelihood is related with their location and it was impossible
to find satisfactory land to reconstruct all coastal houses in new locations and project was not successful
(Barenstein and Pittet, 2007).
LAYOUT
The second factor that plays an important role in the PDR projects is the layout or design of the settlement
(Gunawan, 2008). The space designs for the relocated villages should be fully compatible with the lifestyle
of the villagers. Traditional resettlements need to be highlighted with narrow streets, open spaces in both
public and private areas which can be used for the activities such as religious functions and clusters of
housing with different typologies characterized by traditional lifestyles (Boen and Jigyasu, 2005)
. According to Gunawan (2008) the village, Flores in Indonesia, after the earthquake could not function
well like the previous village because the plan was in accordance to uniform national criteria by the
government, instead of the local culture and tradition. As a result, no space was allocated for the social
gatherings and the general rituals of villagers as in their original environments. The design was failed due
to the whole 'city-like' plan which includes wide roads creating a grid pattern and row housing (Gunawan,
2008). This suggests that it is needed to provide space for social interaction and rituals while designing the
villages after disaster.
In the Tamil ethnic culture, people use detached toilets. In Marathwada reconstruction in India, the
provision of attached toilets was useless as Tamil people use detached toilets according to their ethnic
culture. Later, those attached toilets were used to store grain by the communities (Jaygasu, 2002). These
designs may lead the community to long time exhaustion as well as disorders. The designs of houses should
be considered the requirements of women too, mainly due to female headed families (women become
widows due to disaster). Therefore, sanitation facilities, privacy and high security should be provided in
designs for the women and children in order to prevent sexual assaults.
CONSTRUCTION
Construction process is also one of the most important components for the success of PDR projects. The
community organizations tend to construct projects by implementing locally feasible cost-effective
technologies, whereas through the participative, clear and accountable systems (Jayaraj, 2008). The
utilization of local resources is a good choice than the other solutions (Lizarralde and Davidson 2006;
Barakat 2003). Further, those materials that can be found locally are culturally, and socially more suitable,
since they are familiar with the community and those materials can be obtained in low costs as
transportation costs are not incurred. Even innovative technologies should be used in a proper manner,
whereas combination of traditional and modern construction methods can be used (Bouraoui and Lizarralde,
2013).
In another post tsunami reconstruction project in India the community didn’t satisfy with the reinforced
concrete houses built by Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), without any veranda due to their
failure to address the climatic and socio-cultural requirements of the space (Gunawan, 2008). At the village
reconstruction in Marathwada, India, the government have provided large infrastructure, which were more
than enough for the community. But the village committee could not maintain those infrastructures with
their financial resources. The villagers face economic difficulties due to paying higher taxes for these
infrastructures, which were kind of useless (Jaygasu, 2002). Therefore, the construction professionals need
to identify the housing standards with social structure determinants and size; culture affects forms, function,
and aesthetics.
POLICIES
The last factor is policy making, which is a popular input for the success of PDR projects. Much effort has
been gone into developing disaster reconstruction policies and institutions on a global scale from the past
years. While some countries may have existing legislation, regulation and policies in place, to review and
amend in a disaster occasion, some countries have to enact new legislations and regulations in the
relocation, planning and construction stages in PDR projects (Bilau et al., 2018). Project failures or partially
successful projects are mostly characterized by policies, which focus less on consultation with the disaster
affected community (Smith, 1991). These policies highly disregarded cultural factors of the community.
The decisions made by government or aid agencies need to consider needs and values of the resettled
populations (Kulatunga, 2011).
On the other hand, some policies were positively affected for the reconstruction projects. In PDR in
Kathmandu Valley, Nepal, the government removed the existing constraints on the forest usage so that the
people may make use of the local resources like timber for reconstruction, which provided economic
benefits for the community (Jaygasu, 2002).
Figure: Components of PDR Projects (Disaster Management, Emergency Response and Research and Rescue
Academy,2010
POST DISASTER HOUSING SUCCESS FACTORS
Community participation:
Although those people and communities directly affected by a disaster are the first to engage with the
emergency, they are often perceived as being mere victims rather than the potential critical driving force
behind reconstruction (Jha et al. 2010; Pius Mulwanda 1992). Local communities and the survivors of
disasters play a crucial role in post-disaster reconstruction and their participation ultimately determines
project success (Lawther 2009; Lyons 2009; IFRC and ICRC1994; Lemanski 2008). Communities must
also be encouraged and supported to use their own reconstruction techniques when rebuilding their houses
(Pomeroy et al. 2006; Jha et al. 2010)
Community empowerment:
Empowering communities to participate in reconstruction can provide an opportunity for community
members to contribute their knowledge and skills to the process that will in turn most deeply affect their
future lives. Empowerment is made possible when affected communities are effectively involved in all
stages of the post-disaster reconstruction (Jha et al. 2010).
Community empowerment in a post-disaster project must include improving community access to
information and services, and thus enabling community participation in decisionmaking (Maier 2001;
Bosher and Dainty 2011; Maginn 2007)
Community culture and beliefs:
Housing design must meet both the socio-economic and cultural requirements of the affected communities
and should also allow for future expansion of such accommodation based on people‟s changing needs
(Diacon 1997; El-Masri and Tipple 2002). The role of religious groups can be vital in mobilising and
persuading affected communities to return to the affected area and actively participate in rebuilding their
houses (Denhart 2009)
Support from local government:
Communities often possess great intellectual and physical resources; however, these resources may be
obliterated by the existing event. While a community may still be able to transform itself without external
aid, effective interaction with governments and non-governmental organisations through a well-defined
framework can substantially expedite the reconstruction process (Gauthamadas, Negi and Shyamprasad
2005).
PHYSICAL DIMENSION OF HOUSING
Physical dimension of the housing is an overall infrastructure in the site that includes road, transportation,
services (water supply, sanitation, electricity), building materials and design aspects ( Byelaws, GCR, FAR,
height of the building, building codes, open spaces, etc.)
INFRASTRUCTURES
ROAD
Road is an important infrastructure that should connect all of the houses and should be linked to the main
road and should be of sufficient width and engineered construction. There should be enough access for
emergency vehicles such as ambulance, firefighters, etc. There should be proper utility services along and
across the road that is proper sewer line, storm water drain, water supply lines, electricity cables and poles,
telecommunication poles, gas pipelines, and so on. The road must deliver the following conditions:
•
Proper drainage
•
Maintainance
•
Noise barriers (landscape)
•
Sign boards
•
Street lights
•
Pavement
Figure 17 Typical Road cross
Road cross section elements:
Carriageway: The standard width of carriageway shall be as shown on the following table. Total width of
pavement shall be determined based on the volume of the traffic and capacity of each lane as given on art.
5.
Shoulder: The width of shoulders on either side of the carriageway shall be at least 0.75m.
Recommended width of shoulder for various classes of roads is given below in Table 11-2. For protection
of pavement from water percolating under it from shoulder it is recommended to treat at least a 0.500.75m wide strip of shoulder near the edge of the pavement with impervious to water surfacing. If
a small gap(<1m) of untreated shoulder is formed between the edge of the pavement and edge of the side
drain in hill roads it is recommended to treat this gap with appropriate surface treatment.
Camber: All straight sections of roads shall have a camber or crossfall as given on the Table 11-3. On
roads with undivided carriageways the camber shall be on both directions from the centre line of the road.
On roads with divided carriageways unidirectional camber can be provided. However on some sections
of hill roads with undivided carriageway a unidirectional camber can be adopted. In this case the
adverse effect of negative camber on movement of vehicles on curves should be properly checked.
Footpaths: Provision of footpaths should be made on all roads passing through populated areas. On high
traffic non-urban roads footpaths should be constructed outside of the roadway on separate formation
or buffer areas should be established so as to separate them from the carriage way. Width of the
footpath depends on the volume of anticipated pedestrian traffic. But a minimum width of 1.5 m is required.
In case of narrow footpaths(<1.8m wide) a passing zone of a minimum width of 1.8m and length
of 2.0 m is to be provided at every 50m or less for passing of two wheelchairs. The minimum width of
footpaths for various volumes of pedestrian traffic should be as shown in Table 13-1
Pedestrian Crossings: Grade separated pedestrian crossings should be provided where pedestrian
volume, traffic volume, intersection capacity, and other conditions favor their use, although their
specific location and design require individual study. They may be warranted where there are heavy
peak pedestrian movements, such as at central business districts, factories, schools, or athletic fields, in
combination with moderate to heavy vehicular traffic or where unusual risk or inconvenience to pedestrians
would otherwise result. Overpass/underpass crossings should be easier to use(than directly crossing the
road), well lighted to enhance the sense of security and well ventilated(especially on long underpasses).
Walkways for pedestrian separations should have a minimum width of 2.5 m. Greater widths may be needed
where there are exceptionally high volumes of pedestrian traffic. Overpasses should have a minimum
vertical clearance of 5.0m and underpasses 2.5m.
Road Lighting: Rural highways should be designed with an open cross section and horizontal and vertical
alignment of a fairly high type. Accordingly, they offer an opportunity for near maximum use of vehicle
headlights, resulting in reduced justification for fixed highway lighting. Provision of artificial lighting
should be made on all roads near populated areas, on major bridges, bus stops, roads and railroads
intersections (up to a distance of 250m from the point of intersections), tunnels and approaches to them and
toll plazas. Light mounting poles should be at least 9m high(but mounting heights of 10 to 15 m are usually
preferable). They should be located outside the edge of the roadway or on wide central medians. Level of
illumination should be 30 lux on important high speed roads and 15 lux on other main roads. The ratio of
minimum to average illuminations should be about 0.4.
Road Drainage: For long life of pavement and other components of a highway system, the subgrade should
be kept at optimum moisture level and avoided to be over wetted. Water should be drained away from the
road and ground surface as well as under the surface by a system of surface and subsurface drainage.
(Nepal Road Standard, 2070)
WATER SUPPLY
Water is one of the key element for the survival of life. Water supply system is one of the important
infrastructures considered into the planning. While designing the water supply system for post disaster
housing, the first priority is to provide private supply of water in each house otherwise community taps
should be provided. Reliable local water source should be used to provide continuous supply of water that
fulfil the demand of the community.
The sourced water should have water treatment plants for potable water. The water is stored in water tank
and capacity is calculated as per the number of built forms and population assumed for the housing
community. Gravity supply system and pressure supply system for water distribution is observed as the
water supply system.
Per Capita Demand
Per capita demand of the community depends upon various factors like standard of living, number of users
etc. The requirement of water in various uses is as under
• Domestic Purpose- 135 lit/c/d
• Public Use- 25 lit/c/d
• Fire Demand- 15 lit/c/d
• Losses and wastages and thefts- 55 lit/c/d
Total – 230 lit/capita/day the total quantity of water required by the town per day shall be 230 multiplied
with the total population in liters/day
(Planning and Urban Desing Standards.,2007, John WIley & Sons, inc.)
SOLID WASTE AND WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT
For sewerage system generally two system of disposal is observed that is combined system and separate
system. The developers have choice as regarding the selection of sewerage treatment plant or septic tank.
The colonies which have used combined system are using sewer line in the colonies and the colonies which
have used separate system are using septic tank and soak pit in the individual plots. The colonies have
adopted sewage treatment plant. After treatment, the effluent from sewage treatment plant is disposed to
nearby river. The main line of generally 250 mm him pipe (NP4) is run through the roads to collect the
sludge.
Figure 18 Combined system to treatment
Figure 19 Separate system
The solid waste is generally disposed to landfill sites by the local authority or can be reused or recycled.
ELECTRICITY
An adequate source of electricity is critical for daily use. The source should be able to supply expanded
future needs. Provide power for households and community facilities and basic needs that is light, pumping
water, running generators and tools used in reconstruction. The cost of electricity might not be affordable
for the people with low income. So, an alternative power supply that is passive solar energy house should
be built as energy efficient building.
DESIGN ASPECTS
In the case of design aspects, the following things should be considered while designing a PDH :
•
Bye-laws
•
ROW
•
setback
•
GCR
•
FAR should be considered
•
Layout and configuration
•
Vegetation
•
Standard area according to the number of people to meet human comfort
•
Open space and parks
BUILDING MATERIALS
For Post Disaster Housing, reuse and recycle construction and disaster debris for building materials as much
as possible to reduce the environmental impacts of producing new materials. Evaluate the building material
life cycle including origin, production, use, and disposal; select materials that are environmentally friendly
with low embodied energy requirements. This can include locally produced materials with small
environmental footprint; sustainably harvested timber; lightweight materials; and advanced technologies
such as compressed stabilized earth blocks. When using timber, one must follow Nepali laws and
regulations, including community forestry rules. Treat newly harvested softwood timber (e.g. with borate)
to protect against insect attack before using it for construction. Sal timber is resistant to insects but make
sure that it is protected from contact with damp or it will rot. These measures will prolong the life of the
building and reduce the need to harvest timber in the future. Procure sand, gravel and boulders from legal
areas where there is no risk of causing safety and environmental hazards such as landslides, flooding,
downstream sedimentation or degradation of wetlands; and do not damage infrastructure. (Post-Disaster
Shelter and Housing Sound Environmental Practices for Long-term Safety and Wellbeing, WWF, 2016)
ENVIRONMENTAL DIMENSION OF HOUSING
"Cities, towns and other built-up areas must provide a good, healthy living environment and
contribute to a good regional and global environment. Natural and cultural assets must be protected
and developed. Buildings and amenities must be located and designed in accordance with sound
environmental principles and in such a way as to promote sustainable management of land, water
and other resources."
The environmental impact of buildings is mostly dominated by the energy demand for operation,
the choice of constructional material influences the operational energy demand of building.
Construction Materials:
Technology is an aspect of the environment that should be considered in developing strategic plans.
Oladapo and Olotuah maintained that the appropriate construction technology can be measured by the
availability of locally made equipment, skilled manpower resources, extent of local material resources and
the degree of utilization of such local construction resources.
Climate:
The main climatic factors to consider are solar heat and glare, prevailing winds and humidity, and
precipitation.
In architecture, psychological and physical comfort for a building revolves around these factors of the
climate. Climate influences the planning of the building, its structure, and external features’ treatment.
Orientation:
‘Building orientation’ is basically the positioning of a building with respect to the sun, usually done to
maximize solar gain at the appropriate time of the year when required in cold climate and to minimize solar
gain in a hot climate.
Best house orientation can increase the energy efficiency of your home by making it more comfortable to
live in and cheaper to run from energy consumption point of view. The fact is that the sun is lower in the
sky in winter than in summer allows us to plan and construct buildings that capture that free heat in winter
and reject the heat in summer. Along with massing, orientation can be the most important step in providing
a building with passive thermal and visual comfort. Successful orientation can also take advantage of other
site conditions, such as rainwater harvesting driven by prevailing winds.
It can even help the building contribute to the health and vitality of the surrounding social, and economic
communities, by orienting courtyards or other social spaces to connect to street life.
Orientation for Visual Comfort:
As with massing for visual comfort, buildings should usually be oriented east-west rather than north-south.
This orientation lets you consistently harness daylight and control glare along the long faces of the building.
It also lets you minimize glare from the rising or setting sun.
Figure 20 Orientation of the building
Orientation for Thermal Comfort : Solar heat gain
The amount of sunlight that is optimal for daylighting is often not optimal for solar heat gain.
Since the sun's heat does not come from all directions like the sun's light can, walls facing away from the
sun's path get no heat gain, even though they can still get large amounts of diffuse light. The sun's heat can
be stored by thermal mass, which the sun's light cannot. This can be useful for west-facing walls to store
heat for the night.
To do detailed design for glazing and façade, it’s important to understand the patterns of solar radiation that
affect the building. The following image shows solar incident radiation throughout the day and throughout
the year on the five exposed faces of a cube-shaped building.
The vertical axis shows times of day while the horizontal axis shows times of year, and the color shows the
amount of incident heat.
Figure 21 Thermal Chart
This graph shows how thermal heat gain on the east and west sides of buildings change rapidly as the sun
moves through the day, while northern and southern exposures are more consistent.
Thus, buildings that are longer than they are wide should usually be oriented east-west rather than northsouth. This orientation lets you consistently harness thermal gain, or consistently avoid it, along the long
face of the building.
Glazing and Materials on different faces:
Material choices and glazing are part of a building's orientation for thermal comfort. They can avoid solar
heat gain, or--unlike daylighting--they can store the sun's heat with thermal mass.
Equator-facing sides of the building are well suited to capture and store the sun's heat via large windows
and materials with high thermal mass, while sides facing away from the sun's path are not.
To even out temperature swings at sunrise and sunset, east sides may benefit from more window area for
direct solar heat gain, while west sides may benefit from smaller window areas and high thermal mass to
absorb the heat and release it through the night.
Figure 22 More glazing to the east and more thermal mass to the west
More glazing to the east and more thermal mass to the west can even out temperature swings from the sun’s
heat.
In cold climates, sides facing away from the sun's path will usually benefit from more insulation than sides
facing the sun (which means less glazing or higher-insulation glazing), while in hot climates the opposite
is true.
Advanced glazing can separate the harvesting of the sun's light from the sun's heat. It can also pull in
daylight from sides facing away from the sun, without losing too much heat through lack of insulation (low
U-value).
Orientation for Thermal Comfort: Natural Ventilation:
Buildings should be oriented to maximize benefits from cooling breezes in hot weather and shelter from
undesirable winds in cold weather.
Figure 23 Wind rose diagram
Generally, orienting the building so that its shorter axis aligns with prevailing winds will provide the most
wind ventilation, while orienting it perpendicular to prevailing winds will provide the least passive
ventilation.
Figure 24 Orientation for maximum ventilation
However, buildings do not have to face directly into the wind to achieve good cross-ventilation. Internal
spaces and structural elements can be designed to channel air through the building in different directions.
In addition, the prevailing wind directions listed by weather data may not be the actual prevailing wind
directions, depending on local site obstructions, such as trees or other buildings.
For buildings that feature a courtyard and are located in climates where cooling is desired, orienting the
courtyard 45 degrees from the prevailing wind maximizes wind in the courtyard and cross ventilation
through the building.
(Venturewell Blog)
Location:
The physical environment within which a construction project is sited may impact considerably on its
development as construction projects are always affected by physical influences. The geographical location
of a project, ground conditions and weather patterns are the most common examples of physical influences.
They are unpredictable and as such management actions have not been able to prevent their occurrence.
Energy Efficiency:
Energy efficiency is the use of less energy in a building to perform the same operation as buildings that
consume energy inefficiently.
It should be considered during the design stage, selection of construction materials, construction process,
and operation of the building.
Adopting passive solar house design strategies at the design stage is the first step toward an energy-efficient
structure. Low-energy building materials and less energy-consuming construction equipment must be used
during the construction process. Utilities for renewable energy systems have to be integrated into the
building for water heating, photovoltaic electrification, etc.
Its main aspects are given below:
1. Nearly Zero-Energy Passive Building Design
The design of a nearly zero-energy passive building involves adopting all solar passive strategies at the
design stage before actual construction begins.
For instance, passive solar heating/cooling, building daylighting, and provision for rainwater harvesting.
The passive building does not need complex design, but requires a knowledge of solar geometry, local
climate, and window technology. The passive solar design strategies should be selected based on the
climatic
In a hot and dry climate, passive cooling designs, such as wall and roof cooling, solar refrigeration, and
earth water heat exchangers should be integrated into the building. Condition of the project site and in the
cold zones, passive heating designs should be adopted, such as air handling units, sunspace, trombe wall,
etc.
2. Utilization of Low Embodied Energy Building Materials
The usage of low embodied energy materials for building construction is important for reducing the impact
of global warming and making the building energy-efficient.
The embodied energy is the energy used by all processes related to the construction material’s mining,
manufacturing, transporting, and administering. Some of the examples of low embodied energy
construction materials are fly ash bricks, fiber-reinforced bricks, woods, stabilized adobe blocks, cementreplacement materials such as silica fume, slag, and fly ash which is mostly by-products in factories. These
materials are constantly becoming popular and widely used by contractors worldwide, especially in India,
Middle East, Europe, the USA, the UK.
3. Usage of Energy-Efficient Equipment
This involves using energy-efficient equipment in a building that requires the lowest possible energy, such
as LED lights, fans, air-conditioners, and refrigerators. Energy star-approved fluorescent bulbs are highly
desirable because they are more durable, and their maintenance cost is 75% less than conventional bulbs.
Moreover, using a lighting control mechanism improves energy efficiency because it automatically turns
off lights and eliminates waste of energy. Finally, use a thermoset to regulate heating water and room
temperature.
4. Integration of Renewable Energy Technologies in Different Applications
Solar water heaters, small wind turbines to generate electricity, solar photovoltaic electricity generation are
examples of renewable energy technologies installed in a building to reduce operational energy
consumption. Other renewable energy sources like hydroelectricity, biomass, and biofuels can also be used.
Roofs and facades of buildings are suitable for the placement of solar thermal collectors and photovoltaic
panels. Renewable energy offers great advantages, such as cost-effectiveness, sustainability, and security
of energy supply, in addition to increased employment, and long life for energy systems. It also replaces
the highly expensive and imported conventional energies such as oil, gas, and coal.
Figure 25 Energy efficiency in building
PASSIVE SOLAR ENERGY:
High consumption of energy by the growing population and growing industries and technology has a
negative impact on the environment and energy conservation.
So, an innovation in building construction, that would perform with the existing energy, without exploiting
any additional mechanical or electrical sources is called as passive solar building design concept. These
buildings take the advantage of the climate, where it must be constructed. A proper site analysis would
judge the performance of the building. The concept of passive solar buildings is adopted in new buildings.
But already existing buildings can be retrofitted to behave passively.
Concept of Passive Solar Buildings
The main concept of passive solar buildings is that its building elements i.e. the windows, walls and the
floors are made able to collect solar energy and store them.
Figure 26 Passive solar energy in building
This energy is then used in the winter for warmth and used to reject the heat during the summer seasons.
The buildings convert the solar energy into useful energy without the help of any other mechanical system.
The passive solar buildings work based on the following principles:
•
•
•
•
The first principle is based on the route of the sun in different seasons. The sun in winter will be
traveling in a lower route compared to summer.
In winter, the south direction faced glass will help in energy absorption and storage in the building.
The location of thermal mass in a position enabling easy absorption of solar energy later would
help in the easy release of the same during evening time.
The direct sun can be resisted by overhanging elements as shown in the figure below. These are
also called control elements.
Proper insulation enables warmth in winter and coolness in summer. Elements Considered for Passive Solar
Building Construction
•
Room types, internal doors, walls and furniture in buildings and their placement.
•
The Equator faced orientation for the building
•
Building dimension extension in east-west direction
•
Window size fixed to get adequate solar in winter and shade in summer.
•
Windows in the west are avoided.
•
Use of thermal mass like floors or walls
Figure 27 Five elements of passive solar design
Performance of Passive Solar Building
•
The site climatic conditions
•
The passive solar building system adopted
•
The passive solar building design criteria
•
The building size
When compared to conventional home auxiliary heat usage, the passive solar building uses 70% less. On
average the solar savings are in the range of 27% of the total heating load value.
There was a tremendous decrease in the demand of electricity when compared with the conventional
building arrangement.
The cost of construction of passive solar buildings was found higher compared to that of the conventional
method. This is because of time and cost used for proper optimization of energy.
When compared with the final output the passive solar buildings provide, the system is economical.
Benefits of Passive Solar Buildings
>The building interior are bright - The interior of the building would be filled with sufficient light. This is
due to the transmission of visible light frequencies. The system is designed such a way that the control of
glare and over lighting is kept in mind.
>The ultraviolet energy is blocked - The direct ultraviolet rays are harmful. The passive solar building
system has the advantage of blocking almost 99.9% of the ultraviolet radiation energy.
Preventing this would save the interior fabrics as well as decor and make them long lasting.
>Summer is Made cooler and comfortable - It keeps the interior cool during the hot season. This would
obviously reduce cooling energy costs. This would give a low solar gain coefficient value.
>Winter made warmer
PROBLEMS FACED BY PASSIVE SOLAR BUILDINGS
Overheating:
The result of improper design causes overheating by the sun. This can occur either in summer or in winters.
If the glazing provided in the south is oversized or insufficient or insufficient thermal storage mass for
direct gain are the reasons of overheating in winters. A storage size that would limit the temperature within
the building to 220C must be adopted. When the facing of energy gain is more towards east or west, there
are chances of overheating in summer seasons. The solution for this is to make use of south facing glasses
and avoid glasses with any other orientation.
Skylights and overhead glasses must be covered in summer. Enable natural ventilation to avoid internal
overheating during summers.
Perception:
The problem of public, or the building industry or any of the designers is the lack of proper perception.
They are not ready to compromise their design and aesthetics for energy conservation.
They are more concerned about the looks of their homes and this stops them to built their structure based
on the passive solar design concept. The only solution for this is public education.
Studies on passive solar buildings with more architectural and aesthetics ideas must be made. Commercial
buildings like schools, libraries have an excellent space of passive solar building design concept.
SOCIAL VARIABLES OF POST DISASTER HOUSING
INTRODUCTION
The challenge of social sustainability is to build neighborhoods which last not for twenty or even hundred
years, but which are immortal. - David Rudlin and Nicholas Falk Building the 21st Century Home.
Among the various concepts of social sustainability one of the most important is: building lasting long in
living environments. Thus, the relationship between social sustainability and built environment refers to
the creation of sustainable living environments that consider people’s present requirements as well as their
future needs to work, live, and maintain their quality of life without compromising future demands. As
Rudlin and Falk (1999: 196) state: Towns and cities are first and foremost places where people live and
work, not just as individuals but as group of communities. Even whether it be an urban area that do not
provide civilized places for people to live and for communities to prosper then it will not matter how ‘green’
they are, they will not be sustainable.
Housing is critical to a community’s and society’s social development. In Sustainable Housing for
Sustainable Cities (2012) social sustainability in housing is described as; “Social sustainability in housing
is about creating affordable, good quality, inclusive and diverse, healthy dwellings, residential areas and
communities, which are well- integrated into the wider socio spatial systems of which housing is part.
Figure 28 Social Sustainability Chart
Figure 29 Human Needs-Spatial Design Quality
SOCIAL FACTORS OF POST DISASTER HOUSING
1.Open space
The dedicated green area as per by-laws is provided yet these spaces area not seen to be used wisely by the
residents.
Figure 30 Open Space Survey
As per the survey done, 60% of the residents use the open space 2-4 times a week and 28% residents tend
to use open spaces rarely only 12% seems to visit daily. KVTDC Standard (Chapter 1, clause 3) has set
standard for planned housing colonies. As per Standards common space is presented in table.
2. Club house, gym, departmental stores and swimming pool
Club house, gym, departmental stores and swimming pools are the additional new trend developed in these
days that contributed to socializing of the residents and utilization of the leisure time. As per the
observation, almost all the housing communities has these facilities provided. And one of the interviewees
claims that these facilities especially groceries inside had made them easier to run the daily life during
lockdown period (covid-19) as everything they require can be found inside single gate.
3.Temple Structure
Temple structures and palace structures are major part of the traditional community which shows richness
of architecture of its time whereas a small, dedicated structure pagoda with placement of idol is kept as per
vastu basically at the northeast corner of the site. These structures hold the religious and cultural values.
4.Gender Equality
Generally, women spend more time than the men in house and they have a clear concept about their needs.
But some men may not like their wives being part of construction projects. Their absent may not represent
the entire household and can lead to errors in developing the assistance strategy. So, people should be made
aware about the gender equality and women importance in the households.So, during the designing process
their involvement in discussion and projects helps a lot.
5.Occupation
Many people lost their occupation after the disaster. In rural area, where people main occupation is
agriculture, can’t find their source of income after losing their agricultural lands. The farmers who were
relocated from their native place during a natural disaster, were unable to cope with the new environment
as it required changing their family habits. So, the resettlement should be done where there is similar
environment of their original site if possible. Otherwise, alternative job opportunities should be considered.
6.Family Size
The area of the dwelling is determined by the numbers of the people residing in it. Due to this, family size
is important topic of the study. By determining the different family sizes of different types of families such
as nuclear and joint family, the required area of the house can be determined, and suitable dwelling can be
designed as per requirement.
7.Safety
Safety is an important topic in housing especially in the post disaster housing projects. The housing must
be safe from natural calamities such as flood and landslides.
8.Educational Facilities
Educational facilities include preschool and formal schools’ services. A neighborhood component will
include a childcare center, nursery school and kindergartens. These must be within the safe walking
distance.
9.Health Facilities
A housing component must include a health post or a hospital as well as medical shop. These facilities also
must be within the safe walking distance.
10. Social Status
Difference in social status is still considered in rural part of the country. The higher-class people group still
does not like to share the living surrounding area with the so-called lower-class people. So the design of
settlement housing should be done keeping in mind the difference in social status within the community. In
this scenario education play a vital role in generating ideas about caste system.
11. Economic Status
The construction of housing after post disaster should be economic and should provide economy in future
too. The housing process should be based on low-cost housing as people in disaster wherever in the world,
people in problem are poor people. So, true victim gets aid and able to construct in low cost, be safe in
those housing where they are living and could easily repair too in case of damages in future.( Nina Malla,
Hans Narve Skotte,2021)
CULTURAL VARIABLES OF POST DISASTER HOUSING
INTRODUCTION:
Developing countries are exposed to various natural hazards such as earthquakes and floods leading to
disasters, which cause immense loss of life and property. Cultural considerations are important to ensure
sustainability of interventions undertaken as part of post disaster reconstruction. There are enough examples
to show that lack of consideration given to cultural and social concerns serve to reinforce and sometimeseven increase the vulnerability of local communities.
While designing the reconstruction housing, it is necessary to dedicate the spaces to perform the rituals of
the people. The inhabitants within a community have their own ethnicity and background from where they
originate, and which guide them from birth to becoming full-grown adults.
CULTURAL FACTORS OF POST DISASTER HOUSING
Ethnicity
Many authors have suggested that the common origin and decent of the people makes the group an ethnic
group. Ethnic identity differs from other identities as this is history distinguished (Verkuyten, 2005).
Religion and Spirituality
This is a set of communal beliefs and practices which are shared and organized with the aim of spiritual
development. (Hodge and Derezotes, 2008).
Livelihoods
The lifestyles of a particular community are very important in community culture. The day-to-day lifestyle,
occupation systems are the components that are overviewed under livelihood.
Family Background
How the community identify the arrangement of the family and their primary believes as a family which
has a cultural identity (Mc Goldrick)
Rituals
Rituals guide the behavior of small sets of people or celebrated across the entire community. Most of these
rituals are bound with ethnicity and the religions of communities.
Attitudes
Related with the feelings about any given thing and reflection of values we hold (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975)
believe that attitude is a learned tendency to respond to a given entity in a favorable or unfavorable way.
Social interaction
The way people contact with their community and how they behave with the other people in their living
environment and interaction with outside communities.
Social Status
Social class, an external variable influences cultural identity based on how one understands one’s place in
a system, the environment one grows up in, and how others perceive a person (Anderson and Collins, 2007).
NEIGHBORHOOD
ARCHITECTURE
AND
COMMUNITY
CONCEPT
IN
CONCEPT
Neighborhood is a concept that arises out of the word neighbor that refers to people living near or adjacent
to one another. In a city, neighborhood is always the area that surrounds this city or lies in the close vicinity.
However, the word has also come to mean the people living near one another in a particular area or district.
If we say the gunshot surprised the entire neighborhood, it means we are referring to the people and not the
geographic area. In general, though, neighborhood always means a surrounding area or region.
According to Perry, a neighborhood should comprise a population of about 5000–9000 residents, with
schools, places of worship, and recreational areas at its center. The 160-acre neighborhood is to be
developed such that there are 10 dwellings per acre. This would also require an elementary school with an
enrolment of between 1,000 and 1,200 pupils. The design should allow the residents to access basic facilities
Figure 31 Neighborhood concept
and services at not more than one-quarter mile from their place of residence.Further, about 10 percent of
the area is to be allocated to recreation. The arteries of the roads are confined to the surrounding
streets, and the internal streets are limited for access to the residents of the neighborhood. (Tsomo
Wangchuck,2022)
Community is a word that refers to groups of people living in a particular area or district. It also means all
people that live in a particular area. It is also a word that is used to refer to ethnic groups living inside a
particular area such as the black community, Hispanic community, and so on. The word is also used to refer
to specific groups within a community such as the business community, community of lawyers, and so on.
Then there is the use of community to describe community colleges, community hospitals, community
service, and so on.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN NEIGHBORHOOD AND COMMUNITY
Neighborhood and community are words that are used almost interchangeably by people to refer to both
geographical areas in proximity and people of a certain ethnicity or race. People talk about their
neighborhoods and communities in the same breath though there is a noticeable difference between the two
concepts. There are some differences between neighborhood and community which are enlisted below:
• Neighborhood mostly refers to the adjoining area or the surrounding area of a city.
• Community is used more in the sense of groups of people living in a particular area or district such as the
black community or the Asian community.
• There is no reference to geographical boundaries while talking about community, whereas there is definite
geographical entity when referring to a neighborhood.
• A neighborhood is used more in a physical sense, whereas there are social implications of the concept of
community.
IMPORTANCE OF NEIGHBORHOOD AND COMMUNITY IN HOUSING
Our Neighbors and the people we meet often at our local grocery store or coffee shop anchor us in the world
and give us a sense of being part of a community. The people who help us get through the day add spice to
our life enabling experiences and information we would not have otherwise had. People who live in
connected communities support each other, share information that is trustworthy and easily actionable, and
often motivate each other to adopt better lifestyle habits. Maintaining social connections with our neighbors
can help us in various ways, including:
Increase confidence and self-esteem:
People who report feeling lonely often exhibit lower confidence and self-esteem. Spending time with those
you are familiar with and whose company you enjoy can boost confidence and improve how we see
ourselves.
Achieve a greater sense of purpose:
Spending time with neighbors helps us feel useful and that our life has a greater purpose. When we have
something to do, somewhere to go, and someone counting on us, it feels good. When others count on us,
we are more likely to take care of ourselves, and stay healthy for as long as we can.
Cultivate resiliency:
In the face of hardship or adversity, socializing with neighbors can help individuals hone skills that can
reduce stressors and recover from setbacks.
Adopt healthy habits:
Engaging with people who model and encourage us to keep healthful habits or achieve challenging
lifestyle goals helps us to remain mindful of our eating, exercise, and other lifestyle-related habits.
Live longer:
Studies show that loneliness is a risk factor of functional decline and death, especially in older people.
Staying social and connected with others can not only extend the length of our life but the quality of it as
well.
INCREMENTAL HOUSING
Incrememtal means denoting an addition or increase. Housing is a step by step process where building
components are appended or improved by funding, time or materials become available. Incremental housing
is giving freedom to expand the dwelling unit according to needs. It is also known as self help housing, self
managed Housing and owner driven housing. Incremental Housing is a process of urban development where
it provides shelter to the needy people. It is not quick, immediate or complete but choice remains with the
owner. It starts with a started core shelter. Incremental housing begins with just a starter core. Starter core
may be just a kitchen/bathroom or it may be a multi-purpose room with basic kitchen/bath facilities. Then,
owners control the expansion of the housing on their needs and resources. (Reinhart Goethert, nd)
Figure 32 Incremental Housing by Alejandro Aravena
The urban population in the developing world will develop by 2030. Thus, the shelter for low income family
groups is becoming more and more critical. We have now just less than 10 years to build housing as was
built in 6000 years. Now, to produce these kinds of result we may not have such a large scale and speed to
provide solution to these problems and disasters makes it worse
Thus, the key of this solution is Incremental housing. For example, after Haiti’s earthquake many of the
housing sector was completely destroyed and a big housing problem emerged. The government plan to
settle about 400,000 homeless peoples and incremental process can be its solution.
WHY INCREMENTAL HOUSING IS IMPORTANT?
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It is an affordable way to settle many families with bare level of housing and services
It provides proper and flexible way in housing.
Proper utilization of land
Cost of construction can be reduced
Develops social networks in community and neighborhood.
It enables household to invent constantly to improve its living conditions
Households can improve/expand their dwelling by themselves and does not have to wait for the
government
It enables government to improves its fund in social services and community facilities.
It is need oriented which is being specific to site and user
HOW TO BUILD HOME INCREMENTALLY?
Figure 33 Process of Formal and Informal housing
There are three ways for households to build incrementally:
•
•
•
Self-Build process
Local Contractor
Community Build
Self-Build
The households with the help of family members builds the house themselves in a process called sweat
equity
Local Contractors
The households provides materials and contracts a local builder on a labour basis on different stages
according to their demands and resources
Community Build:
Community build is a process where community as a group access materials builds the houses.
(Octavia Lamb, 2016, Slide 13)
INCREMENTAL HOUSING CONSTRUCTION IN KATHMANDU, VALLEY
Incremental housing construction in Nepal has an interesting development in the Kathmandu region. In the
past (until the 50’s), when construction was limited to brick walls in mud mortar and the building had to be
topped with a sloping roof of tiles to prevent monsoon seepage, the preferred house type was the single and
double bay three-story construction with a sloping roof of tiles (or sometimes thatch) and CGI sheets. As
land was easily available, the expansion or extension of house took placed horizontally as wings. Since
more families lived in one place, the houses was expanded according to the extended needs. This also
allowed for more open spaces (forecourts, subcourts, courtyards) in all houses and was used for many social
activities.
After the introduction of Reinforced concrete construction (RCC), the expansion of homes tooks place
vertically. At first the initial construction was of one storey building with later floors added later. This
increased in rental housing in the city where many peoples from rural areas came and lived. As the land
price increases, the area of the house went on decreasing leaving no open areas around the house and for
windows. Incremental construction are seen in outside ring road where there is less densed and and no
infrastructure except a vehicular track. In most of areas, the only infrastructure is dirt road later
infrastructure like electricity, water services, internet etc follows.
A few ‘site and services’ projects were started by the government in the eighties to promote affordable
housing for lower middle class peoples with basic infrastructure. Due to high cost of land purchase and
infrastructure the government could not bear it thus the project was not replicated in many areas.
In the last two decades, the preferred model for the government has been to develop ‘site and services’
projects on the land-pooling model, where developed land plots are handed back to the original owners and
costs incurred are recuperated by the Government. However, these sometimes take a long time to develop
because of owner speculation while the people who actually need the serviced plots to build houses cannot
afford to buy the plot. (Biresh Shah, n.d)
The ‘site and services’ projects expanded by the government are applied in less densed and rural areas of
the country as a resettlement project by the government where land are more easily available.
Figure 34 showing RCC Construction in Nepal
PLACEMAKING
Place means an area in a space or a location and making means to create or produce something. So simply,
Placemaking is the creation of space. It is to create places where people want to work, live, play and learn.
It is not a end product rather a process. Spaces and places provides people a platform for social interactions,
sociability and strengthen the bond/relation between the user and the people.
Cities have the capability of providing something for everybody only because and only when they are
created by everybody
-
Jane Jacobs, The Death and Life of Great American Cities
Placemaking asks people to reimagine and rethink public spaces as the heart of the community. Public
spaces are a heart of placemaking and it is where it shapes connection between people and places. In 1960’s
authors such as Jane Jacobs and William H.Whyte introduced the idea of placemaking as a concept even it
became relevant decades later. Their visions would consist of creation of active neighborhoods, welcoming
public spaces and cities. (Archdaily,2021)
Figure 35 Placemaking of a city
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GREAT PLACE
There are different characteristics to make a place more livable, health and social friendly. Some of the
points are as follows:
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Accessible to all kinds of people
Should have a unique or special character
Should be well maintained
Reflects the local culture or history
Promotes local business and creates harmony among all
Promotes community involvement among all sectors
Promotes human contact and social activities
Should have design and architectural features that are visually interesting
Should provide a sense of place and sense of community
(Nar.realtor,2016)
PROCESS OF PLACEMAKING
As mentioned above, the concept of placemaking is to engage people with each other and create social
harmony. As we know, placemaking consists of physical dimensions such as buildings, pavements, parks
and other areas but it more than that. Architecture is not just about giving a physical space but also to a give
social value. The process involved in placemaking are:
•
Community as a asset:
To start placemaking process, we should understand the talents and values of the community. In
community, there are some peoples who can give us insights and knowledge about the areas history, culture,
functionalities, architecture and many others. By taking community as a guiding path, it will give a sense
of community ownership.
•
Evaluate space and identify issues
Placemaking is a ever-evolving process. When designing a space we should spend time on site, evaluate
space as well as challenges. We should have a responsibility just like a community and should address its
problems and solutions. We should meet the community and identify the stakeholders. Then only we can
make a place more reliable and thoughtful.
•
Creating a place not design
Designing something does not means it becomes a place for the community. When we think of a design we
think interesting shapes, variety of colors and many more but design is not only shapes and colors but a
experience. A place should fulfill its dimensions (physical, social and cultural) only then the place becomes
comfortable and welcoming. This process helps in strengthening the bond between the place and the
community.
PARTICIPATORY METHODS/ CO-HOUSING
Participating means to involve in something. It means collection of not just a single person but more than
single. Thus, Participatory Design is the idea of directly engaging people or community in the design
process. It is working with each other to create results jointly. While designing spaces for multi-user, it
should be noted about the user experience. Therefore, engaging the community and future users in the
project development and design process is a way of adding different perspectives to the architect's vision
towards a more intelligent architecture. (Archdaily)
Participatory Design shares the responsibility of designing a space with the community. Participation design
moves away from considering spaces as static, neutral, or finite, rather, spaces are understood as
transitional, changeable, evolving, and dynamic (Mirian Calvo, 2022). It displaces the sole role of
architectural practice to the shared knowledge of the people.
Figure 36 Community participation and identifying stakeholders
•
Observation
Observation is a strong phenomenon from which we can learn easily than anything. Seeing objects in real
life than reading in book gives us a wider sense and value. We as a designer make different assumptions of
what people like and what people may not like. But through observation we can learn the facts of life. By
looking how people conduct their day to day activities, elements they use or don’t use or features they want
gives us a perspective of what community needs are.
It is also important to note that people needs and wants evolve around time and needs to be managed timely.
•
Placing a vision
A good approach to placemaking is not just making easy or looking aesthetic but to have a long term vision.
The vision should include the physical shape, image to the community and future events taking place in the
community.
Co-Design of houses and neighborhoods with local communities:
The post disaster housing are made for the people but in such project generally economy and rapidness of
work is more focuses rather than cultural values and aspect of people living in the community as result,
there is no involvement of community members from selection of site to building process so at first people
are unable to perform or face difficulty to problem in performing daily activities, couldn’t interact with
member of communities and can’t find any kind of emotional connection similar problems were found in
post disaster housing in Flores Island, Nusa Tenggara province, Indonesia wolofeo which was effected by
the earthquake of 1992. It is considered unsuccessful housing system as it didn’t function properly as
original village The elderly of wolofeo have connection to the highland culturally as they believed high
land could provide proper view as a result, wise distribution of land could occur but plain land was provided
to them for resettlement being previous site inhabitable and site provided was also 10 km away from place
of origin.
No consideration was given to social and cultural needs of space. The standardized grid layout was
implemented by the government for infrastructure, road and services which was different from original
village the long-term implications of adoption of the introduction of a new building type, new techniques
of building construction and new settlement forms are hardly understood by local people.
The old settlements were consist sanctified structure at middle with the house surrounding it. it also had
consecrated meeting house called “kedah” for cultural or ritual ceremony which was not accommodate in
new layout as whole lead to disorder of whole community which is derived in chart below:
Figure 37 showing process of not having a communal space
No consideration to old living pattern and design where there was no window and female used to sleep
inside and male used to sleep outside (tenda) so, the new housing design was very different from the original
house type in Wolofeo society. But fortunately, those factor were less crucial than the loss of the communal
space for their social system and ritual life, since they used to cultivate the land during daytime and they
spent less time in the house.
The sudden change in communities caused a contradictory condition in certain period of time. The loss of
significant place and its distinctive structures lead to disorder condition. Consequently, in the long run, the
normal social structure was ceased and this caused the crisis of communal break. As a result, once united
community broken into fragments which was No communal space No communal rituals no rites in
community leading to disorder overall caused due to lack of co-ordination among the government and local
community in design process where the community never had emotional or physiological attachment to the
site provided to them for settlement.
Hence, in order to make post disaster housing culturally viable, its variables should be considered while
planning and following strategies should be taken for successful resettlement:
•
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Consideration to the cultural and economic functions of the settlement within the post disaster
housing program
Assistance to be provided to the victim economically and psychological so that they could deal
with post disaster trauma
Making community to be resettled familiar to the new site by participating them in building new
settlement by transferring responsibility from settlement agencies to settler.
Providing them knowledge to build and making familiar to new technology as they have better
knowledge to build for themselves then alien from different cultural background
Proper spaces of gathering for performing ritual and different social and cultural activities.
Considering the cultural background of habitants while planning community, designing or during
the selection and use of materials.
EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT HOUSING IN NEPAL
Nepal lies on one of the most prone seismic region of the world. Nepal has long histories of earthquakes.
Time and time again, the earthquake has caused mass destruction on peoples livelihood, physical
infrastructure and many more. The reason behind this is Nepal lies between two huge tectonic plates. The
shift of Indian plate towards another causes energy to store and when energy is released, earthquake is born.
The first earthquake record in Nepal is on 1255 A.D. It is said that about one third of Kathmandu population
died including king. The magnitude is said to be about 7.8 Richter scale. On every 100 years, small
earthquakes has been recorded frequently and a big earthquake every century. One of the worst earthquakes
in Nepal is 1934 Nepal-Bihar earthquake. More than 8000 people died in the disaster leaving many peoples
homeless. One of the recent earthquake which we all experienced was Gorkha earthquake in 2015, where
more than 8500 lost their lives and affecting millions of people in Nepal. The earthquake destroyed all kinds
of building from temples to public building questioning the structural resistance of the building. We should
be noted that earthquake does not kill people, poor building does. Example of earthquake in Japan and Chile
shows that even a high Richter scale magnitude earthquake causes small damage to the people and
infrastructure. That is because of implementation and strict updated building codes.
More than 98 percent of buildings in Nepal are built by owner-builders using the knowledge of local craftsmen.
They are not aware of earthquake resistant construction, nor do they have any access to information related to
building codes and incorporation of earthquake-resisting features at nominal extra cost. Inadequate technical
expertise in local governments, high professional fees, insufficient public dialogue and lack of code awareness,
together, have made implementing building codes difficult in Nepal. Inadequate staffing at local enforcement
agencies, legal support, leadership and lack of effort in undertaking enforcement functions and political will
have hindered the process. Many local governments do not accord high priority on enforcement of building
codes. These pose a significant barrier in effective management of earthquake hazards.
(Nepal reconstruction Authority, 2019)
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS OF EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT BUILDINGS
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Proper site selection
Appropriate planning
Good foundation resting on a firm base
Creating a box effect
Better bonding between masonry units
Controlled size and location of openings
Light construction
(NBC 203:2015,2072)
MATERIALS USED FOR EARTH RESISTANT BUILDINGS
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Boulder stones
Quarry stones
Dressed stones
Stabilized soil block
Brick
Bamboo
Timber
RCC
(NBC 203:2015,2072)
SHAPE OF THE BUILDING
Buildings which are symmetrical in plan and regular in elevation are safer than the asymmetrical ones.
Thus, it is preferable that buildings be symmetrical and regular. Following things should not be noted while
designing:
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•
The length to breadth ratio of a building shall not exceed 3:1. The length to breadth ratio for any
room or area enclosed by load -bearing walls inside the building shall also not exceed 3:1. The
building height shall not be more than three times the width of the building.
The floor to floor height of LSM building shall not be less than 2 m and not greater than 3 m. In
case of the attic floor, maximum height from floor level to ridge level shall be1.8m and maximum
height from floor level to eave level shall be 1m.
The buildings may have up to two stories and an additional attic floor. The maximum height (floor
to floor) of a building shall not exceed 12 times the wall thickness at the superstructure.
The height of plinth level shall be at least 300mm from existing ground level. The height of plinth
level can be changed as per site condition such as surrounding road level, rainfall intensity of area,
drainage condition etc. (NBC 203:2015,2072)
THICKNESS OF THE WALL
There are different thickness of wall according to the type of masonry.
Figure 38 Table showing thickness of masonry walls
Here, stone has a thick wall in comparison to other types of masonry. It should be noted that when the
masonry is either brick or stone, when number of storey is increased the thickness of the wall shall also be
increased.
For unsupported wall length,
The maximum length of unsupported wall shall not exceed 12times its thickness. If it is necessary for a
wall to be longer than 12 times its thickness, it shall be provided with a buttress at intervals not exceeding
12 times the wall thickness. Thickness of such buttress wall shall be equal to the thickness of wall and width
of the buttress shall be equal to thickness of wall from the external face of wall at the top and shall extend
upto h/6 at the bottom from the external face of the wall, h being the height of buttress.
(NBC 203:2015,2072)
INTRODUCTION OF MAPPING
Mapping is simply the act or process of making a map. It is the process of creating a picture or diagram that
represents something. A map is a symbolic representation of selected characteristics of a place, usually
drawn on a flat surface (Encyclopedia). Maps shows about the location of countries, its settlements pattern,
location of land and water and distance between places.
MAPPING IN ARCHITECTURE
Mapping is the study and identification of pattern of city development and process throughout time for
analyze and research. Mapping is a type of visual architecture that strategically selects translates,
organizes and shapes spaces – Nadia Amorosa. Thus, making it understandable, clear and saves time. The
data of mapping provides quite possibilities on site and its characteristics helping in the architects process.
Mapping in architecture is to visualize and map by using design principles, color psychology and
representation skills. It makes easier not just for architects but also for clients who wants to know what
solution is going in the place or site.
Mapping of site or a place show following elements:
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Roads and transportation
Commercial and local market development and their arrangements
Encroachments and informal settlements
Vegetation and Landscape
Hardscape and Softscape
Areas like conservation areas, preservation areas, agricultural lands etc
Housing development patterns
Figure 39 Mapping of a city
COGNITIVE MAPPING
A cognitive map is a type of mental representation which serves an individual to acquire, code, store,
recall, and decode information about the relative locations and attributes of phenomena in their everyday
or metaphorical spatial environment (Wikipedia). The concept was introduced by Edward Tolman in 1948.
This mapping is studied in various fields such as psychology, education, archaelogy, planning, geography,
architecture etc. It represents an individual knowledge of an area and generally takes the form of a sketch
of a map drawn on a paper.
Cognitive mapping estimate how people define their own perceptions and experience which influence them
to decide and keep living in particular places (Chopra,2018). Cognitive Mapping helps peoples to
experience about their environment and to decipher their problems. Cognitive mapping shows how people
are connected emotionally and physically with the environment. Cognitive mapping in public spaces can
be observed by using five basic elements of renowned Urban Designer Prof. Kevin Lynch. The five basic
elements are: paths, nodes, districts, edges, landmarks. Chopra (2018, as cited in Aleptkin,2017).
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Paths can be defined as connective network (such as pavements, streets etc).
Edges acts as a boundary (such as forests , rivers etc).
Districts are the areas where inhabitants shape their physical boundaries in their minds.
Nodes are the strategic point of the city where intersections occur.
Landmarks are structures that attract attention of the inhabitants.
Figure 40 Cognitive Mapping in Jodhpur city
SOCIAL MAPPING
Social mapping is a visual representation of showing the relative location of households and distribution of
all kinds of people and age groups together with the social structure, groups and organization of a area.
Social mapping is a tool for understanding the social aspects of a place. It also helps in participatory process
where community can share their experiences and knowledge with each other.
Social mapping is a important tool in architecture. As a designer, the whole design process becomes relevant
to ourselves but it is the society for which we design. We do not have the same understanding as the social
groups or people of the society. So it is hard for us designers to design something in our working table. The
people of the society has their own life experiences, ideas and taste of the society. The people have the
knowledge about the pro and cons of the place and how to overcome this situation.
Uses of Social Mapping:
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Exploring community structure, organisations and processes.
Identifying who lives where in a community.
Identifying different social groups using locally defined criteria and discussing social inequities.
Identifying the location of different social groups in relation to key resources, including
biodiversity and ecosystem services, and the community structures and processes that may be
relevant in influencing the distribution of benefits.
Identifying which community members may be most vulnerable to various hazards and risks,
including those resulting from climate change, and discussing coping strategies and opportunities.
Identifying the location, access and use of key resources, including biodiversity and ecosystem
services, in relation to different social groups in order to inform ecosystem services valuation and
equitable benefit sharing mechanisms.
Figure 41 Social mapping of Bungmati, Nepal
References
Udon Thani. (June 2005). State of Housing and Urban Development in Nepal
https://mirror.unhabitat.org/files/2434_The_State_of_Housing_and_Urban_Development_in_Nepallite.doc
Clive Turner, NHBC Foundation, and Richards Partington Architects (RPA). (2015). Homes through the
decades, the making of modern housing.
https://www.nhbcfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/NF62-Homes-through-the-decades.pdf
His Majesty’s Government of Nepal, Ministry of Housing and Physical Planning, National Habitat II
Committee. (1996) National Plan of Action, Nepal.
https://habitat3.org/wp-content/uploads/Habitat-II-NR-1996-NEPAL.pdf
María-Elia Gutiérrez-Mozo, José Parra-Martínez, Ana Gilsanz-Díaz.(2021) Extending the Architecture of
Collective Housing: Towards Common Worlds of Care, Department of Graphic Expression, Architectural
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