2023
MULTI-LEVEL READING
COURSE BOOK
LOCHINBEK
SHODIYOROV
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CONTENTS
PART 1 GAP FILLING ________________________3
PART 2 MATCHING ADVERTISEMENTS________12
PART 3 MATCHING HEADINGS________________33
PART 4 MULTIPLE CHOICE___________________68
PART 4 TRUE/FALSE/NOT GIVEN_____________111
PART 5 SENTENCE COMPLETION_____________143
ANSWERS____________________________________176
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PART 1
GAP FILLING
TEST 1
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TEST 2
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TEST 3
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TEST 4
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TEST 5
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TEST 6
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TEST 7
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TEST 8
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TEST 9
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PART 2
TEST 1 (DTM NAMUNA TESTIDAN)
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TEST 3
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TEST 4
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TEST 5
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TEST 6
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PART 3 MATCHING HEADINGS
TEST 1
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PRACTICE EXERCISES
EXERCISE 1
Which of the following phrases provides the best heading for the passage?
A .No more village football
B .New date for match to be fixed
C .llness halts football match
D .Whole Cotville team hit by colds
The annual football match between the villages of Hamden and Cotville has had to
be cancelled because most members of the Cotville team are suffering from heavy
colds. As it is so late in the season, it seems unlikely that a new date for the match
can be arranged.
EXERCISE 2
Which of the following sentences gives the best summary of the passage?
A. Edinburgh is a really interesting place to visit.
B. On no account should you miss visiting Edinburgh Castle.
C .lt is a problem finding things to do in Edinburgh.
D .It is not difficult to see all of Edinburgh in a short time.
Edinburgh is full of places of interest and one of the problems for a visitor with only
a short time at his or her disposal is what to see. Many would choose Edinburgh Castle,
with its marvellous views of the city, whilst others would want to walk down the Royal
Mile to visit the Palace of Holyrood House. Still others might simply choose to go
shopping on the famous Princes Street
EXERCISE 3
Which of the following phrases provides the best heading for the passage?
A.Local musical contest
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B .Orchestra's first time in London
C .Brandon hoping to win again
D .Away for the weekend
Members of the Brandon School orchestra are looking fonruard to their visit to
London next weekend, when they will be taking part in a competition for youth
orchestras from all over Britain. This will be the third time they have entered the
contest; although they have never won any prizes, the members of the orchestra
always enjoy their weekend away.
EXERCISE 4
Which of the following sentences gives the best summary of the passage?
A .lt is impossible to stay in a top class hotel without spending a lot of money.
B .All top class hotels offer rooms at cheaper rates at weekends.
C .Top class hotels are never used by business travellers at weekends.
D .Rooms in some top class hotels cost less at weekends.
Visiting different parts of Britain can be an expensive business if you want to stay in
top class hotels. However, many hotels that cater for business travellers on generous
expense accounts during the week drop their rates at weekends, when there are
some surprisingly good bargains to be found.
EXERCISE 5
Which of the following phrases provides the best heading for the passage?
A. Doctor fails to visit patient
B. A phone proves its value
C .Doctor rescued from farm
D. Rescue services arrive too late
A doctor was trapped in his car last night by the snow. He had been visiting a patient
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who lived on an isolated farm, but having driven a few kilometres, found it impossible
to continue because the snow was too thick on the road. Fortunately, he had a mobile
phone in the car and was able to contact the rescue services, who managed to
reach'him a few hours later.
EXERCISE 6
Which of the following sentences gives the best summary of the passage?
A .Emergency teams are trying to prevent oil escaping from a factory.
B. Oil for making toffee has escaped into the River Medway.
C .Efforts are being made to save a river from pollution.
D .Most of the oil is on the banks of the river.
There was a threat of major pollution of the River Medway near Tonbridge in Kent
last night, when hundreds of gallons of oil escaped from a factory on the banks of the
river. Emergency teams have been called in to fight the pollution. The river was
described as looking like'liquid toffee'.
EXERCISE 7
Choose the most suitable heading for each of the two paragraphs below from the
following
phrases.
A .Club for all writers
B .An even better service
C .Enthusiastic reception
D .Hoping for more requests
E .Chance for discussion
F. Total success
1. The Deansgate Literary Club was established several years ago with the aim of
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establishing a centre where people who love books could listen to leading authors
and personalities, meet people who share their enthusiasm and talk about the latest
publications in a friendly and relaxed atmosphere. We trust that we have fulfilled at
least some of these aims.
2 .The coming year promises to be another exciting year for publications and new
authors. We intend to make sure that our visiting novelists, biographers, poets,
politicians, stars and personalities represent the best talents of the current literary
scene. We also hope that with an improved information system your requests will be
dealt with more effectively.
EXERCISE 8
Choose the most suitable summary for each of the two paragraphs below from the
following
sentences.
A .Rather more people are travelling between Manchester and Basle than expected.
B. More frequent flights will be introduced on the route after a year.
C .There have rarely been empty seats on the flights in the evening.
D .Very few people are flying from Manchester to Basle in the morning.
E. lt may eventually be possible to have more flights on the route.
F .Far more people are using these flights than had been expected.
1.Passenger numbers for the first three months of Crossair's service between
Manchester and Basle are slightly above expectation. Moritz Suter, the airline chairman,
said that the evening flights, especially, were doing very well and that it was hoped
that numbers on the morning service would soon increase.
2 .During November and December some 1,800 people per month used the new
service with, on average, 40% of the seats being filled. Suter added, "We are pretty
satisfied for the present with the route's development. lf, after a year, the present
progress has been maintained, we shall consider increasing frequency."
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EXERCISE 9
Choose the most suitable heading for each of the three paragraphs below from the
following phrases.
A. Hospital to blame
B .Checking on comments
C .Lack of communication
D. lnaccurate use of language
E .Not realising others are present
F .Heard in the lift
G.Too much talk in private
1 .Researchers made 250 journeys in lifts in five hospitals in Pittsburg in the USA to
see if staff were making unpleasant remarks about patients without realising that
relatives of patients might be standing next to them.
2 One doctor was heard to say that a patient's death was the hospital's fault. A nurse
said that one of her colleagues must have been drunk the previous evening. Some
staff made nasty comments about patients and their families, in one case criticising
the clothes they wore.
3. Professor Peter Ubel of the University of Pennsylvania, who was in charge of the
project, said that people easily forget that they are in a public place. "Many
conversations start in the privacy of an office and continue into the corridor and into
the lift'
EXERCISE 10
Choose the most suitable summary for each of the three paragraphs below from the
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following sentences.
A .The shop will continue to offer bargains after the first day.
B .You cannot buy anything apart from phones in the shop.
C .All phones will be sold at half price on the first day.
D .lt will be easy to phone if you go to the shop regularly.
E .lf you pay a little extra for a phone, making phone calls will be cheaper.
F .Many customers on the first day will be able to buy phones cheaply.
G .You will not be forced to buy a phone if you ask for advice in the shop.
1 .When our shop opens on 20th May, you'll find we have a lot to offer. As a shop
dedicated to selling phones, there will be a wide range of the best products on display.
To celebrate our opening, the first hundred customers to buy any phone will pay only
half the marked price.
2 .lf you are unable to take advantage of our'half price phone' offer, don't worry as
there will be other offers in the near future. As well as new phones, the shop will
feature many extra items to make phoning easier and cheaper.
3. To make sure that you understand how we can help you, there will always be
experienced and highly trained staff on hand to answer any questions and to give
advice without obligation.Make sure you visit us regularly to see how we can make
phoning even easier and cheaper for you.
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EXAMS
EXAM 1
You are going to read an article about the effect that listening to music might have on
the brain.
Choose from the list A-l the sentence which best summarises each part (1-7) of the
article. There
is one extra sentence which you do not need to use. There is an example at the
beginning (0).
A. Pupils were put into groups to listen to different things.
B .The experiment could lead to new methods of teaching.
C .Pupils doing best had probably liked what they had heard.
D .lt was thought that difficult music made the brain work better.
E .The experiment suggests that the children did not listen to Mozart.
F .Listening to Mozart seemed to improve mental ability.
G.Those listening to pop music did best on the test.
H .The effect of music on people may be different according to age.
I .The experiment was carried out in all parts of Britain.
MUSIC TO HELP YOUR BRAIN
EXAMPLE:
0 Listening to pop music may make you cleverer,according to a Megalab experiment
in which 11,000 children in 250 schools across Britain took part.
ANSWER: I
1 The idea was put fonrward as a scientific study by Dr Sue Hallam of the lnstitute of
Education, London, to follow up work in California which suggested that listening to
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music by Mozart for ten minutes had a direct effect on people's ability to work out
problems.
2 The Megalab experiment took place at eleven o'clock one Thursday morning. School
children were split at random into three separate groups: one listening to Mozart, one
to a pop group and one to a conversation in which Dr Hallam discussed Megalab.
3 The children were then given problem-solving tasks. The group which had listened
to the discussion scored 52 per cent, those who had listened to Mozart also scored 52
per cent, but those who had listened to the pop group scored 56 per cent. Dr Hallam
said the result is interesting and approaching significance'.
4 She thought that the reason was not due to the 'Mozart effect' but because the
mood of the children had changed, so they were more aroused and tried harder. 'They
were probably enjoying it and so they were well motivated,' she said. 'The others were
probably uninterested or not particularly inspired by Mozart or by the discussion.'
5 Dr Frances Rauscher, of the Centre for the Neurobiology of Learning and Memory in
Berkeley, California, had suggested that students would do better after listening to
Mozart because his music is complex and stimulates particular activity in the brain.
6 However, Dr Hallam did not dismiss the Californian idea, because the experiments were
performed on adults, who may process music differently.
7 The Minister for Science said, 'lf the results are conclusive, we could see a whole
new approach in the future to the way pupils are taught in school.
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EXAM 2
You are going to read an article about making better use of time at work. Choose the
most suitable heading from the list A-H for each part (1-6) of the article. There is one
extra heading which you do not need to use. There is an example at the beginning (0).
A lnability to let others help
B Those in charge aware of problem
C Failure to take responsibility
D Employers and workers need to change
E Feeling there is too much to do
F Bad effects at home and at work
G Lacking a clear system
H Time spent working
MAKING BETTER USE OF TIME AT WORK
EXAMPLE:
0 A recent survey by Austin Knight reveals that in British industry the 'long hours
culture' is the new British disease. ln their report of over 22 well-known British
companies representing over one million workers, they found that British office workers
have some of the longest hours in Europe, if not fhe longest.
ANSWER: I
1 They found that two out of three work 40 hours or more per week, 25 per cent work
50 hours or more. ln addition, 76 per cent of these workers say that continually
working long hours affects their physical health, 47 per cent say their families suffer
and 45 per cent feel their work performance is undermined.
2 Oddly enough, 90 per cent of employers also see long hours as a problem because
of reduced performance and lowered morale.
3 So, what can be done? Obviously one important step is that employers understand
the potentially negative effects of long working hours on their employees' health,
family and performance. However, there are strategies that individuals can engage in
that will help them manage their time better.
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4 There seem to be at least three different types of time wasters. First there is the
'maflana' type who feels that you should not'do today what you can do tomorrow'.
These are the procrastinators who see the job as 'too big' for them to handle. Some
basic tips for these people are (1) to break up huge tasks into smaller jobs, (2) to
draw up a list of things to do, with the most important tasks at the top and the least
important at the bottom, (3) to balance routine tasks with more enjoyable ones and (4)
to deal with each document that comes their way once only (read it, act upon it, file it
or throw it away).
5 Second, there are the 'poor delegators', the people who feel that nobody can do a
job as well as they can. They either want to retain the power or just feel it is part of
the job, and feel that by not doing it, they are not Iulfilling their responsibilities. The
basic tips for these types are: (1) to accept that delegation does not mean giving up
responsibility, (2) having delegated a job, to leave the person to get on with it, and (3)
say 'no' politely to work that is outside their area of responsibility.
6 Finally, there is the disorganised type who is instantly recognised by piles of paper
around his or her desk. These individuals miss or are late for appointments, forget or
misplace papers and are frequently involved in trying to find lost telephone numbers,
diary dates, and people's names. They need to do some of the following: (1) stick to
one task and finish it, (2) buy a large note pad for writing down all notes, messages,
etc., (3) clear the top of their desk and have only the task they are dealing with in
front of them, (4) spend time setting up systems to gain control of the chaos
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EXAM 3
You are going to read an article about people falling in love on trains or at stations.
Choose from the list A-l the sentence which best summarises each part (1-7) of the
article. There is one extra sentence which you do not need to use. There is an
example at the beginning (0).
A The romance was not ended by a problem early in the relationship.
B This man had a good reason for contacting the girl he had met.
C Taking a
job overseas failed to end this relationship.
D A man feeling very tired got on a crowded train.
E A woman left her purse on the seat when she got off the train.
F This couple often travelled on the same train before they went out together.
G This man was not in a mood for talking to other people on the train.
H This couple met briefly when the man was changing trains at the station.
I One would not normally expect people to fall in love on trains or at stations.
RAILWAY ROMANCES
EXAMPLE
0 Noel Coward wrote a famous play in the 1950s called Brief Encounter. lt tells of a
couple who fell in love when they kept meeting in the waiting room of a railway
station during wartime. For many people, a railway station or train must seem the
most unromantic of places and yet there are plenty of examples of people meeting by
chance on trains or at stations and falling in love.
ANSWER:I
1 John was one such person who met his future wife as a result of falling asleep on a
train. lt was just before Christmas some years ago when John was travelling on a
very early morning train back home to Liverpool to spend Christmas with his family.
He had been out to a party the night before and was feeling very sleepy. The train
was quite full but he managed to find an empty seat.
2 "Liz, who is now my wife," says John, 'Jumped on the train just as it was pulling
out of the station. She asked if the seat next to me was free and sat down. Normally I
try to strike up a conversation with people on a train, but on this occasion I felt so tired
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that I just fell asleep. Some time later I woke up and realised, to my embarrassment,
that I had been lying against her.
3 "l felt that I could not ignore the woman now and began to chat. I discovered that,
although she was going to Chester, she lived quite close to me and she gave me her
phone number. After she had got off I found a purse on her seat. ln the end it turned
out that it did not belong to her but it gave me the perfect excuse for phoning her.
You can guess the rest. We were married a few years later and now have got two little
girls'
4 Another person to find romance on the train was Ron, a keen football fan. Twenty
years ago he was travelling to work every day on a train from Basingstoke to
Southampton. He usually found himself sitting opposite a young woman called Mary.
They would often talk to each other and then, after about five or six months, they
decided to go out together one evening. Ron was to decide where to go but Mary
told him to keep the destination a secret --they went to see a football match.
5 "Mary had never been to a football match in her life," says Ron, "but our relationship
took off from there. The problem came when I was offered a full-time job- as a
football reporter - in Perth, Australia. Fortunately, Mary followed me, we got married
and have been together now for over 21 years'
6 A final example of a couple being brought together by the railways is Jimmy and
Peggy. Jimmy was in the army during the Second World War and would sometimes
have to wait for a c-onnecting train at the station in Newcastle where Peggy lived. lf
he could let Peggy know that he would be on the station, she would come and meet
him there and they would be able to spend a little time together.
7 "Our romance nearly finished very early," says Jimmy. "On one of the first occasions
we met, we walked out of the station and lost track of time. When we got back, the
last train had gone and I had to take Peggy home. lt was very late when we got there
and her father was so angry that it seemed our friendship would be finished before it
had really begun. Fortunately, Peggy managed to convince her father that I was not so
bad and we went on to have many happy years together
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EXAM 4
You are going to read an article about a play. Choose the most suitable heading from
the list A-H for each part (1-6) of the article. There is one extra heading which you do
not need to use. There is an example at the beginning (0).
A Hidden emotion
B Change of setting
C Ashamed
D Permission granted
E Relief
F Tragedy
G Happier
H Unpromising start
EXAMPLE
ln 1909 a play called Liliom was seen for the first time in Budapest. lt had been
written by Ferenc Molnar, a local man who had gained considerable success and fame
from earlier plays. Unfortunately, this play was at first a failure and closed after only
26 performances. Ten years later, the play was revived and this time was an instant
success and went on to be performed in a number of other countries.
ANSWER:H
1 The play was sombre. lt told the story of a rough and unpleasant man, Liliom, who
worked at a fairground. He fell in love with a local girl, whom he married even though
he was never able to express his true feelings for her. Liliom treated his wife badly
and eventually killed himself. Years later he was allowed to return to earth for one day
to try to repair some of the wrong he had done, but he failed miserably.
2 The audiences in Budapest in 1909 were puzzled by the play's strange mixture of
harsh realism and fantasy. Nevertheless, there was a clue to its meaning. Molnar was
well-known in the city and people were aware that when he had written Liliom, his first
marriage had been in difficulty. The couple had huge arguments and it was said that
Molnar beat his wife. Molnar's plays often reflected his own life and it seemed likely
that in the play he was trying to say that an unpleasant, even violent, exterior can hide
a gentle nature. Molnar, like Liliom, had been unable to declare his love.
3 Despite the gloomy theme of the play, it was thought by several people that it could
be set to music and made into an opera. Molnar refused to let this happen at first but
then, in the early 1940s, he unexpectedly agreed to allow it to be made into an
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American musical. He had seen and enjoyed the musical Oklahoma by Richard Rodgers
and Oscar Hammerstein and was happy to let them adapt his play.
4 To start with, Rodgers and Hammerstein were not keen on the idea but gradually
they realized they could transfer the action from Budapest to a part of rural America
at the end of the 19th century. The main character would also work in a fairground, fall
in love, die and return to earth. The musical would be called Carousel.
5 The one major change which the writers wanted to make was to the ending, which
they believed to be far too tragic for a musical. The change was made so that the
show finished on a more positive note than Liliom, showing some hope for the future
with the hero, Billy Bigelow, having had a little success in repairing some of the wrong
he had done.
6 Richard Rodgers was very worried about how Molnar would react to having the
ending of the play changed so drastically. Molnar came to watch the first full rehearsal.
At the end Rodgers went nervously to him, certain that he would hate the new ending
as it so completely altered the spirit of the original. He asked Molnar what he thought
of the show. "What you have done," Molnar said, "is so beautiful. And you know what I
like best? The ending."...
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REAL TESTS
TEST 2
Read the paragraphs one by one to choose the correct headings.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Paragraph A
Paragraph B
Paragraph C
Paragraph D
Paragraph E
List of Headings
i A solution which is no solution
ii Changing working practices
iii Closing city centres to traffic
iv Making cars more environmentally friendly
v Not doing enough
vi Paying to get in
VII A global problem
TRAFFIC JAMS-NO END IN SIGHT
A There are no easy answers to the problems of traffic congestion. Traffic congestion
affects people throughout the world. Traffic jams cause smog in dozens of cities across
both the developed and developing world.In the U.S., commuters spend an average of a full
work week each year sitting in traffic, according to the Texas Transportation Institute.
While alternative ways of getting around are available, most people still choose their cars
because they are looking for convenience, comfort and privacy.
B The most promising technique for reducing city traffic is called congestion pricing,
whereby cities charge a toll to enter certain parts of town at certain times of day. In theory,
if the toll is high enough, some drivers will cancel their trips or go by bus or train. And in
practice it seems to work: Singapore, London and Stockholm have reduced traffic and
pollution in city centres thanks to congestion pricing.
C Another way to reduce rush hour traffic is for employers to implement flextime, which
lets employees travel to and from work at off-peak traffic times to avoid the rush
hour.Those who have to travel during busy times can do their part by sharing cars.
Employers can also allow more staff to telecommute (work from home) so as to keep
more cars off the road altogether.
D Some urban planners still believe that the best way to ease traffic congestion is to build
more roads, especially roads that can take drivers around or over crowded city streets. But
such techniques do not really keep cars off the road; they only accommodate more of
them.
E Other, more forward-thinking, planners know that more and more drivers and cars are
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taking to the roads every day, and they are unwilling to encourage more private
automobiles when public transport is so much better both for people and the environment.
For this reason, the American government has decided to spend some $7 billion on helping
to increase capacity on public transport systems and upgrade them with more efficient
technologies. But environmentalists complain that such funding is tiny compared with the
$50 billion being spent on roads and bridges.
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TEST 3
Questions 1-6
The reading passage has six paragraphs,
A-F. Choose the correct heading for each paragraph from the list of headings below.
1..................... Paragraph A
2..................... Paragraph B
3..................... Paragraph C
4..................... Paragraph D
5..................... Paragraph E
6..................... Paragraph F
List of Headings
i Why some plans have failed
ii A rural and urban problem
iii A possible success
iv Explaining a new management style
v Some relevant statistics
vi A regular trip for some people
vii Treating people for disease
viii How water can change people’s lives
The burden of thirst
Millions of women carry water long distances. If they had a tap by their door, whole
societies would be transformed.
A Aylito Binayo’s feet know the mountain. Even at four in the morning, she can run down
the rocks to the river by starlight alone and climb the steep mountain back up to her village
with a container of water on her back. She has made this journey three times a day since
she was a small child. So has every other woman in her village of Foro, in the Konso
district of south-western Ethiopia in Africa. Binayo left school when she was eight years
old, in part because she had to help her mother fetch water from the Toiro River. The water
is unsafe to drink; every year that the drought continues, the river carries less water, and its
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flow is reduced. But it is the only water Foro has ever had.
B In developed parts of the world, people turn on a tap and out pours abundant, clean
water. Yet nearly 900 million people in the world have no access to clean water.
Furthermore, 2.5 billion people have no safe way to get rid of human waste. Polluted water
and lack of proper hygiene cause disease and kill 3.3 million people around the world
annually, most of them children. In southern Ethiopia and in northern Kenya, a lack of rain
over the past few years has made even dirty water hard to find. But soon, for the first time,
things are going to change.
C Bringing clean water close to villagers’ homes is the key to the problem. Communities
where clean water becomes accessible and plentiful are transformed. All the hours
previously spent hauling water can be used to cultivate more crops, raise more animals or
even start a business. Families spend less time sick or caring for family members who are
unwell. Most important, not having to collect water means girls can go to school and get
jobs. The need to fetch water for the family, or to take care of younger siblings while their
mother goes, usually prevents them ever having this experience.
D But the challenges of bringing water to remote villages like those in Konso are
overwhelming. Locating water underground and then reaching it by means of deep wells
requires geological expertise and expensive, heavy machines. Abandoned wells and water
projects litter the villages of Konso. In similar villages around the developing world, the
biggest problem with water schemes is that about half of them break down soon after the
groups that built them move on. Sometimes technology is used that can’t be repaired
locally, or spare parts are available only in the capital.
E Today, a UK-based international non-profit organisation called WaterAid is tackling the
job of bringing water to the most remote villages of Konso. Their approach combines
technologies proven to last - such as building a sand dam to capture and filter rainwater
that would otherwise drain away. But the real innovation is that WaterAid believes
technology is only part of the solution. Just as important is involving the local community
in designing, building and maintaining new water projects. Before beginning any project,
WaterAid asks the community to create a WASH (water, sanitation, hygiene) committee of
seven people. The committee works with WaterAid to plan projects and involve the village
in construction. Then it maintains and runs the project.
F The people of Konso, who grow their crops on terraces they have dug into the sides of
mountains, are famous for hard work. In the village of Orbesho, residents even constructed
a road themselves so that drilling machinery could come in. Last summer, their pump,
installed by the river, was being motorised to push its water to a newly built reservoir on
top of a nearby mountain. From there, gravity will carry it down in pipes to villages on the
other side of the mountain. Residents of those villages have each given some money to
help fund the project. They have made concrete and collected stones for the structures.
Now they are digging trenches to lay pipes. If all goes well, Aylito Binayo will have a tap
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with safe water just a three-minute walk from her front door.
TEST 4
Questions 14-19
The reading passage has seven paragraphs, A-G.
Choose the correct heading for paragraphs B-G from the list of headings below.
Example: Paragraph A: viii
14. Paragraph B
15. Paragraph C
16. Paragraph D
17. Paragraph E
18. Paragraph F
19. Paragraph G
List of Headings
i
Research into whether organic food is better for us
ii
Adding up the cost of organic food
iii
The factors that can affect food quality
iv
The rich and poor see things differently
v
A description of organic farming
vi
Testing the taste of organic food
vii Fear of science has created the organic trend
viii The main reason for the popularity of organic food
ix
The need to remove hidden dangers from food
Organic food: why?
Today, many governments are promoting organic or natural farming methods that avoid
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the use of pesticides and other artificial products. The aim is to show that they care about
the environment and about people's health.But is this the right approach?
A Europe is now the biggest market for organic food in the world, expanding by 25 percent
a year over the past 10 years. So what is the attraction of organic food for some people?
The really important thing is that organic sounds more ‘natural’. Eating organic is a way of
defining oneself as natural, good, caring, different from the junk-food-scoffing masses. As
one journalist puts it: It feels closer to the source, the beginning, the start of things.' The
real desire is to be somehow close to the soil, to Mother Nature.
B Unlike conventional farming, the organic approach means farming with natural, rather
than man-made, fertilisers and pesticides. Techniques such as crop rotation improve soil
quality and help organic farmers compensate for the absence of man-made chemicals. As
a method of food production, organic is, however, inefficient in its use of labour and land;
there are severe limits to how much food can be produced. Also, the environmental
benefits of not using artificial fertiliser are tiny compared with the amount of carbon
dioxide emitted by transporting food (a great deal of Britain’s organic produce is shipped in
from other countries and transported from shop to home by car).
C Organic farming is often claimed to be safer than conventional farming - for the
environment and for consumers. Yet studies into organic farming worldwide continue to
reject this claim. An extensive review by the UK Food Standards Agency found that there
was no statistically significant difference between organic and conventional crops. Even
where results indicated there was evidence of a difference, the reviewers found no sign
that these differences would have any noticeable effect on health.
D The simplistic claim that organic food is more nutritious than conventional food was
always likely to be misleading. Food is a natural product, and the health value of different
foods will vary for a number of reasons, including freshness, the way the food is cooked,
the type of soil it is grown in, the amount of sunlight and rain crops have received, and so
on. Likewise, the flavour of a carrot has less to do with whether it was fertilised with
manure or something out of a plastic sack than with the variety of carrot and how long ago
it was dug up. The differences created by these things are likely to be greater than any
differences brought about by using an organic or non¬organic system of production.
Indeed, even some ‘organic’ farms are quite different from one another.
E The notion that organic food is safer than ‘normal’ food is also contradicted by the fact
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that many of our most common foods are full of natural toxins. Parsnips cause blisters on
the skin of agricultural workers. Toasting bread creates carcinogens. As one research
expert says: ‘People think that the more natural something is, the better it is for them. That
is simply not the case. In fact, it is the opposite that is true: the closer a plant is to its
natural state, the more likely it is that it will poison you. Naturally, many plants do not want
to be eaten, so we have spent 10,000 years developing agriculture and breeding out
harmful traits from crops.'
F Yet educated Europeans are more scared of eating traces of a few, strictly regulated,
man-made chemicals than they are of eating the ones that nature created directly.
Surrounded by plentiful food, it’s not nature they worry about, but technology. Our
obsessions with the ethics and safety of what we eat - concerns about antibiotics in
animals, additives in food, GM crops and so on - are symptomatic of a highly technological
society that has little faith in its ability to use this technology wisely. In this context, the
less something is touched by the human hand, the healthier people assume it must be.
G Ultimately, the organic farming movement is an expensive luxury for shoppers in wellmanicured Europe. For developing parts of the world, it is irrelevant. To European
environmentalists, the fact that organic methods require more labour and land than
conventional ones to get the same yields is a good thing; to a farmer in rural Africa, it is a
disaster. Here, land tends to be so starved and crop yields so low that there simply is not
enough organic matter to put back into the soil. Perhaps the focus should be on helping
these countries to gain access to the most advanced farming techniques, rather than
going back to basics.
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TEST 5
Questions 1-6
The reading passage has six paragraphs,
A-F. Choose the correct heading for each paragraph from the list of headings below.
1..................... Paragraph A
2..................... Paragraph B
3..................... Paragraph C
4..................... Paragraph D
5..................... Paragraph E
6..................... Paragraph F
List of headings
i Some of the things liars really do
ii When do we begin to lie?
iii How wrong is it to lie?
iv Exposing some false beliefs
v Which form of communication best exposes a lie?
vi Do only humans lie?
vii Dealing with known liars
viii A public test of our ability to spot a lie
The truth about lying
Over the years Richard Wiseman has tried to unravel the truth about deception investigating the signs that give away a liar.
A In the 1970s, as part of a large-scale research programme exploring the area of
Interspecies communication, Dr Francine Patterson from Stanford University attempted to
teach two lowland gorillas called Michael and Koko a simplified version of Sign Language.
According to Patterson, the great apes were capable of holding meaningful conversations,
and could even reflect upon profound topics, such as love and death. During the project,
their trainers believe they uncovered instances where the two gorillas' linguistic skills
seemed to provide reliable evidence of intentional deceit. In one example, Koko broke a toy
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cat, and then signed to indicate that the breakage had been caused by one of her trainers.
In another episode, Michael ripped a jacket belonging to a trainer and, when asked who
was responsible for the incident, signed ‘Koko’. When the trainer expressed some
scepticism, Michael appeared to change his mind, and indicated that Dr Patterson was
actually responsible, before finally confessing.
B Other researchers have explored the development of deception in children. Some of the
most interesting experiments have involved asking youngsters not to take a peek at their
favourite toys. During these studies, a child is led into a laboratory and asked to face one
of the walls. The experimenter then explains that he is going to set up an elaborate toy a
few feet behind them. After setting up the toy, the experimenter says that he has to leave
the laboratory, and asks the child not to turn around and peek at the toy. The child is
secretly filmed by hidden cameras for a few minutes, and then the experimenter returns
and asks them whether they peeked. Almost all three-year-olds do, and then half of them
lie about it to the experimenter. By the time the children have reached the age of five, all of
them peek and all of them lie. The results provide compelling evidence that lying starts to
emerge the moment we learn to speak.
C So what are the tell-tale signs that give away a lie? In 1994, the psychologist Richard
Wiseman devised a large-scale experiment on a TV programme called Tomorrow's World.
As part of the experiment, viewers watched two interviews in which Wiseman asked a
presenter in front of the cameras to describe his favourite film. In one interview, the
presenter picked Some Like It Hot and he told the truth; in the other interview, he picked
Gone with the Wind and lied. The viewers were then invited to make a choice - to telephone
in to say which film he was lying about. More than 30,000 calls were received, but viewers
were unable to tell the difference and the vote was a 50/50 split. In similar experiments,
the results have been remarkably consistent - when it comes to lie detection, people might
as well simply toss a coin. It doesn’t matter if you are male or female, young or old; very
few people are able to detect deception.
D Why is this? Professor Charles Bond from the Texas Christian University has conducted
surveys into the sorts of behaviour people associate with lying. He has interviewed
thousands of people from more than 60 countries, asking them to describe how they set
about telling whether someone is lying. People’s answers are remarkably consistent.
Almost everyone thinks liars tend to avert their gaze, nervously wave their hands around
and shift about in their seats. There is, however, one small problem. Researchers have
spent hour upon hour carefully comparing films of liars and truth-tellers. The results are
clear. Liars do not necessarily look away from you; they do not appear nervous and move
their hands around or shift about in their seats. People fail to detect lies because they are
basing their opinions on behaviours that are not actually associated with deception.
E So what are we missing? It is obvious that the more information you give away, the
greater the chances of some of it coming back to haunt you. As a result, liars tend to say
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less and provide fewer details than truth-tellers. Looking back at the transcripts of the
interviews with the presenter, his lie about Gone with the Wind contained about 40 words,
whereas the truth about Some Like It Hot was nearly twice as long. People who lie also try
psychologically to keep a distance from their falsehoods, and so tend to include fewer
references to themselves in their stories. In his entire interview about Gone with the Wind,
the presenter only once mentioned how the film made him feel, compared with the several
references to his feelings when he talked about Some Like It Hot.
F The simple fact is that the real clues to deceit are in the words that people use, not the
body language. So do people become better lie detectors when they listen to a liar, or even
just read a transcript of their comments? The interviews with the presenter were also
broadcast on radio and published in a newspaper, and although the lie-detecting abilities of
the television viewers were no better than chance, the newspaper readers were correct
64% of the time, and the radio listeners scored an impressive 73% accuracy rate.
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TEST 6
Choose the correct heading for each section from the list of headings below.
List of Headings
I. A possible explanation
ii Why names of objects are unhelpful
iii Checking out the theory
iv A curious state of affairs
v The need to look at how words are formed
vi How age impacts learning colours
vii Some unsurprising data
1. Section A
2. Section B
3. Section C
4. Section D
Learning color words
Young children struggle with color concepts, and the reason for this may have something
to do with how we use the words that describe them.
A In the course of the first few years of their lives, children who are brought up in Englishspeaking homes successfully master the use of hundreds of words. Words for objects,
actions, emotions and many other aspects of the physical world quickly become part of
their infant repertoire. For some reason, however, when it comes to learning color words,
the same children perform very badly. At the age of four months, babies can distinguish
between basic color categories.
Yet it turns out they do this in much the same way as blind children. “Blue” and “yellow”
appear in older children’s expressive language in answer to questions such as “What color
is this?”, but their mapping of objects to individual colors is haphazard and interchangeable.
If shown a blue cup and asked about its color, typical two-year-olds seem as likely to come
up with “red” as “blue.” Even after hundreds of training trials, children as old as four may
still end up being unable to accurately sort objects by color.
B In an effort to work out why this is, cognitive scientists at Stanford University in
California hypothesized that children’s incompetence at color-word learning may be
directly linked to the way these words are used in English. While word order for color
adjectives varies, they are used overwhelmingly in pre-nominal position (e.g. “blue cup”); in
other words, the adjective comes before the noun it is describing. This is in contrast to the
post-nominal position (e.g. “The cup is blue”) where the adjective comes after the noun. It
seems that the difficulty children have may not be caused by any unique property of color,
or indeed, of the world. Rather, it may simply come down to the challenge of having to
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make predictions from color words to the objects they refer to, instead of being able to
make predictions from the world of objects to the color words.
C To illustrate, the word “chair” has a meaning that applies to the somewhat varied set of
entities in the world that people use for sitting on. Chairs have features, such as arms and
legs, and backs, that are combined to some degree in a systematic way; they turn up in a
range of chairs of different shapes, sizes, and ages. It could be said that children learn to
narrow down the set of cues that make up a chair and in this way they learn the concept
associated with that word.
On the other hand, color words tend to be unique and not bound to other specific cooccurring features; there is nothing systematic about color words to help cue their
meaning. In the speech that adults direct at children, color adjectives occur pre-nominally
(“blue cup”) around 70 percent of the time. This suggests that most of what children hear
from adults will, in fact, be unhelpful in learning what color words refer to.
D To explore this idea further, the research team recruited 41 English children aged
between 23 and 29 months and carried out a three-phase experiment. It consisted of a pretest, followed by training in the use of color words, and finally a post-test that was identical
to the pre-test. The pre-and post-test materials comprised six objects that were novel to
the children. There were three examples of each object in each of three colors—red, yellow,
and blue. The objects were presented on trays, and in both tests, the children were asked
to pick out objects in response to requests in which the color word was either a
prenominal (“Which is the red one?”) or a post-nominal (“Which one is red?”).
E In the training, the children were introduced to a “magic bucket” containing five sets of
items familiar to 26-month-olds (balls, cups, crayons, glasses, and toy bears) in each of the
three colors. The training was set up so that half the children were presented with the
items one by one and heard them labeled with color words used pre-nominally (“This is a
red crayon”), while the other half were introduced to the same items described with a postnominal color word (“This crayon is red”). After the training, the children repeated the
selection task on the unknown items in the post-test. To assess the quality of children’s
understanding of the color words, and the effect of each type of training, correct choices
on items that were consistent across the pre-and post-tests were used to measure
children’s color knowledge.
F Individual analysis of pre-and post-test data, which confirmed parental vocabulary
reports, showed the children had at least some knowledge of the three color words: they
averaged two out of three correct choices in response to both pre-and post-nominal
question types, which, it has been pointed out, is better than chance. When children’s
responses to the question types were assessed independently, performance was at its
most consistent when children were both trained and tested on post-nominal adjectives,
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and worst when trained on pre-nominal adjectives and tested on post-nominal adjectives.
Only children who had been trained with post-nominal color-word presentation and then
tested with post-nominal question types were significantly more accurate than chance.
Comparing the pre-and post-test scores across each condition revealed a significant
decline in performance when children were both pre-and post-tested with questions that
placed the color words pre-nominally.
As predicted, when children are exposed to color adjectives in post-nominal position, they
learn them rapidly (after just five training trials per color); when they are presented with
them pre-nominally, as English overwhelmingly tends to do, children show no signs of
learning.
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TEST 7
Questions 1-7
The reading passage has seven sections, A-G.
Choose the correct heading for each section from the list of headings below.
In boxes 15-21 on your answer sheet write A-G.
List of Headings
i
Looking for clues
ii Blaming the beekeepers
iii Solutions to a more troublesome issue
iv Discovering a new bee species
v An impossible task for any human
vi The preferred pollinator
vii Plant features designed to suit the pollinator
viii Some obvious and less obvious pollen carriers
ix
The undesirable alternative
x
An unexpected setback
1. Section A
2. Section B
3. Section C
4. Section D
5. Section E
6. Section F
7. Section G
Gold dusters
A. Row upon row, tomato plants stand in formation inside a greenhouse. To reproduce,
most flowering plants depend on a third party to transfer pollen between their male and
female parts. Some require extra encouragement to give up that golden dust. The tomato
flower, for example, needs a violent shake, a vibration roughly equivalent to 30 times the
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pull of Earth’s gravity, explains Arizona entomologist Stephen Buchmann. Growers have
tried numerous ways to rattle pollen from tomato blossoms. They have used shaking
tables, air blowers and blasts of sound. But natural means seem to work better.
B. It is no surprise that nature’s design works best. What’s astonishing is the array of
workers that do it: more than 200,000 individual animal species, by varying strategies, help
the world's 240,000 species of flowering plants make more flowers. Flies and beetles are
the original pollinators, going back to when flowering plants first appeared 130 million
years ago. As for bees, scientists have identified some 20,000 distinct species so far.
Hummingbirds, butterflies, moths, wasps and ants are also up to the job. Even non-flying
mammals do their part: sugar-loving opossums, some rainforest monkeys, and lemurs in
Madagascar, all with nimble hands that tear open flower stalks and furry coats to which
pollen sticks. Most surprising, some lizards, such as geckos, lap up nectar and pollen and
then transport the stuff on their faces and feet as they forage onward.
C. All that messy diversity, unfortunately, is not well suited to the monocrops and megayields of modern commercial farmers Before farms got so big, says conservation biologist
Claire Kremen of the University of California, Berkeley, ‘we didn’t have to manage
pollinators. They were all around because of the diverse landscapes. Now you need to
bring in an army to get pollination done. The European honeybee was first imported to the
US some 400 years ago.
Now at least a hundred commercial crops rely almost entirely on managed honeybees,
which beekeepers raise and rent out to tend to big farms. And although other species of
bees are five to ten times more efficient, on a per-bee basis, at pollinating certain fruits,
honeybees have bigger colonies, cover longer distances, and tolerate management and
movement better than most insects. They're not picky - they’ll spend their time on almost
any crop. It’s tricky to calculate what their work is truly worth; some economists put it at
more than $200 billion globally a year.
D. Industrial-scale farming, however, may be wearing down the system. Honeybees have
suffered diseases and parasite infestations for as long as they've been managed, but in
2006 came an extreme blow.
Around the world, bees began to disappear over the winter in massive numbers.
Beekeepers would lift the lid of a hive and be amazed to find only the queen and a few
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stragglers, the worker bees gone.
In the US, a third to half of all hives crashed; some beekeepers reported colony losses near
90 percent. The mysterious culprit was named colony collapse disorder (CCD) and it
remains an annual menace - and an enigma.
E. When it first hit, many people, from agronomists to the public, assumed that our
slathering of chemicals on agricultural fields was to blame for the mystery. Indeed, says
Jeff Pettis of the USDA Bee Research Laboratory, ‘we do find more disease in bees that
have been exposed to pesticides, even at low levels.’ But it is likely that CCD involves
multiple stressors. Poor nutrition and chemical exposure, for instance, might wear down a
bee's immunities before a virus finishes the insect off. It’s hard to tease apart factors and
outcomes, Pettis says. New studies reveal that fungicides - not previously thought toxic to
bees - can interfere with microbes that break down pollen in the insects’ guts, affecting
nutrient absorption and thus long-term health and longevity. Some findings pointed to viral
and fungal pathogens working together. ‘I only wish we had a single agent causing all the
declines,’ Pettis says, ’that would make our work much easier!
F. However, habitat loss and alteration, he says, are even more of a menace to pollinators
than pathogens. Claire Kremen encourages farmers to cultivate the flora surrounding
farmland to help solve habitat problems. ‘You can't move the farm,’ she says, ‘but you can
diversify what grows in its vicinity: along roads, even in tractor yards.’ Planting hedgerows
and patches of native flowers that bloom at different times and seeding fields with
multiple plant species rather than monocrops 'not only is better for native pollinators, but
it’s just better agriculture,’ she says. Pesticide-free wildflower havens, adds Buchmann,
would also bolster populations of useful insects. Fortunately, too, ‘there are far more
generalist plants than specialist plants, so there's a lot of redundancy in pollination,’
Buchmann says. ‘Even if one pollinator drops out, there are often pretty good surrogates
left to do the job. The key to keeping our gardens growing strong, he says, is letting that
diversity thrive.
G. Take away that variety, and we'll lose more than honey. ‘We wouldn't starve,’ says
Kremen. ‘But what we eat, and even what we wear pollinators, after all, give us some of our
cotton and flax - would be limited to crops whose pollen travels by other means. ‘In a
sense,’ she says, ‘our lives would be dictated by the wind. It’s vital that we give pollinators
more of what they need and less of what they don't, and ease the burden on managed bees
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by letting native animals do their part, say scientists.
[Adapted from National Geographic Magazine.]
TEST 8
Questions 1-6:
This reading passage has seven paragraphs, A-G. Choose the correct heading for
paragraphs A & C-G from the list below. Write the correct number i-ix, in boxes 14-19 on
your answer sheet.
List of Headings:
i Disobeying FAA Regulations
ii Aviation disaster prompts action
iii Two coincidental developments
iv Setting Altitude Zones
v An oversimplified view
vi Controlling pilots' licence
vii Defining airspace categories
viii Setting rules to weather conditions
ix Taking of Safety
x First step towards ATC
1 Paragraph A
2 Paragraph C
3 Paragraph D
4 Paragraph E
5 Paragraph F
6 Paragraph G
AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL IN THE USA
A. An accident that occurred in the skies over the Grand Canyon in 1956 resulted in the
establishment of the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) to regulate and oversee
the operation of aircraft in the skies over the United States, which were becoming
quite congested. The resulting structure of air traffic control has greatly increased
the safety of flight in the United States, and similar air traffic control procedures are
also in place over much of the rest of the world.
B. Rudimentary air traffic control (ATC) existed well before the Grand Canyon disaster.
As early as the 1920s, the earliest air traffic controllers manually guided aircraft in
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C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
the vicinity of the airports, using lights and flags, while beacons and flashing lights
were placed along cross-country routes to establish the earliest airways. However,
this purely visual system was useless in bad weather, and, by the 1930s, radio
communication was coming into use for ATC. The first region to have something
approximating today's ATC was New York City, with other major metropolitan areas
following soon after.
In the 1940s, ATC centres could and did take advantage of the newly developed
radar and improved radio communication brought about by the Second World War,
but the system remained rudimentary. It was only after the creation of the FAA that
full-scale regulation of America's airspace took place, and this was fortuitous, for the
advent of the jet engine suddenly resulted in a large number of very fast planes,
reducing pilots' margin of error and practically demanding some set of rules to keep
everyone well separated and operating safely in the air.
Many people think that ATC consists of a row of controllers sitting in front of their
radar screens at the nation's airports, telling arriving and departing traffic what to do.
This is a very incomplete part of the picture. The FAA realised that the airspace over
the United States would at any time have many different kinds of planes, flying for
many different purposes, in a variety of weather conditions, and the same kind of
structure was needed to accommodate all of them.
To meet this challenge, the following elements were put into effect. First, ATC
extends over virtually the entire United States. In general, from 365m above the
ground and higher, the entire country is blanketed by controlled airspace. In certain
areas, mainly near airports, controlled airspace extends down to 215m above the
ground, and, in the immediate vicinity of an airport, all the way down to the surface.
Controlled airspace is the airspace in which FAA regulations apply. Elsewhere, in
uncontrolled airspace, pilots are bound by fewer regulations. In this way, the
recreational pilot who simply wishes to go flying for a while without all the
restrictions imposed by the FAA has only to stay in uncontrolled airspace, below
365m, while the pilot who does want the protection afforded by ATC can easily enter
the controlled airspace.
The FAA then recognised two types of operating environments. In good
meteorological conditions, flying would be permitted under Visual Flight Rules (VFR),
which suggests a strong reliance on visual cues to maintain an acceptable level of
safety. Poor visibility necessitated a set of Instrument Flight Rules (IFR), under which
the pilot relied on altitude and navigational information provided by the plane's
instrument panel to fly safely. On a clear day, a pilot in controlled airspace can
choose a VFR or IFR flight plan, and the FAA regulations were devised in a way that
accommodates both VFR and IFR operations in the same airspace. However, a pilot
can only choose to fly IFR if they possess an instrument rating that is above and
beyond the basic pilot's licence that must also be held.
Controlled airspace is divided into several different types, designated by letters of
the alphabet. Uncontrolled airspace is designated Class F, while controlled airspace
below 5,490m above sea level and not in the vicinity of an airport is Class E. All
airspace above 5,490m is designated Class A. The reason for the division of Class E
and Class A airspace stems from the type of planes operating in them. Generally,
Class E airspace is where one finds general aviation aircraft (few of which can climb
above 5,490m anyway), and commercial turboprop aircraft. Above 5,490m is the
realm of the heavy jets, since jet engines operate more efficiently at higher altitudes.
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The difference between Class E and A airspace is that in Class A, all operations are
IFR, and pilots must be instrument-rated, that is, skilled and licensed in aircraft
instrumentation. This is because ATC control of the entire space is essential. Three
other types of airspace, Classes D, C and B, govern the vicinity of airports. These
correspond roughly to small municipal, medium-sized metropolitan and major
metropolitan airports respectively, and encompass an increasingly rigorous set of
regulations. For example, all a VFR pilot has to do to enter Class C airspace is
establish two-way radio contact with ATC. No explicit permission from ATC to enter
is needed, although the pilot must continue to obey all regulations governing VFR
flight. To enter Class B airspace, such as on approach to a major metropolitan
airport, an explicit ATC clearance is required. The private pilot who cruises without
permission into this airspace risks losing their licence.
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PART 4
MULTIPLE CHOICE
PRACTICE EXERCISES
Exercises L-5
In the first five exercises, there are two questions on each passage with a choice of
only three possible answers.
EXERCISE 1
A 20-year-old soldier was slightly injured last night when the car in which he was a
passenger was in collision with a lorry on the main road between Cardiff and
Swansea.
1 The soldier was
A badly hurt.
B hurt a little.
C not hurt at all.
2 What do we know about the car?
A lt was travelling from Cardiff to Swansea.
B lt was being driven by a soldier.
C lt hit another vehicle on the road.
EXERCISE 2
Riches store will re-open for business next Monday following the fire which last month
badly damaged the ground floor of the building. Repairs and improvements that have
been carried out as a result of the fire should make shopping here an even more
enjoyable experience than it was before.
1 As a result of the fire
A the store had to close down for a time.
B the ground floor was totally destroyed.
C the store was able to open only on Mondays.
2 What should be the effect of the repairs?
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A More people are likely to shop here.
B People will find them really enjoyable.
C lt should be pleasant to shop here.
EXERCISE 3
Three men were arrested at a flat in London last night in connection with a series of
art thefts from large country houses in England and France. A fourth man, thought to
be the leader of the gang, is still being sought by the police.
1 Why were the men arrested?
A They were caught stealing a number of works of art.
B lt is thought they may have stolen some paintings.
C They had broken into houses in many countries.
2 The fourth man
A is still free.
B is seeking the police.
C wants to be the leader of the gang.
EXERCISE 4
ln recent years, people in Britain have become increasingly conscious of the need to
lead a more healthy life. As a result of this, food products containing a great deal of fat
or sugar have become less popular and frequent exercise has become a way of life for
many. By adopting a more healthy life style, people hope not only to live longer but
also to feel fit and be active well into old age.
1 What evidence is there to show that people in Britain are trying to lead healthier
lives?
A Very few people eat food which has fat in it.
B Many people take part in exercise.
C People are aware of the need for a healthy life.
2 People are trying to lead a more healthy life
A in order to become younger.
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B so that they can take exercise.
C in order to remain active.
EXERCISE 5
The 10-mile race for pupils of Rickton School took place last Saturday. Fifty runners
took part and all but two of them managed to complete the course. The race was
won by 18-year-old Peter Sloane, who is in his final year at the school. Peter hopes to
go to Hull University next year to study Physics, but is determined to find time whilst
there to continue his running.
1 How many people finished the race?
A 2 B 13 C 48
2 Peter Sloane
A plans to run to the university.
B intends to carry on studying next year.
C has finished studying at school.
Now check your answers on page 67 .
Exercises 6-10
In the remaining five exercises, there is a choice of four possible answers for each
question (as in the examination). Exercises 6 and 7 have two questions each,
exercises 8 and 9 have three questions, and exercise 10 has four questions.
EXERCISE 5
Flair Electronics have reported a drop in profits this year following disappointing sales
figures for their new range of computer software. The Chairman of the company put
the blame for this on the growth in the number of companies producing material of a
similar nature.
1 Flair Electronics have .....
A increased their losses this year.
B made less money this year than last year.
C increased their profits only slightly this year.
D lost less money this year.
2 What do we know about the company's new range of computer software?
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A Many other companies produce computer software.
B lt does not work as well as had been expected.
C !t will be out of date by the end of the year.
D The company has not sold as much of it as expected
EXERCISE 7
The Lathkill Hotel is situated in the Derbyshire village of Over Haddon and enjoys
spectacular panoramic views. The nearby tranquil dales and rolling fields are dotted
with interesting villages, but there are larger towns too - Bakewell with its famous
puddings, Buxton, the elegant spa town.Also nearby are five famous country houses
(including Chatsworth), making the hotel an ideal base for exploring the area.Homecooked food is available at lunchtimes and evenings and you can eat while enjoying
glorious views. During the summer you can take your pick from a hot and cold
buffet table. Packed lunches are also available. A more extensive evening menu is
available in the restaurant, which is open to residents and non-residents.
1 Why might people want to stay at this hotel?
A There are no towns nearby.
B The nearby countryside is very peaceful.
C The hotel is lonely and isolated.
D The country houses all welcome visitors.
2 The evening meals are different from the lunchtime meals because
A there is more choice.
B both hot and cold food is available.
C non-residents may eat in the restaurant.
D the restaurant is closed in summer.
EXERCISE 8
Every parent worries about what sort of world their children will inherit. As
populations grow, clean safe water will become an even more vital commodity and so
it is essential that children learn at an early age the importance of water and the
environment we live in. North West Water has built special educational facilities
throughout the north west of England. These unique 'environmental classrooms' are
available free of charge to any school in the region.Each facility provides a range of
fun and interactive lessons where young people can learn howwater reaches their
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homes and how they can help in conserving water.Over 3,000 children a year spend
time in the classrooms. lt has been rated as a fantastic day out by both children and
teachers. We think it is a responsible approach to education as we face up to the
future.
1 According to the passage, what do parents worry about?
A the amount of money they can leave to their children
B how life will be for their children
C the fact that there are more people in the world
D whether the water children drink is clean
2 The special educational facilities
A can be used free of charge by any school in England.
B teach children how to take water home.
C prevent children from wasting water.
D allow children to learn in an enjoyable way.
3 Why does the writer think that North West Water has a responsible attitude to the
future?
A Because children are learning something important for the future.
B Because the number of people in the world is falling.
C Because so many children go to these special facilities.
D Because children have a wonderful day out
EXERCISE 9
Americans were invited to sample the food, the golf and the heritage of Scotland at a
meeting held in New York yesterday to promote the tourism opportunities created by
films set in Scotland. The move came as the Scottish Tourist Board announced a
seven per cent growth in tourist spending in Scotland last year. American tourism
accounts for a quarter of the overseas visits to Scotland and visitor numbers are
expected to increase substantially this year as a result of the large number of 'scenic'
films shot there. At the Scottish Travel Fair in Glasgow, it was predicted that the films
could have an effect on Scottish tourism for the next 15 years.
1 What was the reason for the meeting in New York?
A to advertise films made in Scotland
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B to make Scottish food more popular
C to encourage people to visit Scotland
D to persuade people to make films in Scotland
2 Why might members of the Scottish Tourist Board be feeling pleased?
A More tourists visited Scotland last year.
B They had an increase in their salaries.
C Visitors spent more money in Scotland last year.
D They spent more money on visitors last year.
3 This year it is expected that
A more people will come to visit Scotland.
B there will be an increase in 'scenic'films made here.
C the films will have little effect on the number of visitors.
D a quarter of all visitors will come from America.
EXERCISE 10
A 35-year old man from Leeds walked into his hotel in Keswick in the English Lake
District at eight o'clock last night as the local mountain rescue team were preparing
to mount a search for him.The man, an inexperienced mountain walker, had had an
argument with his wife that morning and had left the hotel to go walking despite
warnings of severe weather conditions. He had been reported missing by his wife late
in the afternoon.ln fact the man had not been in the mountains at all but, on seeing
how bad the weather was,had changed his mind and had decided to take a bus to
Windermere. He did not think to phone his wife to tell her of his change of plans.
Unfortunately, he missed the bus which he had planned to catch back to Keswick and
arrived at the hotel rather later than he had intended.
1 Why was the mountain rescue team going to search for the man?
A lt was thought that he was lost in the mountains.
B The man was not an experienced mountaineer.
C The weather was not going to improve.
D The man had left the hotel in a bad temper.
2 What do we know about the man?
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A He was not used to walking in the mountains.
B He had many arguments with his wife.
C He did not know about the bad weather.
D He had thought of phoning his wife.
3 Why do you think the man's wife was worried about him?
A He had changed his plans.
B He had gone to Windermere.
C He had missed a bus.
D He had not returned to the hotel.
4 Why did the man arrive back at the hotel later than he had intended?
A The bus was held up by the bad weather.
B He did not catch the bus he wanted.
C He missed the bus to Windermere.
D The bus left Windermere early.
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EXAMS
EXAM 1
In the 1930s, when radio was still in its infancy, broadcasting stations in the USA
wondered what type of programmes they should put on during the daytime- They
came up with the idea of producing serials that would be on the radio every
afternoon telling a continuous story. To keep the listeners' interest, there would be far
more crises occurring than in real life. Knowing that the majority of the audience
would be women, the broadcasters decided that the women in the serials would be
strong characters and the men weak. The serials were an instant success with
listeners. As the radio stations were paid for by advertising, these programmes always
carried advertisements and, since one of the most frequently advertised products was
soap, the programmes became known as Soaps or Soap Operas. It was really by
chance that the soap opera appeared in Britain. The BBC (British Broadcasting
Corporation) had no interest in producing this type of programme but during the
Second World War it was thought that the Americans should be shown how well the
British people were standing up to the war. For this reason, a soap opera was written
for the North American service of the BBC; it was called Front Line Family and
showed how a typical English family, the Robinsons, were living during the war. Some
people in Britain managed to hear the programme and asked for it to be broadcast
for the British audience. The BBC were unwilling to do this but finally agreed and
broadcast the programnne in Britain, but changed the name lo The Robinsons. The
programme ran for six years. Other soaps were introduced later, one telling the life of
a doctor's family and another, The Archers, about life in a country village. The original
aim of The Archers was to inform farmers of new developments in agriculture. The
serial began in 1951 and is still to be heard on five evenings every week.Some
attempts at soap opera began to appear on television in Britain in the mid-1950s but it
was not until 1961 that the first real soap opera appeared. This was shown, not by the
BBC, but by commercial television. The serial, called Coronation Street, was about the
lives of people living in a working-class street near Manchester. Although the serial
was planned to run for only thirteen weeks, it is still to be seen several nights every
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week and almost every week has more viewers than any other programme on British
television. The BBC never managed to produce a really successful soap opera until
1984, when it introduced Eastenders. This programme is about life in anarea of the
east end of London. For a time it had more viewers than Coronation Street and still
rivals it as the most popular programme on British television. There is a major
difference between the two programmes in that Eastenders concentrates on often
rather depressing realism whilst Coronation Street, although having serious storylines,
always contains a strong element of comedy.
1 What problem did broadcasting stations in America have in the early days of radio?
A how to reflect real life
B what to broadcast during the day
C what type of serial to produce
D how to entertain women
2 Why did the radio stations make women have the strongest characters in soap
operas?
A Because men usually have weak characters.
B Because no men would be listening.
C Because women deal better with crises.
D Because the audience would be mainly female.
3 Why was the name soap or soap opera given to these programmes?
A Soap was often advertised during the programmes.
B Soap companies advertised the programmes.
C Soap companies owned several radio stations.
D Soap was the only product advertised during the programmes.
4 Why was the programme Front Line Family made?
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A to tell the Americans why the British were at war
B to tell the Americans how the British were living during the war
C to tell the Americans how the British were winning the war
D to tell the Americans why the British stood to win the war
5 Why did the BBC begin to broadcast Front Line Familyin Britain?
A Because people in America liked it.
B Because the BBC thought it would run for six years.
C Because people asked to hear it.
D Because the BBC changed its name.
6 What do we learn about The Archers in this passage?
A The programme was about a country doctor.
B lt could be heard every evening of the week.
C lt was first broadcast before 1951.
D The aim of the programme was to educate farmers.
7 What do we learn about Coronation Street?
A lt has always been the most popular programme on television.
B lt has lasted longer than expected.
C lt was the first real soap on to be shown on BBC television.
D lt takes place in central Manchester.
8 How is Coronation Streef different from Eastenders?
A lt is funnier.
B lt has a stronger storyline.
C lt is more serious.
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D lt is more like real life.
EXAM 2
For five years from December 1903 to September 1908, two young bicycle mechanics
from the state of Ohio in America repeatedly claimed that they had built a heavier-than
-air machine which they had flown successfully. Despite demonstrations and
photographs of themselves flying, the claims of Wilbur and Orville Wright were
laughed at and dismissed as a practical joke by the magazine Scientific American, the
newspaper the New York Herald, the US Army and most American scientists.
Experts rejected the Wright brothers' claim without troubling to examine the evidence as
they were so convinced, on purely scientific grounds, that flight in powered machines
which were heavier than air was impossible. lt was not until President Theodore
Roosevelt ordered public trials at Fort Myers in 1908 that the Wrights were able to
prove their claim conclusively and the Army and the scientific press were compelled
to accept that their flying machine was a reality. It is perhaps not too surprising that
a couple of young bicycle mechanics in a remote town on the prairies should be
ignored by the intellectuals of the more sophisticated east coast of America at a time
when the horse was still the principal means of transport. What is more surprising is
that the local newspapers in their home town of Dayton, Ohio, should have ignored
the Wrights. Ln 1904, a local banker, Torrence Huffman, allowed the brothers to use a
large piece of farm land owned by him outside the town for their flying experiments.
The land was bordered by two main roads and the local railway line so that, as the
months went by, hundreds of people actually saw the Wrights flying. Many of the
amazed passengers wrote to the local newspapers to ask who were the young men
who were regularly flying near the railway line and why had nothing appeared about
them in the papers. Eventually the enquiries became so frequent that the papers
complained that they were becoming a nuisance, but still their editors showed no
interest in the story, sending neither a reporter nor a photograPher.ln 1940, Dan
Kumler, the city editor of the Dayton Daily News at the time of the flights gave an
interview about his refusal to publish anything thirty-five years earlier and spoke frankly
about his reasons. Kumler recalled, "l guess we just didn't believe it. Of course, you
must remember that the Wrights at that time kept things very secret."The interviewer
responded in amazement, "You mean they kept things secret by flying over an open
field?" Kumler considered the question, grinned and said, "l guess the truth is we were
just plain stupidJ'
1 What do we learn about the Wright brothers in the first paragraph?
A They said they had built a flying machine.
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B They gave lots of flying demonstrations.
C They laughed at the ideas in the Scientific American.
D They took photographs of themselves.
2 How did Theodore Roosevelt become involved with the Wright brothers?
A He insisted that the trial should be in a public court.
B He concluded that the brothers were telling the truth.
C He ordered the press to tell tlre truth about the plane.
D He ordered the brothers to test the plane in public.
3 Why are horses mentioned in the third paragraph?
A They were used only in the East.
B They provided the usua! way of travelling.
C They were rarely used in Ohio.
D They were the only form of transport.
4 What does the writer find surprising about the flying experiments?
A the lack of interest shown by local newspapers
B the attitude of the exPerts
C the lack of flying experiments in the East
D the skill of bicycle mechanics
5 Torrence Huffman helped the Wright brothers by
A lending them money to buy some land.
B letting them use some of his land.
C giving them some of his farm land.
D allowing them to buy some land.
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6 Why did people write to the newspapers?
A to ask why people were flying near the railway line
B to make sure that it was the Wright brothers who were flying
C to ask why the flights had not been reported in the papers
D to complain about the nuisance caused by these flights
7 Why was the interviewer surprised by the first answer given by Dan Kumler?
A The interviewer knew that the Wrights had opened the gates to the field.
B The interviewer thought the Wrights had wanted to keep their flights secret.
C The interviewer did not believe what Kumler had told the Wrights.
D The interviewer thought that anybody could have seen the Wrights flying.
8 Which of the following would be a suitable title?
A Newspapers tell lies
B Too easily convinced
C Refusal to recognise progress
D People will believe anything
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EXAM 3
One of the most famous concert halls in America is the Carnegie Hall in New York.
lnitially, it was called simply the 'Music Hall', but three years after its opening it was
renamed in honour of Andrew Carnegie, the.-man who had provided much of the
finance for its building.The Hall officially opened on May 5, 1891. Since then the Hall
has played host to the giants of classical music, as well as those of jazz, pop, folk
and rock music, and has also been used for political rallies, religious services and
lebtures, One of the most dramatic lectures given in the Hall took place during its
first year. This began simply as a talk accompanied by slides of paintings of sunsets
and landscapes, which was what the audience had been expecting. However, as the
tecture progressed, the effects became more dramatic, with thunder, rolling clouds
and steam billowing over the audience's head while mechanical volcanoes exploded on
stage - all to the amazement and delight of the audience.ln 1927 the violinist Yehudi
Menuhin made his appearance at the Carnegie Hall for the first time- he was aged
ten. ln the afternoon before the performance, he was wandering around the Hallinstead
of practising and was fascinated by an axe which he saw on the wall. The axe was for
usein a fire but the boy, not knowing this, asked a security guard what it was for. The
guard made animpression with his reply: "That's for chopping the heads off soloists
who don't play well enough.Quite a few have already been chopped offl'Yehudi went
rushing back to practise.On one occasion another famous violinist and a pianist were
giving a performance togetherwhen the violinist got lost i6 the music. He anxiously
looked to the pianist for help and whispered"Where are we?". He received the less
than helpful reply "ln the Carnegie Hall".Rock and roll made its first appearance at the
Carnegie Hall in 1955 with Bill Haley and hisComets. !n 1964 the British invasion
arrived when the Beatles played their first concert here. On the day of the concert,
cars came to a halt all over the city and the crowds surrounding the building were
enormous. Fortunately, in all the chaos nobody was seriously injured and the Hall
escaped with only nlinor damage. ln the 1950s the building was threatened with
demolition but a vigorous campaign to save it was led by the conductor, lsaac Stern. ln
1960 the Hall was purchased by the City of New York and a few years later it was
named a national landmark. Over the years the most famous musicians, singers and
entertainers in the world have appeared there - no doubt they will continue to do
sofor many years to come.
1 What do we learn about Andrew Carnegie?
A He gave most of his money to the Hall.
B He renamed the Hall.
C He gave money to help build the Hall .
D He felt honoured when the name was changed.
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2 Why was the audience surprised at the lecture in the first year?
A People thought that the special effects were frightening.
B People had not been expecting to see slides.
C People had expected the lecture to be rather more dramatic.
D People had thought they were going to hear a straightfonruard lecture
3 What would seem to be special about Yehudi Menuhin's appearance at the Hall in
1927?
A He did no practising for the concert at all.
B He was very young at the time.
C He had played here before.
D He had not appeared on a stage before.
4 Why do you imagine he went to practise after speaking to the security guard?
A He realised that he needed to practise.
B He believed what the guard had told him.
C He thought the guard would attack him.
D He wanted to find out what the axe was for.
5 Why was the pianist's answer unhelpful?
A The violinist knew he was in the Carnegie Hall.
B The pianist was not telling the truth.
C The violinist had lost his music.
D The pianist did not know where they were.
6 What happened as a result of the Beatles going to Carnegie Hall?
A A few people were seriously injured,
B There were crowds in all parts of New York.
C Some people escaped from the Hall uninjured.
D There were traffic iams in New York.
7 What happened iq the 1950s?
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A lsaac Stern stopped the demolition of the Hall.
B The Hall was sold to the City of New York'
C There was a possibility of the Hall being pulled down.
D There was a campaign to demolish the Hall.
8 What does the wr.iter seem to think about the future of the Carnegie Hall.
A The greatest entertainers in the world have appeared there.
B No one can tell what the future will bring
C !t will become a national landmark.
D lt will continue to attract great stars
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EXAM 4
Father was in the army all through the war - the First War, I mean - so, up to the age of
five, Inever saw much of him, and what I saw did not worry me. Sometimes I woke and
there was a big figure looking down at me. Sometimes in the early morning I heard the
closing of the front door and the sound of boots walking down the lane. These were
Father's entrances and exits. In fact, I rather liked his visits, though it was an
uncomfortable squeeze between Mother and him when I got into the big bed in the
early morning. He smoked, which gave him a pleasant sort of smell. Watching him shave
was fascinating. Each time he went away, he left lots of souvenirs - model
tanks,knives, cap badges and all sorts of military equipment which he put in a long
box on top of the wardrobe as he felt that they could be handy sometime. When he
was not there, Mother let me get a chair and search through his treasures. She did
not seem to think so highly of them as he did. The war was the most peaceful period
of my life. Every morning I awoke as soon as it was light and felt myself to be like the
sun, ready to shine and rejoice. Life never seemed so simple and clear and full of
possibilities as then. I got up, went into Mother's room and climbed into the big bed.
She woke and I began to tell her of my schemes. ! talked but then fell asleep and
woke again only when I heard her below in the kitchen, making the breakfast. I often
wondered what Mother and I should do all day, what present I would get for Christmas
and what I should do to brighten up the home. There was that little matter of the
baby, for instance.Mother and I could never agree about that. Ours was the only
house in the street without a new baby, and Mother said we could not afford one until
Father came back from the war as they were very expensive. That showed how
simple she was. The Geneys who lived nearby had a baby, and everybody knew that
they had hardly any money at all. Admittedly it was probably a cheap baby,and Mother
wanted something really good, but I felt this did not really matter. The Geney's baby
would have been fine for us.
1 Until the age of five, the writer
A did not worry his father
B never saw his father.
C often annoyed his father.
D saw his father occasionally.
2 Why did he find it uncomfortable being in the big bed when his father was home?
A His mother squeezed him.
B The bed did not have enough room for three.
C He was not used to being in it so early.
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D His father smelt of smoke.
3 The writer's father kept his souvenirs because he thought
A they could be put inside the wardrobe.
B they were very valuable.
C Mother did not seem to value them.
D they might be useful.
4 When the writer woke up, he felt that
A life was good.
B he was simple.
C life was possible.
D he was funny.
5 what happened as soon as the writer got into his mother's bed?
A She went to make breakfast.
B He told her all his plans.
C She asked him about his schemes.
D He went to sleep.
6 The writer's mother said they could not have a baby because
A there was a war on.
B there were too many babies in the street.
C they cost a lot of money.
D Father was not at home.
7 Why did the writer think that his mother would not have wanted the Geney's baby?
A lt was probably not of very good quality.
B The price would have been too high.
C The Geneys were too poor.
D She probably thought it was too good for her.
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REAL TESTS
TEST 1
Air conditioning
The history of an invention that makes life more pleasant
Willis Carrier designed the first air-conditioning unit in 1902, just a year after graduating
from Cornell University with a Masters in Engineering.
At a Brooklyn printing plant, fluctuations in heat and moisture were causing the size of the
printing paper to keep changing slightly, making it hard to align different colours. Carrier’s
invention made it possible to control temperature and humidity levels and so align the
colours. The invention also allowed industries such as film, processed food, textiles and
pharmaceuticals to improve the quality of their products.
In 1914, the first air-conditioning device was installed in a private house. However, its size,
similar to that of an early computer, meant it took up too much space to come into
widespread use, and later models, such as the Weathermaker, which Carrier brought out in
the 1920s, cost too much for most people. Cooling for human comfort, rather than
industrial need, really took off when three air conditioners were installed in the J.L. Hudson
Department Store in Detroit, Michigan. People crowded into the shop to experience the
new invention. The fashion spread from department stores to cinemas, whose income
rose steeply as a result of the comfort they provided.
To start with, money-conscious employers regarded air conditioning as a luxury. They
considered that if they were paying people to work, they should not be paying for them to
be comfortable as well. So in the 1940s and ’50s, the industry started putting out a
different message about its product: according to their research, installing air conditioning
increased productivity amongst employees. They found that typists increased their output
by 24% when transferred from a regular office to a cooled one. Another study into office
working conditions, which was carried out in the late ’50s, showed that the majority of
companies cited air conditioning as the single most important contributor to efficiency in
offices.
However, air conditioning has its critics. Jed Brown, an environmentalist, complains that air
conditioning is a factor in global warming. Unfortunately, he adds, because air conditioning
leads to higher temperatures, people have to use it even more. However, he admits that it
provides a healthier environment for many people in the heat of summer.
Questions 1-5
Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.
1
When Willis Carrier invented air conditioning, his aim was to
A) make workers feel cooler.
B ) produce more attractive paper.
C) set up a new business.
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D) solve problems in a factory.
2 Home air conditioners were not popular at first because they were
A) too big and expensive.
B ) not considered necessary.
C ) too inefficient.
D ) complicated to use.
3
Employers refused to put air conditioning in workplaces at first because they
A) could not afford to pay for it.
B ) thought it was more suitable for cinemas.
C) did not want to spend money improving working conditions.
D) thought people would not work so hard in comfortable conditions.
4
What was the purpose of the research done in the 1940s and ’50s?
A) to make office workers produce more
B ) to compare different types of air conditioner
C ) to persuade businesses to buy air conditioners
D ) to encourage employees to change offices
5
What does Jed Brown say about air conditioning?
A ) In future, everyone will need it.
B ) Turning it off will not reduce global warming.
C ) It can seriously damage people’s health.
D ) It is good for people, but bad for the environment.
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TEST 2
The Pompidou Centre
More than three decades after it was built, the Pompidou Centre in Paris has survived its
moment at the edge of architectural fashion and proved itself to be one of the most
remarkable buildings of the 20th century.
It was the most outstanding now building constructed in Paris for two generations. It
looked like an explosion of brightly coloured service pipes in the calm of the city centre.
However, when in 1977 the architects Richard Rogers and Renzo Piano stood among a
large crowd of 5,000 at the opening of the Centre Culturel d'Art Georges Pompidou (known
as the Pompidou), no one was really aware of the significance of this unusual building.
Rogers was only 38 when he and Piano won the competition to design a new cultural
centre for Paris in the old market site. Young, unknown architects, they had been chosen
from a field of nearly 700 to design one of the most prestigious buildings of its day. After
six difficult years, with 25,000 drawings, seven lawsuits, battles over budgets, and a
desperate last-minute scramble to finish the building, it had finally been done.
Yet the opening was a downbeat moment. The Pompidou Centre had been rubbished by
the critics while it was being built, there was no more work in prospect for the architects,
and their partnership had effectively broken down. But this was just a passing crisis. The
Centre, which combined the national museum of modern art, exhibition space, a public
library and a centre for modern music, proved an enormous success. It attracted six million
visitors in its first year, and with its success, the critics swiftly changed their tune.
The architects had been driven by the desire for ultimate flexibility, for a building that
would not limit the movement of its users. All the different parts were approached through
the same enormous entrance hall and served by the same escalator, which was free to
anyone to ride, whether they wanted to visit an exhibition or just admire the view. With all
the services at one end of the building, escalators and lifts at the other, and the floors hung
on giant steel beams providing uninterrupted space the size of two football pitches, their
dream had become a reality.
The image of the Pompidou pervaded popular culture in the 1970s, making appearances
everywhere - on record-album covers and a table lamp, and even acting as the set for a
James Bond 1 film. This did much to overcome the secretive nature of the architectural
culture of its time, as it enabled wider audience to appreciate the style and content of the
building and so moved away from the strictly professional view.
The following year, Rogers was commissioned to design a new headquarters for Lloyd's
Bank in London and went on to create one of Britain's most dynamic architectural
practices. Piano is now among the world's most respected architects. But what of their
shared creation?
It was certainly like no previous museum, with its plans for a flexible interior that not only
had movable walls but floors that could also be adjusted up or down. This second feature
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did not in the end survive when the competition drawings were turned into a real building.
In other ways, however, the finished building demonstrated a remarkable degree of
refinement - of craftsmanship even - in the way the original diagram was transformed into
a superbly detailed structure. It was this quality which, according to some critics,
suggested that the Pompidou should be seen as closer to the 19th-century engineering
tradition than the space age.
Nevertheless, as a model for urban planning, it has proved immensely influential. The
Guggenheim in Bilbao* and the many other major landmark projects that were built in the
belief that innovatively designed cultural buildings can bring about urban renewal are all
following the lead of the Pompidou Centre.
Other buildings may now challenge it for the title of Europe s most outlandish work of
architecture. However, more than a quarter of a century later, this construction - it is hard
to call it a building when there is no façade, just a lattice of steel beams and pipes and a
long external escalator snaking up the outside - still seems extreme.
Today, the Pompidou Centre itself still looks much as it did when it opened. The shock
value of its colour-coded plumbing and its structure has not faded with the years. But while
traditionalists regarded it as an ugly attack on Paris when it was built, they now see it for
what it is - an enormous achievement, technically and conceptually.
Questions 1-4
Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.
1 What does the writer sav in the first paragraph about the opening of the Pompidou
Centre?
A) The elderly did not like it.
B) The architects were not present.
C) The atmosphere was very noisy.
D) The people did not realise its importance.
2 What does the writer say in the second paragraph about the construction of the
Pompidou?
A) There was a hurry to complete it.
B) It cost less than expected.
C) Other experts helped draw the plans.
D) The market location was criticised.
3
What is the writer’s main purpose in the third paragraph?
A) to explain the multi-functional role of the centre
B) to praise the architects for their design ideas
C) to say why some people’s opinions quickly altered
D) to show how the media benefited from its success
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4
What was the architects’ ‘dream’, referred to in the fourth paragraph?
A) to become famous
B) to provide entertainment
C) to allow visitors to use it freely
D) to build the biggest museum in the world
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TEST 3
Why don’t babies talk like adults?
Kids go from 'goo-goo' to talkative one step at a time
A recent e-trade advertisement shows a baby speaking directly to the camera: 'Look at
this,’ he says, I'm a free man. I go anywhere I want now.’ He describes his stock-buying
activities, and then his phone rings. This advertisement proves what comedians have
known for years: few things are as funny as a baby who talks like an adult. But it also
raises an important question: Why don’t young children express themselves clearly like
adults?
Many people assume children learn to talk by copying what they hear. In other words, they
listen to the words adults use and the situations in which they use them and imitate
accordingly. Behaviourism, the scientific approach that dominated American cognitive
science for the first half of the 20th century, made exactly this argument.
However, this ’copycat’ theory can’t explain why toddlers aren’t as conversational as adults.
After all, you never hear literate adults express themselves in one-word sentences like
‘bottle’ or ‘doggie’. In fact, it's easy for scientists to show that a copycat theory of language
acquisition can’t explain children’s first words. What is hard for them to do is to explain
these first words, and how they fit into the language acquisition pattern.
Over the past half-century, scientists have settled on two reasonable possibilities. The first
of these is called the ‘mental-developmental hypothesis’. It states that one-year-olds speak
in baby talk because their immature brains can’t handle adult speech. Children don't learn
to walk until their bodies are ready. Likewise, they don't speak multi-word sentences or use
word endings and function words (‘Mummy opened the boxes') before their brains are
ready.
The second is called the ‘stages-of-language hypothesis’, which states that the stages of
progress in child speech are necessary stages in language development.
A basketball player can't perfect his or her jump shot before learning to (1) jump and (2)
shoot. Similarly, children learn to multiply after they have learned to add. This is the order
in which children are taught - not the reverse. There's evidence, for instance, that children
don't usually begin speaking in two-word sentences until they’ve learned a certain number
of single words.
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In other words, until they’ve crossed that linguistic threshold, the word-combination
process doesn't get going.
The difference between these theories is this: under the mental-development hypothesis,
language learning should depend on the child’s age and level of mental development when
he or she starts learning a language. Linder the stages-of-language hypothesis, however, it
shouldn’t depend on such patterns, but only on the completion of previous stages.
In 2007, researchers at Harvard University, who were studying the two theories, found a
clever way to test them. More than 20,000 internationally adopted children enter the US
each year. Many of them no longer hear their birth language after they arrive, and they
must learn English more or less the same way infants do - that is, by listening and by trial
and error. International adoptees don’t take classes or use a dictionary when they are
learning their new tongue and most of them don’t have a well-developed first language. All
of these factors make them an ideal population in which to test these competing
hypotheses about how language is learned.
Neuroscientists Jesse Snedeker, Joy Geren and Carissa Shafto studied the language
development of 27 children adopted from China between the ages of two and five years.
These children began learning English at an older age than US natives and had more
mature brains with which to tackle the task. Even so, just as with American-born infants,
their first English sentences consisted of single words and were largely bereft of function
words, word endings and verbs. The adoptees then went through the same stages as
typical American- born children, albeit at a faster clip. The adoptees and native children
started combining words in sentences when their vocabulary reached the same sizes,
further suggesting that what matters is not how old you are or how mature your brain is,
but the number of words you know.
This finding - that having more mature brains did not help the adoptees avoid the toddlertalk stage - suggests that babies speak in babytalk not because they have baby brains, but
because they have only just started learning and need time to gain enough vocabulary to
be able to expand their conversations. Before long, the one-word stage will give way to the
two-word stage and so on. Learning how to chat like an adult is a gradual process.
But this potential answer also raises an even older and more difficult question. Adult
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immigrants who learn a second language rarely achieve the same proficiency in a foreign
language as the average child raised as a native speaker. Researchers have long
suspected there is a ‘critical period’ for language development, after which it cannot
proceed with full success to fluency. Yet we still do not understand this critical period or
know why it ends.
Questions 1-5
Choose the correct letter A, B, C or D.
Write your answers in boxes 35-39 on your answer sheet.
1. What is the writer’s main purpose in the seventh paragraph?
A. to give reasons why adopted children were used in the study
B. to reject the view that adopted children need two languages
C. to argue that culture affects the way children learn a language
D. to justify a particular approach to language learning
2. Snedeker, Geren and Shafto based their study on children who
A. were finding it difficult to learn English.
B. had come from a number of language backgrounds.
C. were learning English at a later age than US children.
D. had taken English lessons in China.
3. What aspect of the adopted children's language development differed from that of USborn children?
A. their first words
B. the way they learnt English
C. the rate at which they acquired language
D. the point at which they started producing sentences
4. What did the Harvard finding show?
A. Not all toddlers use babytalk.
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B. Language learning takes place in ordered steps.
C. Some children need more conversation than others.
D. Not all brains work in the same way.
5. When the writer says ‘critical period’, he means a period when.
A. studies produce useful results.
B. adults need to be taught like children.
C. immigrants want to learn another language.
D. language learning takes place effectively
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TEST 4
Preserving Britain’s cultural heritage: to restore a legendary theatrical dress
An astonishingly intricate project is being undertaken to restore a legendary theatrical
dress, Angela Wintle explains.
On December 28th, 1888, the curtain rose on a daring new stage revival of Shakespeare’s
Macbeth at the Lyceum Theatre in London. Topping the bill, playing Lady Macbeth, a main
character in the play, was Ellen Terry. She was the greatest and most adored English
actress of the age. But she didn't achieve this devotion through her acting ability alone, She
knew the power of presentation and carefully cultivated her image. That first night was no
exception. When she walked on stage for the famous banqueting scene, her appearance
drew a collective gasp from the audience.
She was dressed in the most extraordinary clothes ever to have graced a British stage: a
long, emerald and sea-green gown with tapering sleeves, surmounted by a velvet cloak,
which glistened and sparkled eerily in the limelight. Yet this was no mere stage
trickery. The effect had been achieved using hundreds of wings from beetles. The gown later named the ‘Beetlewing dress’ became one of the most iconic and celebrated
costumes of the age.
Terry was every bit as remarkable as her costumes. At 31, she became a leading lady at
the Lyceum Theatre and for two decades, she set about bringing culture to the masses.
The productions she worked on were extravagant and daring. Shakespeare’s plays were
staged alongside blood-and-thunder melodramas and their texts were ruthlessly cut. Some
people were critical, but they missed the point. The innovations sold tickets and brought
new audiences to see masterpieces that they would never otherwise have seen.
However, it was a painter who immortalised her. John Singer Sargent had been so struck
by Terry's appearance at that first performance that he asked her to model for him, and his
famous portrait of 1889, now at the Tate Gallery in London, showed her with a glint in her
eye, holding a crown over her flame-red hair. But while the painting remains almost as
fresh as the day it was painted, the years have not been so kind to the dress. Its delicate
structure, combined with the cumulative effects of time, has meant it is now in an
extremely fragile condition. Thus, two years ago, a fundraising project was launched by
Britain's National Trust1 to pay for its conservation.
It turned to textile conservator Zenzie Tinker to do the job. Zenzie loves historical dress
because of the link with the past. ’Working on costumes like the Beetlewing dress gives
you a real sense of the people who wore them; you can see the sweat stains and wear
marks. But it’s quite unusual to know who actually wore a garment. That’s the thing that
makes the Beetlewing project so special.’
Before any of Zenzie’s conservation work can begin, she and her team will conduct a
thorough investigation to help determine what changes have been made to the dress and
when. This will involve close examination of the dress for signs of damage and wear, and
will be aided by comparing it with John Singer Sargent's painting and contemporary
photographs. Then and the National Trust will decide how far back to take the
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reconstruction, as some members feel that even the most recent changes are now part of
the history of the dress.
The first stages in the actual restoration will involve delicate surface cleaning, using a
small vacuum suction device. Once the level of reconstruction has been determined, the
original crocheted2 overdress will be stitched onto a dyed net support before repairs
begin. It’s going to be extraordinarily difficult, because the original doth is quite stretchy, so
we’ve deliberately chosen net because that has a certain amount of flexibility in it too,' says
Zenzie. When the dress is displayed, none of our work will be noticeable, but we’ll retain all
the evidence on the reverse so that future experts will be able to see exactly what we've
done - and I'll produce a detailed report.’
Zenzie has estimated that the project, costing about £30,000, will require more than 700
hours’ work. ‘It will be a huge undertaking and I don’t think the Trust has ever spent quite
as much on a costume before,’ she says. ‘But this dress is unique. It's very unusual to see
this level of workmanship on a theatrical costume, and it must have looked spectacular on
stage.’ If Terry was alive today, there’s no doubt she would be delighted. Unlike many other
actresses, she valued her costumes because she kept and reused them time and time
again. 'I'd like to think she’d see our contribution as part of the ongoing history of the
dress,’ says Zenzie.
1
A conservation organisation whose work includes the funding of projects designed to
protect and preserve Britain's cultural heritage
2
Produced using wool and a special needle with a hook at the end
Questions 1-6
Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.
1
What do you learn about Ellen Terry in the first paragraph?
A) Lady Macbeth was her first leading role.
B) The Lyceum was her favourite theatre.
C) She tried hard to look good on stage.
D) She wanted to look young for her audience.
2
What is the writer’s purpose in paragraph 2?
A) to describe different responses to the Beetlewing dress
B) to explain why the Beetlewing dress had such a big impact
C) to consider the suitability of the Beetlewing dress for the play
D) to compare the look of the Beetiewing dress on and off the stage
3
According to the writer, the main effect of the Lyceum productions was to
A) expose more people to Shakespeare’s plays.
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B) reduce the interest in other types of production.
C) raise the cost of going to the theatre.
D) encourage writers to produce more plays.
4 In the fourth paragraph, what comparison does the writer make between Sargent’s
portrait and the Beetlewing dress?
A) The dress has attracted more attention than the painting.
B) The dress is worth more money than the painting.
C) The painting took longer to produce.
D) The painting looks newer.
5
Zenzie says the Beetlewing project is particularly special because
A) the dress is very old.
B) people know who wore the dress.
C) the dress was designed by someone famous.
D) there is evidence that the dress has been used
6
Which of the following is the most suitable title for the passage?
A) A lesson from the past
B) A challenging task
C) An unusual fashion show
D) An unexpected discovery
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TEST 5
The Earth and Space Foundation
The community that focuses its efforts on the exploration of space has largely been
different from the community focused on the study and protection of the Earth's
environment, despite the fact that both fields of interest involve what might be referred to
as "scientific exploration'. The reason for this dichotomous existence is chiefly historical.
The exploration of the Earth has been occurring over many centuries, and the institutions
created to do it are often very different from those founded in the second part of the 20th
century to explore space. This separation is also caused by the fact that space exploration
has attracted experts from mainly non-biological disciplines - primarily engineers and
physicists - but the study of Earth and its environment is a domain heavily populated by
biologists.
The separation between the two communities is often reflected in attitudes. In the
environmental community, it is not uncommon for space exploration to be regarded as a
waste of money, distracting governments from solving major environmental problems here
at home. In the space exploration community, it is not uncommon for environmentalists to
be regarded as introspective people who divert attention from the more expansive visions
of the exploration of space - the ‘new frontier’. These perceptions can also be negative in
consequence because the full potential of both communities can be realised better when
they work together to solve problems. For example, those involved in space exploration
can provide the satellites to monitor the Earth’s fragile environments, and
environmentalists can provide information on the survival of life in extreme environments.
In the sense that Earth and space exploration both stem from the same human drive to
understand our environment and our place within it, there is no reason for the split to exist.
A more accurate view of Earth and space exploration is to see them as a continuum of
exploration with many interconnected and mutually beneficial links. The Earth and Space
Foundation, a registered charity, was established for the purposes of fostering such links
through field research and by direct practical action.
Projects that have been supported by the Foundation include environmental projects using
technologies resulting from space exploration: satellite communications, GPS, remote
sensing, advanced materials and power sources. For example, in places where people are
faced with destruction of the forests on which their livelihood depends, rather than
rejecting economic progress and trying to save the forests on their intrinsic merit, another
approach is to enhance the value of the forests - although these schemes must be
carefully assessed to be successful. In the past, the Foundation provided a grant to a
group of expeditions that used remote sensing to plan eco-tourism routes in the forests of
Guatemala, thus providing capital to the local communities through the tourist trade. This
novel approach is now making the protection of the forests a sensible economic decision.
The Foundation funds expeditions making astronomical observations from remote,
difficult-to-access Earth locations, archaeological field projects studying the development
of early civilisations that made significant contributions to astronomy and space sciences,
and field expeditions studying the way in which views of the astronomical environment
shaped the nature of past civilisations. A part of Syria - ‘the Fertile Crescent’ - was the
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birthplace of astronomy, accountancy, animal domestication and many other fundamental
developments of human civilisation. The Foundation helped fund a large archaeology
project by the Society for Syrian Archaeology at the University of California, Los Angeles, in
collaboration with the Syrian government that used GPS and satellite imagery to locate
mounds, or ’tels’, containing artefacts and remnants of early civilisations. These
collections are being used to build a better picture of the nature of the civilisations that
gave birth to astronomy.
Field research also applies the Earth’s environmental and biological resources to the
human exploration and settlement of space. This may include the use of remote
environments on Earth, as well as physiological and psychological studies in harsh
environments. In one research project, the Foundation provided a grant to an international
caving expedition to study the psychology of explorers subjected to long-term isolation in
caves in Mexico. The psychometric tests on the cavers were used to enhance US
astronaut selection criteria by the NASA Johnson Space Center.
Space-like environments on Earth help us understand how to operate in the space
environment or help us characterise extraterrestrial environments for future scientific
research. In the Arctic, a 24-kilometre¬wide impact crater formed by an asteroid or comet
23 million years ago has become home tc a Mars- analogue programme. The Foundation
helped fund the NASA Haughton-Mars Project to use this crater to test communications
and exploration technologies in preparation for the human exploration of Mars. The crater,
which sits in high Arctic permafrost, provides an excellent replica of the physical
processes occurring on Mars, a permafrosted, impact-altered planet. Geologists and
biologists can work at the site to help understand how impact craters shape the geological
characteristics and possibly biological potential of Mars.
In addition to its fieldwork and scientific activities. the Foundation has award programmes.
These include a series of awards for the future human exploration of Mars, a location with
a diverse set of exploration challenges. The awards will honour a number of ‘firsts’ on
Mars that include landing on the surface, undertaking an overland expedition to the
Martian South Pole, undertaking an overland expedition to the Martian North Pole, climbing
Olympus Mons, the highest mountain in the solar system, and descending to the bottom of
Valles Marineris, the deepest canyon on Mars. The Foundation will offer awards for
expeditions further out in the solar system once these Mars awards have been claimed.
Together, they demonstrate that the programme really has no boundary in what it could
eventually support, and they provide longevity for the objectives of the Foundation.
Questions 1-4
Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.
1
What was the significance of the ’novel approach' adopted in the Guatemala project?
A) It minimised the need to protect the forests.
B) It reduced the impact of tourists on the forests.
C) It showed that preserving the forests can be profitable.
D) It gave the Foundation greater control over the forests.
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2
GPS and satellite imagery were used in the Syrian project to
A) help archaeologists find ancient items.
B) explore land that is hard to reach.
C) reduce the impact of archaeological activity.
D) evaluate some early astronomical theories.
3
One of the purposes of the Foundation’s awards is to
A) attract non-scientists to its work.
B) establish priorities for Mars exploration.
C) offer financial incentives for space exploration.
D) establish the long-term continuity of its activities.
4
What is the writer’s purpose in the passage?
A) to persuade people to support the Foundation
B) to explain the nature of the Foundation’s work
C) to show how views on the Foundation have changed
D) to reject earlier criticisms of the Foundation’s work
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TEST 6
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TEST 7
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TEST 8
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TEST 9
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TEST 10
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PART 4
TRUE/FALSE/NOT GIVEN
TEST 1
Mau Piailug, ocean navigator
Mau sailed from Hawaii to Tahiti using traditional methods
In early 1976, Mau Piailug, a fisherman, led an expedition in which he sailed a traditional
Polynesian boat across 2,500 miles of ocean from Hawaii to Tahiti. The Polynesiai
Voyaging Society had organised the expedition. Its purpose was to find out if seafarers in
the distant past could have found their way from one island to the other without
navigational instruments, or whether the islands had been populated by accident. At the
time, Mau was the only man alive who knew how to navigate just by observing the stars,
the wind and the sea. He had never before sailed to Tahiti, which was a long way to the
south. However, he understood how the wind and the sea behave around islands, so he
was confident he could find his way. The voyage took him and his crew a month to
complete and he did it without a compass or charts.
His grandfather began the task of teaching him how to navigate when he was still a baby.
He showed him pools of water on the beach to teach him how the behaviour of the waves
and wind changed in different places. Later, Mau used a circle of stones to memorise the
positions of the stars. Each stone was laid out in the sand to represent a star.
The voyage proved that Hawaii’s first inhabitants came in small boats and navigated by
reading the sea and the stars. Mau himself became a keen teacher, passing on his
traditional secrets to people of other cultures so that his knowledge would not be lost. He
explained the positions of the stars to his students, but he allowed them to write things
down because he knew they would never be able to remember everything as he had done.
Questions 1-7
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 1 ?
Write
TRUE
if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE
if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this
1. At the time of his voyage, Mau had unique navigational skills.
2. Mau was familiar with the sea around Tahiti.
3. Mau thought it would be difficult to use a compass and charts.
4. Mau’s grandfather was his only teacher.
5. Mau used stones to learn where each star was situated in the sky.
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6. The first inhabitants of Hawaii could read and write.
7. Mau expected his students to memorise the positions of the stars.
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TEST 2
Australian culture and culture shock
Sometimes work, study or an sense of adventure take us out of our familiar surroundings
to go and live in a different culture. The experience can be difficult, even shocking.
Almost everyone who studies, lives or works abroad has problems adjusting to a new
culture. This response is commonly referred to as 'culture shock'. Culture shock can be
defined as 'the physical and emotional discomfort a person experiences when entering a
culture different from their own' (Weaver, 1993).
For people moving to Australia, Price (2001) has identified certain values which may give
rise to culture shock. Firstly, he argues that Australians place a high value on
independence and personal choice. This means that a teacher or course tutor will not tell
students what to do, but will give them a number of options and suggest they work out
which one is the best in their circumstances. It also means that they are expected to take
action if something goes wrong and seek out resources and support for themselves.
Australians are also prepared to accept a range of opinions rather than believing there is
one truth. This means that in an educational setting, students will be expected to form
their own opinions and defend the reasons for that point of view and the evidence for it.
Price also comments that Australians are uncomfortable with differences in status and
hence idealise the idea of treating everyone equally. An illustration of this is that most
adult Australians call each other by their first names. This concern with equality means
that Australians are uncomfortable taking anything too seriously and are even ready to
joke about themselves.
Australians believe that life should have a balance between work and leisure time. As a
consequence, some students may be critical of others who they perceive as doing nothing
but study.
Australian notions of privacy mean that areas such as financial matters, appearance and
relationships are only discussed with close friends. While people may volunteer such
information, they may resent someone actually asking them unless the friendship is firmly
established. Even then, it is considered very impolite to ask someone what they earn. With
older people, it is also rude to ask how old they are, why they are not married or why they
do not have children. It is also impolite to ask people how much they have paid for
something, unless there is a very good reason for asking.
Kohls (1996) describes culture shock as a process of change marked by four basic stages.
During the first stage, the new arrival is excited to be in a new place, so this is often
referred to as the "honeymoon" stage. Like a tourist, they are intrigued by all the new sights
and sounds, new smells and tastes of their surroundings. They may have some problems,
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but usually they accept them as just part of the novelty. At this point, it is
the similarities that stand out, and it seems to the newcomer that people everywhere and
their way of life are very much alike. This period of euphoria may last from a couple of
weeks to a month, but the letdown is inevitable.
During the second stage, known as the 'rejection' stage, the newcomer starts to experience
difficulties due to the differences between the new culture and the way they were
accustomed to living. The initial enthusiasm turns into irritation, frustration, anger and
depression, and these feelings may have the effect of people rejecting the new culture so
that they notice only the things that cause them trouble, which they then complain about.
In addition, they may feel homesick, bored, withdrawn and irritable during this period as
well.
Fortunately, most people gradually learn to adapt to the new culture and move on to the
third stage, known as 'adjustment and reorientation'. During this stage a transition occurs
to a new optimistic attitude. As the newcomer begins to understand more of the new
culture, they are able to interpret some of the subtle cultural clues which passed by
unnoticed earlier. Now things make more sense and the culture seems more familiar. As a
result, they begin to develop problem-solving skills, and feelings of disorientation and
anxiety no longer affect them.
In Kohls's model, in the fourth stage, newcomers undergo a process of adaptation. They
have settled into the new culture, and this results in a feeling of direction and selfconfidence. They have accepted the new food, drinks, habits and customs and may even
find themselves enjoying some of the very customs that bothered them so much
previously. In addition, they realise that the new culture has good and bad things to offer
and that no way is really better than another, just different.
Questions 1-6
Do the following statements agree with the information given in the reading passage?
TRUE
if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE
if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this
1.
Australian teachers will suggest alternatives to students rather than offer one solution.
2.
In Australia, teachers will show interest in students’ personal circumstances.
3.
Australians use people’s first names so that everyone feels their status is similar.
4.
5.
6.
Students who study all the time may receive positive comments from their colleagues.
It is acceptable to discuss financial issues with people you do not know well.
Younger Australians tend to be friendlier than older Australians.
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TEST 3
The World Wide Web from its origins
Science inspired the World Wide Web, and the Web has responded by changing science.
'Information Management: A Proposal'. That was the bland title of a document written in
March 1989 by a then little-known computer scientist called Tim Berners-Lee, who was
working at CERN, Europe’s particle physics laboratory, near Geneva. His proposal,
modestly called the World Wide Web, has achieved far more than anyone expected at the
time.
In fact, the Web was invented to deal with a specific problem. In the late 1980s, CERN was
planning one of the most ambitious scientific projects ever, the Large Hadron Collider*, or
LHC. As the first few lines of the original proposal put it, 'Many of the discussions of the
future at CERN and the LHC end with the question "Yes, but how will we ever keep track of
such a large project?" This proposal provides an answer to such questions.
The Web, as everyone now knows, has many more uses than the original idea of linking
electronic documents about particle physics in laboratories around the world. But among
all the changes it has brought about, from personal social networks to political
campaigning, it has also transformed the business of doing science itself, as the man who
invented it hoped it would.
It allows journals to be published online and links to be made from one paper to another. It
also permits professional scientists to recruit thousands of amateurs to give them a hand.
One project of this type, called GalaxyZoo, used these unpaid workers to classify one
million images of galaxies into various types (spiral, elliptical and irregular). This project,
which was intended to help astronomers understand how galaxies evolve, was so
successful that a successor has now been launched, to classify the brightest quarter of a
million of them in finer detail. People working for a more modest project
called Herbaria@home examine scanned images of handwritten notes about old plants
stored in British museums. This will allow them to track the changes in the distribution of
species in response to climate change.
Another new scientific application of the Web is to use it as an experimental laboratory. It
is allowing social scientists, in particular, to do things that were previously impossible. In
one project, scientists made observations about the sizes of human social networks using
data from Facebook. A second investigation of these networks, produced by Bernardo
Huberman of HP Labs, Hewlett-Packard's research arm in Pato Alto, California, looked at
Twitter, a social networking website that allows people to post short messages to long
lists of friends.
At first glance, the networks seemed enormous - the 300,000 Twitterers sampled had 80
friends each, on average (those on Facebook had 120), but some listed up to 1,000. Closer
statistical inspection, however, revealed that the majority of the messages were directed at
a few specific friends. This showed that an individual's active social network is far smaller
than his 'clan'. Dr Huberman has also helped uncover several laws of web surfing, including
the number of times an average person will go from web page to web page on a given site
before giving up, and the details of the 'winner takes all' phenomenon, whereby a few sites
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on a given subject attract most of the attention, and the rest get very little.
Scientists have been good at using the Web to carry out research. However, they have not
been so effective at employing the latest web-based social-networking tools to open up
scientific discussion and encourage more effective collaboration. Journalists are now
used to having their articles commented on by dozens of readers. Indeed, many bloggers
develop and refine their essays as a result of these comments.
Yet although people have tried to have scientific research reviewed in the same way, most
researchers only accept reviews from a few anonymous experts. When Nature, one of the
world's most respected scientific journals, experimented with open peer review in 2006,
the results were disappointing. Only 5% of the authors it spoke to agreed to have their
article posted for review on the Web - and their instinct turned out to be right, because
almost half of the papers attracted no comments. Michael Nielsen, an expert on quantum
computers, belongs to a new wave of scientist who want to change this. He thinks the
reason for the lack of comments is that potential reviewers lack incentive.
Questions 1-6
Do the following statements agree with the information given in the reading passage?
TRUE
if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE
if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this
1. Tim Berners-Lee was famous for his research in physics before he invented the World
Wide Web.
2. The original intention of the Web was to help manage one extremely complex project.
3. Tim Berners-Lee has also been active in politics.
4. The Web has allowed professional and amateur scientists to work together.
5. The second galaxy project aims to examine more galaxies than the first.
6. Herbaria@home’s work will help to reduce the effects of climate change.
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TEST 4
The way the brain buys
Supermarkets take great care over the way the goods they sell are arranged. This is
because they know a lot about how to persuade people to buy things.
When yon enter a supermarket, it takes some time for the mind to get into a shopping
mode. This is why the area immediately inside the entrance of a supermarket is known as
the ‘decompression zone’. People need to slow down and take stock of the surroundings,
even if they are regulars. Supermarkets do not expect to sell much here, so it tends to be
used more for promotion. So the large items piled up here are designed to suggest that
there are bargains further inside the store, and shoppers are not necessarily expected to
buy them. Walmart, the world’s biggest retailer, famously employs ‘greeters’ at the
entrance to its stores. A friendly welcome is said to cut shoplifting. It is harder to steal
from nice people.
Immediately to the left in many supermarkets is a ‘chill zone’, where customers can enjoy
browsing magazines, books and DVDs. This is intended to tempt unplanned purchases and
slow customers down. But people who just want to do their shopping quickly will keep
walking ahead, and the first thing they come to is the fresh fruit and vegetables section.
However, for shoppers, this makes no sense. Fruit and vegetables can be easily damaged,
so they should be bought at the end, not the beginning, of a shopping trip. But psychology
is at work here: selecting these items makes people feel good, so they feel less guilty
about reaching for less healthy food later on.
Shoppers already know that everyday items, like milk, arc invariably placed towards the
back of a store to provide more opportunity to tempt customers to buy things which are
not on their shopping list. This is why pharmacies are also generally at the back. But
supermarkets know shoppers know this, so they use other tricks, like placing popular
items halfway along a section so that people have to walk all along the aisle looking for
them. The idea is to boost ‘dwell time’: the length of time people spend in a store.
Having walked to the end of the fruit-and-vegetable aisle, shoppers arrive at counters of
prepared food, the fishmonger, the butcher and the deli. Then there is the in-store bakery,
which can be smelt before it is seen. Even small supermarkets now use in store bakeries.
Mostly these bake pre-prepared items and frozen ingredients which have been delivered to
the supermarket previously, and their numbers have increased, even though central
bakeries that deliver to a number of stores are much more efficient. They do it for the
smell of freshly baked bread, which arouses people’s appetites and thus encourages them
to purchase not just bread but also other food, including ready meals.
Retailers and producers talk a lot about the ‘moment of truth’. This is not a philosophical
idea, but the point when people standing in the aisle decide to buy something and reach to
get it. At the instant coffee section, for example, branded products from the big producers
are arranged at eye level while cheaper ones are lower down, along with the supermarket’s
own label products.
But shelf positioning is fiercely fought over, not just by those trying to sell goods, but also
by those arguing over how best to manipulate shoppers. While many stores reckon eye
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level is the top spot, some think a little higher is better. Others think goods displayed at the
end of aisles sell the most because they have the greatest visibility. To be on the righthand side of an eye-level selection is often considered the very best place, because most
people are right-handed and most people’s eyes drift rightwards. Some supermarkets
reserve that for their most expensive own-label goods.
Scott Bearse, a retail expert with Deloitte Consulting in Boston, Massachusetts, has led
projects observing and questioning tens of thousands of customers about how they feel
about shopping. People say they leave shops empty- handed more often because they are
‘unable to decide’ than because prices are too high, says Mr Bearse. Getting customers to
try something is one of the best ways of getting them to buy, adds Mr Bearse. Deloitte
found that customers who use fitting rooms in order to try on clothes buy the product they
are considering at a rate of 8j% compared with 58% for those that do not do so.
Often a customer struggling to decide which of two items is best ends up not buying
either. In order to avoid a situation where a customer decides not to buy either product, a
third ‘decoy’ item, which is not quite as good as the other two, is placed beside them to
make the choice easier and more pleasurable. Happier customers are more likely to buy.
Questions 1-6
Do the following statements agree with the information given in the reading passage?
Write
TRUE
if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE
if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this
1. The ‘greeters’ at Walmart increase sales.
2. People feel better about their shopping if they buy fruit and vegetables before they buy
other food.
3. In-store bakeries produce a wider range of products than central bakeries.
4. Supermarkets find right-handed people easier to persuade than left-handed people.
5. The most frequent reason for leaving shops without buying something is price.
6. ‘Decoy’ items are products which the store expects customers to choose.
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TEST 5
The MIT factor: celebrating 150 years of maverick genius
The Massachusetts Institute of Technology has led the world into the future for 150 years
with scientific innovations.
The musician Yo-Yo Ma’s cello may not be the obvious starting point for a journey into one
of the world’s great universities. But, as you quickly realise when you step inside the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, there’s precious little going on that you would
normally see on a university campus. The cello, resting in a corner of MIT’s celebrated
media laboratory — a hub of creativity — looks like any other electric classical instrument.
But it is much more. Machover, the composer, teacher and inventor responsible for its
creation, calls it a ‘hyperinstrument’, a sort of thinking machine that allows Ma and his cello
to interact with one another and make music together. ‘The aim is to build an instrument
worthy of a great musician like Yo-Yo Ma that can understand what he is trying to do and
respond to it,’ Machover says. The cello has numerous sensors across its body and by
measuring the pressure, speed and angle of the virtuoso’s performance it can interpret his
mood and engage with it, producing extraordinary new sounds. The virtuoso cellist
frequently performs on the instrument as he tours around the world.
Machover’s passion for pushing at the boundaries of the existing world to extend and
unleash human potential is not a bad description of MIT as a whole. This unusual
community brings highly gifted, highly motivated individuals together from a vast range of
disciplines, united by a common desire: to leap into the dark and reach for the unknown.
The result of that single unifying ambition is visible all around. For the past 150 years, MIT
has been leading the world into the future. The discoveries of its teachers and students
have become the common everyday objects that we now all take for granted. The
telephone, electromagnets, radars, high-speed photography, office photocopiers, cancer
treatments, pocket calculators, computers, the Internet, the decoding of the human
genome, lasers, space travel ... the list of innovations that involved essential contributions
from MIT and its faculty goes on and on.
From the moment MIT was founded by William Barton Rogers in 1861, it was clear what it
was not. While Harvard stuck to the English model of a classical education, with its
emphasis on Latin and Greek, MIT looked to the German system of learning based on
research and hands-on experimentation. Knowledge was at a premium, but it had to be
useful.
This down-to-earth quality is enshrined in the school motto, Mens et manus - Mind and
hand - as well as its logo, which shows a gowned scholar standing beside an ironmonger
bearing a hammer and anvil. That symbiosis of intellect and craftsmanship still suffuses
the institute’s classrooms, where students are not so much taught as engaged and
inspired.
Take Christopher Merrill, 21, a third-year undergraduate in computer science. He is
spending most of his time on a competition set in his robotics class. The contest is to see
which student can most effectively program a robot to build a house out of blocks in under
ten minutes. Merrill says he could have gone for the easiest route - designing a simple
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robot that would build the house quickly. But he wanted to try to master an area of robotics
that remains unconquered — adaptability, the ability of the robot to rethink its plans as the
environment around it changes, as would a human.
‘I like to take on things that have never been done before rather than to work in an iterative
way just making small steps forward,’ he explains.
Merrill is already planning the start-up he wants to set up when he graduates in a year’s
time. He has an idea for an original version of a contact lens that would augment reality by
allowing consumers to see additional visual information. He is fearful that he might be just
too late in taking his concept to market, as he has heard that a Silicon Valley firm is already
developing something similar. As such, he might become one of many MIT graduates who
go on to form companies that fail. Alternatively, he might become one of those who go on
to succeed in spectacular fashion. And there are many of them. A survey of living
MIT alumni* found that they have formed 25,800 companies, employing more than three
million people, including about a quarter of the workforce of Silicon Valley. What MIT
delights in is taking brilliant minds from around the world in vastly diverse disciplines and
putting them together. You can see that in its sparkling new David Koch Institute for
Integrative Cancer Research, which brings scientists, engineers and clinicians under one
roof.
Or in its Energy Initiative, which acts as a bridge for MIT’s combined work across all its five
schools, channelling huge resources into the search for a solution to global warming. It
works to improve the efficiency of existing energy sources, including nuclear power. It is
also forging ahead with alternative energies from solar to wind and geothermal, and has
recently developed the use of viruses to synthesise batteries that could prove crucial in the
advancement of electric cars.
In the words of Tim Berners-Lee, the Briton who invented the World Wide Web, ‘It’s not just
another university.
Even though I spend my time with my head buried in the details of web technology, the nice
thing is that when I do walk the corridors, I bump into people who are working in other
fields with their students that are fascinating, and that keeps me intellectually alive.’
Questions 1-5
Do the following statements agree with the information in the reading passage?
TRUE
if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE
if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN
if there is no information on this
1. The activities going on at the MIT campus are like those at any other university.
2. Harvard and MIT shared a similar approach to education when they were founded.
3. The school motto was suggested by a former MIT student.
4. MIT’s logo reflects the belief that intellect and craftsmanship go together.
5. Silicon Valley companies pay higher salaries to graduates from MIT.
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TEST 6
The history of the poster
The appearance of the poster has changed continuously over the past two centuries.
The first posters were known as ‘broadsides’ and were used for public and commercial
announcements. Printed on one side only using metal type, they were quickly and crudely
produced in large quantities. As they were meant to be read at a distance, they required
large lettering.
There were a number of negative aspects of large metal type. It was expensive, required a
large amount of storage space and was extremely heavy. If a printer did have a collection
of large metal type, it was likely that there were not enough letters. So printers did their
best by mixing and matching styles.
Commercial pressure for large type was answered with the invention of a system for wood
type production. In 1827, Darius Wells invented a special wood drill - the lateral router capable of cutting letters on wood blocks. The router was used in combination with
William Leavenworth’s pantograpn (1834) to create decorative wooden letters of all
shapes and sizes. The first posters began to appear, but they had little colour and design;
often wooden type was mixed with metal type in a conglomeration of styles.
A major development in poster design was the application of lithography, invented by Alois
Senefelder in 1796, which allowed artists to hand-draw letters, opening the field of type
design to endless styles. The method involved drawing with a greasy crayon onto finely
surfaced Bavarian limestone and offsetting that image onto paper. This direct process
captured the artist's true intention; however, the final printed image was in reverse. The
images and lettering needed to be drawn backwards, often reflected in a mirror or traced
on transfer paper.
As a result of this technical difficulty, the invention of the lithographic process had little
impact on posters until the 1860s, when Jules Cheret came up with his ‘three-stone
lithographic process’. This gave artists the opportunity to experiment with a wide spectrum
of colours.
Although the process was difficult, the result was remarkable, with nuances of colour
impossible in other media even to this day. The ability to mix words and images in such an
attractive and economical format finally made the lithographic poster a powerful
innovation.
Starting in the 1870s, posters became the main vehicle for advertising prior to the
magazine era and the dominant means of mass communication in the rapidly growing
cities of Europe and America. Yet in the streets of Paris, Milan and Berlin, these artistic
prints were so popular that they were stolen off walls almost as soon as they were hung.
Cheret, later known as ‘the father of the modern poster’, organised the first exhibition of
posters in 1884 and two years later published the first book on poster art. He quickly took
advantage of the public interest by arranging for artists to create posters, at a reduced size,
that were suitable for in-home display.
Thanks to Cheret. the poster slowly took hold in other countries in the 1890s and came to
celebrate each society’s unique cultural institutions: the cafe in France, the opera and
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fashion in Italy, festivals in Spain, literature in Holland and trade fairs in Germany. The first
poster shows were held in Great
Britain and Italy in 1894, Germany in 1896 and Russia in 1897. The most important poster
show ever, to many observers, was held in Reims, France, in 1896 and featured an
unbelievable 1,690 posters arranged by country.
In the early 20th century, the poster continued to play a large communication role and to
go through a range of styles. By the 1950s, however, it had begun to share the spotlight
with other media, mainly radio and print. By this time, most posters were printed using the
mass production technique of photo offset, which resulted in the familiar dot pattern seen
in newspapers and magazines. In addition, the use of photography in posters, begun in
Russia in the twenties, started to become as common as illustration.
In the late fifties, a new graphic style that had strong reliance on typographic elements in
black and white appeared. The new style came to be known as the International
Typographic Style. It made use of a mathematical grid, strict graphic rules and black-andwhite photography to provide a clear and logical structure. It became the predominant
style in the world in the 1970s and continues to exert its influence today.
It was perfectly suited to the increasingly international post-war marketplace, where there
was a strong demand for clarity. This meant that the accessibility of words and symbols
had to be taken into account. Corporations wanted international identification, and events
such as the Olympics called for universal solutions, which the Typographic Style could
provide.
However, the International Typographic Style began to lose its energy in the late 1970s.
Many criticised it for being cold, formal and dogmatic.
A young teacher in Basel. Wolfgang Weingart, experimented with the offset printing
process to produce posters that appeared complex and chaotic, playful and spontaneous all in stark contrast to what had gone before. Weingart's liberation of typography was an
important foundation for several new styles. These ranged from Memphis and Retro to the
advances now being made in computer graphics.
Questions 1-4
Do the following statements agree with the information in the reading passage?
Write
TRUE if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this
1. By the 1950s. photographs were more widely seen than artists' illustrations on posters.
2. Features of the Typographic Style can be seen in modern-day posters.
3. The Typographic Style met a global need at a particular time in history.
4. Weingart got many of his ideas from his students in Basel.
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TEST 7
Crop-growing skyscrapers
By the year 2050, nearly 80% of the Earth’s population will live in urban centres. Applying
the most conservative estimates to current demographic trends, the human population will
increase by about three billion people by then. An estimated 109 hectares of new land
(about 20% larger than Brazil) will be needed to grow enough food to feed them, if
traditional farming methods continue as they are practised today.
At present, throughout the world, over 80% of the land that is suitable for raising crops is in
use. Historically, some 15% of that has been laid waste by poor management practices.
What can be done to ensure enough food for the world’s population to live on ?
The concept of indoor farming is not new, since hothouse production of tomatoes and
other produce has been in vogue for some time. What is new is the urgent need to scale up
this technology to accommodate another three billion people. Many believe an entirely new
approach to indoor farming is required, employing cutting-edge technologies. One such
proposal is for the ‘Vertical Farm’. The concept is of multi-storey buildings in which food
crops are grown in environmentally controlled conditions. Situated in the heart of urban
centres, they would drastically reduce the amount of transportation required to bring food
to consumers. Vertical farms would need to be efficient, cheap to construct and safe to
operate. If successfully implemented, proponents claim, vertical farms offer the promise of
urban renewal, sustainable production of a safe and varied food supply (through yearround production of all crops), and the eventual repair of ecosystems that have been
sacrificed for horizontal farming.
It took humans 10,000 years to learn how to grow most of the crops we now take for
granted. Along the way, we despoiled most of the land we worked, often turning verdant,
natural eco-zones into semi-arid deserts. Within that same time frame, we evolved into an
urban species, in which 60% of the human population now lives vertically in cities. This
means that, for the majority, we humans have shelter from the elements, yet we subject
our food-bearing plants to the rigours of the great outdoors and can do no more than hope
for a good weather year. However, more often than not now, due to a rapidly changing
climate, that is not what happens. Massive floods, long droughts, hurricanes and severe
monsoons take their toll each year, destroying millions of tons of valuable crops.
The supporters of vertical farming claim many potential advantages for the system. For
instance, crops would be produced all year round, as they would be kept in artificially
controlled, optimum growing conditions.
There would be no weather-related crop failures due to droughts, floods or pests. All the
food could be grown organically, eliminating the need for herbicides, pesticides and
fertilisers.
The system would greatly reduce the incidence of many infectious diseases that are
acquired at the agricultural interface.
Although the system would consume energy, it would return energy to the grid via methane
generation from composting non-edible parts of plants. It would also dramatically
reduce fossil fuel use, by cutting out the need for tractors, ploughs and shipping.
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A major drawback of vertical farming, however, is that the plants would
require artificial light. Without it, those plants nearest the windows would be exposed to
more sunlight and grow more quickly, reducing the efficiency of the system. Single-storey
greenhouses have the benefit of natural overhead light; even so, many still need artificial
lighting.
A multi-storey facility with no natural overhead light would require far more. Generating
enough light could be prohibitively expensive, unless cheap, renewable energy is available,
and this appears to be rather a future aspiration than a likelihood for the near future.
One variation on vertical farming that has been developed is to grow plants in stacked
trays that move on rails. Moving the trays allows the plants to get enough sunlight. This
system is already in operation, and works well within a single-storey greenhouse with light
reaching it from above: it Is not certain, however, that it can be made to work without that
overhead natural light.
Vertical farming is an attempt to address the undoubted problems that we face in
producing enough food for a growing population. At the moment, though, more needs to
be done to reduce the detrimental impact it would have on the environment, particularly as
regards the use of energy. While it is possible that much of our food will be grown in
skyscrapers in future, most experts currently believe it is far more likely that we will simply
use the space available on urban rooftops
. Questions 8-13
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage?
In boxes 8-13 on your answer sheet, write
TRUE
if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this
8. Methods for predicting the Earth’s population have recently changed.
9. Human beings are responsible for some of the destruction to food-producing land.
10. The crops produced in vertical farms will depend on the season.
11. Some damage to food crops is caused by climate change.
12. Fertilisers will be needed for certain crops in vertical farms.
13. Vertical farming will make plants less likely to be affected by infectious diseases.
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TEST 8
The Falkirk Wheel
A unique engineering achievement
The Falkirk Wheel in Scotland is the world's first and only rotating boat lift. Opened in 2002,
it is central to the ambitious £84.5m Millennium Link project to restore navigability across
Scotland by reconnecting the historic waterways of the Forth & Clyde and Union Canals.
The major challenge of the project lays in the fact that the Forth & Clyde Canal is situated
35 metres below the level of the Union Canal. Historically, the two canals had been joined
near the town of Falkirk by a sequence of 11 locks - enclosed sections of canal in which
the water level could be raised or lowered - that stepped down across a distance of 1.5 km.
This had been dismantled in 1933, thereby breaking the link.
When the project was launched in 1994, the British Waterways authority were keen to
create a dramatic twenty-first-century landmark which would not only be a fitting
commemoration of the Millennium, but also a lasting symbol of the economic regeneration
of the region.
Numerous ideas were submitted for the project, including concepts ranging from rolling
eggs to tilting tanks, from giant seesaws to overhead monorails. The eventual winner was
a plan for the huge rotating steel boat lift which was to become The Falkirk Wheel. The
unique shape of the structure is claimed to have been inspired by various sources, both
manmade and natural, most notably a Celtic double headed axe, but also the vast turning
propeller of a ship, the ribcage of a whale or the spine of a fish.
The various parts of The Falkirk Wheel were all constructed and assembled, like one giant
toy building set, at Butterley Engineering's Steelworks in Derbyshire, some 400 km from
Falkirk.
A team there carefully assembled the 1,200 tonnes of steel, painstakingly fitting the pieces
together to an accuracy of just 10 mm to ensure a perfect final fit. In the summer of 2001,
the structure was then dismantled and transported on 35 lorries to Falkirk, before all being
bolted back together again on the ground, and finally lifted into position in five large
sections by crane. The Wheel would need to withstand immense and constantly changing
stresses as it rotated, so to make the structure more robust, the steel sections were bolted
rather than welded together. Over 45,000 bolt holes were matched with their bolts, and
each bolt was hand-tightened. The Wheel consists of two sets of opposing axe-shaped
arms, attached about 25 metres apart to a fixed central spine.
Two diametrically opposed water-filled 'gondolas', each with a capacity of 360,000 litres,
are fitted between the ends of the arms. These gondolas always weigh the same, whether
or not they are carrying boats.
This is because, according to Archimedes' principle of displacement, floating objects
displace their own weight in water. So when a boat enters a gondola, the amount of water
leaving the gondola weighs exactly the same as the boat. This keeps the Wheel balanced
and so, despite its enormous mass, it rotates through 180° in five and a half minutes while
using very little power. It takes just 1.5 kilowatt-hours (5.4 MJ) of energy to rotate the
Wheel -roughly the same as boiling eight small domestic kettles of water.
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Boats needing to be lifted up enter the canal basin at the level of the Forth & Clyde Canal
and then enter the lower gondola of the Wheel. Two hydraulic steel gates are raised, so as
to seal the gondola off from the water in the canal basin. The water between the gates is
then pumped out. A hydraulic clamp, which prevents the arms of the Wheel moving while
the gondola is docked, is removed, allowing the Wheel to turn. In the central machine room
an array of ten hydraulic motors then begins to rotate the central axle. The axle connects
to the outer arms of the Wheel, which begin to rotate at a speed of 1/8 of a revolution per
minute. As the wheel rotates, the gondolas are kept in the upright position by a simple
gearing system. Two eight-metre-wide cogs orbit a fixed inner cog of the same width,
connected by two smaller cogs travelling in the opposite direction to the outer cogs - so
ensuring that the gondolas always remain level. When the gondola reaches the top, the
boat passes straight onto the aqueduct situated 24 metres above the canal basin.
The remaining 11 metres of lift needed to reach the Union Canal is achieved by means of a
pair of locks. The Wheel could not be constructed to elevate boats over the full 35-metre
difference between the two canals, owing to the presence of the historically important
Antonine Wall, which was built by the Romans in the second century AD.
Boats travel under this wall via a tunnel, then through the locks, and finally on to the Union
Canal.
Questions 1-6
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage?
in boxes 1-6 on your answer sheet, write
TRUE
FALSE
if the statement agrees with the information
if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this
1. The Falkirk Wheel has linked the Forth & Clyde Canal with the Union Canal for the first
time in their history.
2. There was some opposition to the design of the Falkirk Wheel at first.
3. The Falkirk Wheel was initially put together at the location where its components were
manufactured.
4. The Falkirk Wheel is the only boat lift in the world which has steel sections
bolted together by hand.
5. The weight of the gondolas varies according to the size of boat being carried.
6. The construction of the Falkirk Wheel site took into account the presence of a nearby
ancient monument.
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TEST 9
STEPWELLS
A millennium ago, stepwells were fundamental to life in the driest parts of India. Although
many have been neglected, recent restoration has returned them to their former glory.
Richard Cox travelled to north-western India to document these spectacular monuments
from a bygone era. . During the sixth and seventh centuries, the inhabitants of the modernday states of Gujarat and Rajasthan in north-western India developed a method of gaining
access to clean, fresh groundwater during the dry season for drinking, bathing, watering
animals and irrigation. However, the significance of this invention – the stepwell – goes
beyond its utilitarian application.
Unique to the region, stepwells are often architecturally complex and vary widely in size
and shape. During their heyday, they were places of gathering, of leisure, of relaxation and
of worship for villagers of all but the lowest castes.Most stepwells are found dotted
around the desert areas of Gujarat (where they are called vav) and Rajasthan (where they
are known as baori), while a few also survive in Delhi. Some were located in or near villages
as public spaces for the community; others were positioned beside roads as resting places
for travellers.
. As their name suggests, stepwells comprise a series of stone steps descending from
ground level to the water source (normally an underground aquifer) as it recedes following
the rains. When the water level was high, the user needed only to descend a few steps to
reach it; when it was low, several levels would have to be negotiated.
Some wells are vast, open craters with hundreds of steps paving each sloping side, often
in tiers. Others are more elaborate, with long stepped passages leading to the water via
several storeys built from stone and supported by pillars, they also included pavilions that
sheltered visitors from the relentless heat. But perhaps the most impressive features are
the intricate decorative sculptures that embellish many stepwells, showing activities from
fighting and dancing to everyday acts such as women combing their hair and churning
butter.
Down the centuries, thousands of wells were constructed throughout northwestern India,
but the majority have now fallen into disuse; many are derelict and dry, as groundwater has
been diverted for industrial use and the wells no longer reach the water table. Their
condition hasn’t been helped by recent dry spells: southern Rajasthan suffered an eightyear drought between 1996 and 2004.
However, some important sites in Gujarat have recently undergone major restoration, and
the state government announced in June last year that it plans to restore the stepwells
throughout the state.
In Patan, the state’s ancient capital, the stepwell of Rani Ki Vav (Queen’s Stepwell) is
perhaps the finest current example. It was built by Queen Udayamati during the late 11th
century, but became silted up following a flood during the 13th century. But the
Archaeological Survey of India began restoring it in the 1960s, and today it’s in pristine
condition. At 65 metres long, 20 metres wide and 27 metres deep, Rani Ki Vav features 500
distinct sculptures carved into niches throughout the monument, depicting gods such as
Vishnu and Parvati in various incarnations. Incredibly, in January 2001, this ancient
structure survived a devastating earthquake that measured 7.6 on the Richter scale.
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Another example is the Surya Kund in Modhera, northern Gujarat, next to the Sun Temple,
built by King Bhima I in 1026 to honour the sun god Surya. It actually resembles a tank
(kund means reservoir or pond) rather than a well, but displays the hallmarks of stepwell
architecture, including four sides of steps that descend to the bottom in a stunning
geometrical formation. The terraces house 108 small, intricately carved shrines between
the sets of steps. Rajasthan also has a wealth of wells. The ancient city of Bundi, 200
kilometres south of Jaipur, is renowned for its architecture, including its stepwells. One of
the larger examples is Raniji Ki Baori, which was built by the queen of the region, Nathavatji,
in 1699. At 46 metres deep, 20 metres wide and 40 metres long, the intricately carved
monument is one of 21 baoris commissioned in the Bundi area by Nathavatji.
In the old ruined town of Abhaneri, about 95 kilometres east of Jaipur, is Chand Baori, one
of India’s oldest and deepest wells; aesthetically, it’s perhaps one of the most dramatic.
Built in around 850 AD next to the temple of Harshat Mata, the baori comprises hundreds
of zigzagging steps that run along three of its sides, steeply descending 11 storeys,
resulting in a striking geometric pattern when seen from afar. On the fourth side, covered
verandas supported by ornate pillars overlook the steps.
Still in public use is Neemrana Ki Baori, located just off the Jaipur–Delhi highway.
Constructed in around 1700, it’s nine storeys deep, with the last two levels being
underwater. At ground level, there are 86 colonnaded openings from where the visitor
descends 170 steps to the deepest water source
Today, following years of neglect, many of these monuments to medieval engineering have
been saved by the Archaeological Survey of India, which has recognised the importance of
preserving them as part of the country’s rich history. Tourists flock to wells in far-flung
corners of northwestern India to gaze in wonder at these architectural marvels from 1,000
years ago, which serve as a reminder of both the ingenuity and artistry of ancient
civilisations and of the value of water to human existence.
Questions 1–5 Do the following statements agree with the information given in the
Reading Passage? In boxes 1–5 on your answer sheet, write
TRUE if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this
1. Examples of ancient stepwells can be found all over the world.
2. Stepwells had a range of functions, in addition to those related to water collection.
3. The few existing stepwells in Delhi are more attractive than those found elsewhere.
4. It took workers many years to build the stone steps characteristic of stepwells.
5. The number of steps above the water level in a stepwell altered during the course of a
year.
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TEST 10
EUROPEAN TRANSPORT SYSTEMS 1990-2010
What have been the trends and what are the prospects for European transport systems?
AIt is difficult to conceive of vigorous economic growth without an efficient transport
system. Although modern information technologies can reduce the demand for physical
transport by facilitating teleworking and teleservices, the requirement for transport
continues to increase. There are two key factors behind this trend. For passenger transport,
the determining factor is the spectacular growth in car use. The number of cars on
European Union (EU) roads saw an increase of three million cars each year from 1990 to
2010, and in the next decade the EU will see a further substantial increase in its fleet.
B As far as goods transport is concerned, growth is due to a large extent to changes in the
European economy and its system of production. In the last 20 years, as internal frontiers
have been abolished, the EU has moved from a ‘stock’ economy to a ‘flow’ economy. This
phenomenon has been emphasised by the relocation of some industries, particularly those
which are labour intensive, to reduce production costs, even though the production site is
hundreds or even thousands of kilometres away from the final assembly plant or away
from users.
C The strong economic growth expected in countries which are candidates for entry to the
EU will also increase transport flows, in particular road haulage traffic. In 1998, some of
these countries already exported more than twice their 1990 volumes and imported more
than five times their 1990 volumes. And although many candidate countries inherited a
transport system which encourages rail, the distribution between modes has tipped
sharply in favour of road transport since the 1990s. Between 1990 and 1998, road haulage
increased by 19.4%, while during the same period rail haulage decreased by 43.5%,
although – and this could benefit the enlarged EU – it is still on average at a much higher
level than in existing member states.
D However, a new imperative-sustainable development – offers an opportunity for
adapting the EU’s common transport policy. This objective, agreed by the Gothenburg
European Council, has to be achieved by integrating environmental considerations into
Community policies, and shifting the balance between modes of transport lies at the heart
of its strategy. The ambitious objective can only be fully achieved by 2020, but proposed
measures are nonetheless a first essential step towards a sustainable transport system
which will ideally be in place in 30 years‟ time, that is by 2040.
E In 1998, energy consumption in the transport sector was to blame for 28% of emissions
of CO2, the leading greenhouse gas. According to the latest estimates, if nothing is done to
reverse the traffic growth trend, CO2 emissions from transport can be expected to
increase by around 50% to 1,113 billion tonnes by 2020 compared with the 739 billion
tonnes recorded in 1990. Once again, road transport is the main culprit since it alone
accounts for 84% of the CO2 emissions attributable to transport. Using alternative fuels
and improving energy efficiency is thus both an ecological necessity and a technological
challenge.
F At the same time greater efforts must be made to achieve a modal shift. Such a change
cannot be achieved overnight, all the less so after over half a century of constant
deterioration in favour of road. This has reached such a pitch that today rail freight
services are facing marginalisation, with just 8% of market share, and with international
goods trains struggling along at an average speed of 18km/h. Three possible options have
，
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emerged.
G The first approach would consist of focusing on road transport solely through pricing.
This option would not be accompanied by complementary measures in the other modes of
transport. In the short term it might curb the growth in road transport through the better
loading ratio of goods vehicles and occupancy rates of passenger vehicles expected as a
result of the increase in the price of transport. However, the lack of measures available to
revitalise other modes of transport would make it impossible for more sustainable modes
of transport to take up the baton.
H The second approach also concentrates on road transport pricing but is accompanied by
measures to increase the efficiency of the other modes (better quality of services, logistics,
technology). However, this approach does not include investment in new infrastructure, nor
does it guarantee better regional cohesion. It could help to achieve greater uncoupling than
the first approach, but road transport would keep the lion’s share of the market and
continue to concentrate on saturated arteries, despite being the most polluting of the
modes. It is therefore not enough to guarantee the necessary shift of the balance.
I The third approach, which is not new, comprises a series of measures ranging from
pricing to revitalising alternative modes of transport and targeting investment in the transEuropean network. This integrated approach would allow the market shares of the other
modes to return to their 1998 levels and thus make a shift of balance. It is far more
ambitious than it looks, bearing in mind the historical imbalance in favour of roads for the
last fifty years, but would achieve a marked break in the link between road transport
growth and economic growth, without placing restrictions on the mobility of people and
goods.
Questions 1-5
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 2?
In boxes 22-26 on your answer sheet, write
TRUE
if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE
if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this
1 The need for transport is growing, despite technological developments.
2 To reduce production costs, some industries have been moved closer to their relevant
consumers.
3 Cars are prohibitively expensive in some EU candidate countries.
4 The Gothenburg European Council was set up 30 years ago.
5 By the end of this decade, CO2 emissions from transport are predicted to reach 739
billion tonnes
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TEST 11
Tea and the Industrial Revolution
A Cambridge professor says that a change in drinking habits was the reason for the
Industrial Revolution in Britain. Anjana Abuja reports
A Alan Macfarlane, professor of anthropological science at King’s College, Cambridge
has, like other historians, spent decades wrestling with the enigma of the Industrial
Revolution. Why did this particular Big Bang – the world-changing birth of industry-happen
in Britain? And why did it strike at the end of the 18th century?
B
Macfarlane compares the puzzle to a combination lock. ‘There are about 20 different
factors and all of them need to be present before the revolution can happen,’ he says. For
industry to take off, there needs to be the technology and power to drive factories, large
urban populations to provide cheap labour, easy transport to move goods around, an
affluent middle-class willing to buy mass-produced objects, a market-driven economy and
a political system that allows this to happen. While this was the case for England, other
nations, such as Japan, the Netherlands and France also met some of these criteria but
were not industrialising. All these factors must have been necessary. But not sufficient to
cause the revolution, says Macfarlane. ‘After all, Holland had everything except coal while
China also had many of these factors. Most historians are convinced there are one or two
missing factors that you need to open the lock.’
C
The missing factors, he proposes, are to be found in almost even kitchen cupboard.
Tea and beer, two of the nation’s favourite drinks, fuelled the revolution. The antiseptic
properties of tannin, the active ingredient in tea, and of hops in beer – plus the fact that
both are made with boiled water – allowed urban communities to flourish at close quarters
without succumbing to water-borne diseases such as dysentery. The theory sounds
eccentric but once he starts to explain the detective work that went into his deduction, the
scepticism gives way to wary admiration. Macfarlanes case has been strengthened by
support from notable quarters – Roy Porter, the distinguished medical historian, recently
wrote a favourable appraisal of his research.
D
Macfarlane had wondered for a long time how the Industrial Revolution came about.
Historians had alighted on one interesting factor around the mid-18th century that required
explanation. Between about 1650 and 1740, the population in Britain was static. But then
there was a burst in population growth. Macfarlane says: ‘The infant mortality rate halved
in the space of 20 years, and this happened in both rural areas and cities, and across all
classes. People suggested four possible causes. Was there a sudden change in the
viruses and bacteria around? Unlikely. Was there a revolution in medical science? But this
was a century before Lister’s revolution*. Was there a change in environmental conditions?
There were improvements in agriculture that wiped out malaria, but these were small gains.
Sanitation did not become widespread until the 19th century. The only option left is food.
But the height and weight statistics show a decline. So the food must have got worse.
Efforts to explain this sudden reduction in child deaths appeared to draw a blank.’
E
This population burst seemed to happen at just the right time to provide labour for the
Industrial Revolution. ‘When you start moving towards an industrial revolution, it is
economically efficient to have people living close together,’ says Macfarlane. ‘But then you
get disease, particularly from human waste.’ Some digging around in historical records
revealed that there was a change in the incidence of water-borne disease at that time,
especially dysentery. Macfarlane deduced that whatever the British were drinking must
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have been important in regulating disease. He says, ‘We drank beer. For a long time, the
English were protected by the strong antibacterial agent in hops, which were added to help
preserve the beer. But in the late 17th century a tax was introduced on malt, the basic
ingredient of beer. The poor turned to water and gin and in the 1720s the mortality rate
began to rise again. Then it suddenly dropped again. What caused this?’
F
Macfarlane looked to Japan, which was also developing large cities about the same
time, and also had no sanitation. Water-borne diseases had a much looser grip on the
Japanese population than those in Britain. Could it be the prevalence of tea in their culture?
Macfarlane then noted that the history of tea in Britain provided an extraordinary
coincidence of dates. Tea was relatively expensive until Britain started a direct clipper
trade with China in the early 18th century. By the 1740s, about the time that infant mortality
was dipping, the drink was common. Macfarlane guessed that the fact that water had to be
boiled, together with the stomach-purifying properties of tea meant that the breast milk
provided by mothers was healthier than it had ever been. No other European nation sipped
tea like the British, which, by Macfarlanes logic, pushed these other countries out of
contention for the revolution.
G
But, if tea is a factor in the combination lock, why didn’t Japan forge ahead in a teasoaked industrial revolution of its own? Macfarlane notes that even though 17th-century
Japan had large cities, high literacy rates, even a futures market, it had turned its back on
the essence of any work-based revolution by giving up labour-saving devices such as
animals, afraid that they would put people out of work. So, the nation that we now think of
as one of the most technologically advanced entered the 19th century having ‘abandoned
the wheel’.
Questions 1-6
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 1?
In boxes 8-13 on your answer sheet, write
TRUE
if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE
if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this
1 China’s transport system was not suitable for industry in the 18th century.
2 Tea and beer both helped to prevent dysentery in Britain.
3 Roy Porter disagrees with Professor Macfarlane’s findings.
4 After 1740 there was a reduction in population in Britain.
5 People in Britain used to make beer at home.
6 The tax on malt indirectly caused a rise in the death rate.
，
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TEST 12
The Context, Meaning and Scope of Tourism
A Travel has existed since the beginning of time, when primitive man set out, often
traversing great distances in search of game, which provided the food and clothing
necessary for his survival. Throughout the course of history, people have travelled for
purposes of trade, religious conviction, economic gain, war, migration and other equally
compelling motivations. In the Roman era, wealthy aristocrats and high government
officials also travelled for pleasure. Seaside resorts located at Pompeii and Herculaneum
afforded citizens the opportunity to escape to their vacation villas in order to avoid the
summer heat of Rome. Travel, except during the Dark Ages, has continued to grow and,
throughout recorded history, has played a vital role in the development of civilisations and
their economies.
B Tourism in the mass form as we know it today is a distinctly twentieth-century
phenomenon. Historians suggest that the advent of mass tourism began in England during
the industrial revolution with the rise of the middle class and the availability of relatively
inexpensive transportation. The creation of the commercial airline industry following the
Second World War and the subsequent development of the jet aircraft in the 1950s
signalled the rapid growth and expansion of international travel. This growth led to the
development of a major new industry: tourism. In turn, international tourism became the
concern of a number of world governments since it not only provided new employment
opportunities but also produced a means of earning foreign exchange.
C Tourism today has grown significantly in both economic and social importance. In
most industrialised countries over the past few years the fastest growth has been seen in
the area of services. One of the largest segments of the service industry, although largely
unrecognised as an entity in some of these countries, is travel and tourism. According to
the World Travel and Tourism Council (1992), Travel and tourism is the largest industry in
the world on virtually any economic measure including value-added capital investment,
employment and tax contributions. In 1992 ‘the industry’s gross output was estimated to
be $3.5 trillion, over 12 per cent of all consumer spending. The travel and tourism industry
is the world’s largest employer the almost 130 million jobs, or almost 7 per cent of all
employees. This industry is the world’s leading industrial contributor, producing over 6 per
cent of the world’s national product and accounting for capital investment in excess of
$422 billion m direct indirect and personal taxes each year. Thus, tourism has a profound
impact both on the world economy and, because of the educative effect of travel and the
effects on employment, on society itself.
D However, the major problems of the travel and tourism industry that have hidden, or
obscured, its economic impact are the diversity and fragmentation of the industry itself.
The travel industry includes: hotels, motels and other types of accommodation;
restaurants and other food services; transportation services and facilities; amusements,
attractions and other leisure facilities; gift shops and a large number of other enterprises.
Since many of these businesses also serve local residents, the impact of spending by
visitors can easily be overlooked or underestimated. In addition, Meis (1992) points out
that the tourism industry involves concepts that have remained amorphous to both
analysts and decision makers. Moreover, in all nations this problem has made it difficult
for the industry to develop any type of reliable or credible tourism information base in order
to estimate the contribution it makes to regional, national and global economies. However,
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the nature of this very diversity makes travel and tourism ideal vehicles for economic
development in a wide variety of countries, regions or communities.
E Once the exclusive province of the wealthy, travel and tourism have become an
institutionalised way of life for most of the population. In fact, McIntosh and Goeldner
(1990) suggest that tourism has become the largest commodity in international trade for
many nations and, for a significant number of other countries, it ranks second or third. For
example, tourism is the major source of income in Bermuda, Greece, Italy, Spain,
Switzerland and most Caribbean countries. In addition, Hawkins and Ritchie, quoting from
data published by the American Express Company, suggest that the travel and tourism
industry is the number one ranked employer in the Bahamas, Brazil, Canada, France, (the
former) West Germany, Hong Kong, Italy, Jamaica, Japan, Singapore, the United Kingdom
and the United States. However, because of problems of definition, which directly affect
statistical measurement, it is not possible with any degree of certainty to provide precise,
valid or reliable data about the extent of world-wide tourism participation or its economic
impact. In many cases, similar difficulties arise when attempts are made to measure
domestic tourism.
Questions 1-6
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 1?
In boxes 5-10 on your answer sheet, write
TRUE
if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE
if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this
1 The largest employment figures in the world are found in the travel and tourism industry.
2 Tourism contributes over six per cent of the Australian gross national product.
3 Tourism has a social impact because it promotes recreation.
4 Two main features of the travel and tourism industry make its economic significance
difficult to ascertain.
5 Visitor spending is always greater than the spending of residents in tourist areas.
6 It is easy to show statistically how tourism affects individual economies.
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TEST 13
The megafires of California
Drought, housing expansion, and oversupply of tinder make for bigger, hotter fires in the
western United States
Wildfires are becoming an increasing menace in the western United States, with Southern
California being the hardest hit area. There’s a reason fire squads battling more frequent
blazes in Southern California are having such difficulty containing the flames, despite
better preparedness than ever and decades of experience fighting fires fanned by the
‘Santa Ana Winds’. The wildfires themselves, experts say, are generally hotter, faster, and
spread more erratically than in the past.
Megafires, also called ‘siege fires’, are the increasingly frequent blazes that burn 500,000
acres or more – 10 times the size of the average forest fire of 20 years ago. Some recent
wildfires are among the biggest ever in California in terms of acreage burned, according to
state figures and news reports.
One explanation for the trend to more superhot fires is that the region, which usually has
dry summers, has had significantly below normal precipitation in many recent years.
Another reason, experts say, is related to the century- long policy of the US Forest Service
to stop wildfires as quickly as possible.
The unintentional consequence has been to halt the natural eradication of underbrush, now
the primary fuel for megafires.
Three other factors contribute to the trend, they add. First is climate change, marked by a 1
-degree Fahrenheit rise in average yearly temperature across the western states. Second is
fire seasons that on average are 78 days longer than they were 20 years ago. Third is
increased construction of homes in wooded areas.
‘We are increasingly building our homes in fire-prone ecosystems,’ says Dominik
Kulakowski, adjunct professor of biology at Clark University Graduate School of Geography
in Worcester, Massachusetts. ‘Doing that in many of the forests of the western US is like
building homes on the side of an active volcano.’
In California, where population growth has averaged more than 600,000 a year for at least
a decade, more residential housing is being built. ‘What once was open space is now
residential homes providing fuel to make fires burn with greater intensity,’ says Terry
McHale of the California Department of Forestry firefighters’ union. ‘With so much dryness,
so many communities to catch fire, so many fronts to fight, it becomes an almost
incredible job.’
That said, many experts give California high marks for making progress on preparedness
in recent years, after some of the largest fires in state history scorched thousands of acres,
burned thousands of homes, and killed numerous people. Stung in the past by criticism of
bungling that allowed fires to spread when they might have been contained, personnel are
meeting the peculiar challenges of neighborhood – and canyon- hopping fires better than
previously, observers say.
State promises to provide more up-to-date engines, planes, and helicopters to fight fires
have been fulfilled. Firefighters’ unions that in the past complained of dilapidated
equipment, old fire engines, and insufficient blueprints for fire safety are now praising the
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state’s commitment, noting that funding for firefighting has increased, despite huge cuts in
many other programs. ‘We are pleased that the current state administration has been very
proactive in its support of us, and [has] come through with budgetary support of the
infrastructure needs we have long sought,’ says Mr. McHale of the firefighters’ union.
Besides providing money to upgrade the fire engines that must traverse the mammoth
state and wind along serpentine canyon roads, the state has invested in better commandand-control facilities as well as in the strategies to run them. ‘In the fire sieges of earlier
years, we found that other jurisdictions and states were willing to offer mutual-aid help, but
we were not able to communicate adequately with them,’ says Kim Zagaris, chief of the
state’s Office of Emergency Services Fire and Rescue Branch.
After a commission examined and revamped communications procedures, the statewide
response ‘has become far more professional and responsive,’ he says. There is a sense
among both government officials and residents that the speed, dedication, and
coordination of firefighters from several states and jurisdictions are resulting in greater
efficiency than in past ‘siege fire’ situations.
In recent years, the Southern California region has improved building codes, evacuation
procedures, and procurement of new technology. ‘I am extraordinarily impressed by the
improvements we have witnessed,’ says Randy Jacobs, a Southern California- based
lawyer who has had to evacuate both his home and business to escape wildfires.
‘Notwithstanding all the damage that will continue to be caused by wildfires, we will no
longer suffer the loss of life endured in the past because of the fire prevention and
firefighting measures that have been put in place,’ he says.
Questions 1-6
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage?
In boxes 7-13 on your answer sheet, write
TRUE
if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE
if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this
1 The amount of open space in California has diminished over the last ten years.
2 Many experts believe California has made little progress in readying itself to fight fires.
9 Personnel in the past have been criticised for mishandling fire containment.
3 California has replaced a range of firefighting tools.
4 More firefighters have been hired to improve fire-fighting capacity.
5 Citizens and government groups disapprove of the efforts of different states and
agencies working together.
6 Randy Jacobs believes that loss of life from fires will continue at the same levels,
despite changes made.
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TEST 14
Raising the Mary Rose
How a sixteenth-century warship was recovered from the seabed
On 19 July 1545, English and French fleets were engaged in a sea battle off the coast of
southern England in the area of water called the Solent, between Portsmouth and the Isle
of Wight. Among the English vessels was a warship by the name of Mary Rose. Built in
Portsmouth some 35 years earlier, she had had a long and successful fighting career, and
was a favourite of King Henry VIII. Accounts of what happened to the ship vary: while
witnesses agree that she was not hit by the French, some maintain that she was outdated,
overladen and sailing too low in the water, others that she was mishandled by
undisciplined crew. What is undisputed, however, is that the Mary Rose sank into the
Solent that day, taking at least 500 men with her. After the battle, attempts were made to
recover the ship, but these failed.
The Mary Rose came to rest on the seabed, lying on her starboard (right) side at an angle
of approximately 60 degrees. The hull (the body of the ship) acted as a trap for the sand
and mud carried by Solent currents. As a result, the starboard side filled rapidly, leaving the
exposed port (left) side to be eroded by marine organisms and mechanical degradation.
Because of the way the ship sank, nearly all of the starboard half survived intact. During
the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the entire site became covered with a layer of
hard grey clay, which minimised further erosion.
Then, on 16 June 1836, some fishermen in the Solent found that their equipment was
caught on an underwater obstruction, which turned out to be the Mary Rose. Diver John
Deane happened to be exploring another sunken ship nearby, and the fishermen
approached him, asking him to free their gear. Deane dived down, and found the
equipment caught on a timber protruding slightly from the seabed. Exploring further, he
uncovered several other timbers and a bronze gun. Deane continued diving on the site
intermittently until 1840, recovering several more guns, two bows, various timbers, part of
a pump and various other small finds.
The Mary Rose then faded into obscurity for another hundred years. But in 1965, military
historian and amateur diver Alexander McKee, in conjunction with the British Sub-Aqua
Club, initiated a project called ‘Solent Ships’. While on paper this was a plan to examine a
number of known wrecks in the Solent, what McKee really hoped for was to find the Mary
Rose. Ordinary search techniques proved unsatisfactory, so McKee entered into
collaboration with Harold E. Edgerton, professor of electrical engineering at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology. In 1967, Edgerton’s side-scan sonar systems
revealed a large, unusually shaped object, which McKee believed was the Mary Rose.
Further excavations revealed stray pieces of timber and an iron gun. But the climax to the
operation came when, on 5 May 1971, part of the ship’s frame was uncovered. McKee and
his team now knew for certain that they had found the wreck, but were as yet unaware that
it also housed a treasure trove of beautifully preserved artefacts. Interest ^ in the project
grew, and in 1979, The Mary Rose Trust was formed, with Prince Charles as its President
and Dr Margaret Rule its Archaeological Director. The decision whether or not to salvage
the wreck was not an easy one, although an excavation in 1978 had shown that it might be
possible to raise the hull. While the original aim was to raise the hull if at all feasible, the
operation was not given the go-ahead until January 1982, when all the necessary
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information was available.
An important factor in trying to salvage the Mary Rose was that the remaining hull was an
open shell. This led to an important decision being taken: namely to carry out the lifting
operation in three very distinct stages. The hull was attached to a lifting frame via a
network of bolts and lifting wires. The problem of the hull being sucked back downwards
into the mud was overcome by using 12 hydraulic jacks. These raised it a few centimetres
over a period of several days, as the lifting frame rose slowly up its four legs. It was only
when the hull was hanging freely from the lifting frame, clear of the seabed and the suction
effect of the surrounding mud, that the salvage operation progressed to the second stage.
In this stage, the lifting frame was fixed to a hook attached to a crane, and the hull was
lifted completely clear of the seabed and transferred underwater into the lifting cradle. This
required precise positioning to locate the legs into the stabbing guides’ of the lifting cradle.
The lifting cradle was designed to fit the hull using archaeological survey drawings, and
was fitted with air bags to provide additional cushioning for the hull’s delicate timber
framework. The third and final stage was to lift the entire structure into the air, by which
time the hull was also supported from below. Finally, on 11 October 1982, millions of
people around the world held their breath as the timber skeleton of the Mary Rose was
lifted clear of the water, ready to be returned home to Portsmouth.
Questions 1-4
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 1?
In boxes 1-4 on your answer sheet, write
TRUE
if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE
if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this
1 There is some doubt about what caused the Mary Rose to sink.
2 The Mary Rose was the only ship to sink in the battle of 19 July 1545.
3 Most of one side of the Mary Rose lay undamaged under the sea.
4 Alexander McKee knew that the wreck would contain many valuable historical objects.
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TEST 15
The story of silk
The history of the world’s most luxurious fabric, from ancient China to the present day
Silk is a fine, smooth material produced from the cocoons – soft protective shells – that
are made by mulberry silkworms (insect larvae). Legend has it that it was Lei Tzu, wife of
the Yellow Emperor, ruler of China in about 3000 BC, who discovered silkworms. One
account of the story goes that as she was taking a walk in her husband’s gardens, she
discovered that silkworms were responsible for the destruction of several mulberry trees.
She collected a number of cocoons and sat down to have a rest. It just so happened that
while she was sipping some tea, one of the cocoons that she had collected landed in the
hot tea and started to unravel into a fine thread. Lei Tzu found that she could wind this
thread around her fingers. Subsequently, she persuaded her husband to allow her to rear
silkworms on a grove of mulberry trees. She also devised a special reel to draw the fibres
from the cocoon into a single thread so that they would be strong enough to be woven into
fabric. While it is unknown just how much of this is true, it is certainly known that silk
cultivation has existed in China for several millennia.
Originally, silkworm farming was solely restricted to women, and it was they who were
responsible for the growing, harvesting and weaving. Silk quickly grew into a symbol of
status, and originally, only royalty were entitled to have clothes made of silk. The rules
were gradually relaxed over the years until finally during the Qing Dynasty (1644—1911 AD),
even peasants, the lowest caste, were also entitled to wear silk. Sometime during the Han
Dynasty (206 BC-220 AD), silk was so prized that it was also used as a unit of currency.
Government officials were paid their salary in silk, and farmers paid their taxes in grain and
silk. Silk was also used as diplomatic gifts by the emperor. Fishing lines, bowstrings,
musical instruments and paper were all made using silk. The earliest indication of silk
paper being used was discovered in the tomb of a noble who is estimated to have died
around 168 AD.
Demand for this exotic fabric eventually created the lucrative trade route now known as the
Silk Road, taking silk westward and bringing gold, silver and wool to the East. It was named
the Silk Road after its most precious commodity, which was considered to be worth more
than gold. The Silk Road stretched over 6,000 kilometres from Eastern China to the
Mediterranean Sea, following the Great Wall of China, climbing the Pamir mountain range,
crossing modern-day Afghanistan and going on to the Middle East, with a major trading
market in Damascus. From there, the merchandise was shipped across the Mediterranean
Sea. Few merchants travelled the entire route; goods were handled mostly by a series of
middlemen.
With the mulberry silkworm being native to China, the country was the world’s sole
producer of silk for many hundreds of years. The secret of silk-making eventually reached
the rest of the world via the Byzantine Empire, which ruled over the Mediterranean region
of southern Europe, North Africa and the Middle East during the period 330—1453 AD.
According to another legend, monks working for the Byzantine emperor Justinian smuggle
silkworm eggs to Constantinople (Istanbul in modern-day Turkey) in 550 AD, concealed
inside hollow bamboo walking canes. The Byzantines were as secretive as the Chinese,
however, and for many centuries the weaving and trading of silk fabric was a strict imperial
monopoly. Then in the seventh century, the Arabs conquered Persia, capturing their
magnificent silks in the process.
Silk production thus spread through Africa, Sicily and Spain as the Arabs swept, through
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these lands. Andalusia in southern Spain was Europe’s main silk-producing centre in the
tenth century. By the thirteenth century, however, Italy had become Europe’s leader in silk
production and export. Venetian merchants traded extensively in silk and encouraged silk
growers to settle in Italy. Even now, silk processed in the province of Como in northern Italy
enjoys an esteemed reputation.
The nineteenth century and industrialisation saw the downfall of the European silk industry.
Cheaper Japanese silk, trade in which was greatly facilitated by the opening of the Suez
Canal, was one of the many factors driving the trend. Then in the twentieth century, new
manmade fibres, such as nylon, started to be used in what had traditionally been silk
products, such as stockings and parachutes. The two world wars, which interrupted the
supply of raw material from Japan, also stifled the European silk industry. After the Second
World War, Japan’s silk production was restored, with improved production and quality of
raw silk. Japan was to remain the world’s biggest producer of raw silk, and practically the
only major exporter of raw silk, until the 1970s. However, in more recent decades, China
has gradually recaptured its position as the world’s biggest producer and exporter of raw
silk and silk yarn. Today, around 125,000 metric tons of silk are produced in the world, and
almost two thirds of that production takes place in China.
Questions 1-4
Do the following statements agree with the information in Reading Passage?
In boxes 10-13 on your answer sheet, write
TRUE
if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE
if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this
1 Gold was the most valuable material transported along the Silk Road.
2 Most tradesmen only went along certain sections of the Silk Road.
3 The Byzantines spread the practice of silk production across the West.
4 Silk yarn makes up the majority of silk currently exported from China.
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TEST 16
Research using twins
To biomedical researchers all over the world, twins offer a precious opportunity to
untangle the influence of genes and the environment – of nature and nurture. Because
identical twins come from a single fertilized egg that splits into two, they share virtually the
same genetic code. Any differences between them -one twin having younger looking skin,
for example – must be due to environmental factors such as less time spent in the sun.
Alternatively, by comparing the experiences of identical twins with those of fraternal twins,
who come from separate eggs and share on average half their DNA, researchers can
quantify the extent to which our genes affect our lives. If identical twins are more similar to
each other with respect to an ailment than fraternal twins are, then vulnerability to the
disease must be rooted at least in part in heredity.
These two lines of research – studying the differences between identical twins to pinpoint
the influence of environment, and comparing identical twins with fraternal ones to
measure the role of inheritance – have been crucial to understanding the interplay of
nature and nurture in determining our personalities, behavior, and vulnerability to disease.
The idea of using twins to measure the influence of heredity dates back to 1875, when the
English scientist Francis Galton first suggested the approach (and coined the phrase
‘nature and nurture’). But twin studies took a surprising twist in the 1980s, with the arrival
of studies into identical twins who had been separated at birth and reunited as adults. Over
two decades 137 sets of twins eventually visited Thomas Bouchard’s lab in what became
known as the Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart. Numerous tests were carried out on
the twins, and they were each asked more than 15,000 questions.
Bouchard and his colleagues used this mountain of data to identify how far twins were
affected by their genetic makeup. The key to their approach was a statistical concept
called heritability. in broad terms, the heritability of a trait measures the extent to which
differences among members of a population can be explained by differences in their
genetics. And wherever Bouchard and other scientists looked, it seemed, they found the
invisible hand of genetic influence helping to shape our lives.
Lately, however, twin studies have helped lead scientists to a radical new conclusion: that
nature and nurture are not the only elemental forces at work. According to a recent field
called epigenetics, there is a third factor also in play, one that in some cases serves as a
bridge between the environment and our genes, and in others operates on its own to shape
who we are.
Epigenetic processes are chemical reactions tied to neither nature nor nurture but
representing what researchers have called a ‘third component’. These reactions influence
how our genetic code is expressed: how each gene is strengthened or weakened, even
turned on or off, to build our bones, brains and all the other parts of our bodies.
If you think of our DNA as an immense piano keyboard and our genes as the keys – each
key symbolizing a segment of DNA responsible for a particular note, or trait, and all the
keys combining to make us who we are – then epigenetic processes determine when and
how each key can be struck, changing the tune being played.
One way the study of epigenetics is revolutionizing our understanding of biology is by
revealing a mechanism by which the environment directly impacts on genes. Studies of
animals, for example, have shown that when a rat experiences stress during pregnancy, it
can cause epigenetic changes in a fetus that lead to behavioral problems as the rodent
grows up. Other epigenetic processes appear to occur randomly, while others are normal,
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such as those that guide embryonic cells as they become heart, brain, or liver cells, for
example.
Geneticist Danielle Reed has worked with many twins over the years and thought deeply
about what twin studies have taught us. ‘It’s very clear when you look at twins that much of
what they share is hardwired,’ she says. ‘Many things about them are absolutely the same
and unalterable. But it’s also clear, when you get to know them, that other things about
them are different. Epigenetics is the origin of a lot of those differences, in my view.’
Reed credits Thomas Bouchard’s work for today’s surge in twin studies. ‘He was the
trailblazer,’ she says. ‘We forget that 50 years ago things like heart disease were thought to
be caused entirely by lifestyle. Schizophrenia was thought to be due to poor mothering.
Twin studies have allowed us to be more reflective about what people are actually born
with and what’s caused by experience.’
Having said that, Reed adds, the latest work in epigenetics promises to take our
understanding even further. ‘What I like to say is that nature writes some things in pencil
and some things in pen,’ she says. ‘Things written in pen you can’t change. That’s DNA. But
things written in pencil you can. That’s epigenetics. Now that we’re actually able to look at
the DNA and see where the pencil writings are, it’s sort of a whole new world.’
Questions 1-4
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage?
In boxes 1-4 on your answer sheet, write
TRUE
if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE
if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this
1 There may be genetic causes for the differences in how young the skin of identical
twins looks.
2 Twins are at greater risk of developing certain illnesses than non-twins.
3 Bouchard advertised in newspapers for twins who had been separated at birth.
4 Epigenetic processes are different from both genetic and environmental processes.
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TEST 17
Great Migrations
Animal migration, however it is defined, is far more than just the movement of animals. It
can loosely be described as travel that takes place at regular intervals – often in an annual
cycle – that may involve many members of a species, and is rewarded only after a long
journey. It suggests inherited instinct. The biologist Hugh Dingle has identified five
characteristics that apply, in varying degrees and combinations, to all migrations. They are
prolonged movements that carry animals outside familiar habitats; they tend to be linear,
not zigzaggy; they involve special behaviours concerning preparation (such as overfeeding)
and arrival; they demand special allocations of energy. And one more: migrating animals
maintain an intense attentiveness to the greater mission, which keeps them undistracted
by temptations and undeterred by challenges that would turn other animals aside.
An arctic tern, on its 20,000 km flight from the extreme south of South America to the
Arctic circle, will take no notice of a nice smelly herring offered from a bird-watcher’s boat
along the way. While local gulls will dive voraciously for such handouts, the tern flies on.
Why? The arctic tern resists distraction because it is driven at that moment by an
instinctive sense of something we humans find admirable: larger purpose. In other words,
it is determined to reach its destination. The bird senses that it can eat, rest and mate later.
Right now it is totally focused on the journey; its undivided intent is arrival.
Reaching some gravelly coastline in the Arctic, upon which other arctic terns have
converged, will serve its larger purpose as shaped by evolution: finding a place, a time, and
a set of circumstances in which it can successfully hatch and rear offspring.
But migration is a complex issue, and biologists define it differently, depending in part on
what sorts of animals they study. Joe! Berger, of the University of Montana, who works on
the American pronghorn and other large terrestrial mammals, prefers what he calls a
simple, practical definition suited to his beasts: ‘movements from a seasonal home area
away to another home area and back again’. Generally the reason for such seasonal backand-forth movement is to seek resources that aren’t available within a single area yearround.
But daily vertical movements by zooplankton in the ocean – upward by night to seek food,
downward by day to escape predators – can also be considered migration. So can the
movement of aphids when, having depleted the young leaves on one food plant, their
offspring then fly onward to a different host plant, with no one aphid ever returning to
where it started.
Dingle is an evolutionary biologist who studies insects. His definition is more intricate than
Berger’s, citing those five features that distinguish migration from other forms of
movement. They allow for the fact that, for example, aphids will become sensitive to blue
light (from the sky) when it’s time for takeoff on their big journey, and sensitive to yellow
light (reflected from tender young leaves) when it’s appropriate to land. Birds will fatten
themselves with heavy feeding in advance of a long migrational flight. The value of his
definition, Dingle argues, is that it focuses attention on what the phenomenon of
wildebeest migration shares with the phenomenon of the aphids, and therefore helps guide
researchers towards understanding how evolution has produced them all.
Human behaviour, however, is having a detrimental impact on animal migration. The
pronghorn, which resembles an antelope, though they are unrelated, is the fastest land
mammal of the New World. One population, which spends the summer in the mountainous
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Grand Teton National Park of the western USA, follows a narrow route from its summer
range in the mountains, across a river, and down onto the plains. Here they wait out the
frozen months, feeding mainly on sagebrush blown clear of snow. These pronghorn are
notable for the invariance of their migration route and the severity of its constriction at
three bottlenecks. If they can’t pass through each of the three during their spring migration,
they can’t reach their bounty of summer grazing; if they can’t pass through again in autumn,
escaping south onto those windblown plains, they are likely to die trying to overwinter in
the deep snow. Pronghorn, dependent on distance vision and speed to keep safe from
predators, traverse high, open shoulders of land, where they can see and run. At one of the
bottlenecks, forested hills rise to form a V, leaving a corridor of open ground only about
150 metres wide, filled with private homes. Increasing development is leading toward a
crisis for the pronghorn, threatening to choke off their passageway.
Conservation scientists, along with some biologists and land managers within the USA’s
National Park Service and other agencies, are now working to preserve migrational
behaviours, not just species and habitats. A National Forest has recognised the path of the
pronghorn, much of which passes across its land, as a protected migration corridor. But
neither the Forest Service nor the Park Service can control what happens on private land at
a bottleneck. And with certain other migrating species, the challenge is complicated further
– by vastly greater distances traversed, more jurisdictions, more borders, more dangers
along the way. We will require wisdom and resoluteness to ensure that migrating species
can continue their journeying a while longer.
Questions 14-18
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage2?
In boxes 1-5on your answer sheet, write
TRUE
if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE
if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this
1 Local gulls and migrating arctic terns behave in the same way when offered food.
2 Experts’ definitions of migration tend to vary according to their area of study.
3 Very few experts agree that the movement of aphids can be considered migration.
4 Aphids’ journeys are affected by changes in the light that they perceive.
5 Dingles aim is to distinguish between the migratory behaviours of different species.
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PART 5
SENTENCE COMPLETION
TEST 1
The life of the European bee-eater
A brilliant movement of colour as it catches its food in the air, the European bee-eater
moves between three continents.
True to their name, bee-eaters eat bees (though their diet includes just about any flying
insect). When the bird catches a bee, it returns to its tree to get rid of the bees poison,
which it does very efficiently. It hits the insect's head on one side of the branch, then rubs
its body on the other. The rubbing makes its prey harmless.
European bee-eaters (Merops apiaster) form families that breed in the spring and summer
across an area that extends from Spain to Kazakhstan. Farmland and river valleys provide
huge numbers of insects. Flocks of bee-eaters follow tractors as they work fields. When
the birds come upon a beehive, they eat well - a researcher once found a hundred bees in
the stomach of a bee-eater near a hive.
European bees pass the winter by sleeping in their hives, which cuts off the bee-eater's
main source of food. So, in late summer, bee-eaters begin a long, dangerous journey.
Massive flocks from Spain, France and northern Italy cross the Sahara desert to their
wintering grounds in West Africa. Bee-eaters from Hungary and other parts of Central and
Eastern Europe cross the Mediterranean Sea and Arabian Desert to winter in
southern Africa. 'It's an extremely risky stratagem, this migration,' says C. Hilary Fry, a
British ornithologist who has studied European bee-eaters for more than 45 years.
'At least 30 percent of the birds will be killed by predators before they make it back to
Europe the following spring.'
In April, they return to Europe. Birds build nests by digging tunnels in riverbanks. They work
for up to 20 days. By the end of the job, they've moved 15 to 26 pounds of soil - more than
80 times their weight.
The nesting season is a time when families help each other, and sons or uncles help feed
their father's or brother's chicks as soon as they come out of their eggs. The helpers
benefit, too: parents with helpers can provide more food for chicks to continue the family
line.
It's a short, spectacular life. European bee-eaters live for five to six years. The difficulties of
migration and avoiding predators along the way affect every bird. Bee-eaters today also
find it harder to find food, as there are fewer insects around as a result of pesticides.
Breeding sites are also disappearing, as rivers are turned into concrete-walled canals.
Questions 1-8
Write NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer.
1
Bee-eaters’ prey are bees and other_________
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2
Bee-eaters need to remove the __________from bees before eating them.
3
There is plenty of food for bee-eaters on agricultural land and in_____________
4
Bee-eaters migrate to spend the winter in different parts of_____________
5
Because of______________, almost one-third of bee-eaters do not survive migration.
6
Bee-eaters make nests in___________, which they build themselves.
7
When nesting, the_____________ receive food from different family members.
8 One problem for bee-eaters is_______________, which have reduced the amount of food
available.
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TEST 2
The burden of thirst
Millions of women carry water long distances. If they had a tap by their door, whole
societies would be transformed.
A Aylito Binayo’s feet know the mountain. Even at four in the morning, she can run down
the rocks to the river by starlight alone and climb the steep mountain back up to her village
with a container of water on her back. She has made this journey three times a day since
she was a small child.
So has every other woman in her village of Foro, in the Konso district of south-western
Ethiopia in Africa. Binayo left school when she was eight years old, in part because she had
to help her mother fetch water from the Toiro River. The water is unsafe to drink; every
year that the drought continues, the river carries less water, and its flow is reduced. But it
is the only water Foro has ever had.
B In developed parts of the world, people turn on a tap and out pours abundant, clean
water. Yet nearly 900 million people in the world have no access to clean water.
Furthermore, 2.5 billion people have no safe way to get rid of human waste. Polluted water
and lack of proper hygiene cause disease and kill 3.3 million people around the world
annually, most of them children. In southern Ethiopia and in northern Kenya, a lack of rain
over the past few years has made even dirty water hard to find. But soon, for the first time,
things are going to change.
C Bringing clean water close to villagers’ homes is the key to the problem. Communities
where clean water becomes accessible and plentiful are transformed. All the hours
previously spent hauling water can be used to cultivate more crops, raise more animals or
even start a business. Families spend less time sick or caring for family members who are
unwell. Most important, not having to collect water means girls can go to school and get
jobs. The need to fetch water for the family, or to take care of younger siblings while their
mother goes, usually prevents them ever having this experience.
D But the challenges of bringing water to remote villages like those in Konso are
overwhelming. Locating water underground and then reaching it by means of
deep wells requires geological expertise and expensive, heavy machines. Abandoned wells
and water projects litter the villages of Konso. In similar villages around the developing
world, the biggest problem with water schemes is that about half of them break
down soon after the groups that built them move on. Sometimes technology is used that
can’t be repaired locally, or spare parts are available only in the capital.
E Today, a UK-based international non-profit organisation called WaterAid is tackling the
job of bringing water to the most remote villages of Konso. Their approach combines
technologies proven to last - such as building a sand dam to capture and filter rainwater
that would otherwise drain away. But the real innovation is that WaterAid believes
technology is only part of the solution. Just as important is involving the local community
in designing, building and maintaining new water projects. Before beginning any project,
WaterAid asks the community to create a WASH (water, sanitation, hygiene) committee of
seven people. The committee works with WaterAid to plan projects and involve the village
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in construction. Then it maintains and runs the project.
F The people of Konso, who grow their crops on terraces they have dug into the sides of
mountains, are famous for hard work. In the village of Orbesho, residents even constructed
a road themselves so that drilling machinery could come in. Last summer, their pump,
installed by the river, was being motorised to push its water to a newly built reservoir on
top of a nearby mountain. From there, gravity will carry it down in pipes to villages on the
other side of the mountain. Residents of those villages have each given some money to
help fund the project. They have made concrete and collected stones for the structures.
Now they are digging trenches to lay pipes. If all goes well, Aylito Binayo will have a tap
with safe water just a three-minute walk from her front door.
Questions 1-5
Complete the sentences below.
Choose NO MORE THAN ONE WORD AND/OR A NUMBER from the passage for each
answer.
1
The water levels in the Toiro River are falling because of___________
2
Globally, the number of people who die each year as a result of using dirty water
is___________
3
When families have clean water, they can spend more time growing_____________
4
Specialist knowledge and equipment are needed to dig_______________
5
WaterAid uses a dam made of____________ to capture rainwater.
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TEST 3
The truth about lying
Over the years Richard Wiseman has tried to unravel the truth about deception investigating the signs that give away a liar.
A In the 1970s, as part of a large-scale research programme exploring the area of
Interspecies communication, Dr Francine Patterson from Stanford University attempted to
teach two lowland gorillas called Michael and Koko a simplified version of Sign Language.
According to Patterson, the great apes were capable of holding meaningful conversations,
and could even reflect upon profound topics, such as love and death. During the project,
their trainers believe they uncovered instances where the two gorillas' linguistic skills
seemed to provide reliable evidence of intentional deceit. In one example, Koko broke a toy
cat, and then signed to indicate that the breakage had been caused by one of her trainers.
In another episode, Michael ripped a jacket belonging to a trainer and, when asked who
was responsible for the incident, signed ‘Koko’. When the trainer expressed some
scepticism, Michael appeared to change his mind, and indicated that Dr Patterson was
actually responsible, before finally confessing.
B Other researchers have explored the development of deception in children. Some of the
most interesting experiments have involved asking youngsters not to take a peek at their
favourite toys. During these studies, a child is led into a laboratory and asked to face one
of the walls. The experimenter then explains that he is going to set up an elaborate toy a
few feet behind them. After setting up the toy, the experimenter says that he has to leave
the laboratory, and asks the child not to turn around and peek at the toy. The child is
secretly filmed by hidden cameras for a few minutes, and then the experimenter returns
and asks them whether they peeked. Almost all three-year do, and then half of them lie
about it to the experimenter. By the time the children have reached the age of five, all of
them peek and all of them lie. The results provide compelling evidence that lying starts to
emerge the moment we learn to speak.
C So what are the tell-tale signs that give away a lie? In 1994, the psychologist Richard
Wiseman devised a large-scale experiment on a TV programme called
Tomorrow's World. As part of the experiment, viewers watched two interviews in which
Wiseman asked a presenter in front of the cameras to describe his favourite film. In one
interview, the presenter picked Some Like It Hot and he told the truth; in the other interview,
he picked Gone with the Wind and lied. The viewers were then invited to make a choice - to
telephone in to say which film he was lying about. More than 30,000 calls were received,
but viewers were unable to tell the difference and the vote was a 50/50 split. In similar
experiments, the results have been remarkably consistent - when it comes to lie detection,
people might as well simply toss a coin. It doesn’t matter if you are male or female, young
or old; very few people are able to detect deception.
D Why is this? Professor Charles Bond from the Texas Christian University has conducted
surveys into the sorts of behaviour people associate with lying. He has interviewed
thousands of people from more than 60 countries, asking them to describe how they set
about telling whether someone is lying. People’s answers are remarkably consistent.
Almost everyone thinks liars tend to avert their gaze, nervously wave their hands around
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and shift about in their seats. There is, however, one small problem. Researchers have
spent hour upon hour carefully comparing films of liars and truth-tellers. The results are
clear. Liars do not necessarily look away from you; they do not appear nervous and move
their hands around or shift about in their seats. People fail to detect lies because they are
basing their opinions on behaviours that are not actually associated with deception.
E So what are we missing? It is obvious that the more information you give away, the
greater the chances of some of it coming back to haunt you. As a result, liars tend to say
less and provide fewer details than truth-tellers. Looking back at the transcripts of the
interviews with the presenter, his lie about Gone with the Wind contained about 40 words,
whereas the truth about Some Like It Hot was nearly twice as long. People who lie also try
psychologically to keep a distance from their falsehoods, and so tend to include fewer
references to themselves in their stories. In his entire interview about Gone with the
Wind, the presenter only once mentioned how the film made him feel, compared with the
several references to his feelings when he talked about Some Like It Hot.
F The simple fact is that the real clues to deceit are in the words that people use, not the
body language. So do people become better lie detectors when they listen to a liar, or even
just read a transcript of their comments? The interviews with the presenter were also
broadcast on radio and published in a newspaper, and although the lie-detecting abilities of
the television viewers were no better than chance, the newspaper readers were correct
64% of the time, and the radio listeners scored an impressive 73% accuracy rate.
Questions 1-3
Complete the sentences below.
Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer.
1
Filming liars has shown that they do not display_____________ behaviour.
2
Liars tend to avoid talking about their own_____________
3
Signs of lying are exposed in people’s______________ rather than their movements.
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TEST 4
Last man standing
Some 50,000 years ago, Homo sapiens beat other hominids to become the only surviving
species. Kate Ravilious reveals how we did it.
A Today, there are over seven billion people living on Earth. No other species has exerted
as much influence over the planet as us. But turn the clock back 80,000 years and we were
one of a number of species roaming the Earth. Our own species. Homo sapiens (Latin for
’wise man'), was most successful in Africa. In western Eurasia, the Neanderthals
dominated, while Homo erectus may have lived in Indonesia. Meanwhile, an unusual finger
bone and tooth, discovered in Denisova cave in Siberia in 2008, have led scientists to
believe that yet another human population - the Denisovans - may also have been
widespread across Asia. Somewhere along the line, these other human species died out,
leaving Homo sapiens as the sole survivor. So what made us the winners in the battle for
survival?
B Some 74.000 years ago, the Toba ‘supervolcano' on the Indonesian island of Sumatra
erupted. The scale of the event was so great that ash from the eruption was flung as far as
eastern India, more than 2,000 kilometres away. Oxford archaeologist Mike Petraglia and
his team have uncovered thousands of stone tools buried underneath the Toba ash. The
mix of hand axes and spear tips have led Petraglia to speculate that Homo sapiens and
Homo erectus were both living in eastern India prior to the Toba eruption. Based on careful
examination of the tools and dating of the sediment layers where they were found.
Petraglia and his team suggest that Homo sapiens arrived in eastern India around 78.000
years ago. migrating out of Africa and across Arabia during a favourable climate period.
After their arrival, the simple tools belonging to Homo erectus seemed to lessen in number
and eventually disappear completely. 'We think that Homo sapiens had a more efficient
hunting technology, which could have given them the edge.' says Petraglia. 'Whether the
eruption of Toba also played a role in the extinction of the Homo erectus-like species is
unclear to us.'
C Some 45.000 years later, another fight for survival took place. This time, the location was
Europe and the protagonists were another species, the Neanderthals.
They were a highly successful species that dominated the European landscape for
300.000 years. Yet within just a few thousand years of the arrival of Homo sapiens, their
numbers plummeted. They eventually disappeared from the landscape around 30.000
years ago with their last known refuge being southern Iberia, including Gibraltar. Initially.
Homo sapiens and Neanderthals lived alongside each other and had no reason to compete.
But then Europe’s climate swung into a cold, inhospitable, dry phase. ‘Neanderthal and
Homo sapiens populations had to retreat to refugia (pockets of habitable land). This
heightened competition between the two groups,’ explains Chris Stringer, anthropologist at
the Natural History Museum in London.
D Both species were strong and stockier than the average human today, but Neanderthals
were particularly robust. ‘Their skeletons show that they had broad shoulders and thick
necks,' says Stringer. ‘Homo sapiens, on the other hand, had longer forearms, which
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undoubtedly enabled them to throw a spear from some distance, with less danger and
using relatively little energy,’ explains Stringer. This long-range ability may have given
Homo sapiens an advantage in hunting. When it came to keeping warm. Homo sapiens
had another skill: weaving and sewing. Archaeologists have uncovered simple needles
fashioned from ivory and bone alongside Homo sapiens, dating as far back as 35,000
years ago. ‘Using this technology, we could use animal skins to make ourselves tents,
warm clothes and fur boots,’ says Stringer. In contrast. Neanderthals never seemed to
master sewing skills, instead relying on pinning skins together with thorns.
E A thirst for exploration provided Homo sapiens with another significant advantage over
Neanderthals. Objects such as shell beads and flint tools, discovered many miles from
their source, show that our ancestors travelled over large distances, in order to barter and
exchange useful materials, and share ideas and knowledge. By contrast. Neanderthals
tended to keep themselves to themselves, living in small groups. They misdirected their
energies by only gathering resources from their immediate surroundings and perhaps
failing to discover new technologies outside their territory.
F Some of these differences in behaviour may have emerged because the two species
thought in different ways. By comparing skull shapes, archaeologists have shown that
Homo sapiens had a more developed temporal lobe - the regions at the side of the brain,
associated with listening, language and long-term memory. 'We think that Homo sapiens
had a significantly more complex language than Neanderthals and were able to
comprehend and discuss concepts such as the distant past and future.' says Stringer.
Penny Spikins, an archaeologist at the University of York, has recently suggested that
Homo sapiens may also have had a greater diversity of brain types than Neanderthals.
‘Our research indicates that high-precision tools, new hunting technologies and the
development of symbolic communication may all have come about because they were
willing to include people with "different" minds and specialised roles in their society,’ she
explains. 'We see similar kinds of injuries on male and female Neanderthal skeletons,
implying there was no such division of labour,' says Spikins.
G Thus by around 30,000 years ago. many talents and traits were well established in Homo
sapiens societies but still absent from Neanderthal communities. Stringer thinks that the
Neanderthals were just living in the wrong place at the wrong time. 'They had to compete
with Homo sapiens during a phase of very unstable climate across Europe. During each
rapid climate fluctuation, they may have suffered greater losses of people than Homo
sapiens, and thus were slowly worn down,’ he says. ‘If the climate had remained stable
throughout, they might still be here.’
Questions 1-4
Complete the sentences below.
Choose NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from the passage for each answer.
1 Analysis of stone tools and_________________ has enabled Petraglia’s team to put
forward an arrival date for Homo sapiens in eastern India.
2
Homo sapiens used both_______________ to make sewing implements.
3
The territorial nature of Neanderthals may have limited their ability to acquire
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resources and_____________
4 Archaeologists examined_________________ in order to get an insight into Neanderthal
and Homo sapiens' capacity for language and thought.
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TEST 5
Gold dusters
A Row upon row, tomato plants stand in formation inside a greenhouse. To reproduce,
most flowering plants depend on a third party to transfer pollen between their male and
female parts. Some require extra encouragement to give up that golden dust. The tomato
flower, for example, needs a violent shake, a vibration roughly equivalent to 30 times the
pull of Earth’s gravity, explains Arizona entomologist Stephen Buchmann. Growers have
tried numerous ways to rattle pollen from tomato blossoms. They have used shaking
tables, air blowers and blasts of sound. But natural means seem to work better.
B It is no surprise that nature’s design works best. What’s astonishing is the array of
workers that do it: more than 200,000 individual animal species, by varying strategies, help
the world's 240,000 species of flowering plants make more flowers. Flies and beetles are
the original pollinators, going back to when flowering plants first appeared 130 million
years ago. As for bees, scientists have identified some 20,000 distinct species so far.
Hummingbirds, butterflies, moths, wasps and ants are also up to the job. Even non-flying
mammals do their part: sugar-loving opossums, some rainforest monkeys, and lemurs in
Madagascar, all with nimble hands that tear open flower stalks and furry coats to which
pollen sticks. Most surprising, some lizards, such as geckos, lap up nectar and pollen and
then transport the stuff on their faces and feet as they forage onward.
C All that messy diversity, unfortunately, is not well suited to the monocrops and megayields of modern commercial farmers Before farms got so big, says conservation biologist
Claire Kremen of the University of California, Berkeley, ‘we didn’t have to manage
pollinators. They were all around because of the diverse landscapes. Now you need to
bring in an army to get pollination done. The European honeybee was first imported to the
US some 400 years ago.
Now at least a hundred commercial crops rely almost entirely on managed honeybees,
which beekeepers raise and rent out to tend to big farms. And although other species of
bees are five to ten times more efficient, on a per-bee basis, at pollinating certain fruits,
honeybees have bigger colonies, cover longer distances, and tolerate management and
movement better than most insects. They're not picky - they’ll spend their time on almost
any crop. It’s tricky to calculate what their work is truly worth; some economists put it at
more than $200 billion globally a year.
D Industrial-scale farming, however, may be wearing down the system. Honeybees have
suffered diseases and parasite infestations for as long as they've been managed, but in
2006 came an extreme blow.
Around the world, bees began to disappear over the winter in massive
numbers. Beekeepers would lift the lid of a hive and be amazed to find only the queen and
a few stragglers, the worker bees gone.
In the US, a third to half of all hives crashed; some beekeepers reported colony losses near
90 percent. The mysterious culprit was named colony collapse disorder (CCD) and it
remains an annual menace - and an enigma.
E When it first hit, many people, from agronomists to the public, assumed that our
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slathering of chemicals on agricultural fields was to blame for the mystery. Indeed, says
Jeff Pettis of the USDA Bee Research Laboratory, ‘we do find more disease in bees that
have been exposed to pesticides, even at low levels.’ But it is likely that CCD involves
multiple stressors. Poor nutrition and chemical exposure, for instance, might wear down a
bee's immunities before a virus finishes the insect off. It’s hard to tease apart factors and
outcomes, Pettis says. New studies reveal that fungicides - not previously thought toxic to
bees - can interfere with microbes that break down pollen in the insects’ guts, affecting
nutrient absorption and thus long-term health and longevity. Some findings pointed to viral
and fungal pathogens working together. ‘I only wish we had a single agent causing all the
declines,’ Pettis says, ’that would make our work much easier!
F However, habitat loss and alteration, he says, are even more of a menace to pollinators
than pathogens. Claire Kremen encourages farmers to cultivate the flora surrounding
farmland to help solve habitat problems. ‘You can't move the farm,’ she says, ‘but you can
diversify what grows in its vicinity: along roads, even in tractor yards.’ Planting hedgerows
and patches of native flowers that bloom at different times and seeding fields with
multiple plant species rather than monocrops 'not only is better for native pollinators, but
it’s just better agriculture,’ she says. Pesticide-free wildflower havens, adds Buchmann,
would also bolster populations of useful insects. Fortunately, too, ‘there are far more
generalist plants than specialist plants, so there's a lot of redundancy in pollination,’
Buchmann says. ‘Even if one pollinator drops out, there are often pretty good surrogates
left to do the job. The key to keeping our gardens growing strong, he says, is letting that
diversity thrive.
G Take away that variety, and we'll lose more than honey. ‘We wouldn't starve,’ says
Kremen. ‘But what we eat, and even what we wear pollinators, after all, give us some of our
cotton and flax - would be limited to crops whose pollen travels by other means. ‘In a
sense,’ she says, ‘our lives would be dictated by the wind. It’s vital that we give pollinators
more of what they need and less of what they don't, and ease the burden on managed bees
by letting native animals do their part, say scientists.
Questions 1-4
Complete the sentences below.
Choose NO MOKE THAN THREE WORDS from the passage for each answer.
1
Both___________ were the first creatures to pollinate the world's plants.
2
Monkeys transport pollen on their____________
3
Honeybees are favoured pollinators among bee species partly because they
travel___________
4
A feature of CCD is often the loss of all the__________________
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TEST 6
The effects of light on plant and animal species
Light is important to organisms for two different reasons. Firstly it Is used as a cue for the
timing of daily and seasonal rhythms in both plants and animals, and secondly it is used to
assist growth in plants.
Breeding in most organisms occurs during a part of the year only, and so a reliable cue is
needed to trigger breeding behaviour. Day length is an excellent cue, because it provides a
perfectly predictable pattern of change within the year. In the temperate zone in spring,
temperatures fluctuate greatly from day to day. but day length increases steadily by a
predictable amount. The seasonal impact of day length on physiological responses is
called photoperiodism, and the amount of experimental evidence for this phenomenon is
considerable. For example, some species of birds’ breeding can be induced even in
midwinter simply by increasing day length artificially (Wolfson 1964). Other examples of
photoperiodism occur in plants. A short-day plant flowers when the day is less than a
certain critical length. A long-day plant flowers after a certain critical day length is
exceeded. In both cases the critical day length differs from species to species. Plants
which flower after a period of vegetative growth, regardless of photoperiod, are known as
dayneutral plants.
Breeding seasons in animals such as birds have evolved to occupy the part of the year in
which offspring have the greatest chances of survival. Before the breeding season begins,
food reserves must be built up to support the energy cost of reproduction, and to provide
for young birds both when they are in the nest and after fledging. Thus many
temperatezone birds use the increasing day lengths in spring as a cue to begin the nesting
cycle, because this is a point when adequate food resources will be assured.
The adaptive significance of photoperiodism in plants is also clear. Short-day plants that
flower in spring in the temperate zone are adapted to maximising seedling growth during
the growing season. Long-day plants are adapted for situations that require fertilization by
insects, or a long period of seed ripening. Short-day plants that flower in the autumn in the
temperate zone are able to build up food reserves over the growing season and over winter
as seeds. Day-neutral plants have an evolutionary advantage when the connection between
the favourable period for reproduction and day length is much less certain. For example,
desert annuals germinate, flower and seed whenever suitable rainfall occurs, regardless of
the day length.
The breeding season of some plants can be delayed to extraordinary lengths. Bamboos
are perennial grasses that remain in a vegetative state for many years and then suddenly
flower, fruit and die (Evans 1976). Every bamboo of the species Chusquea abietifolio on
the island of Jamaica flowered, set seed and died during 1884. The next generation of
bamboo flowered and died between 1916 and 1918, which suggests a vegetative cycle of
about 31 years. The climatic trigger for this flowering cycle is not yet known, but the
adaptive significance is clear. The simultaneous production of masses of bamboo seeds
(in some cases lying 12 to 15 centimetres deep on the ground) is more than all the
seedeating animals can cope with at the time, so that some seeds escape being eaten and
grow up to form the next generation (Evans 1976).
The second reason light is important to organisms is that it is essential for photosynthesis.
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This is the process by which plants use energy from the sun to convert carbon from soil or
water into organic material for growth. The rate of photosynthesis in a plant can be
measured by calculating the rate of its uptake of carbon. There is a wide range of
photosynthetic responses of plants to variations in light intensity. Some plants reach
maximal photosynthesis at one-quarter full sunlight, and others, like sugarcane, never
reach a maximum, but continue to increase photosynthesis rate as light intensity rises.
Plants in general can be divided into two groups: shade-tolerant species and
shadeintolerant species. This classification is commonly used in forestry and horticulture.
Shadetolerant plants have lower photosynthetic rates and hence have lower growth rates
than those of shade-intolerant species. Plant species become adapted to living in a certain
kind of habitat, and in the process evolve a series of characteristics that prevent them
from occupying other habitats. Grime (1966) suggests that light may be one of the major
components directing these adaptations. For example, eastern hemlock seedlings are
shade-tolerant. They can survive in the forest understorey under very low light levels
because they have a low photosynthetic rate.
Questions 1-7
Complete the sentences. Choose NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from the passage for
each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 1-7 on your answer sheet.
1. Day length is a useful cue for breeding in areas where______________ are unpredictable.
2. Plants which do not respond to light levels are referred to as ____________________.
3. Birds in temperate climates associate longer days with nesting and the availability of
_____________.
4. Plants that flower when days are long often depend on ________________ to help them
reproduce.
5. Desert annuals respond to __________________ as a signal for reproduction.
6. There is no limit to the photosynthetic rate in plants such as _______________
7. Tolerance to shade is one criterion for the _________________ of plants in forestry
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TEST 7
Crop-growing skyscrapers
By the year 2050, nearly 80% of the Earth’s population will live in urban centres. Applying
the most conservative estimates to current demographic trends, the human population will
increase by about three billion people by then. An estimated 109 hectares of new land
(about 20% larger than Brazil) will be needed to grow enough food to feed them, if
traditional farming methods continue as they are practised today.
At present, throughout the world, over 80% of the land that is suitable for raising crops is in
use. Historically, some 15% of that has been laid waste by poor management practices.
What can be done to ensure enough food for the world’s population to live on ?
The concept of indoor farming is not new, since hothouse production of tomatoes and
other produce has been in vogue for some time. What is new is the urgent need to scale up
this technology to accommodate another three billion people. Many believe an entirely new
approach to indoor farming is required, employing cutting-edge technologies. One such
proposal is for the ‘Vertical Farm’. The concept is of multi-storey buildings in which food
crops are grown in environmentally controlled conditions. Situated in the heart of urban
centres, they would drastically reduce the amount of transportation required to bring food
to consumers. Vertical farms would need to be efficient, cheap to construct and safe to
operate. If successfully implemented, proponents claim, vertical farms offer the promise of
urban renewal, sustainable production of a safe and varied food supply (through yearround production of all crops), and the eventual repair of ecosystems that have been
sacrificed for horizontal farming.
It took humans 10,000 years to learn how to grow most of the crops we now take for
granted. Along the way, we despoiled most of the land we worked, often turning verdant,
natural eco-zones into semi-arid deserts. Within that same time frame, we evolved into an
urban species, in which 60% of the human population now lives vertically in cities. This
means that, for the majority, we humans have shelter from the elements, yet we subject
our food-bearing plants to the rigours of the great outdoors and can do no more than hope
for a good weather year. However, more often than not now, due to a rapidly changing
climate, that is not what happens. Massive floods, long droughts, hurricanes and severe
monsoons take their toll each year, destroying millions of tons of valuable crops.
The supporters of vertical farming claim many potential advantages for the system. For
instance, crops would be produced all year round, as they would be kept in artificially
controlled, optimum growing conditions.
There would be no weather-related crop failures due to droughts, floods or pests. All the
food could be grown organically, eliminating the need for herbicides, pesticides and
fertilisers.
The system would greatly reduce the incidence of many infectious diseases that are
acquired at the agricultural interface.
Although the system would consume energy, it would return energy to the grid via methane
generation from composting non-edible parts of plants. It would also dramatically
reduce fossil fuel use, by cutting out the need for tractors, ploughs and shipping.
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A major drawback of vertical farming, however, is that the plants would
require artificial light. Without it, those plants nearest the windows would be exposed to
more sunlight and grow more quickly, reducing the efficiency of the system. Single-storey
greenhouses have the benefit of natural overhead light; even so, many still need artificial
lighting.
A multi-storey facility with no natural overhead light would require far more. Generating
enough light could be prohibitively expensive, unless cheap, renewable energy is available,
and this appears to be rather a future aspiration than a likelihood for the near future.
One variation on vertical farming that has been developed is to grow plants in stacked
trays that move on rails. Moving the trays allows the plants to get enough sunlight. This
system is already in operation, and works well within a single-storey greenhouse with light
reaching it from above: it Is not certain, however, that it can be made to work without that
overhead natural light.
Vertical farming is an attempt to address the undoubted problems that we face in
producing enough food for a growing population. At the moment, though, more needs to
be done to reduce the detrimental impact it would have on the environment, particularly as
regards the use of energy. While it is possible that much of our food will be grown in
skyscrapers in future, most experts currently believe it is far more likely that we will simply
use the space available on urban rooftops
Questions 1-7
Complete the sentences below.
Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 1-7 on your answer sheet.
Indoor farming
1
Some food plants, including____________________ are already grown indoors.
2 Vertical farms would be located in____________________ meaning that there would be
less need to take them long distances to customers.
3 Vertical farms could use methane from plants and animals to
produce______________________
4 The consumption of___________________ would be cut because agricultural vehicles
would be unnecessary.
5
The fact that vertical farms would need__________________ light is a disadvantage.
6 One form of vertical farming involves planting in_______________________ which are not
fixed.
7 The most probable development is that food will be grown on_____________________ in
towns and cities.
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TEST 8
The Context, Meaning and Scope of Tourism
A Travel has existed since the beginning of time, when primitive man set out, often
traversing great distances in search of game, which provided the food and clothing
necessary for his survival. Throughout the course of history, people have travelled for
purposes of trade, religious conviction, economic gain, war, migration and other equally
compelling motivations. In the Roman era, wealthy aristocrats and high government
officials also travelled for pleasure. Seaside resorts located at Pompeii and Herculaneum
afforded citizens the opportunity to escape to their vacation villas in order to avoid the
summer heat of Rome. Travel, except during the Dark Ages, has continued to grow and,
throughout recorded history, has played a vital role in the development of civilisations and
their economies.
B Tourism in the mass form as we know it today is a distinctly twentieth-century
phenomenon. Historians suggest that the advent of mass tourism began in England during
the industrial revolution with the rise of the middle class and the availability of relatively
inexpensive transportation. The creation of the commercial airline industry following the
Second World War and the subsequent development of the jet aircraft in the 1950s
signalled the rapid growth and expansion of international travel. This growth led to the
development of a major new industry: tourism. In turn, international tourism became the
concern of a number of world governments since it not only provided new employment
opportunities but also produced a means of earning foreign exchange.
C Tourism today has grown significantly in both economic and social importance. In
most industrialised countries over the past few years the fastest growth has been seen in
the area of services. One of the largest segments of the service industry, although largely
unrecognised as an entity in some of these countries, is travel and tourism. According to
the World Travel and Tourism Council (1992), Travel and tourism is the largest industry in
the world on virtually any economic measure including value-added capital investment,
employment and tax contributions. In 1992 ‘the industry’s gross output was estimated to
be $3.5 trillion, over 12 per cent of all consumer spending. The travel and tourism industry
is the world’s largest employer the almost 130 million jobs, or almost 7 per cent of all
employees. This industry is the world’s leading industrial contributor, producing over 6 per
cent of the world’s national product and accounting for capital investment in excess of
$422 billion m direct indirect and personal taxes each year. Thus, tourism has a profound
impact both on the world economy and, because of the educative effect of travel and the
effects on employment, on society itself.
D However, the major problems of the travel and tourism industry that have hidden, or
obscured, its economic impact are the diversity and fragmentation of the industry itself.
The travel industry includes: hotels, motels and other types of accommodation;
restaurants and other food services; transportation services and facilities; amusements,
attractions and other leisure facilities; gift shops and a large number of other enterprises.
Since many of these businesses also serve local residents, the impact of spending by
visitors can easily be overlooked or underestimated. In addition, Meis (1992) points out
that the tourism industry involves concepts that have remained amorphous to both
analysts and decision makers. Moreover, in all nations this problem has made it difficult
for the industry to develop any type of reliable or credible tourism information base in order
to estimate the contribution it makes to regional, national and global economies. However,
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the nature of this very diversity makes travel and tourism ideal vehicles for economic
development in a wide variety of countries, regions or communities.
E Once the exclusive province of the wealthy, travel and tourism have become an
institutionalised way of life for most of the population. In fact, McIntosh and Goeldner
(1990) suggest that tourism has become the largest commodity in international trade for
many nations and, for a significant number of other countries, it ranks second or third. For
example, tourism is the major source of income in Bermuda, Greece, Italy, Spain,
Switzerland and most Caribbean countries. In addition, Hawkins and Ritchie, quoting from
data published by the American Express Company, suggest that the travel and tourism
industry is the number one ranked employer in the Bahamas, Brazil, Canada, France, (the
former) West Germany, Hong Kong, Italy, Jamaica, Japan, Singapore, the United Kingdom
and the United States. However, because of problems of definition, which directly affect
statistical measurement, it is not possible with any degree of certainty to provide precise,
valid or reliable data about the extent of world-wide tourism participation or its economic
impact. In many cases, similar difficulties arise when attempts are made to measure
domestic tourism.
Questions 1-3
Complete the sentences below.
Choose NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from the passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 11-13 on your answer sheet.
1 In Greece, tourism the most important …………….. .
2 The travel and tourism industry in Jamaica is the major …………….. .
3 The problems associated with measuring international tourism are often reflected in the
measurement of …………….. .
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TEST 9
Preface to ‘How the other half thinks:
Adventures in mathematical reasoning’
A Occasionally, in some difficult musical compositions, there are beautiful, but easy parts
– parts so simple a beginner could play them. So it is with mathematics as well. There are
some discoveries in advanced mathematics that do not depend on specialized knowledge,
not even on algebra, geometry, or trigonometry. Instead they may involve, at most, a little
arithmetic, such as ‘the sum of two odd numbers is even’, and common sense. Each of the
eight chapters in this book illustrates this phenomenon. Anyone can understand every step
in the reasoning.
The thinking in each chapter uses at most only elementary arithmetic, and sometimes not
even that. Thus all readers will have the chance to participate in a mathematical
experience, to appreciate the beauty of mathematics, and to become familiar with its
logical, yet intuitive, style of thinking.
B One of my purposes in writing this book is to give readers who haven’t had the
opportunity to see and enjoy real mathematics the chance to appreciate the mathematical
way of thinking. I want to reveal not only some of the fascinating discoveries, but, more
importantly, the reasoning behind them.
In that respect, this book differs from most books on mathematics written for the general
public. Some present the lives of colorful mathematicians. Others describe important
applications of mathematics. Yet others go into mathematical procedures, but assume
that the reader is adept in using algebra.
C I hope this book will help bridge that notorious gap that separates the two cultures: the
humanities and the sciences, or should I say the right brain (intuitive) and the left brain
(analytical, numerical). As the chapters will illustrate, mathematics is not restricted to the
analytical and numerical; intuition plays a significant role. The alleged gap can be narrowed
or completely overcome by anyone, in part because each of us is far from using the full
capacity of either side of the brain. To illustrate our human potential, I cite a structural
engineer who is an artist, an electrical engineer who is an opera singer, an opera singer
who published mathematical research, and a mathematician who publishes short stories.
D Other scientists have written books to explain their fields to non-scientists, but have
necessarily had to omit the mathematics, although it provides the foundation of their
theories. The reader must remain a tantalized spectator rather than an involved participant,
since the appropriate language for describing the details in much of science is
mathematics, whether the subject is expanding universe, subatomic particles, or
chromosomes. Though the broad outline of a scientific theory can be sketched intuitively,
when a part of the physical universe is finally understood, its description often looks like a
page in a mathematics text.
E Still, the non-mathematical reader can go far in understanding mathematical reasoning.
This book presents the details that illustrate the mathematical style of thinking, which
involves sustained, step-by-step analysis, experiments, and insights. You will turn these
pages much more slowly than when reading a novel or a newspaper. It may help to have a
pencil and paper ready to check claims and carry out experiments.
F As I wrote, I kept in mind two types of readers: those who enjoyed mathematics until they
were turned off by an unpleasant episode, usually around fifth grade, and mathematics
aficionados, who will find much that is new throughout the book.
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This book also serves readers who simply want to sharpen their analytical skills. Many
careers, such as law and medicine, require extended, precise analysis. Each chapter offers
practice in following a sustained and closely argued line of thought. That mathematics can
develop this skill is shown by these two testimonials:
G A physician wrote, ‘The discipline of analytical thought processes [in mathematics]
prepared me extremely well for medical school. In medicine one is faced with a problem
which must be thoroughly analyzed before a solution can be found. The process is similar
to doing mathematics.’
A lawyer made the same point, “Although I had no background in law – not even one
political science course — I did well at one of the best law schools. I attribute much of my
success there to having learned, through the study of mathematics, and, in particular,
theorems, how to analyze complicated principles. Lawyers who have studied mathematics
can master the legal principles in a way that most others cannot.’
I hope you will share my delight in watching as simple, even naive, questions lead to
remarkable solutions and purely theoretical discoveries find unanticipated applications.
Questions 1-6
Complete the sentences below.
Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 35-40 on your answer sheet.
1 Some areas of both music and mathematics are suitable for someone who is
a………………
2 It is sometimes possible to understand advanced mathematics using no more than a
limited knowledge of………………
3 The writer intends to show that mathematics requires……………… thinking, as well as
analytical skills.
4 Some books written by………………. have had to leave out the mathematics that is central
to their theories.
5 The writer advises non-mathematical readers to perform………………. while reading
6 A lawyer found that studying………………. helped even more than other areas of
mathematics in the study of law.
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TEST 10
COLLECTING AS A HOBBY
Collecting must be one of the most varied of human activities, and it’s one that many of us
psychologists find fascinating. Many forms of collecting have been dignified with a
technical name: an archtophilist collects teddy bears, a philatelist collects postage stamps,
and a deltiologist collects postcards. Amassing hundreds or even thousands of postcards,
chocolate wrappers or whatever, takes time, energy and money that could surely be put to
much more productive use. And yet there are millions of collectors around the world. Why
do they do it?
There are the people who collect because they want to make money – this could be called
an instrumental reason for collecting; that is, collecting as a means to an end. They’ll look
for, say, antiques that they can buy cheaply and expect to be able to sell at a profit. But
there may well be a psychological element, too – buying cheap and selling dear can give
the collector a sense of triumph. And as selling online is so easy, more and more people
are joining in.
Many collectors collect to develop their social life, attending meetings of a group of
collectors and exchanging information on items. This is a variant on joining a bridge club
or a gym, and similarly brings them into contact with like-minded people.
Another motive for collecting is the desire to find something special, or a particular
example of the collected item, such as a rare early recording by a particular singer. Some
may spend their whole lives in a hunt for this. Psychologically, this can give a purpose to a
life that otherwise feels aimless. There is a danger, though, that if the individual is ever
lucky enough to find what they’re looking for, rather than celebrating their success, they
may feel empty, now that the goal that drove them on has gone.
If you think about collecting postage stamps, another potential reason for it – or, perhaps,
a result of collecting – is its educational value. Stamp collecting opens a window to other
countries, and to the plants, animals, or famous people shown on their stamps. Similarly, in
the 19th century, many collectors amassed fossils, animals and plants from around the
globe, and their collections provided a vast amount of information about the natural world.
Without those collections, our understanding would be greatly inferior to what it is.
In the past – and nowadays, too, though to a lesser extent – a popular form of collecting,
particularly among boys and men, was trainspotting. This might involve trying to see every
locomotive of a particular type, using published data that identifies each one, and ticking
off each engine as it is seen. Trainspotters exchange information, these days often by
mobile phone, so they can work out where to go to, to see a particular engine. As a byproduct, many practitioners of the hobby become very knowledgeable about railway
operations, or the technical specifications of different engine types.
Similarly, people who collect dolls may go beyond simply enlarging their collection, and
develop an interest in the way that dolls are made, or the materials that are used. These
have changed over the centuries from the wood that was standard in 16th century Europe,
through the wax and porcelain of later centuries, to the plastics of today’s dolls. Or
collectors might be inspired to study how dolls reflect notions of what children like, or
ought to like.
Not all collectors are interested in learning from their hobby, though, so what we might call
a psychological reason for collecting is the need for a sense of control, perhaps as a way
of dealing with insecurity. Stamps collectors, for instance, arrange their stamps in albums,
usually very neatly, organising their collection according to certain commonplace
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principles – perhaps by country in alphabetical order, or grouping stamps by what they
depict – people, birds, maps, and so on.
One reason, conscious or not, for what someone chooses to collect is to show the
collector’s individualism. Someone who decides to collect something as unexpected as
dos collars, for instance, may be conveying their belief that they must be interesting
themselves. And believe it or not, there is at least one dog collar museum in existence, and
it grew out of a personal collection.
Of course, all hobbies give pleasure, but the common factor in collecting is usually passion:
pleasure is putting it far too mildly. More than most other hobbies, collecting can be totally
engrossing, and can give a strong sense of personal fulfilment. To non-collectors it may
appear an eccentric, if harmless, way of spending time, but potentially, collecting has a lot
going for it.
Questions 1-8
Complete the sentences below.
Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 14-21 on your answer sheet.
1 The writer mentions collecting …………………….. as an example of collecting in order to
make money.
2 Collectors may get a feeling of …………………….. from buying and selling items.
3 Collectors’ clubs provide opportunities to share……………………………
4 Collectors’ clubs offer ………………………. with people who have similar interests.
5 Collecting sometimes involves a life-long………………………. for a special item.
6 Searching for something particular may prevent people from feeling their life is
completely……………………….
7 Stamp collecting may be ……………………….. because it provides facts about different
countries.
8 ……………………….. tends to be mostly a male hobby.
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TEST 11
The Benefits of Being Bilingual
A According to the latest figures, the majority of the world’s population is now bilingual or
multilingual, having grown up speaking two or more languages. In the past, such children
were considered to be at a disadvantage compared with their monolingual peers. Over the
past few decades, however, technological advances have allowed researchers to look
more deeply at how bilingualism interacts with and changes the cognitive and neurological
systems, thereby identifying several clear benefits of being bilingual.
B Research shows that when a bilingual person uses one language, the other is active at
the same time. When we hear a word, we don’t hear the entire word all at once: the sounds
arrive in sequential order. Long before the word is finished, the brain’s language system
begins to guess what that word might be. If you hear ‘can’, you will likely activate words
like ‘candy’ and ‘candle’ as well, at least during the earlier stages of word recognition. For
bilingual people, this activation is not limited to a single language; auditory input activates
corresponding words regardless of the language to which they belong. Some of the most
compelling evidence for this phenomenon, called ‘language co-activation’, comes from
studying eye movements. A Russian-English bilingual asked to ‘pick up a marker’ from a
set of objects would look more at a stamp than someone who doesn’t know Russian,
because the Russian word for ‘stamp’, marka, sounds like the English word he or she heard,
‘marker’. In cases like this, language co-activation occurs because what the listener hears
could map onto words in either language.
C Having to deal with this persistent linguistic competition can result in difficulties,
however. For instance, knowing more than one language can cause speakers to name
pictures more slowly, and can increase ‘tip-of-the-tongue states’, when you can almost, but
not quite, bring a word to mind. As a result, the constant juggling of two languages creates
a need to control how much a person accesses a language at any given time. For this
reason, bilingual people often perform better on tasks that require conflict management. In
the classic Stroop Task, people see a word and are asked to name the colour of the word’s
font. When the colour and the word match (i.e., the word ‘red’ printed in red), people
correctly name the colour more quickly than when the colour and the word don’t match (i.e.,
the word ‘red’ printed in blue). This occurs because the word itself (‘red’) and its font colour
(blue) conflict. Bilingual people often excel at tasks such as this, which top into the ability
to ignore competing perceptual information and focus on the relevant aspects of the input.
Bilinguals are also better at switching between two tasks; for example, when bilinguals
have to switch from categorizing objects by colour (red or green) to categorizing them by
shape (circle or triangle), they do so more quickly than monolingual people, reflecting
better cognitive control when having to make rapid changes of strategy.
D It also seems that the neurological roots of the bilingual advantage extend to brain areas
more traditionally associated with sensory processing. When monolingual and bilingual
adolescents listen to simple speech sounds without any intervening background noise,
they show highly similar brain stem responses. When researchers play the same sound to
both groups in the presence of background noise, however, the bilingual listeners’ neural
response is considerably larger, reflecting better encoding of the sound’s fundamental
frequency, a feature of sound closely related to pitch perception.
E Such improvements in cognitive and sensory processing may help a bilingual person to
process information in the environment, and help explain why bilingual adults acquire a
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third language better than monolingual adults master a second language. This advantage
may be rooted in the skill of focussing on information about the new language while
reducing interference from the languages they already know.
F Research also indicates that bilingual experience may help to keep the cognitive
mechanisms sharp by recruiting alternate brain networks to compensate for those that
become damaged during aging. Older bilinguals enjoy improved memory relative to
monolingual people, which can lead to real-world health benefits. In a study of over 200
patients with Alzheimer’s disease, a degenerative brain disease, bilingual patients reported
showing initial symptoms of the disease an average of five years later than monolingual
patients. In a follow-up study, researchers compared the brains of bilingual and
monolingual patients matched on the severity of Alzheimer’s symptoms. Surprisingly, the
bilinguals’ brains had more physical signs of disease than their monolingual counterparts,
even though their outward behaviour and abilities were the same. If the brain is an engine,
bilingualism may help it to go farther on the same amount of fuel.
G Furthermore, the benefits associated with bilingual experience seem to start very early.
In one study, researchers taught seven-month-old babies growing up in monolingual or
bilingual homes that when they heard a tinkling sound, a puppet appeared on one side of a
screen. Halfway through the study, the puppet began appearing on the opposite side of the
screen. In order to get a reward, the infants had to adjust the rule they’d learned; only the
bilingual babies were able to successfully learn the new rule. This suggests that for very
young children, as well as for older people, navigating a multilingual environment imparts
advantages that transfer far beyond language.
Questions 1-5
Complete the table below.
Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 1-5 on your answer sheet.
Test
Findings
Observing the 1…………………. of RussianEnglish bilingual people when asked to
select certain objects
Bilingual people engage both languages
simultaneously: a mechanism known
as 2…………………..
A test called the 3…………………, focusing
on naming colours
Bilingual people are more able to handle
tasks involving a skill called 4…………………
A test involving switching between tasks
When changing strategies, bilingual
people have superior 5…………………..
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TEST 12
Flying tortoises
An airborne reintroduction programme has helped conservationists take significant steps
to protect the endangered Galápagos tortoise.
A Forests of spiny cacti cover much of the uneven lave plains that separate the interior of
the Galápagos island of Isabela from the Pacific Ocean. With its five distinct volcanoes, the
island resembles a lunar landscape. Only the thick vegetation at the skirt of the often cloud
-covered peak of Sierra Negra offers respite from the barren terrain below. This
inhospitable environment is home to the giant Galápagos tortoise. Some time after the
Galápagos’s birth, around five million years ago, the islands were colonised by one or more
tortoises from mainland South America. As these ancestral tortoises settled on the
individual islands, the different populations adapted to their unique environments, giving
rise to at least 14 different subspecies. Island life agreed with them. In the absence of
significant predators, they grew to become the largest and longest-living tortoises on the
planet, weighing more than 400 kilograms, occasionally exceeding 1.8 metres in length and
living for more than a century.
B Before human arrival, the archipelago’s tortoises numbered in the hundreds of
thousands. From the 17th century onwards, pirates took a few on board for food, but the
arrival of whaling ships in the 1790s saw this exploitation grow exponentially. Relatively
immobile and capable of surviving for months without food or water, the tortoises were
taken on board these ships to act as food supplies during long ocean passages.
Sometimes, their bodies were processed into high-grade oil. In total, an estimated 200,000
animals were taken from the archipelago before the 20th century. This historical
exploitation was then exacerbated when settlers came to the islands. They hunted the
tortoises and destroyed their habitat to clear land for agriculture. They also introduced
alien species – ranging from cattle, pigs, goats, rats and dogs to plants and ants – that
either prey on the eggs and young tortoises or damage or destroy their habitat.
C Today, only 11 of the original subspecies survive and of these, several are highly
endangered. In 1989, work began on a tortoise-breeding centre just outside the town of
Puerto Villamil on Isabela, dedicated to protecting the island’s tortoise populations. The
centre’s captive-breeding programme proved to be extremely successful, and it eventually
had to deal with an overpopulation problem.
D The problem was also a pressing one. Captive-bred tortoises can’t be reintroduced into
the wild until they’re at least five years old and weigh at least 4.5 kilograms, at which point
their size and weight – and their hardened shells – are sufficient to protect them from
predators. But if people wait too long after that point, the tortoises eventually become too
large to transport.
E For years, repatriation efforts were carried out in small numbers, with the tortoises
carried on the backs of men over weeks of long, treacherous hikes along narrow trails. But
in November 2010, the environmentalist and Galápagos National Park liaison officer
Godfrey Merlin, a visiting private motor yacht captain and a helicopter pilot gathered
around a table in a small café in Puerto Ayora on the island of Santa Cruz to work out more
ambitious reintroduction. The aim was to use a helicopter to move 300 of the breeding
centre’s tortoises to various locations close to Sierra Negra.
F This unprecedented effort was made possible by the owners of the 67-metre yacht While
Cloud, who provided the Galápagos National Park with free use of their helicopter and its
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experienced pilot, as well as the logistical support of the yacht, its captain and crew.
Originally an air ambulance, the yacht’s helicopter has a rear double door and a large
internal space that’s well suited for cargo, so a custom crate was designed to hold up to
33 tortoises with a total weight of about 150 kilograms. This weight, together with that of
the fuel, pilot and four crew, approached the helicopter’s maximum payload, and there
were times when it was clearly right on the edge of the helicopter’s capabilities. During a
period of three days, a group of volunteers from the breeding centre worked around the
clock to prepare the young tortoises for transport. Meanwhile, park wardens, dropped off
ahead of time in remote locations, cleared landing sites within the thick brush, cacti and
lava rocks.
G Upon their release, the juvenile tortoises quickly spread out over their ancestral territory,
investigating their new surroundings and feeding on the vegetation. Eventually, one tiny
tortoise came across a fully grown giant who had been lumbering around the island for
around a hundred years. The two stood side by side, a powerful symbol of the regeneration
of an ancient species.
Questions 8-13
Complete the notes below.
Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 8-13 on your answer sheet
The decline of the Galápagos tortoise
• Originally from mainland South America
• Numbers on Galápagos islands increased, due to lack of predators
• 17th century: small numbers taken onto ships used by 8…………………………..
• 1790s: very large numbers taken onto whaling ships, kept for 9……………………………….., and
also used to produce 10……………………………
• Hunted by 11…………………………… on the islands
• Habitat destruction: for the establishment of agriculture and by
various 12………………………… not native to the islands, which also fed on baby tortoises and
tortoises’ 13…………………………..
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TEST 13
The Intersection of Health Sciences and Geography
A While many diseases that affect humans have been eradicated due to improvements in
vaccinations and the availability of healthcare, there are still areas around the world where
certain health issues are more prevalent. In a world that is far more globalised than ever
before, people come into contact with one another through travel and living closer and
closer to each other. As a result, super-viruses and other infections resistant to antibiotics
are becoming more and more common.
B Geography can often play a very large role in the health concerns of certain populations.
For instance, depending on where you live, you will not have the same health concerns as
someone who lives in a different geographical region. Perhaps one of the most obvious
examples of this idea is malaria-prone areas, which are usually tropical regions that foster
a warm and damp environment in which the mosquitos that can give people this disease
can grow. Malaria is much less of a problem in high-altitude deserts, for instance.
C In some countries, geographical factors influence the health and well-being of the
population in very obvious ways. In many large cities, the wind is not strong enough to
clear the air of the massive amounts of smog and pollution that cause asthma, lung
problems, eyesight issues and more in the people who live there. Part of the problem is, of
course, the massive number of cars being driven, in addition to factories that run on coal
power. The rapid industrialisation of some countries in recent years has also led to the
cutting down of forests to allow for the expansion of big cities, which makes it even harder
to fight the pollution with the fresh air that is produced by plants.
D It is in situations like these that the field of health geography comes into its own. It is an
increasingly important area of study in a world where diseases like polio are re-emerging,
respiratory diseases continue to spread, and malaria-prone areas are still fighting to find a
better cure. Health geography is the combination of, on the one hand, knowledge regarding
geography and methods used to analyse and interpret geographical information, and on
the other, the study of health, diseases and healthcare practices around the world. The aim
of this hybrid science is to create solutions for common geography-based health problems.
While people will always be prone to illness, the study of how geography affects our health
could lead to the eradication of certain illnesses, and the prevention of others in the future.
By understanding why and how we get sick, we can change the way we treat illness and
disease specific to certain geographical locations.
E The geography of disease and ill health analyses the frequency with which certain
diseases appear in different parts of the world, and overlays the data with the geography of
the region, to see if there could be a correlation between the two. Health geographers also
study factors that could make certain individuals or a population more likely to be taken ill
with a specific health concern or disease, as compared with the population of another area.
Health geographers in this field are usually trained as healthcare workers, and have an
understanding of basic epidemiology as it relates to the spread of diseases among the
population.
F Researchers study the interactions between humans and their environment that could
lead to illness (such as asthma in places with high levels of pollution) and work to create a
clear way of categorizing illnesses, diseases and epidemics into local and global scales.
Health geographers can map the spread of illnesses and attempt to identify the reasons
behind an increase or decrease in illnesses, as they work to find a way to halt the further
spread or re-emergence of diseases in vulnerable populations.
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G The second subcategory of health geography is the geography of healthcare provision.
This group studies the availability (or lack thereof) of healthcare resources to individuals
and populations around the world. In both developed and developing nations there is often
a very large discrepancy between the options available to people in different social classes,
income brackets, and levels of education. Individuals working in the area of the geography
of healthcare provision attempt to assess the levels of healthcare in the area (for instance,
it may be very difficult for people to get medical attention because there is a mountain
between their village and the nearest hospital). These researchers are on the frontline of
making recommendations regarding policy to international organisations, local
government bodies and others.
H The field of health geography is often overlooked, but it constitutes a huge area of need
in the fields of geography and healthcare. If we can understand how geography affects our
health no matter where in the world we are located, we can better treat disease, prevent
illness, and keep people safe and well.
Questions 1-7
Complete the sentences below.
Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer.
1 Certain disease have disappeared, thanks to better ……………………………… and healthcare.
2 Because there is more contact between people, ………………………………. are losing their
usefulness.
3 Disease-causing ………………………………. are most likely to be found in hot, damp regions.
4 One cause of pollution is ……………………………… that burn a particular fuel.
5 The growth of cities often has an impact on nearby ……………………………..
6 …………………………… is one disease that is growing after having been eradicated.
7 A physical barrier such as a ………………………………. Can prevent people from reaching a
hospital.
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TEST 14
The History of Glass
From our earliest origins, man has been making use of glass. Historians have discovered
that a type of natural glass – obsidian – formed in places such as the mouth of a volcano
as a result of the intense heat of an eruption melting sand – was first used as tips for
spears. Archaeologists have even found evidence of man-made glass which dates back to
4000 BC; this took the form of glazes used for coating stone beads. It was not until 1500
BC, however, that the first hollow glass container was made by covering a sand core with a
layer of molten glass.
Glass blowing became the most common way to make glass containers from the first
century BC. The glass made during this time was highly coloured due to the impurities of
the raw material. In the first century AD, methods of creating colourless glass were
developed, which was then tinted by the addition of colouring materials. The secret of
glass making was taken across Europe by the Romans during this century. However, they
guarded the skills and technology required to make glass very closely, and it was not until
their empire collapsed in 476 AD that glass-making knowledge became widespread
throughout Europe and the Middle East. From the 10th century onwards, the Venetians
gained a reputation for technical skill and artistic ability in the making of glass bottles, and
many of the city’s craftsmen left Italy to set up glassworks throughout Europe.
A major milestone in the history of glass occurred with the invention of lead crystal glass
by the English glass manufacturer George Ravenscroft (1632-1683). He attempted to
counter the effect of clouding that sometimes occurred in blown glass by introducing lead
to the raw materials used in the process. The new glass he created was softer and easier
to decorate, and had a higher refractive index, adding to its brilliance and beauty, and it
proved invaluable to the optical industry. It is thanks to Ravenscroft’s invention that optical
lenses, astronomical telescopes, microscopes and the like became possible.
In Britain, the modern glass industry only really started to develop after the repeal of the
Excise Act in 1845. Before that time, heavy taxes had been placed on the amount of glass
melted in a glasshouse, and were levied continuously from 1745 to 1845. Joseph Paxton’s
Crystal Palace at London’s Great Exhibition of 1851 marked the beginning of glass as a
material used in the building industry. This revolutionary new building encouraged the use
of glass in public, domestic and horticultural architecture. Glass manufacturing techniques
also improved with the advancement of science and the development of better technology.
From 1887 onwards, glass making developed from traditional mouth-blowing to a semiautomatic process, after factory-owner HM Ashley introduced a machine capable of
producing 200 bottles per hour in Castleford, Yorkshire, England – more than three times
quicker than any previous production method. Then in 1907, the first fully automated
machine was developed in the USA by Michael Owens – founder of the Owens Bottle
Machine Company (later the major manufacturers Owens-Illinois) – and installed in its
factory. Owens’ invention could produce an impressive 2,500 bottles per hour. Other
developments followed rapidly, but it was not until the First World War, when Britain
became out off from essential glass suppliers, that glass became part of the scientific
sector. Previous to this, glass had been as a craft rather than a precise science.
Today, glass making is big business. It has become a modern, hi-tech industry operating in
a fiercely competitive global market where quality, design and service levels are critical to
maintaining market share. Modern glass plants are capable of making millions of glass
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containers a day in many different colours, with green, brown and clear remaining the most
popular. Few of us can imagine modern life without glass. It features in almost every
aspect of our lives – in our homes, our cars and whenever we sit down to eat or drink.
Glass packaging is used for many products, many beverages are sold in glass, as are
numerous foodstuffs, as well as medicines and cosmetics.
Glass is an ideal material for recycling, and with growing consumer concern for green
issues, glass bottles and jars are becoming ever more popular. Glass recycling is good
news for the environment. It saves used glass containers being sent to landfill. As less
energy is needed to melt recycled glass than to melt down raw materials, this also saves
fuel and production costs. Recycling also reduces the need for raw materials to be
quarried, thus saving precious resources.
Questions 1-8
Complete the notes below.
Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 1-8 on your answer sheet.
The History of Glass
• Early humans used a material called 1……………………….. to make the sharp points of
their 2…………………….
• 4000 BC: 3………………………… made of stone were covered in a coating of man-made glass.
• First century BC: glass was coloured because of the 4………………………. in the material.
• Until 476 AD: Only the 5………………………… knew how to make glass.
• From 10th century: Venetians became famous for making bottles out of glass.
• 17th century: George Ravenscroft developed a process using 6……………………….. to avoid
the occurrence of 7………………………. in blown glass.
• Mid-19th century: British glass production developed after changes to laws
concerning 8……………………..
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TEST 15
UK companies need more effective boards of directors
A After a number of serious failures of governance (that is, how they are managed at the
highest level), companies in Britain, as well as elsewhere, should consider radical changes
to their directors’ roles. It is clear that the role of a board director today is not an easy one.
Following the 2008 financial meltdown, which resulted in a deeper and more prolonged
period of economic downturn than anyone expected, the search for explanations in the
many post-mortems of the crisis has meant blame has been spread far and wide.
Governments, regulators, central banks and auditors have all been in the frame. The role of
bank directors and management and their widely publicised failures have been extensively
picked over and examined in reports, inquiries and commentaries.
B The knock-on effect of this scrutiny has been to make the governance of companies in
general an issue of intense public debate and has significantly increased the pressures on,
and the responsibilities of, directors. At the simplest and most practical level, the time
involved in fulfilling the demands of a board directorship has increased significantly, calling
into question the effectiveness of the classic model of corporate governance by part-time,
independent non-executive directors. Where once a board schedule may have consisted of
between eight and ten meetings a year, in many companies the number of events requiring
board input and decisions has dramatically risen. Furthermore, the amount of reading and
preparation required for each meeting is increasing. Agendas can become overloaded and
this can mean the time for constructive debate must necessarily be restricted in favour of
getting through the business.
C Often, board business is devolved to committees in order to cope with the workload,
which may be more efficient but can mean that the board as a whole is less involved in
fully addressing some of the most important issues. It is not uncommon for the audit
committee meeting to last longer than the main board meeting itself. Process may take
the place of discussion and be at the expense of real collaboration, so that boxes are
ticked rather than issues tackled.
D A radical solution, which may work for some very large companies whose businesses
are extensive and complex, is the professional board, whose members would work up to
three or four days a week, supported by their own dedicated staff and advisers. There are
obvious risks to this and it would be important to establish clear guidelines for such a
board to ensure that it did not step on the toes of management by becoming too engaged
in the day-to-day running of the company. Problems of recruitment, remuneration and
independence could also arise and this structure would not be appropriate for all
companies. However, more professional and better-informed boards would have been
particularly appropriate for banks where the executives had access to information that part
-time non-executive directors lacked, leaving the latter unable to comprehend or anticipate
the 2008 crash.
E One of the main criticisms of boards and their directors is that they do not focus
sufficiently on longer-term matters of strategy, sustainability and governance, but instead
concentrate too much on short-term financial metrics. Regulatory requirements and the
structure of the market encourage this behaviour. The tyranny of quarterly reporting can
distort board decision-making, as directors have to ‘make the numbers’ every four months
to meet the insatiable appetite of the market for more date. This serves to encourage the
trading methodology of a certain kind of investor who moves in and out of a stock without
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engaging in constructive dialogue with the company about strategy or performance, and is
simply seeking a short-term financial gain. This effect has been made worse by the
changing profile of investors due to the globalisation of capital and the increasing use of
automated trading systems. Corporate culture adapts and management teams are largely
incentivised to meet financial goals.
F Compensation for chief executives has become a combat zone where pitched battles
between investors, management and board members are fought, often behind closed
doors but increasingly frequently in the full glare of press attention. Many would argue that
this is in the interest of transparency and good governance as shareholders use their
muscle in the area of pay to pressure boards to remove underperforming chief executives.
Their powers to vote down executive remuneration policies increased when binding votes
came into force. The chair of the remuneration committee can be an exposed and lonely
role, as Alison Carnwath, chair of Barclays Bank’s remuneration committee, found when
she had to resign, having been roundly criticised for trying to defend the enormous bonus
to be paid to the chief executive; the irony being that she was widely understood to have
spoken out against it in the privacy of the committee.
G The financial crisis stimulated a debate about the role and purpose of the company and
a heightened awareness of corporate ethics. Trust in the corporation has been eroded and
academics such as Michael Sandel, in his thoughtful and bestselling book What Money
Can’t Buy, are questioning the morality of capitalism and the market economy. Boards of
companies in all sectors will need to widen their perspective to encompass these issues
and this may involve a realignment of corporate goals. We live in challenging times.
Questions 1-3
Complete the sentences below.
Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 38-40 on your answer sheet.
1 Before 2008, non-executive directors were at a disadvantage because of their lack of
………………………..
2 Boards tend to place too much emphasis on …………………………. considerations that are
only of short-term relevance.
3 On certain matters, such as pay, the board may have to accept the views of
………………………..
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