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Narration and narrative techniques
Point of view
In literature, the narrator is the voice that tells the story to the reader. There are
several types of narrators that an author can use to tell a story.
First-person narrator
In this type of narration, the story is told from the perspective of a character within the
story, using pronouns such as ”I,” ”me,” and ”my.” The reader sees and experiences the
events of the story through the narrator’s eyes. An example of a first-person narrator
is Holden Caulfield in J.D. Salinger’s ”The Catcher in the Rye.”
“I woke up to the sound of my alarm blaring in my ear. I groaned and
hit the snooze button. Today was going to be a long day. I had a test in
math, a project due in English, and a soccer game after school. I got out
of bed and trudged to the bathroom. As I brushed my teeth, I looked in
the mirror and wondered if I would ever get a break.”
Second-person narrator
In this type of narration, the narrator speaks directly to the reader, using the pronoun
”you.” This type of narration is less common in literature, but it can be effective in
creating an immersive and interactive reading experience. An example of a secondperson narrator is Italo Calvino’s ”If on a winter’s night a traveler.”
“You wake up to the sound of your alarm blaring in your ear. You groan
and hit the snooze button. Today is going to be a long day. You have a
test in math, a project due in English, and a soccer game after school. You
get out of bed and trudge to the bathroom. As you brush your teeth, you
look in the mirror and wonder if you will ever get a break.”
Third-person omniscient narrator
In this type of narration, the story is told by an all-knowing narrator who can see into
the thoughts and feelings of all the characters. The pronouns used are ”he,” ”she,” and
”they.” This type of narrator can provide the reader with a comprehensive understanding
of the story’s events and characters. An example of a third-person omniscient narrator
is the narrator in Jane Austen’s ”Pride and Prejudice.”
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“John woke up to the sound of his alarm blaring in his ear. He groaned and
hit the snooze button. Today was going to be a long day. He had a test in
math, a project due in English, and a soccer game after school. As he got
out of bed and trudged to the bathroom, John was feeling overwhelmed
and stressed. Sarah, on the other hand, was delighted and happy that she
finally had the bed to herself.”
— The narrator knows and sees all, including the thoughts and feelings of multiple
characters.
— The narrator is not a character in the story.
— The narrator can provide information about events, characters, and settings that
the characters in the story do not know.
— The narrator may offer commentary or opinions on events and characters.
Third-person limited narrator
In this type of narration, the story is told by a narrator who is not a character in the story
but who can only see into the thoughts and feelings of one character. The pronouns
used are ”he,” ”she,” and ”they.” This type of narrator allows the reader to see the
story through the eyes of one character and to understand that character’s perspective
intimately. An example of a third-person limited narrator is the narrator in Harper Lee’s
”To Kill a Mockingbird.”
“Sarah woke up to the sound of her alarm blaring in her ear. She groaned
and hit the snooze button. Today was going to be a long day. She had a
test in math, a project due in English, and a soccer game after school. As
she got out of bed and trudged to the bathroom, the could see that Sarah
was feeling overwhelmed and stressed. And all the while she wondered what
John was thinking.”
— The narrator is an outside observer who only knows the thoughts and feelings of
one or a few characters.
— The narrator is not a character in the story.
— The narrator provides a more intimate view of a character’s perspective, but does
not know everything that is happening in the story.
— The reader’s understanding of events is limited to what the character or characters
know.
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Third-person objective narrator
In this type of narration, the story is told by a narrator who is not a character in the
story and who only reports on what can be seen and heard. The narrator does not reveal
any thoughts or feelings of the characters, and the reader must infer the characters’
emotions and motivations based on their actions and dialogue. An example of a thirdperson objective narrator is the narrator in Ernest Hemingway’s ”The Old Man and the
Sea.”
“The alarm blared, and Sarah hit the snooze button. She had a test in
math, a project due in English, and a soccer game after school. She got
out of bed and trudged to the bathroom. She looked overwhelmed and
stressed.”
— The narrator is an outside observer who does not know the thoughts or feelings
of any characters.
— The narrator is not a character in the story.
— The narrator provides only observable details and actions, with no insight into a
character’s motivations or feelings.
— The reader’s understanding of events is limited to what can be observed and
inferred from the characters’ actions and dialogue.
Narrative stance
The narrative stance, also called the narrative attitude, refers to the author’s or narrator’s perspective or attitude toward the story and its characters. It can be expressed
through the tone of the writing, the language and imagery used, and the narrator’s
commentary on the events of the story.
The narrative stance can take on many different forms, including sympathetic, ironic,
skeptical, or critical, and it can have a significant impact on the reader’s interpretation
of the story. For example, a narrator with a sympathetic stance might be more likely to
identify with the characters and their struggles, while a narrator with a critical stance
might be more focused on exposing the flaws and shortcomings of the characters or
society.
The narrative stance can also be used to create a particular effect or to comment on
larger themes or issues. For example, an ironic or satirical narrative stance might be
used to critique societal norms or conventions, while a more sentimental or nostalgic
narrative stance might be used to evoke a sense of longing for a bygone era or to convey
a sense of loss.
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In analyzing the narrative stance, it is important to consider the narrator’s reliability
and perspective, as well as the author’s intent and the cultural and historical context
in which the story was written. By understanding the narrative stance, readers can
gain a deeper appreciation for the author’s perspective and the ways in which the story
reflects larger cultural or societal concerns.
The question of reliability
A reliable narrator is one that can be trusted to accurately represent the events of
the story and the thoughts and feelings of the characters. The narrator is seen as
credible and trustworthy, and the reader can accept the information presented without
skepticism. A reliable narrator is usually objective and impartial, and their account of
the story is consistent and logical.
“Marie had always been a careful and reliable storyteller. When her friends
would gather around her, she would spin tales of her childhood and her
adventures with a level of detail and accuracy that made her friends feel
like they were right there with her. Her friends had come to trust Marie’s
stories as a source of truth, and even years later, they would retell the stories
she had shared with them, always with the same wonder and delight.”
An unreliable narrator, on the other hand, is one that cannot be fully trusted to accurately convey the story. This can be because of their personal biases, delusions, or
limited perspective, or because they intentionally misrepresent the truth for their own
purposes. An unreliable narrator may also be characterized by inconsistency, contradictions, or unusual behavior that suggests they are not reliable.
“Joe was known to be a bit of a prankster, and he loved nothing more
than playing jokes on his friends. One day, he came to school with an
outrageous story about how he had been abducted by aliens and taken to
a far-off planet. His friends laughed and rolled their eyes, but Joe insisted
that it was true. Over time, he embellished the story with more and more
outrageous details, until even he couldn’t remember what was real and
what wasn’t. Eventually, his friends stopped believing him altogether, and
Joe became known as the boy who cried ”alien”.”
Unreliable narrators are often used by authors to create ambiguity and challenge the
reader’s assumptions and expectations. By presenting a narrator who cannot be fully
trusted, the author can introduce uncertainty and doubt into the story, inviting the
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reader to question what they are being told and to form their own interpretations of
the events.
Examples of unreliable narrators can be found in many works of literature, including
”The Catcher in the Rye” by J.D. Salinger, ”Gone Girl” by Gillian Flynn, and ”Fight
Club” by Chuck Palahniuk. Understanding the reliability or unreliability of a narrator
is an important aspect of literary analysis, as it can significantly impact how the story
is interpreted and understood by the reader.
Narrated time vs. narrative time
Narrative time and narrated time are two concepts in literary studies that refer to the
relationship between the time in which a story is told and the time in which the events
of the story take place.
Narrative time refers to the time in which the story is told or presented. It is the
time in which the narrator or author is speaking to the reader, and it can be shorter,
longer, or the same as the narrated time of the story.
Narrated time, on the other hand, refers to the time in which the events of the story
take place. It is the chronological sequence of events that occur within the world of
the story, from the beginning to the end of the story.
The relationship between narrative time and narrated time can vary in different types
of literature, and it can have an impact on the reader’s experience of the story. For
example, in a novel with a linear plot, the narrative time might be the same as the
narrated time, meaning that the events of the story are presented in the order in which
they occur. However, in a novel with a non-linear plot, the narrative time might be
shorter or longer than the narrated time, as the story jumps back and forth in time.
Example 1: The narrative time is shorter than the narrated time.
Book: ”Mrs. Dalloway” by Virginia Woolf
Narrative time: The story is told over the course of a single day.
Narrated time: The events of the story take place over the course of several
years.
Example 2: The narrative time is longer than the narrated time.
Book: ”Heart of Darkness” by Joseph Conrad
Narrative time: The story is told through the frame narrative of a group of
men on a boat waiting for the tide to change. This frame narrative occurs
over the course of a few hours.
Narrated time: The events of the story take place over the course of several
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months, from the main character Marlow’s departure from Europe to his
encounter with the enigmatic Kurtz in the Congo.
Example 3: The narrative time is the same as the narrated time.
Book: ”The Catcher in the Rye” by J.D. Salinger
Narrative time: The story is told through the first-person narration of
Holden Caulfield over the course of a few days.
Narrated time: The events of the story also take place over the course of
a few days, as Holden travels around New York City and reflects on his
experiences and relationships.
Overall, understanding the relationship between narrative time and narrated time can
help readers and scholars better analyze and interpret a work of literature.
Atmosphere
Atmosphere is a literary technique that refers to the overall feeling or mood that a
writer creates through the use of various elements, such as setting, imagery, and tone.
It is the emotional environment in which the story takes place, and it can greatly impact
how the reader experiences the narrative.
Atmosphere is created by the author’s choice of words, imagery, and other literary
devices that convey emotions or sensory experiences to the reader. For example, an
author might create a sense of foreboding by using dark and ominous imagery or describing a bleak and desolate landscape. Alternatively, an author might create a feeling
of warmth and comfort by describing a cozy room or using warm and inviting language.
Atmosphere can also be conveyed through the way characters interact with each
other, the setting, and the events of the story. For example, a tense argument between characters might create an atmosphere of conflict, while a peaceful and happy
interaction might create an atmosphere of contentment.
Overall, atmosphere is an important element of literature as it helps to create an
emotional connection between the reader and the story, and can greatly impact the
reader’s interpretation of the events and characters in the narrative.
Example: Neutral atmosphere
Once upon a time, there was a little girl who lived in a small village nestled in a valley
surrounded by mountains. She spent her days playing in the fields, picking flowers, and
chasing after butterflies, just like any other child in the village. Her parents and the
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other villagers cared for her, but there was nothing particularly happy or sad about her
life. It was simply a life, like any other.
Example: Happy atmosphere
Once upon a time, there was a little girl who lived in a small village nestled in a valley
surrounded by mountains. Every day, she would go out to play in the fields, pick flowers,
and chase after butterflies. Her parents and the other villagers loved her dearly and
would often gather together for big feasts and celebrations.
Example: Sad atmosphere
Once upon a time, there was a little girl who lived in a small village nestled in a valley
surrounded by mountains. She lived a simple life, playing in the fields, picking flowers,
and chasing after butterflies. But despite the love and affection of her parents and the
other villagers, she always felt a deep sense of sadness and loneliness, like something
was missing from her life.
Example: Gloomy atmosphere
Once upon a time, there was a little girl who lived in a small village nestled in a valley
surrounded by mountains. The air was always thick with fog and the sky was always
gray, casting a gloomy pall over the village. The girl spent her days wandering the
fields and forests, always feeling lost and alone. The other villagers shunned her, afraid
of her strange ways and the sadness that seemed to cling to her like a cloak.
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