1.1 - The Skeletal System
Assessment Statement
Notes
1.1.1
Distinguish anatomically between the axial and
appendicular skeleton
All the bones
1.1.2
Distinguish between the axial and appendicular
skeleton in terms of function
Consider the anatomical
functions attachment,
protection, movement and
support
1.1.3
State the four types of bones
Limit to long, short, flat and
irregular
1.1.4
Draw and annotate the structure of a long bone
Limit to epiphysis, spongy
bone, articular cartilage,
diaphysis, compact bone,
bone marrow, marrow
cavity, blood vessel and
periosteum
1.1.5
Apply anatomical terminology to the location of
bones
Limit to inferior, superior,
proximal, distal, medial,
lateral, posterior and
anterior
1.1.6
Outline the functions of connective tissue
Limit to cartilage, ligament
and tendon
1.1.7
Define the term joint
1.1.8
Distinguish between the different types of joint
in relation to movement permitted
Limit to fibrous,
cartilaginous and synovial
joints
1.1.9
Outline the features of a synovial joint
Limit to articular cartilage,
synovial membrane, synovial
fluid, bursae, meniscus,
ligaments, and articular
capsule
1.1.10
List the different types of synovial joints
Consider hinge, ball, and
socket, condyloid, pivot,
gliding and saddle
1.1.1 - Distinguish anatomically between the axial and appendicular skeleton
1.1.2 - Distinguish between the axial and appendicular skeleton in terms of function
Functions:
1. Protection - protect vital organs
2. Attachment - attachment points for muscles
3. Support - organs and tissues require structure
4. Movement - attachment of muscles
5. Store minerals - minerals such as calcium
6. Produce red and white blood cells
Axial Skeleton
Appendicular Skeleton
- Protection
- Attachment
- Support
- Movement
- Attachment
- Support
- Movement
- Store minerals
- Produce red and white blood cells
1.1.3 - State four types of bone
Type of Bone
Example
Long
Femur & Humerus
Short
Carpals & Tarsals
Flat
Ribs & Cranium
Irregular
Vertebrae
Sesamoid
Patella
Bone Type
Diagram
Example
Long
Femur & Humerus
Short
Carpals & Tarsals
Flat
Ribs & Cranium
Irregular
Vertebrae
1.1.4 - Draw and annotate the structure of a long bone
Structure of the bone:
- Diaphysis - (compact bone) a long shaft covered by the periosteum
- Epiphysis - (spongy bone) two end portions covered by articular (hyaline) cartilage
- Articular cartilage - a blue-ish white smooth surface that reduces friction and
absorbs shock
- Bone marrow cavity - contains bone marrow
- Capillaries - supply oxygenated blood
- Periosteum - the “skin” that wraps around the bone and acts as a protection
1.1.5 - Apply anatomical terms to the location of the bones
Proximal - Closer to the center of the body
ex. the shoulder is proximal to the hand
Distal - Further away from the center of the body
ex. the hand is distal in relation to the shoulder
Medial - Closer to the midline of the body
ex. the coccyx is medial to the carpals
Lateral - Away from the center (midline) of the body
ex. the humerus is lateral to the sternum
Inferior - Below or further away from the head
ex. the knees are inferior to the shoulders
Superior - Above or nearer to the head
ex. the skull is superior to the shoulders
Posterior - Behind or nearer to the back
ex. the vertebrae are posterior to the sternum
Anterior - In front of the body
ex. the sternum is anterior to the vertebrae
1.1.6 - Outline the functions of connective tissue
Connective Tissue
Function
Tendons
Strong strips which attach muscles to
bones
Ligaments
Strong bands that connect bones to
bones at joints
Cartilage
Soft cushioning substance that
covers the ends of bones, acts as a
shock absorber, and reduces the
friction
Diagram
1.1.7 - Define the term joint
Joint - where two bones meet to articulate with each other
1.1.8 - Distinguish between the different types of joint in relation to movement permitted
Joint
Movement
Fibrous (fixed)
No movement allowed
Cartilaginous
Limited movement allowed
Synovial
Most common joint in the
body
Freely moving joints that
contain synovial fluid in a
cavity around articulating
bones
Diagram
1.1.9 - Outline the features of a synovial joint
Feature of Synovial Joint
Description
Articular (Hyaline)
Cartilage
Thin line of hyaline cartilage that allows joint movement and
protects the joint from dislocation, reduces friction, absorbs
shock and protect the bones
Synovial Fluid
Liquid that coats and lubricates articular cartilage preventing
friction
Synovial Membrane
Lubricates the joint cavity which reduces friction
Meniscus
Semilunar discs made out of fibrocartilage pads found
between some articulating bones. Allow bones to fit together
tightly and they provide cushioning for the joint
Bursae
Small fluid-filled sacs which prevent friction
1.1.10 - List the different types of synovial joints
Synovial Joint
Type of Movement
Example
Hinge
Flexion and extension Elbow joint
Knee joint
Pivot
Rotation of one bone
around another
Top of the neck
Radioulnar joint
Ball and Socket
Flexion, extension,
adduction, abduction
and rotation
Shoulder joint
Hip joint
Condyloid
Flexion, extension,
adduction,
abduction, and
circumduction
Wrist joint
(between the radius
and carpal bones
Saddle
Flexion, extension,
adduction,
abduction, and
circumduction
Thumb (between
the carpal bone and
the metacarpal
bone)
Gliding
Gliding movements
Tarsal bones
Carpal bones
Diagram
Extra: Types of movement in synovial joints
Adduction - movement towards the medial line of the body (bring together)
Abduction - movement away from the medial line (take away)
Flexion - decrease the angle at a joint
Extension - increase the angle at a joint
Pronation - rotation of the forearm so that the palms face inferiorly (down)
Supination - rotation of the forearm so that the palms face superiorly (up)
Elevation - move a structure superiorly (ex. shrugging)
Depression - move a structure inferiorly
Rotation - turning of a structure around its long axis
Circumduction - a combination of flexion, extension, abduction, and adduction
Eversion - turning the ankle so the plantar surface faces laterally
Inversion - turning the ankle so the plantar faces medially
Plantar Flexion - movement of the foot towards the plantar surface (standing on toes)
Dorsi Flexion - movement of the foot towards the shin (walking on the heels)
1.2 - The Muscular System
Assessment Statement
Teachers Notes
1.2.1
Outline the general
characteristics common to
muscle tissue
Limit to contractility, extensibility, elasticity,
atrophy, hypertrophy, controlled by nerve
stimuli and fed by capillaries
1.2.2
Distinguish between the
different types of muscle
Include smooth, cardiac and skeletal muscles
1.2.3
Annotate the structure of
skeletal muscle
Limit to epimysium, perimysium, endomysium,
muscle fibre, myofibril, sarcomere, actin and
myosin
1.2.4
Define the terms origin and
insertion of muscles
Origin: the attachment of a muscle tendon to a
stationary bone.
Insertion: the attachment of a muscle tendon to
a moveable bone
1.2.5
Identify the location of skeletal Include the muscles from:
muscles in the various regions
of the body
The Anterior: deltoid, pectoralis, iliopsoas,
sartorius, quadriceps femoris (rectus femoris,
vastus intermedialis, vastus medialis and vastus
lateralis), tibialis anterior, abdominus rectus,
external obliques and biceps brachii
The Posterior: trapezius, triceps brachii,
latissimus dorsi, gluteus maximus, hamstrings
(biceps femoris, semitendinosus and
semimembranosus), gastrocnemius, soleus and
erector spinae
1.2.1 - Outline the general characteristics common to muscle tissue
Contractility - ability for the muscle to shorten
Extensibility - ability for the muscle to lengthen
Elasticity - ability for the muscle to return to normal size
Atrophy - the decrease in the size of muscle tissue
Hypertrophy - the increase in the size of muscle tissue
Controlled by nerve stimuli
Fed by capillaries
1.2.2 - Distinguish between the different types of muscles
Skeletal
- Voluntary control
- Striated
- Attached to bone or other connective tissue
Cardiac (Heart Muscle)
- Involuntary control
- Has “branches” and is striated
- Located in the heart
Smooth
- Involuntary
- Tapered at each end, not striated
- Located in hollow organs such as large intestine
1.2.3 - Annotate the structure of a skeletal muscle
Epimysium - connective tissue capsule
Perimysium - a branching connective tissue within the muscle tissue
Endomysium - the muscle cells themselves are individually wrapped by endomysium
Myofibril - the muscles cells are filled with cylindrical structures called myofibrils
Myofilaments - Inside the myofibril, they are responsible for the contraction of myofibrils
1.2.4 - Define the terms origin and insertion of muscles
Origin - the point where the tendon attaches to the bone which doesn’t move during muscle
action (stationary)
Insertion - the point where the tendon attaches to the bone which moves during action
1.2.5 - Identify the location of skeletal muscle in various regions of the body
2.1 - Structure and Function of the Ventilatory System
Assessment Statement
Notes
2.1.1
List the principal structures of the
ventilatory system.
Nose, mouth, pharynx, larynx, trachea,
bronchi, bronchioles, lungs, and
alveoli. Cross-reference to 1.2.2.
2.1.2
Outline the functions of the conducting
airways.
Limit to low resistance pathway for
airflow, defense against chemicals and
other harmful substances that are
inhaled, warming and moistening the
air.
2.1.3
Define the terms pulmonary ventilation,
total lung capacity(TLC), vital capacity
(VC), tidal volume (TV), expiratory
reserve volume (ERV), inspiratory
reserve volume (IRV) and residual
Volume (RV).
2.1.4
Explain the mechanics of ventilation in
the human lungs
Include the actions of the diaphragm
and the intercostal muscles and the
relationship between volume and
pressure. Students should be aware
that accessory muscles are also
important during strenuous exercise
2.1.5
Describe nervous and chemical control
of ventilation during exercise
Limit to ventilation increases as a
direct result of increases in blood
acidity levels (low pH) due to increased
carbon dioxide content of the blood
detected by the respiratory center. This
results in an increase in the rate and
depth of ventilation. Neural control of
ventilation includes lung stretch
receptors, muscle proprioceptors, and
chemoreceptors. The role of H+ ions
and reference to the partial pressure of
oxygen are not required
2.1.6
Outline the role of hemoglobin in
oxygen transport
Most (98.5%) of oxygen in the blood is
transported by hemoglobin as
oxyhemoglobin within red blood cells
2.1.7
Explain the process of gaseous exchange
at the alveoli
2.1.1 - List the principle structures of the ventilatory system
2.1.2 - Outline the functions of the conducting airways
-
Low resistance pathway for airflow
Defense against chemicals and other harmful substances that are inhaled
Warming and moistening the air
Nose: humidifies the air and filters particles
Pharynx: offers a low resistance pathway for airflow
Larynx: functions as the 'voice box' and protects the trachea from invasion of foods and
fluids
2.1.3 - Define the terms pulmonary ventilation, total lung capacity (TLC), vital capacity (VC),
tidal volume (TV), expiratory reserve volume (ERV), inspiratory reserve volume (IRV) and
residual volume (RV)
Pulmonary Ventilation - movement of air in and out of the lungs
Total Lung Capacity (TLC) - the amount of air in the lungs after a maximal inspiration
Vital Capacity (VC) - the amount of air that can be exhaled after a maximal inhalation
Tidal Volume (TV) - the amount of air an individual can inhale or exhale during normal quiet
breathing (7-8% of total lung capacity)
Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV) - the amount of air an individual can exhale beyond a tidal
expiration (20% of total lung capacity)
Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV) - the amount of air that an individual can inhale above a
tidal inspiration (60% of the total lung capacity)
Residual Volume (RV) - the amount of air remaining in the lungs after a maximal exhalation
(makes up 20% of the total capacity)
2.1.4 - Explain the mechanics of ventilation in the human lungs
Inhalation - passive
- Diaphragm contracts and lowers
- External intercostal muscles contract
- This causes the rib cage to move upwards and outwards
- The volume of the chest cavity increases
- The pressure inside the lungs drops below atmospheric pressure
- Air rushes into the lungs
Exhalation - active
- The diaphragm relaxes and turns to a dome shape
- Internal intercostal muscles contract
- This causes the rib cage to move downwards and inwards
- The volume of the chest cavity decreases
- The pressure inside the lungs increases above atmospheric pressure
- Air is forced out of the lungs and into the atmosphere
2.1.5 - Describe the nervous and chemical control of ventilation during exercise.
-
-
Ventilation increases as a direct result of increases in blood acidity levels due to
increases in carbon dioxide content in the blood, which is detected by the respiratory
center
↳ this results in an increase in the rate and depth of ventilation
The respiratory center is in the medulla oblongata, this sends messages to the
ventilatory muscles
Neural control of ventilation includes lung stretch receptors, muscle proprioceptors
and chemoreceptors
2.1.6 - Outline the role of hemoglobin in oxygen transport
98.5% of oxygen in the blood is transported by hemoglobin as oxyhemoglobin within red
blood cells
2.1.7 - Explain the process of gaseous exchange at the alveoli
Gaseous Exchange → the delivery of oxygen from the lungs to the bloodstream, and the
elimination of carbon dioxide from the bloodstream to the lungs. It occurs in the lungs
between the alveoli and the capillaries which are located around the walls of the alveoli.
Gas exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place in the alveoli
1. Oxygen from the inhaled air diffuses through the walls of the alveoli and into the
capillaries to the red blood cells
2. The red blood cells carry the oxygen to the body (oxygenated)
3. Carbon dioxide which is produced by the body return to the lungs in the red blood
cells (deoxygenated)
4. The carbon dioxide then diffuses across the capillary and the alveolar walls into the
air so that it can be removed from the body via expiration
Adaptations of the Alveoli
These adaptations make the gaseous exchange more efficient:
- Walls of the alveoli are one cell thick
- They are folded, providing a larger surface area
- They are each surrounded by capillary which allows the good blood supply
2.2 - Cardiovascular System
Assessment Statement
Notes
2.2.1
State the composition of blood
Blood is composed of cells
(erythrocytes, leucocytes, and
platelets) and plasma. Blood is
also the transport vehicle for
electrolytes, proteins, gases,
nutrients, waste products and
hormones
2.2.2
Distinguish between the functions of
erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets
2.2.3
Describe the anatomy of the heart with
reference to the heart chambers, valves, and
major blood vessels
The names of the four
chambers, four valves (bicuspid,
tricuspid, aortic and pulmonary
valve)and the four major
blood vessels (vena cava,
pulmonary veins, the aorta and
pulmonary artery) of the
pulmonary and systemic
circulation is required. The
heart has its own blood
supply via the coronary arteries,
however the names of
the coronary arteries are not
required.
2.2.4
Describe the intrinsic and extrinsic regulation
of heart rate and the sequence of excitation
of the heart muscle.
The heart has its own
pacemaker, but heart rate is
also influenced by the
sympathetic and
parasympathetic branches of
the autonomic nervous system
and by adrenaline. (It should be
recognized that adrenaline has
wider metabolic actions, ie
increasing glycogen and lipid
breakdown.) The electrical
impulse is generated at the
sinoatrial node (SA node) and
travels across the atria to
the atrioventricular node (AV
node) to the ventricles.
2.2.5
Outline the relationship between pulmonary
and systemic circulation
2.2.6
Describe the relationship between heart rate,
cardiac output and stroke volume at rest and
during exercise
Cardiac output = stroke volume
x heart rate
2.2.7
Analyze cardiac output, stroke volume, and
heart rate data for different populations at
rest and during exercise
Limit to males, females, trained,
untrained, young and old. Recall
of quantitative data is not
expected
2.2.8
Explain cardiovascular drift
An increase of body temp
results in a lower venous return
to the heart, a small decrease in
blood volume from sweating. A
reduction in stroke volume
causes the heart rate to
increase to maintain cardiac
output. Include reference to
blood viscosity.
2.2.9
Define the terms systolic and diastolic blood
pressure
Systolic: the force exerted by
blood on arterial walls during
ventricular contraction.
Diastolic: the force exerted by
blood on arterial walls during
ventricular relaxation.
2.2.10
Analyze systolic and diastolic pressure data at
rest and during exercise
Recall of quantitative data is not
expected
2.2.11
Discuss how systolic and diastolic blood
pressure respond to dynamic and static
exercise
2.2.12
Compare the distribution of blood at rest and
the redistribution of blood during exercise
Movement of blood in favor of
muscles
2.2.13
Describe the cardiovascular adaptations
resulting from endurance exercise training
Limit to increased left
ventricular volume resulting in
an increased stroke volume and
a lower resting and exercising
heart rate. Consider also
increased capillarization and
increased arterio-venous
oxygen difference
2.2.14
Explain maximal oxygen consumption
Maximal oxygen consumption
(VO2 Max) represents the
functional capacity of the
oxygen transport system and is
sometimes referred to as
maximal aerobic power or
aerobic capacity
2.2.15
Discuss the variability of maximal oxygen
consumption in selected groups
Consider trained versus
untrained, males versus
females, young versus old,
athlete versus non-athlete
2.2.16
Discuss the variability of maximal oxygen
Consider cycling versus running
consumption with different modes of exercise versus arm ergometry
2.2.1 - State the composition of blood
Blood - a specialized type of connective tissue
Components of Blood:
- Erythrocytes - red blood cells
↳make up 99% of the formed elements in the blood
- Leukocytes - white blood cells
- Platelets - create a meshwork of fibers to help with clotting
- Plasma - colorless fluid that contains water, protein and nutrients (see below)
2.2.2 - Distinguish between the functions erythrocytes, leucocytes, and platelets
Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells)
- Contain an oxygen-carrying pigment called hemoglobin (protein), which gives blood
its red color
- Transport nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide, waste products and hormones to cells
and organs around the body
Leukocytes (White Blood Cells)
- Help combat infection and inflammation
- They ingest foreign microbes
Platelets
- They are tiny pieces of cell which have no nucleus
- Are involved in the process of clotting to help repair blood vessels by using a
“meshwork” of fibers
2.2.3 - Describe the anatomy of the heart with reference to the heart chambers, valves, and
major blood vessels
Heart - an involuntary muscle with
striated muscle fibers (myocardium).
Atria - (left & right) receiving blood
from the body. Have thin walls bc they
only have to pump to the ventricles
Ventricles - (left & right) they are thick
as they propel blood from the heart to
body
Valves - prevent backflow by shutting
when the heart relaxes
1. Atrioventricular valves (tricuspid &
bicuspid/mitral) 2. Pulmonary and
Aortic Semilunar Valve
2.2.4 Describe the intrinsic and extrinsic regulation of heart rate and the sequence of
excitation of the heart muscle
Intrinsic
Pacemaker system
- Starts in the right atrium
- A cardiac impulse is initiated from the sino-atrial
(SA) node (pacemaker)
- The impulse causes the atria to contract
- Cardiac impulse reaches and activates the
atrioventricular (AV) node
- This passes the impulse down Bundle of His (in
the septum of the heart)
- Bundle of his splits left and right, up around the
heart (Purkinje fibers)
- The impulse is spread around the walls of ventricles causing them to contract
- Ventricles relax and the cycle starts again
Extrinsic
2.2.5 - Outline the relationship between pulmonary and systemic
circulation
Pulmonary Circulation - carries deoxygenated blood away from the
heart to the lungs and returns oxygenated blood back to the heart
Systemic Circulation - carries oxygenated blood away from the heart to
the body and returns deoxygenated blood back to the heart
2.2.6 - Describe the relationship between heart rate, cardiac output and
stroke volume at rest and during exercise
Heart Rate (HR) - the number of times the heart beats per minute (bpm)
Stroke Volume (SV) - the amount of blood pumped by each ventricle per beat (liters)
Cardiac Output (Q) - the amount of blood pumped from the heart in one minute (liters)
- Basal Heart Rate - when HR is reduced to a min (ex. sleeping)
cardiac output = stroke volume x heart rate
Q = SV x HR
When the body starts to exercise there is a higher demand of oxygen, causing heart rate,
stroke volume and cardiac output to increase
Venous Return - the amount of blood returned to the right side of the heart
- Less blood returned meaning heart rate is increased
2.2.7 - Analyse cardiac output, stroke volume and heart rate data for different populations at
rest and during exercise
Males vs Females
Heart Rate - lower in males than females
Stroke Volume - lower in females than males (body size plays a role)
Cardiac Output - higher in females
Trained vs Untrained
Heart Rate - trained have a lower heart at rest and during maximal exercise
Stroke Volume - trained have a larger stroke volume at rest and during maximal exercise
Cardiac Output - same during rest and sub-maximal exercise, but trained have higher during
maximal exercise
Young vs Old
Heart Rate - higher in children than adults
Stroke Volume - lower in children than adults
Cardiac Output - smaller in children than adults
2.2.8 - Explain cardiovascular drift
Cardiovascular drift refers to the increase in heart rate that occurs during prolonged
endurance exercise with little or no change in workload. During this, heart rate increases,
stroke volume decreases but cardiac output remains the same. Cardiovascular drift is
mostly caused by increased body temperature. After 10-15 min of exercise body
temperature will increase, the body will try to cool down by sweating. A portion of this
sweat comes from the plasma, causing the plasma volume to decrease. The decrease in
plasma volume will decrease venous return and stroke volume, and will cause the blood to
become more viscous. Staying hydrated will help reduce cardiovascular drift. Cardiovascular
effect is increased in warmer climates.
2.2.9 - Define the terms systolic and diastolic blood pressure
Systolic - the force exerted by blood on the arterial walls during contraction
Diastolic - the force exerted by blood on arterial walls during relaxation
ex. 120/80 blood pressure
2.2.10 - Analyse systolic and diastolic blood pressure data at rest and during exercise
During Rest:
During Exercise:
- Systolic pressure is lower
- Diastolic pressure is lower
- Systolic pressure is higher
- Diastolic pressure does not raise as much as systolic
2.2.11 - Discuss how systolic and diastolic pressure respond to dynamic and static exercise
2.2.12 - Compare the distribution of blood at rest and the redistribution of blood during
exercise
Starling’s Law - the more the heart fills during diastole, the greater the force of contraction
during systole
During exercise blood will move towards the muscles
During rest blood will move to organs (ex. digestion)
2.2.13 - Describe the cardiovascular adaptations resulting from endurance exercise training
⟶ Resting heart rate decreases
⟶ Stroke volume/left ventricular volume increases
↳ because of heart hypertrophy
⟶ Increased capillarization
↳ the muscles are surrounded by an increase in capillaries that allow more oxygen
supply
⟶ Arterio-venous oxygen difference increases
↳ this is due to adaptations in the mitochondria, increased myoglobin and improved
capillarization
2.2.14 - Explain maximal oxygen consumption
VO₂ Max - the maximum amount of oxygen that can be consumed (millimeters)
⟶ those who have a higher fitness level have higher VO₂ max values and can exercise more
intensely than those who are not as well conditioned.
2.2.15 - Discuss the variability of maximal oxygen consumption in selected groups
Age - decreases with age
Trained vs Untrained - higher in trained and lower in untrained
Male vs Female - higher in males than females
2.2.16 - Discuss the variability of maximal oxygen consumption with different modes of
exercise
When running on a treadmill, the VO₂ max will be higher because more muscles are being
used, compared to arm ergometry where the participant is sitting down and only using their
arms, which requires less oxygen going to the muscles. However, cycling requires more
oxygen than arm ergometry.
3.1 - Nutrition
Assessment Statement
Notes
3.1.1
List the macronutrients and
micronutrients
Macro–lipid (fat), carbohydrate,
water, and protein. Micro–vitamins,
minerals, and fiber.
3.1.2
Outline the functions of macronutrients
and micronutrients
Specific knowledge of individual
vitamins and minerals is not required.
3.1.3
State the chemical composition of a
glucose molecule
C, H, and O (1:2:1 ratio)
3.1.4
Identify a diagram representing the
basic structure of a glucose molecule
3.1.5
Explain how glucose molecules can
combine to form disaccharides and
polysaccharides
Condensation reaction—the linking
of a monosaccharide to another
monosaccharide, disaccharide or
polysaccharide by the removal of a
water molecule.
3.1.6
State the composition of a molecule of
triacylglycerol
Limit to glycerol and three fatty acids.
3.1.7
Distinguish between saturated and
unsaturated fatty acids
Saturated fatty acids have no double
bonds between the individual carbon
atoms of the fatty acid chain.
Saturated fats originate from animal
sources, for example, meat, poultry,
full-fat dairy products and tropical
oils, such as palm and coconut oils.
Unsaturated fatty acids contain one
or more double bonds between
carbon atoms within the fatty acid
chain. Unsaturated fats
originate from plant-based foods, for
example, olive oil, olives, avocado,
peanuts, cashew nuts, canola oil and
seeds, sunflower oil and rapeseed.
3.1.8
State the chemical composition of a
protein molecule
Limit to C, H, O and N.
3.1.9
Distinguish between an essential and a
non-essential amino acid
Essential amino acids cannot be
synthesized by the human body and
must be obtained from diet.
Non-essential amino acids can be
synthesized by the human body.
3.1.10
Describe current recommendations for
a healthy balanced diet
Consider recommendations for
carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, fiber,
water and salt for adults in the
general population. The relative
contribution of carbohydrate,
protein, and lipid (including
monounsaturated, polyunsaturated
and saturated) should be given.
Aim 9: Recommended intakes of
nutrients have been published in
some countries. The
recommendations vary and this
raises questions about how the levels
are decided.
Int/Aim 8: Students can be made
aware of the sociocultural influences
of food selection and preparation
across populations, for example,
Mediterranean, Japanese, Western
(USA, UK) and Indian.
3.1.11
State the approximate energy content
per 100g of carbohydrate, lipid, and
protein
Students should know that the
energy content values per 100 g are:
carbohydrate 1760 kJ, lipid 4000 kJ,
and protein 1720 kJ.
3.1.12
Discuss how the recommended energy
distribution of the dietary
macronutrients differs between
endurance athletes and non-athletes
Limit to the important difference in
carbohydrate intake and how
therefore this also affects fat and
protein intake. For example,
carbohydrate intake is higher, protein
and fat intake is slightly higher
for a marathon runner than a
non-athlete, and vice versa.
Int: Variation between countries, for
example, a high-carbohydrate diet
consumed by athletes in some
countries.
Aim 8: Some sports require smaller
stature therefore diet manipulation
may occur prior to competition.
Aim 9: Recommended intakes vary
within published literature.
3.1.1 - List the macronutrients and micronutrients
Macronutrient: lipids (fat), carbohydrates, water and protein
Micronutrient: vitamins, minerals and fiber
3.1.2 - Outline the functions of macronutrients and micronutrients
Macronutrient - nutrients that provide the energy necessary to maintain bodily functions
during rest and physical activity (needed in large amounts)
Micronutrients - facilitate energy transfer and tissue synthesis (needed in small amounts)
Carbohydrates - provide fuel for the body and act as energy storage
Protein - repair and growth of muscle tissue
Lipids - protects vital organs and helps with thermoregulation
Water - transportation and thermoregulation
Fiber - helps the digestive system
Vitamins - energy release from macronutrients
Minerals - elements found in food that are used by the body
3.1.3 - State the chemical composition of a glucose molecule
CH₂O ratio of 1:2:1 ⟶ C₆H₁₂O₆
1 Carbon : 2 Hydrogens : 1 Oxygen
3.1.4 - Identify a diagram representing the basic structure of a glucose molecule
3.1.5 - Explain how glucose molecules can combine to form disaccharides & polysaccharides
mono
di
poly
one
two
many
Condensation Reaction - the combination of two or more than two monosaccharides to
create a disaccharide or a polysaccharide where a water molecule is removed in the process
Monosaccharides can undergo a series of condensation reactions, adding one unit after
another to the chain until a polysaccharide is formed. When two monosaccharides react a
water molecule is lost and a disaccharide is created through condensation reaction.
-
When one glucose molecule combines with another glucose molecule it creates
maltose which is a disaccharide
When a lot of glucose molecules combine together, they create a polysaccharide,
for example, glycogen
3.1.6 - State the composition of a molecule of triacylglycerol
1 Glycerol : 3 Fatty Acids
3.1.7 - Distinguish between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids
Saturated
- have no double bonds between their
carbon atoms
- solid at room temperature
- from animal sources
ex. butter
Unsaturated
- have one or more bond between their
carbon atoms
- liquid at room temperature
- from plant-based foods
ex. oil
3.1.8 - State the chemical composition of a protein molecule
CHON ratio of 1:1:1:1
1 Carbon : 1 Hydrogen : 1 Oxygen : 1 Nitrogen
3.1.9 - Distinguish between an essential and a non-essential amino acid
Essential Amino Acids - can only get them from food
Non-essential Amino Acids - can get from food and can be made by the body
3.1.10 - Describe current recommendations for a healthy balanced diet
-
intake 45–65 % carbohydrate, 10−35 % fat, 20−35 % protein
reduce daily sodium intake
keep trans fatty acid consumption as low as possible
reduce the intake of calories from solid fats and added sugars
choose a variety of protein foods (seafood and beans)
adequate water consumption
3.1.11 - State the approximate energy content per 100g of carbohydrate, lipid, and protein
Carbohydrate
Lipid
Protein
1760 kJ
4000 kJ
1720 kJ
3.1.12 - Discuss how the recommended energy distribution of the dietary macronutrients
differs between endurance athletes and non-athletes
-
Carbohydrate, protein and water intake is higher for athletes than for non athletes
Fat intake is slightly higher for athletes than for non athletes
3.2 - Carbohydrate and Fat Metabolism
3.2.1
Assessment Statement
Notes
Outline metabolism, anabolism, aerobic
catabolism and anaerobic catabolism
Metabolism: All the biochemical
reactions that occur within an
organism, including anabolic and
catabolic reactions.
Anabolism: Energy requiring
reactions whereby small molecules
are built up into larger ones.
Catabolism: Chemical reactions
that break down complex organic
compounds into simpler ones, with
the net release of energy.
3.2.2
State what glycogen is and its major
storage sites
3.2.3
State the major sites of triglyceride
storage
3.2.4
Explain the role of insulin in the
formation of glycogen and the
accumulation of body fat
3.2.5
Outline glycogenolysis and lipolysis
3.2.6
Outline the functions of glucagon and
adrenaline during fasting and exercise
3.2.7
Explain the role of insulin and muscle
contraction on glucose uptake during
exercise
Adipose tissue and skeletal muscle
Emphasize that both insulin and
muscle contraction stimulate
glucose uptake from the blood into
skeletal muscle
3.2.1 - Outline metabolism, anabolism, aerobic catabolism and anaerobic catabolism
Metabolism - all the biochemical reactions that occur within an organism, including anabolic
and catabolic reactions
Anabolism - energy requiring reactions whereby small molecules are built up into larger
ones
Aerobic catabolism - chemical reactions that break down complex organic compounds into
simpler ones, with the net release of energy
Anaerobic catabolism - the breakdown of complex chemical substances into simpler
compounds, with the release of energy, in the absence of oxygen
3.2.2 - State what glycogen is and its major stores
Glycogen - stored glucose, it is a polysaccharide made out of glucose
- Stored in the liver and muscles
3.2.3 - State the major sites of triglyceride storage
Stored in adipose tissue (fat) and in skeletal muscle
3.2.4 - Explain the role of insulin in the formation of glycogen and the accumulation of body
fat
⟶ insulin is secreted from the beta cells in the pancreas in response to high levels of sugar
in the blood
⟶ it transforms glucose to glycogen and stores it in the liver and in muscles
⟶ it transforms glycerol and fatty acids to lipids, and amino acids into proteins, it stores this
in the body
⟶ insulin stops glycogenolysis, lipolysis and the breakdown of proteins into amino acids
⟶ things build up and get stored (anabolism) instead of breaking down
⟶ insulin helps to maintain a normal level of sugar in the blood
3.2.5 - Outline glycogenolysis and lipolysis
Glycogenolysis - the breakdown of glycogen back into glucose so it can be released into the
blood
Lipolysis - the breakdown of stored lipids into glycerol and fatty acids
3.2.6 - Outline the functions of glucagon and adrenaline during fasting and exercise
Glucagon is released from the alpha cells in the pancreas in response to low blood glucose
Adrenaline is released from the adrenal glands when the body is in a stressful situation
During fasting:
- Levels of glucagon and adrenaline increase
⟶ Glucagon causes glycogenolysis to happen (glycogen into glucose)
⟶ Adrenaline will stimulate glycogenolysis, causing an increase in blood sugar levels
- Both of these hormones are lipolysis inducers, they mobilize fat stores from the
adipose tissues for breakdown into useful energy
3.2.7 - Explain the role of insulin and muscle contraction on glucose uptake during exercise
During exercise, the greater amount of muscle contraction requires increased amounts of
glucose to provide the energy required for contraction
Glycogen is stored in the muscles, and it is the main source of fuel during strenuous,
short-term exercise
Blood-borne-glucose and free fatty acids that come from adipose tissue are usually used
during prolonged exercise
Insulin stimulates glucose uptake from the blood into skeletal muscle
During exercise, insulin levels fall, and glucagon and adrenaline levels rise, so overall:
- Less glucose is absorbed by the liver
- More glycogenolysis occurs causing the release of more glucose into the blood
Therefore, blood glucose is absorbed by muscles during exercise
3.3 - Nutrition and Energy Systems
Assessment Statement
Notes
3.3.1
Annotate a diagram of the ultrastructure
of a generalized animal cell
The diagram should show
ribosomes, rough endoplasmic
reticulum, lysosomes, Golgi
apparatus, mitochondria and
nucleus.
3.3.2
Annotate a diagram of the ultrastructure
of a mitochondrion
Cristae, inner matrix and outer
smooth membrane
3.3.3
Define the term cell respiration
Cell respiration is the controlled
release of energy in the form of ATP
from organic compounds in cells
3.3.4
Explain how adenosine can gain and lose
a phosphate molecule
3.3.5
Explain the role of ATP in muscle
contraction
Limit to the breakdown of ATP to
ADP releasing a phosphate
molecule, which provides energy for
muscle contraction. Cross reference
with 4.1.3.
3.3.6
Describe the re-synthesis of ATP by the
ATP-PC system
Creatine phosphate (a high energy
molecule) is broken down to provide
a phosphate molecule for the
re-synthesis of ATP that has been
utilized during the initial stage of
exercise
3.3.7
Describe the production of ATP by the
lactic acid system
Also known as anaerobic
glycolysis—the breakdown of
glucose to pyruvate without the use
of oxygen.
Pyruvate is then converted into
lactic acid, which limits
the amount of ATP produced (2 ATP
molecules).
3.3.8
Explain the phenomena of oxygen deficit
and oxygen debt
Oxygen debt is now known as excess
post-exercise
oxygen consumption (EPOC).
3.3.9
Describe the production of ATP from
glucose and fatty acids by the aerobic
system
Limit to: in the presence of oxygen
pyruvate is processed by the Krebs
cycle which liberates electrons that
are passed through the electron
transport chain producing energy
(ATP). Fats are also broken down by
beta oxidation that liberates a
greater number of electrons thus
more ATP. In the presence of oxygen
and in extreme cases protein is also
utilized.
3.3.10
Discuss the characteristics of the three
energy systems and their relative
contributions during exercise
Limit to fuel sources, duration,
intensity, amount of ATP production
and by-products.
3.3.11
Evaluate the relative contributions of the
three energy systems during different
types of exercise
Energy continuum. Different types
of exercise (endurance athlete,
games player, sprinter) should be
considered.
3.3.1 - Annotate a diagram of the ultrastructure of a generalized animal cell
3.3.2 - Annotate a diagram of the ultrastructure of a mitochondrion
3.3.3 - Define the term cell respiration
Cell Respiration - the controlled release of energy in the form of ATP from organic
compounds in cells
3.3.4 - Explain how adenosine can gain and lose a phosphate molecule
-
When energy is released from ATP, a phosphate molecule is lost
- From ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) to ADP (Adenosine Diphosphate)
When ATP is resynthesized using the energy given off from Creatine Phosphate, a
phosphate molecule is gained.
- From ADP (Adenosine Diphosphate) to ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)
3.3.5 - Explain the role of ATP in muscle contraction
From ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate), broken by ATPase:
To ADP (Adenosine Diphosphate) + P (Phosphate) + Energy:
-
-
ATP is broken down into ADP, during this process, the bond between the phosphate
molecules releases energy.
- This energy is used for muscle contraction
As ATP stores are low in our bodies, it has to be re-synthesized to allow us to keep
exercising
There are the 3 energy systems that help with the re-synthesis of ATP:
1. Phosphocreatine System (ATP-PC)
2. Lactic Acid System (Anaerobic Glycolysis)
3. Aerobic System
3.3.6 - Describe the re-synthesis of ATP by the ATP-PC system
Phosphocreatine System (ATP-PC)
- Anaerobic Reaction
- Occurs in the cytoplasm of the muscle cells
- Produces 1 ATP
- ATP is resynthesized very quickly
Steps:
1. Creatine phosphate has a high energy bond that’s broken by creatine kinase
2. This energy is used to resynthesize 1 molecule of ATP
3. The phosphate that is separated from the creatine phosphate and the energy that is
created, goes into the ADP to create ATP
4. Therefore, ADP gains 1 phosphate molecule by using the energy, creating ATP
5. ATP is then broken down with the help of ATPase, and the energy from the broken
bond is released and used for exercise
Advantages
- it can produce energy quickly since no
oxygen is required
Example Sport: 50m Sprint
Disadvantages
- only lasts a 1-2 seconds
3.3.7 - Describe the production of ATP by the lactic acid system
Lactic Acid System (Anaerobic Glycolysis)
- Anaerobic Reaction
- Occurs in the cytoplasm of the muscle cells
- Produces 2 ATPs
- ATP is resynthesized quickly
Steps:
1. Glucose is broken down by glycolysis into pyruvate, giving off energy (2 ATPs)
2. Since oxygen is not present, the pyruvic acid is converted to lactic acid
3. Lactic acid is the by-product, and it leads to an increase in hydrogen ions
- lactic acid accumulates in our cells and the acidity causes fatigue
4. In order to get rid of the lactic acid, you must breathe aerobically, to pay back the
oxygen debt
5. The oxygen will remove the lactic acid and change it back to pyruvate
Advantages
- it can produce energy quickly since no
oxygen is required
Example Sport: 400m Sprint
Disadvantages
- cells become more acidic leading to fatigue
- it can only provide energy for 30 sec - 2 min
3.3.8 - Explain the phenomena of oxygen deficit and oxygen debt
Oxygen Deficit - the amount of oxygen required during exercise
Oxygen Debt- the amount of oxygen that needs to be repaid after vigorous exercise aka
EPOC (Excess Post-Exercise Oxygen Consumption)
Components of Oxygen Recovery
Alactic Acid (fast/rapid component):
Resynthesize muscle stores of ATP-PC
- Takes 3-4 min for stores to fully recover
- Uses 3-4 liters of oxygen
Replenishment of myoglobin stores with
oxygen
Lactic Acid (slow component):
Removal of lactic acid from muscles and blood
Maintenance of body temperature and
ventilation
- Can take up to 48h
- Uses 5-8 liters of oxygen
3.3.9 - Describe the production of ATP from glucose and fatty acids by the aerobic system
Aerobic System
- Aerobic Reaction
- Occurs in the matrix and in the cristae of the mitochondria
- Produces 36-38 ATPs
- ATP is resynthesized slowly
Steps:
1. Glucose is broken down by glycolysis into pyruvate
2. Since oxygen is present, the pyruvate produced is converted to Acetyl CoA
3. It enters the aerobic system (Krebs Cycle and Electron Transport Chain)
Krebs Cycle:
- Happens in the matrix of the mitochondria
- This process produces around 2 ATPs
This is where Acetyl CoA is converted into:
a. Water
b. Carbon dioxide
c. Hydrogen (used in the ETC)
Electron Transport Chain (ETC):
- Happens in the cristae of the mitochondria
- This process produces around 32-34 ATPs
The hydrogen produced in the Krebs Cycle is:
- Split into hydrogen ions and electrons, these are charged with energy
- The hydrogen ions combine with oxygen to create water
- The electrons provide the energy to resynthesize the ATP
-
In total, the aerobic system creates 36-38 ATPs (2 from Krebs and 32-34 from ETC)
The aerobic energy system can not only break down glucose, but it can also break down fats
and proteins
Fats (Beta Oxidation)
Steps:
1. Fat is broken down into glycerol and free fatty acids
2. The free fatty acids go through a process called beta-oxidation, this is when the fatty
acids are broken down in the mitochondria to create Acetyl CoA
3. The Acetyl CoA enters the Krebs Cycle (follows the same path as glucose)
- More ATP can be created from fatty acids than from glucose
- Meaning that in long-duration exercise fatty acids are used more
Advantages
- it can last for a few hours
Example Sport: Marathon
Disadvantages
- relies on oxygen consumption
3.3.10 - Discuss the characteristics of the three energy systems and their relative
contributions during exercise
(Limit to: fuel sources, duration, intensity, amount of ATP production and by-products)
ATP-PC
Lactic Acid
Aerobic System
Fuel Source
Creatine phosphate
Glucose
Glucose, fats, and proteins
Duration
10-15 seconds
1-2 minutes
Up to 2 hours
Intensity
Maximal
Maximal
Sub-maximal
ATPs
1 ATP
2 ATPs
36-38 ATPs
By-Product
Phosphate and creatine
Lactic Acid
(Carbon dioxide and water)
Re-synthesis
Very quickly
Quickly
Slowly
3.3.11 - Evaluate the relative contribution of the three energy systems during different types
of exercise
Relative Contribution of each Energy System (%) :
Sport/Activity
ATP-PC
Lactic Acid
Aerobic System
Baseball
80
15
5
Swimming (400m)
20
40
40
Walking
0
5
95
Golf Swing
95
5
0
Football
90
10
0
Rowing
20
30
30
4.1 - Neuromuscular Function
Assessment Statement
Notes
4.1.1 Label a diagram of a motor unit
Limit to dendrite, cell body, nucleus,
axon, motor end plate, synapse and
muscle
4.1.2 Explain the role of neurotransmitters in
stimulating skeletal muscle contraction
Limit to acetylcholine and
cholinesterase
4.1.3 Explain how skeletal muscle contracts by
the sliding filament theory
Include the terms myofibril,
myofilament, sarcomere, actin and
myosin, H zone, A band, Z line,
tropomyosin, troponin, sarcoplasmic
reticulum, calcium ions, and ATP
4.1.4 Explain how slow and fast-twitch fibre
types differ in structure and function
Limit fibre types to slow-twitch (type
I) and fast-twitch (type IIa and type
IIb). Type IIa and IIb are high in
glycogen content depending on
training status
4.1.1 - Label a diagram of a motor unit
4.1.2 - Explain the role of neurotransmitters in stimulating skeletal muscle contraction
Neurotransmitters - chemicals that are used for communication between a neuron at the
synapse and another cell
Acetylcholine - a chemical that transfers the action potential from the motor unit to the
muscle cells allowing the muscle to contract
⟶ acetylcholine changes the electrical impulse into a chemical stimulus at the motor
endplate
⟶ it increases membrane permeability to sodium ions
↳ this causes calcium to be released into the muscle cell
Cholinesterase - an enzyme that breaks down acetylcholine
- The act of breaking down acetylcholine will depolarize the membrane which will stop
the muscle from contracting
4.1.3 - Explain how skeletal muscle contracts by the sliding filament theory
⟶ a muscle responds to a nervous contraction by shortening. The sliding filament theory
explains how a muscle alters its length:
-
The thick myosin filaments have projections called myosin heads
These attach to specific areas on the actin filaments called active sites
On the active site, there is a protein called tropomyosin. This prevents the myosin
heads binding to the actin
Another protein called troponin can neutralise the effect of tropomyosin BUT only in
the presence of calcium
When a nerve impulse is transmitted it stimulates the release of calcium
This removes the tropomyosin from the active site, which enables the myosin heads
to bind to the actin forming cross-bridges
This stimulates the breakdown of ATP releasing energy
The cross-bridges once formed, swivel towards the middle of the sarcomere pulling
the actin over the myosin and making the muscle shorter
The myosin head swivels and collapses then reforms on another active site further
along the actin (like oars moving through water)
When the nerve stimulation stops the calcium ions are removed and the muscle
returns to its original length
4.1.4 - Explain how slow and fast-twitch fibers differ in structure and function
4.2 - Joint and Movement Type
Assessment Statement
Notes
4.2.1 Outline the types of movement of synovial
joints
Consider flexion, extension,
abduction, adduction, pronation,
supination, elevation, depression,
rotation, circumduction, dorsiflexion,
plantar flexion, eversion and
inversion
4.2.2 Outline the types of muscle contraction
Consider isotonic, isometric,
isokinetic, concentric and eccentric
4.2.3 Explain the concept of reciprocal inhibition
Consider agonist and antagonist
4.2.4 Analyze movements in relation to joint
action and muscle contraction
For example, during the upward
motion of a bicep curl the joint
action is flexion. The bicep contracts
concentrically while the tricep
relaxes eccentrically
4.2.5 Explain delayed onset muscle soreness
(DOMS) in relation to eccentric and
concentric muscle contractions
DOMS results primarily from
eccentric muscle action and is
associated with structural muscle
damage, inflammatory reactions in
the muscle, overstretching and
overtraining. DOMS is
prevented/minimized by reducing
the eccentric component of muscle
actions during early training, starting
training at a low intensity and
gradually increasing the intensity,
and warming up before exercise,
cooling down after exercise.
4.2.1 - Outline the types of movement of synovial joints
Adduction - a movement towards the medial line of the body (bring together)
Abduction - a movement away from the medial line (take away)
Flexion - decrease the angle at a joint
Extension - increase the angle at a joint
Pronation - rotation of the forearm so that the palms face inferiorly (down)
Supination - rotation of the forearm so that the palms face superiorly (up)
Elevation - move a structure superiorly (ex. shrugging)
Depression - move a structure inferiorly
Rotation - turning of a structure around its long axis
Circumduction - a combination of flexion, extension, abduction, and adduction
Eversion - turning the ankle so the plantar surface faces laterally
Inversion - turning the ankle so the plantar faces medially
Plantar Flexion - the movement of the foot towards the plantar surface (standing on toes)
Dorsi Flexion - the movement of the foot towards the shin (walking on the heels)
4.2.2 - Outline the types of muscle contraction
Isotonic - the muscle changes in length as it contracts and causes movement of a body part.
There are two types of isotonic contractions:
-
-
Concentric - the muscle shortens as it contract (the most common type of muscle
contraction)
- ex. bending elbow from straight to fully flexed, causing concentric contraction
of the bicep brachii
Eccentric - the muscle lengthens as its contracts
- ex. when kicking a football the quads contract concentric (to straighten the
knee) and the hamstrings contract eccentrically to the decelerate the kicking
motion
Isometric - when there is no change in the length of the contracting muscle
- ex. carrying an object
Isokinetic - contractions that produce movements at a constant speed (rarely found in day to
day sports)
- ex. to measure you need special kinds of equipment (mostly used when
rehabilitating an injury) like the dynamometer
4.2.3 - Explain the concept of reciprocal inhibition
Agonist - (prime mover) the muscle responsible for the movement
Antagonist - the muscle that needs to actively relax to allow movement to happen. Also
responsible for the muscle returning to its original position
4.2.4 - Analyze movements in relation to joint action and muscle contraction
-
The hip involves extension and hyperextension with the agonist muscles of the
gluteal muscles and hamstrings.
The knee involves extension with the agonist muscle of the quadriceps groups of
muscles.
The ankle is involved in plantar flexion with the agonist muscles gastrocnemius.
4.2.5 - Explain delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) in relation to eccentric and concentric
muscle contractions
Muscle soreness is a common response to an acute bout of hard exercise, particularly
unfamiliar exercises
ex. a session of weightlifting for someone who has not performed resistance training
for a long period of time
-
Soreness is usually felt 24 - 72 hours after the exercise
DOMS results primarily from eccentric muscle action and has a number of causes including:
- Overtraining
- Micro-tears in the muscle tissue
- Muscle spasms
- Overstretching
- Acute inflammation
Muscle soreness may be due to a variety of factors, but one of the most common is the
sub-cellular damage (and the associated inflammation) that becomes apparent 1 or 2 days
after exercise
DOMS is prevented and minimized by reducing the eccentric component of muscle action
and the most effective method of treating DOMS is:
- Light exercise
- Massages
- Ice baths
- Warming up and cooling down
- Start training at low intensity and gradually increasing the intensity
4.3 - Fundamentals of Biomechanics
Assessment Statement
Notes
4.3.1
Define the terms force, speed, velocity,
displacement, acceleration, momentum,
and impulse
Encourage the use of vectors and
scalars
4.3.2
Analyze velocity-time, distance-time and
force-time graphs of sporting actions
4.3.3
Define the term center of mass
4.3.4
Explain that a change in body position
during sporting activities can change the
position of the center of mass
4.3.5
Distinguish between first, second and
third-class levers
4.3.6
Label anatomical representations of
levers
4.3.7
Define Newton’s three laws of motion
4.3.8
Explain how Newton’s three laws of
motion apply to sport activities
4.3.9
State the relationship between angular
momentum, a moment of inertia and
angular velocity
4.3.10
Explain the concept of angular
momentum in relation to sporting
activities
Consider one example of an activity
where the center of mass remains
within the body throughout the
movement and one activity where
the center of mass temporarily lies
outside the body. Students should
understand the changes in body
position and center of the mass
pathway
Limit to the triceps-elbow joint,
calf-ankle joint, and biceps-elbow
joint. Students should be expected
to indicate effort, load, fulcrum and
the muscles and bones involved
For example, consider how Newton's
second and third laws enable an
athlete to accelerate out of starting
blocks. Impulse momentum
relationship. The law of conservation
of momentum should also be
considered
Include consideration of moments of
inertia, major axes of rotation and an
appreciation of the law of
conservation of angular momentum
4.3.11
Explain the factors that affect projectile
motion at take-off or release
Include speed of release, the height
of release and angle of release
4.3.12
Outline the Bernoulli principle with
respect to projectile motion in sporting
activities
The relationship between airflow
velocity and air pressure is an
inverse one and is expressed in
Bernoulli’s principle. The pressure
difference causes the spinning golf
ball to experience a force directed
from the region of high air pressure
to the region of low air pressure. A
golf ball with backspin will
experience higher air pressure on
the bottom of the ball and lower air
pressure on the top of the ball,
causing a lift force (from high
pressure to low air pressure).
Consider how airflow affects the golf
ball and one other example. When
an object is moving through the air it
is important to consider the relative
airflow on different sides of the
object. The airflow difference
between opposite sides (eg. bottom
and top of a spinning golf ball) of the
object moving through the air causes
a pressure difference between the
two sides. The lift force is
perpendicular to the direction of the
airflow.
4.3.1 - Define the terms force, speed, velocity, displacement, acceleration, momentum, and
impulse
Scalar - a measurement that only has size (ex. 5m)
Vector - a measurement that has both size and direction (ex. 5m west)
Force - the mechanical interaction that goes on between 2 objects
Speed - the rate at which someone or something is able to move or operate
Velocity - the speed of something in a given direction
Displacement - how far an object has moved horizontally, vertically or laterally
Acceleration - the increase in rate of speed
Momentum - the measure of the amount of motion possessed by a moving body
Impulse - force x time
Term
Equation
Unit
Force
mass x acceleration
N
Speed
distance/time
m/s
displacement change/time
m/s
Acceleration
change in velocity/time
m/s²
Momentum
mass of object x velocity
kgm/s
force x time
N/s
Velocity
Impulse
4.3.2 - Analyze velocity-time, distance-time and force-time graphs of sporting actions
Velocity-Time Graph:
Distance-Time Graph:
Force - time graph (impulse):
Start of a Race:
Middle of a Race:
End of the Race:
4.3.4 - Explain that a change in body position during sporting activities can change the position of
the center of mass
Center of mass - the mathematical point around which the mass of a body or object is evenly
distributed
- Depends on the distribution of the material in a body or object
- Men tend to have a higher center of mass, due to broad shoulders
- Women tend to have a lower center of mass, due to wider hips
- It is not always inside the body, it can be outside of the body depending on the position
Fosbury Flop:
- the center of mass in this jump is externally placed
- the arch in the back allows the mass to be shifted to the outside of the body, and there is a
greater opportunity for clearance
- the greater the arch of the back the lower the center of mass is
4.3.5 - Distinguish between first, second and third-class levers
4.3.6 - Label the anatomical representation of levers
Lever - bone
Fulcrum - the joint
Load - the force applied to the muscle (body weight or dumbbell)
Effort - the muscle that moves the force
First Class
-
Second Class
Most common lever is third class lever
Third Class
4.3.7 - Define Newton’s three laws of motion
4.3.8 - Explain how Newton’s three laws of motion apply to sport activities
Law of Inertia
An object will remain at rest or constant velocity unless acted
upon by an external force
Law of Acceleration
The relationship between an object’s mass (m) and its
acceleration (a) and the applied force
F = ma
Law of Action and Reaction For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction
4.3.9 - State the relationship between angular momentum, moment of inertia and angular
velocity
Angular Momentum - the amount of rotation of a body (remains constant)
Angular Momentum = Angular Velocity x Moment of Inertia
Moment of Inertia - the force needed for an object to rotate
↳ It depends on the mass and shape of the object
Angular Velocity - a measure of how fast an object is rotating
-
Opened arms means there is a high moment of inertia, making the angular velocity
decrease and causing the figure skater to slow down
Arms near the centre line of the body means there is a low moment of inertia,
making the angular velocity increase and causing the figure skater to speed up
There is an inverse relationship between the moment of inertia and angular velocity
4.3.10 - Explain the concept of angular momentum in relation to sporting activities
-
After take off the gymnast moves into a tucked position, decreasing the moment of
inertia
Moving from a stretched position to a tucked position, increases angular velocity, as
the body rotates faster
As she comes out from the tucked position, she extends her body for the landing, the
moment of inertia increases, and the angular velocity slows down
4.3.11 - Explain the factors that affect projectile motion at take-off or release
Height of Release
If it is high:
- More distance covered
- More time spent in the air
Angle of Release
Ideal angle is 45°
Speed of Release
Directly related to the distance
4.3.12 - Outline the Bernoulli principle with respect to projectile motion in sporting activities
-
-
Bernouill’s principle explains that air blown over an object will reduce the air
pressure over the top of the golf ball, allowing it to spin more quickly and continue
flying
The top spin of the golf ball rotates the ball increasing the flight
The dimples of the ball allow the ball to move quicker as there is greater interaction
with the air as it catches on each dimple
5.1 - Characteristics and Classification of Skill
Assessment Statement
Notes
5.1.1
Define the term skill.
Skill is the consistent production of
goal-oriented movements, which are
learned and specific to the task
(McMorris 2004).
5.1.2
Describe the different types of skill
Limit to cognitive, perceptual, motor and
perceptual motor skills.
5.1.3
Outline the different approaches to
classifying motor skills
Limit to (i) gross–fine (ii) open–closed (iii)
discrete–serial–continuous (iv)
external–internal paced skills (v)
interaction continuum (individual–
coactive–interactive).
5.1.4
Compare skill profiles for contrasting Using the continua in 5.1.3, compare
sports
contrasting sports.
5.1.5
Outline ability.
Ability refers to a general trait or capacity
of the individual that is related to the
performance and performance potential
of a variety of skills or tasks.
5.1.6
Distinguish between
Fleishman’s physical proficiency
abilities (physical factors)
and perceptual motor abilities
(psychomotor factors).
Fleishman (1972) distinguishes between
physical proficiency and perceptual motor
ability. Recall of the individual abilities is
not required.
5.1.7
Define the term technique.
Technique in general terms is a “way of
doing”. In the performance of a specific
sports skill it is defined as the “way in
which that sports skill is performed”.
5.1.8
State the relationship between
ability, skill, and technique.
Skill = ability + selection of an appropriate
technique.
5.1.9
Discuss the differences between a
skilled and a novice performer.
Limit to consistency, accuracy, control,
learned, efficiency, goal-directed and
fluency.
5.1.1 - Give a definition of skill
Skill - the consistent production of goal-oriented movements, which are learned and specific
to the task
5.1.2 - Describe the different types of skill
Cognitive Skills - the ability to solve problems by thinking
Perceptual Skills - the process by which you sense things and interpret them
Motor Skills - the physical execution of a skill (the voluntary muscle movement)
Perceptual-motor Skills - involve the thought, interpretation and movement skills
5.1.3 and 5.1.4 - Compare skill profiles for contrasting sports
Skill
Gross - Fine
Open - Closed
Discrete - Serial Continuous
Definition
Example
large movements using large
muscles or involving whole muscle
groups
kicking a football
rugby tackle
small and intricate movements using
small muscles often at the
extremities
hand movement in a cricket
bowl
skill performed in an unstable
environment, where the
environment stimuli determine the
initiation of the movement
netball, football, hockey
performed in a stationary
environment. Highly controlled by
the individual, who dictates the
initiation
free throw in basketball
indoors by yourself
brief and defined actions that have a
definitive start and end to their
movement. Single, specific actions
penalty kick in football
a sequence of discrete skills joined
together to create a greater
movement
triple jump
has no obvious beginning or end,
actions are repeated in a cyclical
form
swimming, cycling
Externally paced Internally paced
Individual Coactive Interactive
the environment (including
opponents) control the pace at
which the skill is executed, these
factors will affect the performance
and must be taken into account by
the performer.
in ball games, the performer
must time his actions with
the actions of other players
and the ball
performer dictates the rate of speed
that the skills are performed, often
comprise of closed skills
javelin throw, discus
skills performed in isolation
high jump
skills that may be performed in
unison with other competitors, but
do not involve direct confrontation
or contact
100 m swimming sprint
skills performed where others are
directly involved (game sports)
rugby or football
5.1.5 - Outline ability
Ability - the capacity for an individual to perform a specific skill
5.1.6 - Distinguish between Fleishman’s physical proficiency abilities and perceptual-motor
abilities
Fleishman’s Physical Proficiency Abilities:
Fleishman’s Perceptual Motor Abilities:
- extent flexibility
- dynamic flexibility
- explosive strength
- static strength
- dynamic strength
- trunk strength
- gross body coordination
- gross body equilibrium
- stamina
- reaction time
- response orientation
- speed of movement
- finger dexterity
- manual dexterity
- response integration
Physical Proficiency Abilities - relate to the physical or structural aspects of the body, they
are more health-related
Perceptual Motor Abilities - physical attributes that combine the senses, they are more
skilled related
5.1.7 - Define the term technique
Technique - a “way of doing” - the way in which a sport skill is performed
5.1.8 - State the relationship between ability, skill and technique
skill = ability + selection of an appropriate technique
5.1.9 - Discuss the relationship between a skilled and novice performer
Ability
Skilled Performer
Novice Performer
Consistency
would be very consistent as they
are an expert (autonomous) in
their sport
would have many errors and not
yet be consistent as they are still in
the learning (cognitive or
associative) stage
Accuracy
more likely to be accurate, for the less accurate in their performance
same reasons as above
as they are less consistent and
skilled
Control
will have more control in their
movements as they have stored
muscle memory from completing
the action so many times
will have less control, comes with
lack of consistency and accuracy,
as they have not had great time for
practice
Learned
they will be knowledgeable on
their sport and technique
may need assistance in
understanding the correct
technique
Efficiency
will be able to achieve the
desired goal much quicker than a
novice player
will take a long time to reach the
desired goal
Goal-directed
will know exactly what they want
to produce and what steps are
needed to get there
may know what they want to
achieve but not the steps to get
there
Fluency
difficult skills will look effortless
and smooth
will look erratic and uncontrolled
5.2 - Information Processing
Assessment Statement
Notes
5.2.1
Describe a simple model of
information processing.
Information processing is the system by
which we take information from our
surrounding environment, use it to make
a decision and then produce a response:
input–decision-making– output. All the
approaches are only models. Input and
output are assessable/observable, but
the decision-making process can only be
speculation
5.2.2
Describe Welford’s model of
information processing.
Welford’s model (1968) includes: (i) sense
organs (ii) perception (iii) short-term
memory (iv) longterm memory (v)
decision making (vi) effector control (vii)
feedback
5.2.3
Outline the components associated
with sensory input
Consider exteroceptors, proprioceptors
and interoceptors
5.2.4
Explain the signal-detection process
Often referred to as the
detection–comparison– recognition
process (DCR). Limit to background noise,
intensity of the stimulus, efficiency of the
sense organs, early signal detection and
improving signal detection.
5.2.5
Distinguish between the
Limit to capacity, duration and retrieval.
characteristics of short-term sensory
store, short-term memory and
long-term memory
5.2.6
Discuss the relationship between
selective attention and memory
Selective attention (SA) operates in the
short-term sensory store (STSS). Only the
relevant information is passed to the
short-term memory (STM) where it is
held for several seconds. SA ensures that
information overload does not occur and
prevents confusion as the brain would
not be able to cope with streams of
information. A filtering mechanism
operates, which separates the relevant
information from the irrelevant (noise)
information so that athletes concentrate
on one cue or stimulus (for example, the
ball, position of player in a game of
tennis) to the exclusion of others. SA is
very important when accuracy or fast
responses are required and can be
improved by learning through past
experience and interaction with
long-term memory.
5.2.7
Compare different methods of
memory improvement
Limit to rehearsal, coding, brevity, clarity,
chunking, organization, association and
practice.
5.2.8
Define the term response time
Response time = reaction time +
movement time. Aim 7: Use of online
methods of measuring response time.
5.2.9
Outline factors that determine
response time
Response time is an ability, having
individual and group variance (for
example, gender and age). Reaction time
includes stimulus transmission, detection,
recognition, decision to respond, nerve
transmission time and initiation of action.
Include consideration of Hick’s Law.
5.2.10
Evaluate the concept of the
psychological refractory period
Include the single channel mechanism
and how PRP helps to explain deception
in sport.
5.2.11
Describe a motor programme
Defined as a set of movements stored as
a whole in the memory regardless of
whether feedback is used in their
execution.
Limit to: (i) a whole plan (executive
programme/motor programme) and
subroutines (ii) coordination of
subroutines (iii) relegating executive
programmes to subroutines.
5.2.12
Compare motor programmes from
both open and closed-loop
perspectives
Include Adams’ concepts of memory
trace and perceptual trace.
5.2.13
Outline the role of feedback in
information processing models
Limit to: (i) intrinsic, extrinsic (ii)
knowledge of results, knowledge of
performance (iii) positive, negative (iv)
concurrent, terminal
5.2.14
Outline the role of feedback with
the learning process
Limit to reinforcement of learning,
motivation, adaptation of performance
and punishment.
5.2.1 - Describe a simple model of information processing
Information processing - the system by which we take information from our surrounding
environment, use it to make a decision and then produce a response
input – decision-making – output – feedback
In response to input stimuli, the performer perceives the stimulus, and recounts by
executing an appropriate output, after their brain goes through the decision making process.
Feedback is then often given, so that the response can be altered to be made better if
necessary.
Example - Penalty kick in football:
Input: the goalie observes the angle of the kicker
Decision Making: the goalie makes a decision on where to dive
Output: the goalie follows with a diving movement
Feedback: the brain receives feedback on the movement, which is apple for the next shot
5.2.2 - Describe Welford’s model of information processing
Welford's model suggests that we:
- take in information through our senses and temporarily store all of these inputs prior
to sorting them out
- the inputs that are seen as relevant to the decision, are then stored in the short-term
memory
- a decision is made by comparing the information in the short-term memory with
previous experiences stored in the long-term memory
- with reference to the long term memory for the required action the decision is
carried out
- the action and the results are stored for future reference
- the whole process then begins again
5.2.3 - Outline the components associated with sensory input
The sensory input is gathered by three forms of receptors in the sensory system:
Exteroceptors - they provide information about the external environment
↳touch, pressure, temperature, light, sound, taste, smell
Proprioceptors - provide information about the position and posture of our body in space
↳ they detect movement
Interoceptors - pass information from within the body’s internal organs such as the heart
and lungs to the brain via the nervous system
5.2.4 - Explain the signal-detection process
- it is the process by which the brain interprets and makes sense of the information it is
receiving from the sensory organs
- likelihood of detection is influenced by sensitivity of sense organs (ex eyes)
- likelihood of detection is influenced by experience with familiar signals
- selective attention can be improved through learning from past experience
detection – comparison – recognition (DCR)
Detection: identification of the stimulus
Comparison: gather stimuli and compare to memory stores
Recognition: the stimuli is matched to one stored in the memory
5.2.5 - Distinguish between the characteristics of short-term sensory store, short-term
memory and long-term memory (limit to capacity, duration and retrieval)
Short-term Sensory Store:
- Information enters the sensory system and is held there for a short period of time
- Separate sections for each sense
- Large capacity but for less than a second
- Filters out irrelevant information so that the system doesn’t overload
- It cannot retrieve previous information
Short-term Memory:
- Holds information for several seconds, it can hold 5-9 items
- Low capacity and short duration
- Deals with present information
Long-term Memory:
- Stores information from past experiences
- Unlimited capacity - not everything can be retrieved
- Information can be stored for a very long time
5.2.6 - Discuss the relationship between selective attention and memory and explain how it
can be applied to a games player
Selective attention - a type of memory where you can only focus on one thing or on two
things that require different areas of the brain
- Memory and selective attention play a role in the competitive play of sport, where
performers must recall and retrieve information from the long-term store of their
memory, but utilize the skill of selective attention in order to only recall the
memories vital for the skill being performed
- Attention filters incoming information, allowing only relevant information into
short-term processing stores
- Selective attention is very important when accuracy or fast responses are required
- It can be improved by learning through past experience and interaction with
long-term memory
Sporting Example:
In a football game when passing the ball, you may remember all of the training you have
done on the skill and other variations of the move, but with the aid of selective attention,
you recall and only think about where you have to go, in the position you are in and the
situation you are in.
5.2.7 - Compare different methods of memory improvement
Rehearsal - repeating a certain skill over and over until it is memorized
Coding - associating information with images so it can be recalled with those associations
Clarity - learning information that is clear and simple will make it easies to remember
Chunking - breaking up information so it is easily remembered
Organization - if information is clear and in a logical format it is easier to recall
Brevity - information should be kept brief so that it can processed easily
5.2.8 - Define the term response time
response time = reaction time + movement
Reaction Time - from the initiation of the stimulus to the initiation of a movement
Movement - from the initiation of the movement to the end of the movement
- Takes part in your brain and nervous system
5.2.9 - Outline factors that determine response time
- Sex and age
- Level of fitness
- Fatigue/tiredness
- Personality type
- Number of stimuli
- Intensity of stimuli
- Length of neural pathways (if you are tall it takes longer)
Hicks Law - the more choices you have the longer it will take to decide
5.2.10 - Evaluate the concept of the psychological refractory period (PRP)
-
The task related to the first stimulus must be fully carried out before the second
response can be made. The overlap is called the psychological refractory period
The PRP is the increase in RT to a second stimulus caused when the second stimulus
has been delivered while the performer is responding to the first stimulus
Player has to sort out new and correct stimulus, but first they have to disregard the
old and now useless stimulus and this causes the delay
Brain processes one action at a time causing a time delay in responding to the
second stimulus
Single Channel Hypothesis - you can only deal with one stimulus at the time, so the first
stimulus needs to be attended before you respond to the second stimulus
Strengths
Weaknesses
- can be used to help a performer have
greater chances of success
- provides a performer with a greater range
of options in their play
- external noise eg other players calling, or
crowd noise can enhance the effectiveness
of the PRP (Hick’s law)
- if a performer uses it too often, they will
become predictable and this limits success
- anxiety might make the performer get the
timing wrong and thus the PRP is not
effective
5.2.11 - Describe a motor programme
Motor programme - a set of movements stored as a whole in the memory regardless of
whether feedback is available or not
- They contain sub sections, which breakdown the actions required in a sport
Whole Plan (executive programme/motor programme) and subroutines:
In order to successfully perform a motor skill, the performer is required to have a whole plan
that specifies the timing and sequence of the movement. This motor programme can be
broken down into smaller actions that are called subroutines.
Coordination of subroutines:
In order for a motor programme to be completed successfully, all subroutines must be
coordinated, both temporally and spatially. This is why skills are initially taught in a closed
environment as performers are less exposed to unpredictable situations.
Releagating executive programmes to subroutines:
A learned skill may initially form a new motor programme, but over time, this skill may be
relegated to a subroutine, i.e. learning to drive a car, but then becoming a race car driver,
you do not have to focus on the skill of actually driving a car.
5.2.12 - Compare motor programmes from both open and closed loop perspectives
Open Loop Perspective:
- Decisions are made in the brain
- Information for one movement is sent in a single message
- The muscles receive the message, where they then perform the movement.
- Feedback may or may not be available but it doesn't control the action
Sporting Example:
- Fast movements such as a tennis serve, golf swing - you can’t use the feedback to
make changes when you are doing the action
Closed Loop Perspective:
- Decisions are made in the brain
- Information is sent to at different times
- Information is received by the muscles to initiate the movement
- Feedback is always available and is necessary for correction of movement patterns
and to adjust to changing needs.
- When the performer detects an error, they use the perceptual trace, which is an
immediate detection of the movement stored in the short term memory, and
compare it to their memory trace
Sporting Example:
- Cycling/running - you can use your feedback to make changes and improve your
action
Memory Trace - selects and initiates an appropriate response
Perceptual Trace - acts as a record of the movement made over many practices.
5.2.13 - Outline the role of feedback in information processing model
-
Intrinsic (self given)
Extrinsic (given by others eg. coach)
Knowledge of results (was there a goal or was it a miss)
Knowledge of performance (correct technique, improper technique)
Positive feedback (encouragement)
Negative feedback (unconstructive)
Concurrent feedback (during the task itself)
Terminal feedback (after task completion)
5.2.14 - Outline the role of feedback with the learning process
- Reinforcement of learning
- Motivation
- Adaptation of performance
- Punishment
5.3 - Principle of Skill Learning
Assessment Statement
Notes
5.3.1
Distinguish between learning and
performance
Learning is a relatively permanent
change in performance brought about
by experience, excluding changes due
to maturation and degeneration.
Performance is a temporary
occurrence, fluctuating over time. A
change in performance over time is
often used to infer learning.
5.3.2
Describe the phases (stages) of learning
Cognitive/verbal (early phase),
associative/motor (intermediate), and
autonomous (final phase).
5.3.3
Outline the different types of learning
curves.
Limit to: (i) positive acceleration (ii)
negative acceleration (iii) linear (iv)
plateau.
5.3.4
Discuss factors that contribute to the
different rates of learning
individual differences of coaches, age,
the difficulty of task, teaching
environment, and motivation.
5.3.5
Define the concept of transfer
5.3.6
Outline the types of transfer
Limit to positive and negative, as they
apply to:
• skill to skill
• practice to performance
• abilities to skills
• bilateral
• stage to stage
• principles to skills.
Refer to an example in each case.
5.3.7
Outline the different types of practice
Limit to distributed, massed, fixed
(drill), variable and mental
5.3.8
Explain the different types of
presentation
Limit to the whole, whole–part-whole,
progressive part, part. Refer to an
example in each case.
5.3.9
Outline the spectrum of teaching styles
Limit to command, reciprocal, and
problem-solving.
5.3.1 - Distinguish between learning and performance
Performance - temporary occurrence fluctuates over time
ex - beginners can produce one good shot but not w/ consistency
Learning - a relatively permanent change in performance that results from practice or past
experience
ex - gaining consistency
- a change in performance over time is often used to infer learning
5.3.2 - Describe the phases (stages) of learning
Cognitive stage
- Individual tries to make sense of instructions given
- Using perception and decision making
- Mistake are often made
- Attending to irrelevant and relevant information
- Give motivational feedback (intrinsic motivation)
Associative stage
- With practice, the individual knows what to do
- Develops consistency
- Errors decrease
- Aware of plays and the game
- Demonstrates learning
- Constructive feedback (pos and neg)
Autonomous stage
- Individual can perform consistently
- With little cognitive activity
- Can give more harsh feedback
5.3.3 - Outline the different types of learning curves
Learning curve - a way to evaluate the skill being learned in relation to performance
Learning Curve
Description
positive
acceleration
- skill difficult to learn at first
- slow progress, quick improvement
negative
acceleration
- quick learning at first
- learning slows down
linear
- easy to perform skill
- rare
plateau
- learning is positive
- a period with no improvement
- lack of motivation/ fatigue/
injury
- keep practicing
- more learning is demonstrated
Diagram
5.3.4 - Discuss factors that contribute to the different rates of learning
Physical demands - not being fit enough
Motivation - the learner wants to learn
Physical maturation - the learner knows when they are ready to gain a skill
Age - how capable the learner is at absorbing information
Difficulty of task - if too difficult can weaken motivation and vice versa
Teaching - different coaches have different ways of teaching, which may not apply to every
player
Environment - a distracting or pressured environment can be difficult for the learner to
retain information
5.3.5 - Define the concept of transfer
Transfer - when the skill can be applied to another sport
5.3.6 - Outline the types of transfer
Type of Transfer
Definition
Positive
when the practice of one task has a good effect on the learning or
performance of another
Negative
when a practice of one task has a bad effect on the leaning or
performance of another
Zero
represents no effect
Skill to skill
from one skill to the next
ex. throwing a ball to throwing the javelin
Practice to
performance
training to in-game situation
ex. batting in cricket or baseball against bowling/ pitching
machine
Ability to skill
how natural abilities inform acquisition of skill
ex. ability to jump and having the skill to jump higher than the
athlete would have the advantage in high jumping
Bilateral
when you can transfer the skills from one side to another
ex. a soccer player learning to kick with their weaker foot
Stage to stage
From the cognitive, to the associative to the autonomous stage
ex. from three-on-three basketball to full game
Principles to skills
from theories to actual performance
ex. from sitting in a classroom of a play and then going out and
practicing it out on the field
5.3.7 - Outline the different types of practice
Fixed Practice
- Movement is repeated over and over
- Better for closed and discrete skills
- Skills are performed the same way (no change in environment)
ex. basketball free throw
Massed Practice - little to no gaps in practice; lots of reps, no rest intervals
- Better for older more experienced players
- Suitable for simple skills
- Practices designed to simulate fatigued sortation late in games
ex. a field hockey team practices shooting techniques non-stop for 40 min
Distributed Practice - when practice is interspaced with rest or different activity
- Good for beginners and limited preparation
- Rest intervals to mentally rehearse sills
- Complex and new/dangerous skills
ex. weight training
Variable Practice
- Allows repetition of skill but from different positions and situations
- Good for open skills (simulates real game situation)
- Helps to build up schema to draw upon in a game situation
ex: throwing a ball towards the different target at different distances ot angles
Mental Practice
- When performers think about specific components of the movement without
actually performing
ex: a dancer who thinks about complex footwork sequence
5.3.8 - Explain the different types of presentation
Whole Method - the action is demonstrated and then practiced as a whole by the pupils
Advantages
- learner appreciated end product
- learner gets a feel for timing
- learner understands relationship between
subroutines
Disadvantages
- not suitable for complex skills
- high attention demand, difficult for
beginners
- not good for dangerous skills
ex. a golf swing
Whole-Part-Method - the whole action is demonstrated and practiced in parts
- the individual elements are identified and improved before returning skill to whole
- pupil trues the whole action, weak elements are indemnified and the practiced in
isolation
- If a skill is very complex, ‘mini skills’ can be taught (ex. mini tennis instead of full
tennis game)
Advantages
- performer gets a feel for whole skill then
practices elements of it
- success is continual if weak elements are
practiced
- practices can be focused very carefully
Disadvantages
- transfer from part to whole may be
difficult
ex. front crawl → weak elements are identified → using a float to practice leg kick
Part Method - the subroutines of the skill are demonstrated and practiced in isolation
- this method is useful if skills are complex or dangerous
Advantages
- useful for complex skills where performed
cna cope only with small parts of skill
- teacher can focus on specific elements
- motivation is maintained through
continued success
ex. tennis coach teaching a tennis serve
Disadvantages
- transfer from part to whole may not be
effective
- not useful for highly organized skills
- reduces kinaesthetic awareness
- lack of continuity
Progressive Part Method - skill is broken into subroutines, which are then practiced in
isolation and well learnt
- part one is well learned, so is part then, then the two are joined together
- part three is learnt in isolation and then added
Advantages
- weaknesses are targeted then practiced
and improved
Performer understands the relationships of
subroutines
Disadvantages
- takes time to get to full skill
ex. breaking down gymnastic sequences or triple jump
5.3.9 - Outline the spectrum of teaching styles
Command (traditional)
- Teacher makes all decision
- Teacher-directed instructions
- Massed practice (good for beginners)
- Class is set up in an orderly manner
ex: dance, aerobics, drills
Reciprocal
- Class is organized in pairs or threes
- Feedback is given if necessary
- Allows the athlete to take some responsibility in the lesson
- The observer makes decisions rather than the teacher
ex: students teach other students
Problem-solving
- Program developed by learner based on physical and cognitive abilities
- Highly individualized
- Learner designs questions and the solutions
- Teacher observes and guides
ex: making a dance routine
6.1 - Statistical Analysis
Assessment Statement
Notes
6.1.1
State that error bars are a graphical
representation of the variability of data.
Only standard deviation needs to be
considered
6.1.2
Calculate the mean and the standard
deviation (s) of a set of values.
Students should specify the sample
standard deviation, not the population
SD. Students will not be expected to
know the formulas for calculating
these statistics. They will be expected
to use the statistics function of a
graphic display or scientific calculator.
Aim 7: Students could also be taught
how to calculate standard deviation
using a spread-sheet computer
program.
6.1.3
State that the statistic standard
deviation is used to summarize the
spread of values around the mean, and
that within a normal distribution
approximately 68% and 95% of the
values fall within plus or minus one or
two standard deviations respectively.
For normally distributed data, about
68% of all values lie within ±1 standard
deviation of the mean. This rises to
about 95% for ±2 standard deviations.
6.1.4
Explain how the standard deviation is
useful for comparing the means and
the spread of data between two or
more samples
A small standard deviation indicates
that the data is clustered closely
around the mean value. Conversely, a
large standard deviation indicates a
wider spread around the mean.
6.1.5
Outline the meaning of the coefficient
of variation
The coefficient of variation is the ratio
of the standard deviation to the mean
expressed as a percentage.
6.1.6
Deduce the significance of the
difference between two sets of data
using calculated values for t and the
appropriate tables
For the t-test to be applied, ideally the
data should have a normal distribution
and a sample size of at least 10. The
t-test can be used to compare two sets
of data and measure the amount of
overlap. Students will not be expected
to calculate values of t. Only
two-tailed, paired, and unpaired t-tests
are expected.
Aim 7: While students are not
expected to calculate a value for the
t-test, students could be shown how to
calculate such values using a
spreadsheet program or the graphic
display calculator.
6.1.7
Explain that the existence of a
correlation does not establish that there
is a causal relationship between the two
variables
Aim 7: While calculations of such
values are not expected, students who
want to use r and r2 values in their
practical work could be shown how to
determine such values using a spreadsheet program.
6.1.1 - State that error bars are a graphical representation of the variability of data.
-
Error bars represent the overall distribution of the data
The error bars shown in a line graph represent a description on how confident you
are that the mean represents the true value
The more the original data values range above and below the mean, the wider the
error abrs and the less confident you are in a particular value
‘Short’ Error Bar - shows that values are
concentrated, signalling that the plotted
average value is more likely
‘Long’ Error Bar - indicates that the values
are more spread out and less reliable.
6.1.2 - Calculate the mean and the standard deviation (s) of a set of values.
Mean - add all the values together and divide by the number of values
STDEV - calculate on excel
6.1.3 - State that the statistic standard deviation is used to summarize the spread of values
around the mean, and that within a normal distribution approximately 68% and 95% of the
values fall within plus or minus one or two standard deviations respectively.
Standard Deviation - used to summarize the spread of value around the mean
-
68% of the population is within 1 standard deviation of the mean
95% of the population is within 2 standard deviation of the mean
99.7% of the population is within 3 standard deviation of the mean
6.1.4 - Explain how the standard deviation is useful for comparing the means and the spread
of data between two or more samples
Small Standard Deviation - indicates that the data points tend to be very close to the same
value (the mean),
Large Standard Deviation - indicates that the data are “spread out” over a large range of
values
6.1.5 - Outline the meaning of the coefficient of variation
Coefficient of Variation - the standard deviation expressed as a percentage
6.1.6 - Deduce the significance of the difference between two sets of data using calculated
values for t and the appropriate tables
T-test - a t-test is a statistical test that is used to compare the means of two groups and
measure the amount of overlap between the two groups
- there needs to be a sample size of at least 10
Paired T-test - a paired t-test is used when we are interested in the difference between two
variables for the same subject
ex. measuring glucose concentration in diabetic patients before and after insulin
injection
Unpaired T-test - an unpaired t-test is a statistical procedure that compares the means of
two independent or unrelated groups to determine if there is a significant difference a
ex. measuring glucose concentration in diabetic patients vs non-diabetics)
Two Tailed T-test - a test that assumes that the difference between the means could favour
either group
6.1.7 - Explain that the existence of a correlation does not establish that there is a causal
relationship between the two variables
-
Correlation does not imply causation
It should be noted that just because you can mathematically determine how related
two variables are one cannot use correlation to validate a cause and effect
relationship between the two variables
6.2 - Study Design
Assessment Statement
6.2.1
Outline the importance of specificity,
accuracy, reliability, and validity with
regard to fitness testing
6.2.2
Discuss the importance of study design
in the context of sport and exercise
sciences
6.2.3
Outline the importance of the PAR-Q
6.2.4
Evaluate field, laboratory, sub-maximal,
and maximal tests of human
performance
Notes
This should include a demonstration of
causality in experimental results by the
inclusion of control groups,
randomization,
placebos, blinding and double-blinding,
statistical analysis.
6.2.1 - Outline the importance of specificity, accuracy, reliability, and validity with regard to
fitness testing
Specificity - a measure of how a test is assessing an individual's fitness for the activity or
sport in question.
ex. there is no point in using a running endurance test to assess an athletes
improvement in cycling endurance
Accuracy - how close measurement is to the ‘gold standard’ or what you are intending to
measure
Reliability - a measure of the internal consistency and stability of a measuring device
- Results can be reliable without being correct
Inter-Researcher Reliability - whether different researchers in the same situation
would get similar results
Test-Retest Reliability - doing the same test on different occasions with same or
similar results
Validity - how accurately a method measures what it is intended to measure
-
Fitness tests must measure the component of fitness that they are supposed to
ex. is your sit and reach test measuring solely the flexibility of the hamstrings or are
there other factors involved?
Reasons for Fitness Testing:
- Identify strengths and weaknesses of an athlete
- To evaluate the effectiveness of a training program
- To measure fitness levels following injury or offseason
- To assist in setting goals
6.2.2 - Discuss the importance of study design in the context of sport and exercise sciences
Study Design - a framework, or the set of methods and procedures used to collect and
analyze data on variables specified in a particular research problem
Types of Research
Definition
Quantitative Research
Formal, objective, and systematic process using numerical data
Qualitative Research
Subjective data involving words, focuses on feelings, opinions and
emotions concerned with explaining the why rather than what or how
many
Naturalistic Observation
Observing participants in their nature setting (in many cases participants
are not aware that they are being studied
Comparative Research
Researchers compare two or more variables
Cross-Sectional Research
Researches simultaneously study a number of subjects from different age
groups and then compare the results
Longitudinal Research
Researchers study the same group of individuals for many years
Experimental Research - the only way to prove a cause and effect relationship between two
variables
Hypothesis - a testable prediction of the outcome of the experiment or research
Operational Definition - a specification of the exact procedure used to make a variable
specific and measurable for research purposes
Independent Variable - the variable manipulated by the experiment
Dependent Variable - the variable being measured
Experimental group - subjects in an experiment who are exposed to the treatment
Control Group - subjects in an experiment that are not exposed to the independent variable
Confounding Variable - variables other than the independent variables which could
inadvertently influence the dependent variable
Researcher Bias - the tendency to notice evidence which supports one particular point of
view or hypothesis
Participant Bias - the tendency to research subjects to respond in certain ways because they
know they are being observed
ex. the subjects may try to behave in ways they believe the researcher wants them to
behave
Ways to Control Biases
Explanation
Random Assignment
- assigning participants to the control and experimental
groups by chance
- each participant should have an equal chance of being
assigned to either group
Blind Procedure
an experimental procedure where the research participants
are ignorant (blind) to the expected outcome of the
experiment
Double-Blind Procedure
an experimental procedure where both the research
participants and those collecting the data are ignorant (blind)
to the expected outcome of the experiment
Placebos
a non-active substance or condition administered instead of a
drug or active agent (given to the control group)
6.2.3 - Outline the importance of the PAR-Q
PAR-Q (Physical Activity Readiness Questionnaire) - assesses the readiness for an individual
to partake in a general training program
6.2.4 - Evaluate field, laboratory, sub-maximal, and maximal tests of human performance
Field Tests - tests in the actual context/environment
ex. sprint test from home to first base in baseball
Advantages
- specific to the sport
- conducted in the sporting environment
- cheaper
- increased ecological validity
- easier to repeat
Disadvantages
- environment can alter test results
- much planning in testing administration
- relies on estimation of data
- low internal validity
Laboratory Tests - test in a lab
ex. measuring vo2 max while running on a treadmill at a lab
Advantages
- controlled environment
- sport specific equipment
- stimulate sport’s demands
- uses specific equipment
Disadvantages
- not always accessible
- limited value assessing team sports
- not conducted in the sport environment
- expensive
- need expertise
Sub-maximal Tests - athlete works below maximum effort and data is extrapolated to
estimate maximum capacity
ex. Harvard step test
Advantages
- prevents injury over exertion
- easy and safe to conduct
- time and cost efficient
Disadvantages
- depends on extrapolation
- small measurement inaccuracies can
result in large discrepancies
Maximal Tests - athlete works at maximum effort or to exhaustion
ex. beep test
Advantages
- measurements can be more accurate
- simple to set up and conduct
- more than one athlete can be tested at
once
- can be done indoors and outdoors
Disadvantages
- risk of injury and over exertion
- difficult to ensure the athlete is working to
max
- effort depends on athlete’s motivation
6.3 - Components of Fitness
Assessment Statement
Notes
6.3.1
Distinguish between the concepts of
health-related fitness and
performance-related (skill related)
fitness
Health-related fitness includes body
composition, cardio-respiratory fitness
(aerobic capacity), flexibility, muscular
endurance, strength.
Performance-related (skill-related)
fitness includes agility, balance,
coordination, power, reaction time and
speed. Some components of
performance-related fitness (agility,
balance, coordination) could become
health-related for certain groups such
as the elderly and those suffering from
hypokinetic diseases
6.3.2
Outline the major components
of fitness identified in 6.3.1
6.3.3
Outline and evaluate a variety of
fitness tests
Consider validity, reliability and
limitations of
the following tests:
• Aerobic capacity—multistage fitness
test/bleep test (Leger Test), Cooper’s
12 Minute Run, Harvard Step Test
• Flexibility—sit and reach
• Muscle endurance—maximum
sit-ups, maximum push-ups, flexed arm
hang
• Agility—Illinois Agility Test
• Strength—hand grip dynamometer
• Speed—40 meter sprint
• Body composition—body mass index,
anthropometry and underwater
weighing
• Balance—stork stand
• Coordination—hand ball toss
• Reaction time—drop test, computer
simulation
• Power—vertical jump, standing
broad jump
6.3.1 - Distinguish between the concepts of health-related fitness and performance-related
(skill related) fitness
Health Related - factors that are physiologically based and determine the ability of an
individual to meet the demands of the activity
Performance/Skill Related - factors that are based upon the neuromuscular system and
determine how successful a person can perform a specific skill
Health Related
Performance Related (skill related)
- body composition
- agility
- cardio-respiratory fitness (aerobic capacity)
- balance
- flexibility
- coordination
- muscular endurance
- power
- strength
- reaction time
- speed
6.3.2 - Outline the major components of fitness identified in 6.3.1
Component of Fitness
Sporting Example
Muscular Endurance
- arms in a 200 m swim
- legs in a marathon
- arms, abdominals and quadriceps in a 2000 m rowing race
Speed
- sprinting
- vaulting in gymnastics
- fast bowling in cricket
- fast pitching in baseball
Power
- tackling in rugby or football
- spike in volleyball
- drive in golf
Cardio-respiratory Fitness
- long distance running
- cycling
- swimming
Flexibility
- hip and shoulder flexibility in gymnastics
Body Composition
- sumo wrestling (high % of fat)
- weight lifting (high % of muscle mass)
Agility
- tumbling in gymnastics
- receiving balls in volleyball
Balance
- maintaining balance during a handstand
- staying on your feet during a rugby tackle
Coordination
- coordination during breaststroke (pull of the arms with the
strong kick)
- coordination during a tennis serve (toss of the ball and
striking the ball with other hand)
Reaction Time
- gun at the start of the race in athletics
- verbal guidance from teammates/players/coaches
Strength
maximum strength - weight lifting
elastic strength - sprinting or triple jump
strength endurance - rowing or swimming
6.3.3 - Outline and evaluate a variety of fitness tests
Test for Aerobic Capacity:
Fitness Test
How it is carried out
Advantages
Disadvantages
Multi-Stage
Fitness Test
Participants run 20 m back and forth
across a marked track keeping time with
beeps. Every minute or so, the next level
commences: the time between beeps
gets shorter; participants must run
faster. If a participant fails to reach the
relevant marker in time, they are
cautioned. A second caution ends the
test for that runner. The number of
shuttles completed successfully is
recorded as the score of that runner
- simple to set up and
conduct
- more than one
athlete can be tested
at once
- can be done indoors
and outdoors
- air con/outside weather
can affect results
- hard to monitor if done
with a lot of people
- requires mental motivation
and strength
- affected by environmental
factors
- lack of motivation can
hinder results
Cooper’s 12
minute Run
The assistant gives the command “GO,”
starts the stopwatch and the athlete
commences the test, running around the
track. The assistant keeps the athlete
informed of the remaining time at the
end of each lap (400m). The assistant
blows the whistle when the 12 minutes
has elapsed and records the distance the
athlete has covered to the nearest 10
metres
- minimal equipment
required
- simple to set up and
conduct
- more than one
athlete can
participate at once
- test can be
administered by the
athlete
- 400 m track required
- assistant required to
administer the test
Harvard Step Test
The assistant gives the command “GO,”
and starts the stopwatch. The athlete
steps up and down onto a standard gym
bench once every two second for 5
minutes. The assistant stops the test
after 5 minutes. The assistant measures
the athlete's heart rate one minute after
finishing the test, two minutes after and
three minutes after.
- minimal equipment
required
- simple to set up and
conduct
- can be conducted
almost anywhere
- assistant require to
administer the test
- gym bench is required
Test for Flexibility:
Fitness Test
Sit and Reach
Test
How it is carried out
Advantages
Disadvantages
Participant removes shoes. The assistant secures
the rules to the top of the box with tape so that the
front edge of the box lines up with the 15cm mark
on the rules and the zero end of the rules points
towards the athlete. The athlete sits on the floor
with their legs fully extended with the bottom of
their bare feet against the box. The athlete reaches
their hand forward and tries to reach along the top
of the ruler as far as possible, holding the stretch
for two seconds. The assistant records the distance
reached by the athlete’s finger tips. The athlete
performs the test three times, and the average is
calculated.
- minimal equipment
required
- simple to set up and
conduct
- can be done almost
anywhere
- specialist
equipment may be
required (sit and
reach box)
- assistant required to
administer the test
Test for Strength:
Fitness Test
How it is carried out
Advantages
Hand Grip
Dynamometer
The athlete uses their dominant hand and applies
as much grip pressure as possible on the
dynamometer. The assistant records the maximum
reading (kg). The athlete repeats the test 3 times.
The assistant uses the highest recorded value to
asses the athlete’s performance
- minimal equipment
required
- simple to set up
and conduct
- can be done almost
anywhere
Disadvantages
- specialist equipment
may be required
(dynamometer)
- assistant required to
administer the test
Test for Agility:
Fitness Test
Illinois Agility
Test
How it is carried out
Advantages
The assistant sets up the course as shows in the
diagram. The athlete lies face down on the floor at
the “Start” cone . The assistant give the command
“GO,” and starts the stopwatch. The athlete jumps
to their feed and follows the course till the finish
line. The assistant stops the stopwatch and record
the time when the athlete crosses the finish line
- minimal equipment
required
- simple to set up and
conduct
- can be done almost
anywhere
- can be administered
by the athlete
Disadvantages
- difficult to set up
- cones are needed
- assistant required to
administer the test
Test for Muscular Endurance:
Fitness Test
How it is carried out
Maximum Sit
Ups/Maximum
Push Ups
Participants lie on the mat with knees bent, feet
flat on the floor and their hands on their ears,
where they must stay throughout the test. The
assistant holds the athlete’s feet on the ground.
The assistant says “GO” and starts the stopwatch.
The athlete performs as many sit ups as possible
in 30 seconds. The assistant record the number of
sit-ups completed and assesses the participants
performance
Advantages
Disadvantages
- minimal equipment
required
- simple to set up and
conduct
- can be done almost
anywhere
- assistant required
to administer the test
Test for Speed:
Fitness Test
40 Meter
Sprint
How it is carried out
The assistant marks a 40 metre straight section
with cones on the track. The assistant gives the
command “GO” and starts the stopwatch. The
athlete sprints the 40 metres as fast as possible.
The assistant stops the stop watch when the
athlete’s torso crosses the finishing line and records
the time. The athlete rests for 30 seconds and
performs the test 6 more times with 30 seconds
rest between the sprints.
Advantages
Disadvantages
- minimal equipment
required
- simple to set up and
conduct
- can be administered
by the athlete
- can be done indoors
and outdoors
- assistant required to
administer the test
Test for Balance:
Fitness Test
Stork Stand
How it is carried out
Advantages
Stand on one foot and balance as long as - simple to set up and
possible
conduct
- can be done indoors
and outdoors
- easy to administer
Disadvantages
- never occurs in a real
sporting situation
Test for Coordination:
Fitness Test
Alternate Hand
Wall Test
How it is carried out
Advantages
A mark is placed a certain distance from - easy to set up
the wall (ex. 2 m). The person stands - minimal equipment
behind the line and faces the wall. The
ball is thrown from one hand in an
underarm action against the wall, and
attempted to be caught with the
opposite hand. The ball is then thrown
back against the wall and caught with
the initial hand. The test can continue
for a nominated number of attempts or
for a set time period (ex. 30 seconds).
Disadvantages
- technique also affects
the score
- by adding the
constraint of a set time
period, you also add
the factor of working
under pressure.
Tests for Power:
Fitness Test
How it is carried out
Advantages
Disadvantages
Vertical Jump
The athlete stands side on to a wall and
reaches up with the hand closest to the
wall. Keeping the feet flat on the ground,
the point of the fingertips is marked or
recorded. The athlete then stands away
from the wall, and leaps vertically as
high as possible using both arms and
legs to assist in projecting the body
upwards. Attempt to touch the wall at
the highest point of the jump. The
difference in distance between the
standing reach height and the jump
height is the score. The best of three
attempts is recorded.
- easy to set up
- minimal equipment
- can be administered
by the athlete
- can be done
anywhere
- hard to control chalk
- difficult to jump with
arm outstretched
Standing Broad
Jump
The athlete stands behind a line marked
on the ground with feet slightly apart. A
two foot take-off and landing is used,
with swinging of the arms and bending
of the knees to provide forward drive.
The subject attempts to jump as far as
possible, landing on both feet without
falling backwards. Three attempts are
allowed.
- easy to set up
- minimal equipment
- can be administered
by the athlete
- can be done
anywhere
- technique is important
- only tests leg power
- environment can
affect results (hard
ground vs sand pit)
- leg length varies
Test for Reaction Time:
Fitness Test
Drop Test
How it is carried out
Assistant holds the ruler and the participant hovers
fingers gripped at the base of the ruler (at 0 cm)
with the arm perpendicular to the ruler. When the
assistant drops the ruler, the participant catches it
as fast as possible, the distance from 0 cm is
measured
Advantages
Disadvantages
- minimal equipment - assistant required
required
to administer the
- simple to set up and test
conduct
Test for Body Composition:
1. Body Mass Index - a person's weight in kilograms divided by the square of height in
meters
2. Anthropometry - a simple reliable method for quantifying body size and proportions
by measuring body length, width, circumference (C), and skinfold thickness (SF). The
reliability of anthropometrics depends on standardizing the caliper and site of
measurement, and upon the measuring skill of the anthropometris
3. Underwater Weighing - a technique for measuring the density of a living person's
body. It is a direct application of Archimedes' principle, that an object displaces its
own volume of water.
6.4 - Principles of Training
Assessment Statement
Notes
6.4.1
Describe the essential
elements of a general training
programme
This should include warm-up and
stretching activities, endurance
training, cool down and stretching
activities, flexibility training, resistance
training and the incorporation of
recreational activities and sports into
the schedule
6.4.2
Discuss the key principles of
training programme design
6.4.3
Outline ways in which exercise
intensity can be monitored
6.4.1 - Describe the essential elements of a general training programme
Warm Up - should prepare the body for exercise, it can prevent injury and muscle soreness
Steps of a warm up:
1. Raising heart rate to increase body temperature and speed of oxygen delivery to the
muscles
ex. jogging
2. Stating or dynamic exercises/stretching
3. Sport-specific or skill-related component where neuromuscular mechanisms related to
the activity are worked
ex. serving in tennis, passing in football
Cool Down - The purpose is to keep metabolic activity high, and capillaries dilated so that
oxygen can be flushed through muscle tissue, removing and oxidising any lactic acid that
remains. This will prevent blood pooling which can cause dizziness if exercise is stopped
abruptly
- The final step in the cool down should be stretching, which should hopefully facilitate
and improve flexibility as the muscles are very warm at this stage
Recreational Activities - a general training program should also include recreational
activities to keep the performer enjoying sport and keeping relaxed and healthy. Doing these
sorts of activities contributes to both better physical and mental wellbeing.
Endurance Training - the act of exercising to increase endurance, training the aerobic system
Endurance Training can be the following:
Type of Endurance Training
Explanation
Example
Continuous Training
involves an individual maintaining a steady pace for a
long period of time
running, biking,
swimming, and rowing
Resistance Training
increases muscle strength by making your muscles work
against a weight or force. Different forms of resistance
training include using free weights, weight machines,
resistance bands and your own body weights
using dumbbells,
barbells, kettlebells,
medicine balls etc.
Interval Training
a structured period of work followed by a structured
period of rest
HIIT workouts
Circuit Training
a basic circuit session should contain exercise to improve
aerobic fitness or raise the pulse rate, exercises to work
the
upper body, lower body and the core. Should include a
warm-up, main session, cool down and
flexibility/stretching
push-ups, sit-ups,
squats, lunges etc.
Flexibility Training - activities that aim to stretch your muscles until they're loosened up
6.4.2 - Discuss the key principles of training programme design
Progressive Overload - gradually increasing the amount/overload of exercise
ex. distance of the activity, duration of the activity, number of reps, number of sets
Specificity - the process of replicating the characteristics of physical activity in training to
ensure its benefit performance
ex. it would be inappropriate for a swimmer to carry out the majority of his/her
training on land
Reversibility - how long it takes you to lose that base fitness, explains why performance
deteriorates when training ceases or the intensity of training decreases for extended periods
of time
Periodisation - the method of organising the training year into phases where each phase has
its specific aims for the development of the athlete
ex. recovery period, early prepreperation period, pre-competition period, early
competition period, peak competition period
ex. like pre-season training, peak season training and post season training
Variety - changes to training activities and drills stimulate and challenge participants, who
are therefore more likely to train at optimal levels
6.4.3 - Outline ways in which exercise intensity can be monitored
-
measuring heart rate
Karvonen Method - the difference between max heart rate and resting heart rate
Ratings of Perceived Exertion
ex. Borg’s Rating of Perceived Exertion
ex. OMNI Scale of Perceived Exertion
ex. Cert Scale of Perceived Exertion (children)
Borg Scale of Perceived Exertion